Alkalinity Alkalinity is comprised primarily of carbon dioxide, bicarbonate, carbonate and hydroxides.

Naturally occurring alkalinity is the earths natural buffering system in that small doses of strong acids (e.g. acid rain) react with alkalinity and result in relatively small changes in p . !arbon dioxide and bicarbonate are in a balance between the p range of "." and #.$. At a p of "." or lower, all alkalinity is in the form of carbon dioxide. At a p of #.$, there is no carbon dioxide and all alkalinity is bicarbonate. %icarbonate and carbonate are in a balance between the p range of #.$ and &.'. At a p of &.', there is no carbon dioxide or bicarbonate and all alkalinity is carbonate. As the p increases above &.', hydroxyl alkalinity due to the presence of the hydroxide ion starts to occur. (ost naturally occurring water sources have a p between ' and #.", so the presence of hydroxides is the result of man)made activity. Alkalinity, especially by boiler water chemists, can be reported as ()Alkalinity and *)Alkalinity. ()Alkalinity measures the +otal Alkalinity in a water in terms of ,ppm as calcium carbonate- based on an acid titration to a p of ".$ using a (ethyl orange indicator endpoint. *)Alkalinity measures the amount of bicarbonate, carbonate and hydroxyl alkalinity based on an acid titration to a p of #.$ using a *henolphthalein pink indicator endpoint. Aluminum (Al): Aluminum, based on its low solubility, is typically not found in any significant concentrations in well or surface waters. Aluminum, when present in an ./ feed water, is typically colloidal in nature (not ionic) and is the result of alum carryover by an on)site or municipal clarifier or lime)softener. Alum (aluminum sulfate) is a popular coagulant that is effective in the absorption and precipitation of naturally occurring, negatively charged colloidal material (e.g. clay and silt) from surface waters. Alum, when introduced into water, disassociates into trivalent aluminum and sulfate. +he hydrated aluminum ion reacts with the water to form a number of complex hydrated aluminum hydroxides, which then polymeri0e and starts absorbing the negatively charged colloids in water. 1ouling by aluminum)based colloid carryover can occur, with alert levels for the ./ designer ranging from 2.3 to 3.2 ppm aluminum in the feed water. Aluminum chemistry is complicated by the fact that it is amphoteric. Aluminum at low p s can exist as a positively charged trivalent cation or as an aluminum hydroxide compound. Aluminum at high p s can exist as a negatively charged anionic compound. +ypically, the range of least solubility for aluminum compounds is in the p range of 4.4 to 5.4. Ammonium (NH4): A monovalent cation. Ammonium salts are very soluble and do not cause a ./ scaling problem. +he ammonium ion is the result of very soluble gaseous ammonia (N 6) being dissolved in water of higher p . Ammonia ioni0es in water at high p to form the ammonium ion and hydroxide ion. At lower p the ammonia gas is

prevalent and being a gas will not be re7ected by a ./ (similar to carbon dioxide gas). Ammonium is typically not found in well water sources, having been converted by bacterial action in soils to the transitory nitrite (N/$) ion and then oxidi0ed into the more prevalent nitrate ion. Ammonium is found in surface water sources at low levels (up to 3 ppm as the ion), the result of biological activity and the breakdown of organic nitrogen compounds. 8urface sources can be contaminated with ammonium from septic systems, animal feed lot runoff, or agricultural field runoff from fields fertili0ed with ammonia. Ammonium is prevalent in municipal waste facilities with levels up to $2 ppm as the ion in the effluent, the result of high levels of organic nitrogen compound compounds and biological activity. Another source of ammonium is the result of adding ammonia to chlorine to form biocidal chloramines. Barium (%a)9 A divalent cation. +he solubility of barium sulfate (%a8/") is low and can cause a ./ scaling problem in the back)end of a ./. %arium sulfate solubility is lower with increasing sulfate levels and decreasing temperatures. +ypically, barium can be found in some well waters, with typical concentrations less than 2.24 ppm to 2.$ ppm. :t is important that barium be measured with instruments capable of 2.23 ppm (32 ppb) minimum detection levels. ;ith saturation at 322<, super)saturation up to '222< is typical with an antiscalant. Bicarbonate (HCO3): A monovalent anion. +he solubility of calcium bicarbonate is low and can cause a ./ scaling problem in the back)end of a ./. !alcium bicarbonate solubility is measured using =8: (=anglier 8aturation :ndex) for brackish waters or the 8tiff) >avis :ndex for seawaters and is lower with increasing temperature and increasing p . %icarbonate is one component of alkalinity and its concentration is in a balance with carbon dioxide between the p range of "." and #.$ and in a balance with carbonate between the p range of #.$ and &.'. Boron (B): %oron can be found in seawater at levels up to 4 ppm and at lower levels in brackish waters where inland seas once existed. %oron is not a foulant, but the removal of boron is an important issue in the electronics industry as it adversely affects the process in some applications. +he chemistry of boron is similar to silica in that it exists as the borate monovalent anion %(/ )") at high p (greater than 32) and as non)ioni0ed boric acid %(/ )6 at lower p . +he re7ection of borate is p dependent, with higher re7ection at higher p levels. Brackish Water:

%rackish water, in one sense, is defined as a fresh low +>8 water source that experiences a large increase in normal +>8 due to seawater intrusion. :n the ./ field, brackish water can be defined as feed water with low to medium +>8 levels (up to 32,222 to 34,222 ppm) that can be treated with a ,brackish ./ elementdesigned for '22 psi maximum applied feed pressure. Calcium (Ca): A divalent cation. !alcium, along with magnesium, is a ma7or component of hardness in brackish water. +he solubility of calcium sulfate (!a8/")(gypsum) is typically limited to $62< with the use of an antiscalant. +he solubility of calcium carbonate is typically limited to a =8: (=anglier 8aturation :ndex) value of positive 3.# to $.4. Carbon Dioxide (CO ): !arbon dioxide is a gas that when dissolved in water reacts with the water to form weak carbonic acid ( $!/6). :f a pure water was completely saturated with carbon dioxide, its concentration would be about 3'22 ppm and the p would be about ".2. A typical source for carbon dioxide in natural waters is the result of a balance with bicarbonate alkalinity based on the p of the water. +he concentration of carbon dioxide in water is typically indirectly determined by graphical comparison to the bicarbonate concentration and p . !arbon dioxide and the bicarbonate ion are in a balance between the p range of "." and #.$. +he alkalinity is all carbon dioxide at p "." and is all bicarbonate at p #.". +he ./ design program calculates the carbon dioxide level based on the bicarbonate level and p of the water. !arbon dioxide, being a gas, is not re7ected or concentrated by a ./ membrane, therefore its concentration will the same in the feed, permeate and concentrate. Acidifying the ./ feed water will lower p by converting bicarbonate to carbon dioxide. Carbonate (CO3): A divalent anion. +he solubility of calcium carbonate is low and can cause a ./ scaling problem in the back)end of a ./. !alcium carbonate solubility is measured using =8: (=anglier 8aturation :ndex) for brackish waters or 8>8: (8tiff)>avis :ndex) for seawaters and is lower with increasing temperature and increasing p . !arbonate is one component of alkalinity and its concentration is in a balance with bicarbonate between the p range of #.$ and &.'. At a p of &.' and higher, there is no carbon dioxide or bicarbonate, with all alkalinity being in the carbonate form. !ations and Anions9 !ations are ions with a positive valence state (they are willing to accept electrons) and have the ability to react with anions which are ions with a negative valence state (they have extra electrons to share). +he sharing of electrons creates electroneutrality. 1or example, the calcium ion is a divalent cation and will combine

with two monovalent chloride ions to form the electrically neutral salt known as calcium chloride. A balanced water analysis will have the same concentration of cations as anions when reported as , ppm as calcium carbonate- or as me?@l. 8ilica, a very weak anion, is not used to calculate the ionic balance of cations and anions (though it is used in the calculation of +>8). !hloride (!l)9 A monovalent anion. +he solubility of chloride salts is high and does not create a ./ scaling problem. !hloride, in seawater, is the prevalent anion. !hloride is the anion used to automatically balance a ./ feed water analysis. +he recommended upper limit for chloride in potable water by the A8 B*A and ; / is $42 ppm based on taste issues. COD (Chemical Ox!"en Demand): !/> is a non)specific test that measures the ?uantity of both bio)degradable and non)biodegradable organic matter and is reported as ,ppm as oxygen-. +he test measures the ability of a hot chromic acid solution to oxidi0e organic matter. !olor9 !olor is a non)specific test that measures the relative level of organic compounds in water based on their contribution to adding color and is reported in A* A units relative to the platinum standard. Conducti#it!: !onductivity is a measurement of the ability of water to transmit electricity due to the presence of dissolved ions. Absolute pure water with no ions will not conduct an electrical current. !onductivity is measured by a conductivity meter and is reported as micromhos@cm or micro8iemens@cm. !onductivity is a convenient method of determining the level of ions in a water but is non)specific in what the ions are. +he electrical conductance of ions will vary by ion and will decrease as the concentration of ions increase. +>8 (+otal >issolved 8alts) meters utili0e conductivity measurements with a conversion factor applied. !onductivity can also be estimated using individual conversion factors from the reported ion concentrations of a water analysis or by using a single conversion factor based on the sum of the ions (+>8). !arbon dioxide conductivity can be estimated by taking the s?uare root of the ppm concentration and then multiplying by 2.'. +he silica ion does not contribute to conductivity. +he most accurate conductivity readings for high ?uality ./ permeate are obtained on)site since carbon dioxide levels, being a gas, can vary when exposed to the atmosphere.

1luoride (1)9 A monovalent anion. 1luoride is found naturally at low levels in some well waters, but normally its presence is due to in7ection into municipal water to provide a residual up to $.4 ppm for the control of dental caries. 1luoride levels in potable waters above 4 ppm can cause mottled and brittle teeth. +he re7ection of fluoride by a ./ membrane is p dependent. .e7ections with polyamide membranes in the basic p range can be greater than &&< due to fluoride being in the salt form. .e7ections in the acidic p range can drop below 42< due to fluoride being in the acid form. Crains (per gallon)9 :on exchange and boiler water chemists fre?uently report the concentration of hardness as ,Crains per Callon (as calcium carbonate e?uivalents)-. /ne Crain per A.8. Callon (as calcium carbonate) is e?ual to 35.3 ppm (as calcium carbonate). ydrogen 8ulfide ( $8)9 ydrogen sulfide is a gas that causes the noticeable ,rotten egg- smell in feed waters, with a threshold odor level of 2.3 ppm and a noticeable offensive odor at 6)4 ppm. ydrogen sulfide is readily oxidi0ed to elemental sulfur by oxidants (e.g. air, chlorine or potassium permanganate). 8ulfur acts as a colloidal foulant and has a history of not being removed well by conventional multimedia filtration. +he preferred ./ system design suggests leaving the hydrogen sulfide in its gaseous form, let it pass through the ./ into the permeate, and then treat the permeate for its removal. :onic 8trength9 +he solubility of sparingly soluble salts increases with increasing feed +>8. +o account for this effect in calculating the solubility of a salt (e.g. calcium sulfate, barium sulfate, strontium sulfate or 8>8:), the :onic 8trength of a water is calculated. +he :onic 8trength of each ion is derived by taking the ppm concentration of each ion (as calcium carbonate) and multiplying each monovalent ion by 3 x 32)4 and each divalent ion by $ x 32)4. 8umming the :onic 8trength of each ion then derives the total :onic 8trength of the water. :ron (1e)9 :ron is a water contaminant that takes two ma7or forms. +he water)soluble form is known as the ferrous state and has a D $ valence state. :n non)aerated well waters ferrous iron behaves much like calcium or magnesium hardness in that it can be removed by softeners or its precipitation in the back end of the ./ system can be controlled by the use of a dispersant chemical in an ./ feed water. +he water)

insoluble form is known as the ferric state and has a D 6 valence state. +ypically, ./ manufacturers will recommend that combined iron levels be less than 2.24 ppm in the ./ feed. :f all iron is in the soluble ferrous form, iron levels up to 2.4 ppm in the feed can be tolerated if the p is less than 5.2 (though an iron dispersant is recommended). +he introduction of air into water with soluble ferrous iron will result in the oxidation to insoluble ferric iron. 8oluble iron can be found in deep wells, but can be converted into the more troublesome insoluble iron by the introduction of air by being placed in tanks or by leaky pump seals. 8oluble iron can be treated with dispersants or can be removed by iron filters, softeners or lime softening. :nsoluble ferric iron oxides or ferric hydroxides, being colloidal in nature, will foul the front end of the ./ system. 8ources of insoluble iron are aerated well waters, surface sources, and iron scale from unlined pipe and tanks. :nsoluble iron can be removed by iron filters, lime softening, softeners (with limits), ultrafiltration (with limits) and multimedia filtration with polyelectrolyte feed (with limits). *recautions are re?uired with the use of potassium permanganate in manganese greensand iron filters in that potassium permanganate is an oxidant that could damage any polyamide membrane. *recautions are also re?uired with a cationic polyelectrolyte in that they can irreversibly foul a negatively charged polyamide membrane. !orrosion proof vessels and piping (e.g. 1.*, *E! or stainless steels) are recommended for all ./ systems, ./ pretreatment, and distribution piping coming to the ./ system. :ron as foulant will ?uickly increase ./ feed pressure re?uirements and increase permeate +>8. :n some cases, the presence of iron can create a bio)fouling problem by being the energy source for iron)reducing bacteria. :ron)reducing bacteria can cause the formation of a slimy biofilm that can plug the ./ feed path. (agnesium ((g)9 A divalent cation. (agnesium can account for about a third of the hardness in a brackish water, but can have a concentration five times higher than calcium in sea water. +he solubility of magnesium salts is high and typically does not cause a scaling problem in ./ systems. (anganese ((n)9 (anganese is a water contaminant present in both well and surface waters, with levels up to 6 ppm. (anganese, like iron, can be found in organic complexes in surface waters. :n oxygen)free water, it is soluble. :n the oxidi0ed state, it is insoluble and usually in the form of black manganese dioxide ((n/$) precipitate. An alert level for potential manganese fouling in a ./ aerated ./ feed waters is 2.24 ppm. >rinking water regulations limit manganese to 2.24 ppm due to its ability to cause black stains. >ispersants used to control iron fouling can be used to help control manganese fouling.

(e?@l9 A method of reporting the concentration or ,e?uivalent- weight of an ion or substance in a given volume of water as milli)e?uivalents per liter. (e?@l is calculated by dividing the mg@l by the e?uivalent weight of the ion or substance. .eporting the concentration of ions as me?@l is popular by ./ chemists for determining whether a water analysis is , balanced- where the sum of the cations e?uals the sum of the anions. Nitrate (N/6)9 A monovalent anion. Nitrate salts are highly soluble and do not cause a ./ scaling problem. Nitrate, along with ammonia gas and ammonium, is a nitrogen)based ion whose presence is tied with natures nitrogen cycle. +he primary sources of nitrogen introduction in a feed water come from decomposing animal and plant waste, septic systems, animal feed lot runoff, or agricultural field runoff from fields fertili0ed with ammonia. :n well water sources, ammonia and ammonium are not found, having been converted to the transitory nitrite ion by certain types of bacteria in soils and then oxidi0ed into the more prevalent nitrate ion. 1re?uently, nitrate concentrations are reported as ,ppm as nitrogen- in water analysis and not as ,ppm as nitrate- as re?uired for ./ pro7ections. +o convert ,ppm as nitrogen- to ,ppm as nitrate-, multiply ,ppm as nitrogen- by "."6. +he A8 B*A has set a maximum recommended limit of nitrate at 32 ppm as nitrogen ("".6 ppm as nitrate) for potable drinking water. Nitrates are harmful in that they compete with oxygen for carrying sites in blood hemoglobin. +he reduced oxygen content can result in the ,blue)baby syndrome - which is why babies and pregnant women are at higher risk to the effects of nitrates. p 9 +he p of the feed water measures the acidity or basicity. A p of 5.2 is considered neutral. A p between 2.2 and 5.2 is acidic. A p between 5.2 and 3".2 is basic. +o the analytical chemist, p is a method of expressing hydrogen ion concentration in terms of the power of 32 with the p value being the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration. +o the water chemist, p is important in defining the alkalinity e?uilibrium levels of carbon dioxide, bicarbonate, carbonate and hydroxide ions. +he concentrate p is typically higher than the feed due to the higher concentration of bicarbonate@carbonate ions relative to the concentration of carbon dioxide. +he ./>B8:CN program allows the user to ad7ust the p of the feed water using hydrochloric and sulfuric acid. =owering the feed p with acid results in a lower =8: (=anglier 8aturation :ndex) value, which reduces the scaling potential for calcium carbonate. 1eed and concentrate (re7ect) p can also

effect the solubility and fouling potential of silica, aluminum, organics and oil. Eariations in feed p can also affect the re7ection of ions. 1or example, fluoride, boron and silica re7ection are lower when the p becomes more acidic. *otassium (F)9 A monovalent cation. :t is typically found at much lower concentrations than sodium. +he salts of potassium are highly soluble and do not cause a ./ scaling problem. ppb (parts per billion)9 A method to report the concentration of an ion or substance in a water. +he following conversions apply for dilute waters with a specific gravity of 3.29 /ne ppb is e?ual to one microgram per liter (ug@=). /ne ppm is e?ual to 3,222 ppb. ppm as !a!/69 A method of reporting the concentration or ,e?uivalent- weight of an ion or substance in a given volume of water as ,ppm as calcium carbonate-. .eporting the concentration of ions as ,ppm as calcium carbonate- is popular by ion exchange chemists for the calculation of ionic loading of cation or anion resins. :t is also popular in determining whether a water analysis is ,balanced- where the sum of the cations e?uals the sum of the anions when the concentration of the ions are reported as calcium carbonate e?uivalents. ;ater chemists use the concept of ,e?uivalencywhen balancing cation and anion electroneutrality levels since ions combine in nature based on their valence state and available electrons, not on their ,actualweight. !alcium carbonate was arbitrarily picked because its molecular weight is 322 and its e?uivalent weight is 42 since its divalent. +he formula to convert an ion reported as ,mg@l as the ion- to ,ppm as calcium carbonate- is to multiply ,mg@l as the ion- times the ratio of the ,e?uivalent weight of the ion- by the , e?uivalent weight of calcium carbonate-. As an example, a water with sodium at 322 ppm as calcium carbonate and chloride at 322 ppm as calcium carbonate are in ionic balance since every sodium ion has a corresponding chloride ion. owever, sodium concentration at 322 ppm as calcium carbonate is only "5 mg@l of actual substance (since its e?uivalent weight is $6.2) and 322 ppm of chloride as calcium carbonate is only 53 mg@l of actual substance (since its e?uivalent weight is 64.4). +he calculated +>8 of this solution is 33# mg@l. 8>: (8ilt >ensity :ndex)9 An empirical test developed for membrane systems to measure the rate of fouling of a 2."4 micron filter pad by the suspended and colloidal particles in a

feed water. +his test involves the time re?uired to filter a specified volume of feed at a constant 62 psi at time 0ero and then after 4 minutes, 32 minutes and 34 minutes of continuous filtration. +ypical ./ element warranties list a maximum 8>: of ".2 at 34 minutes for the feed water. :f the 8>: test is limited to only 4 or 32 minute readings due to plugging of the filter pad, the user can expect a high level of fouling for the ./. >eep wells typically have 8>:s of 6 or less and turbidities less than one with little or no pretreatment. 8urface sources typically re?uire pretreatment for removal of colloidal and suspended solids to achieve acceptable 8>: and turbidity values. 8ilica (8i/$)9 8ilica (silicon dioxide), in some cases, is an anion. +he chemistry of silica is a complex and somewhat unpredictable sub7ect. :n similar fashion as +/! reports the total concentration of organics (as carbon) without detailing what the organic compounds are, silica reports the total concentration of silicon (as silica) without detailing what the silicon compounds are. +he ,+otal 8ilica- content of a water is composed of ,.eactive 8ilica- and ,Anreactive 8ilica-. .eactive silica (e.g. silicates 8i/" ) is dissolved silica that is slightly ioni0ed and has not been polymeri0ed into a long chain. .eactive silica is the form that ./ and ion exchange chemists hope for. .eactive silica is the form of silica to be used in ./ pro7ection programs. .eactive silica, though it has anionic characteristics, is not counted as an anion in terms of balancing a water analysis but it is counted as a part of total +>8. Anreactive silica is polymeri0ed or colloidal silica, acting more like a solid than a dissolved ion. 8ilica, in the colloidal form, can be removed by a ./ but it can cause colloidal fouling of the front)end of a ./. !olloidal silica, with si0es as small as 2.22# micron can be measured empirically by the 8>: (8ilt >ensity :ndex) test, but only that portion that is larger than 2."4 micron or larger. *articulate silica compounds (e.g. clays, silts and sand) are usually 3 micron or larger and can be measured using the 8>: test. *olymeri0ed silica, which uses silicon dioxide as the building block, exists in nature (e.g. ?uart0es and agates). 8ilica, in the polymeri0ed form, also results from exceeding the reactive silica saturation level. +he solubility of reactive silica is typically limited to $22)622< with the use of a silica dispersant. .eactive silica solubility increases with increasing temperature, increases at a p less than 5.2 or more than 5.#, and decreases in the presence of iron which acts as a catalyst in the polymeri0ation of silica. 8ilica re7ection is p sensitive, with increasing re7ection at a more basic p as the reactive silica exists more in the salt form than in the acidic form. 8odium (Na)9 A monovalent cation. +he solubility of sodium salts is high and does not cause a ./ scaling problem. 8odium, in seawater, is the prevalent cation. 8odium is the cation used to automatically balance a ./ feed water analysis. >ietary sodium

levels can range from $222 mg@l for low)sodium diets to 6422 mg@l for average consumption levels. +he A8 B*A has set a >;B= (>rinking ;ater B?uivalent =imit) of $2 mg@l for potable water but is reevaluating the limit as to low. >aily consumption of $ liters (2.46 gallons) of water with 322 mg@l of sodium would be only $22 mg. A relatively ,hard water- with 32 grains per gallon (353.$ mg@=) of hardness (as calcium carbonate) results in only an additional 5& mg@= of sodium when softened. 8trontium (8r)9 A divalent cation. +he solubility of strontium sulfate is low and can cause a ./ scaling problem in the back)end of a ./. 8trontium sulfate solubility is lower with increasing sulfate levels and decreasing temperatures. +ypically, strontium can be found in some well waters where lead ores are also present, with typical concentrations less than 34 ppm. ;ith saturation at 322<, super)saturation up to #22< is typical with an antiscalant. 8ulfate (8/")9 A divalent anion. +he solubility of calcium, barium and strontium sulfate is low and can cause a ./ scaling problem in the back)end of a ./. +he solubility of these sparingly soluble salts is lower with decreasing temperature. +he recommended upper limit for sulfate in potable water is $42 ppm based on taste issues. +>8 (+otal >issolved 8olids)9 +>8, in water treatment, is the inorganic residue left after the filtration of colloidal and suspended solids and then the evaporation of a known volume of water. +>8 is reported as ppm or mg@l. +>8, in ./ design pro7ections, is determined by calculation using the sum of the cations, anions and silica ions (with the ion reported ,as such-, not ,as calcium carbonate-). 1eed or permeate +>8, in ./ design pro7ections, can also be estimated by applying a conversion factor to the conductivity of the solution. +>8 can also be determined in the field by use of a +>8 meter. +>8 meters measure the conductivity of the water and then apply a conversion factor that reports +>8 to a known reference solution (e.g. ppm sodium chloride or ppm potassium chloride). +he user is cautioned that +>8 levels for waters with a mixture of ions and determined from conductivity measurements may not agree with +>8 calculated as a sum of the ions. As a rough rule of thumb, one ppm of +>8 (when referenced to a Na!l solution) correlates to a conductivity of two micromhos@cm (micro8iemens@cm). +emperature9 +emperature is a critical design parameter. :t has significant effects on feed pump pressure re?uirements, hydraulic flux balance between stages, permeate ?uality, and

solubility of sparingly soluble salts. As a rough rule of thumb, every 32)degree 1ahrenheit decrease in feed temperature increases the feed pump pressure re?uirement 34 <. +he hydraulic flux balance between stages (or in other words the amount of permeate produced by each stage) is impacted by temperature. ;hen water temperature increases, the elements located in the front end of the system produce more permeate which results in reduced permeate flow by the elements located at the rear of the system. A better hydraulic flux balance between stages occurs at colder temperatures. At warmer temperatures, salt passage increases due to the increased mobility of the ions through the membrane. ;armer temperatures decrease the solubility of calcium carbonate. !older temperatures decrease the solubility of calcium sulfate, barium sulfate, strontium sulfate, and silica. +/! (+otal /rganic !arbon)9 +/!, an acronym for +otal /rganic !arbon or +otal /xidi0able !arbon, is a non) specific test that measures the amount of carbon bound in organic material and is reported in units of ,ppm as carbon-. 8ince the +/! only measures the amount of carbon in organic matter, the actual weight of the organic mass can be up to 6 times higher in natural surface waters. /rganics are compounds that contain carbon (with the exception of carbon dioxide, bicarbonate and carbonate). :n water treatment, organics can be classified as naturally occurring or man)made. Naturally occurring organic matter are typically negatively)charged colloids or suspended solids, comprised of tannins, lignins, water soluble humic acid compounds resulting from the decay of certain vegetative matter, or fulvic acid compounds resulting from the decay of certain vegetative matter. Naturally occurring organic material can be a foulant to ./ membranes, particularly the negatively charged composite polyamides. Neutrally charged ./ membranes (e.g. neutrally charged composite polyamides and cellulose acetate) are more resistant to organic fouling. A ./ will re7ect organic compounds. Cenerally, organic compounds with a molecular weight greater than $22 are re7ected at levels greater than &&<. +he re7ection of compounds with molecular weights less than $22 will vary based on molecular weight, shape and ionic charge. As a rough rule of thumb, alert levels for potential organic fouling in natural water sources are +/! at 6 ppm, %/> at 4 ppm, and !/> at # ppm. +urbidity9 +urbidity is a suspension of fine colloidal particles that do not readily settle out of solution and can result in a ,cloudiness-. +urbidity is determined by a Nepholometer that measures the relative amount of light able to pass through a solution. +urbidity is reported as N+A (Nepholometric +urbidity Anits). +ypical ./ element warranties list a maximum of 3.2 N+A for the feed water.

*arametersGofGtheG./G*rocess +he performance of membrane elements operating in a reverse osmosis system is affected by the feed water composition, feed temperature, feed pressure, and permeate recovery ratio. *erformance at a given set of system operating parameters can be calculated from nominal membrane performance at reference test conditions. 1BB> ;A+B. 8A=:N:+H /smotic pressure of the feed water is directly proportional to feed water salinity. *ermeate flux is proportional to the available net driving pressure (N>*). N>* is the difference between the applied feed pressure and the average osmotic pressure at the membrane surface. +herefore, higher feed salinity will re?uire higher feed pressure to produce a given permeate flow. *ermeate salinity is proportional to the average feed salinity at the membrane surface. +herefore, an increase in feed salinity will result in a correspondingly higher permeate salinity. 1BB> ;A+B. +B(*B.A+A.B +emperature affects the diffusion rate of water and dissolved ions across a semipermeable membrane. +he change in water flux with temperature is about 6< per degree I!. An increase in temperature affects salt diffusion at a similar rate as water flux. 8ince ./ systems are designed to operate at constant permeate flow, changes in feed water temperature are compensated for by ad7usting feed pressure.

1or this reason, an increase in feed water temperature with the corresponding decrease in feed pressure results in higher permeate salinity. A**=:B> 1BB> ;A+B. *.B88A.B Applied feed pressure affects N>*, which in turn directly affects permeate flux. igher feed pressure will result in higher permeate flux. owever, feed pressure does not affect salt transport across the membrane. +herefore, an increase in feed pressure will result in higher permeate flux with a lower concentration of salt in the permeate stream (higher dilution of a given amount of salt passing through the membrane). *B.(BA+B .B!/EB.H .A+:/ +he maximum recovery rate at which an brackish ./ system can operate is defined mainly by water chemistry9 the ion composition of the feed water. An excessive recovery ratio may result in formation of mineral scale on membrane surface. :n seawater ./ systems, the recovery ratio is limited by the re?uired permeate salinity and feed pressure limitations. :ncreasing system recovery ratio results in higher average salinity at the membrane surface with a proportional increase in the average feed osmotic pressure. +his higher osmotic pressure re?uires a higher feed pressure to maintain a design permeate flow. ;ith this higher average feed salinity, passage of dissolved ions across the membrane also increases.