Measurements

(c) Ian Robertson 2008
RF & Microwave Test Equipment

These notes describe the basic operation of the main types of RF & microwave test equipment that
are available in the electronics laboratories. The notes are intended to complement the user manuals
by providing some background to their principles of operation. This is particularly important for the
Vector Network Analyser (VNA) which requires considerable expertise to use properly. For
industry, a vast range of test equipment is available because there are many different kinds of
measurement that need to be made fromcomplete systems to individual devices on wafers, and
fromsimple DC testing through to 100Gb/s testing of fibre-optic components. An additional issue is
that, in the manufacturing domain, it may take significant time to make the full set of measurements
required to check that a product meets quality control standards. So, there are many dedicated
measurements systems available to suit rapid testing of certain products; for example, a dedicated
systemfor measuring wireless handsets quickly in the factory.
In the teaching environment, general purpose equipment is preferred so students can
understand in detail what is being measured and learn about the features, advantages and limitations
of the different kinds of instruments. The teaching laboratories have the following main instruments
for RF labs and project work:-

100 MHz Oscilloscopes
Benchtop power supplies
20 MHz Arbitrary waveformgenerators
3 GHz Spectrumanalysers
3 GHz Signal generators

The following sections give an outline of what each instrument is for, its basic controls, and some
of the pitfalls that must be avoided when using them. Equipment from Agilent Technologies is
featured since they are the worlds largest test and measurement equipment company and their
equipment is used in many well-funded teaching laboratories. The controls on models from
different manufacturers may vary enormously in layout but the main functions are generally similar.
After some practice on different equipment types, students should find it possible to use the basic
functions of most well-designed equipment without referring to the manuals. This is increasingly
the case as modern equipment often includes a touch-screen or soft-key menu system, so that the
number of buttons is reduced considerably and the more complex functions are out of sight in the
menu system. The following is a general guide only and, if in doubt, the manual should be
consulted.

1. The DSO3000 oscilloscope
Most electrical circuits have voltages that vary with time either with analogue waveforms or
digital data. The oscilloscope (scope) is excellent for analysing these signals because it measures
instantaneous voltage and displays a graph of it as a function of time. In other words, a scope
displays waveforms, enabling you to make many measurements, including the period or frequency
of the signal. A scope can also measure DC voltages, but for these it is normally easier and more
accurate to use a multimeter. However, in many circuits, time-varying and DC voltages occur
together and the scope becomes essential: for example, in a BJ T transistor amplifier circuit it can
measure the total DC +AC collector voltage, the AC voltage alone, or the DC bias voltage.
For many years, scopes used a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) and much of the terminology
related to how CRTs create an image by scanning an electron beamremains in use today, even
though modern instruments use newer types of display such as LCDs. In the CRT, the spot where
the electron beamimpinges on the phosphor coating can be made to move horizontally (X axis) and
vertically (Y axis). The X and Y positions of the spot are independently controlled by two sets of
electrodes inside the CRT. In normal scope operation, the spot is repeatedly scanned horizontally,

fromleft to right, at a fixed, selected speed. This is achieved with circuitry that generates a sawtooth
waveformand applies it to the X-axis electrodes. The controls that select the speed of horizontal
scanning are called the X or timebase controls.
The vertical position of the trace is proportional to the voltage being examined at that time
instant. The signal being measured is fed, via a connector on the front panel, to an amplifier and
then to the vertical axis. The connector is labelled the Y input and the amplifier, with its gain
control, is known as the Y or vertical amplifier. The DS3000 scopes have two inputs, Y1 and Y2, in
order to be able to display two signals simultaneously such as the input and output signal of
circuit. The traces are swept together in the X direction but their Y scales are controlled
independently.

Fig. A1 Agilent DS03102A 100 MHz digital storage scope. Copyright 2007 Agilent
Technologies, Inc.

1.1 Main controls
Fig. A1 shows the Agilent DS03102A 100 MHz digital storage scope. The main controls of this
model serve to illustrate the main functions on general purpose scopes.
1.1.1 POWER This scope has a full colour LCD display, so its obvious whether the
power is on or not. Sometimes, with other instruments, a surprising amount of time can be wasted
twiddling control knobs, looking for a trace, before realising the power is off!

1.1.2 VERTICAL SECTION

Channel ON/OFF: Y1 and Y2 are referred to as channels. Each trace can be turned on or off
independently by pressing the or key. Once pressed, the softkeys on this instrument
offer a choice of AC / DC / GROUND:-

AC: signal is input via a capacitor; DC components are blocked and not displayed.
GND: the amplifier input is grounded and ground level can be set on the screen.
DC: input signal is directly connected to the amplifier; DC components are intact
and displayed.

POSITION individually controls the vertical position of each trace. It is best to use this to
set the GND level and then leave it alone.

SCALE this sets the vertical scale independently for each channel. Its is normally
stated in Volts-per-division.

MATH This key activate a menu that allows the user to apply a range of mathematical
operations to the signals, including:-

ADD/SUBTRACT/MULITPLY/DIVIDE
displays the result of applying the operation to the CH1 and CH2 signals
INVERT inverts the polarity of the signal.
FFT calculates the FFT of the signal to give a spectral plot

1.1.3 HORIZONTAL (timebase)
SWEEP TIME This sets the timebase speed (horizontal time scale)
POSITION controls the horizontal position of the trace.
ZOOM magnifies the display in the horizontal direction.

1.1.4 TRIGGER
MODE/COUPLING (selects trigger operation mode)
Triggering in a scope is the function of selecting the time at which the trace starts. In
most cases, the sweep across the horizontal axis is triggered by the input signal itself in
order to give a steady display from one trace to the next. There are a number of
options:-

AUTO
The sweep is initiated by a trigger signal which is determined by the settings of the SOURCE,
LEVEL and SLOPE controls. In the absence of a trigger signal, free-run will take place and
a trace will appear.

NORM A sweep is initiated as for AUTO, but in the absence of a trigger signal, however, a
trace will not appear.

VIDEO triggering occurs at the frame frequency and the line frequency respectively for TV
signal measurements.

X-Y the scope plots Y1 vs. Y2 as an X-Y graph, instead of vs. time

SOURCE selects the trigger signal source, from:-
CH1 CH1 provides the trigger signal.
CH2 CH2 provides the trigger signal.
LINE the mains (240 V, 50 Hz) provides the trigger signal.
EXT the input into the EXT.TRIG receptacle provides the trigger signal. This is useful, for
example, if you want to observe randomdata since the clock signal can be connected into the scope
for triggering.

LEVEL adjusts the trigger threshold level.


1.1.5 RUN CONTROL
This allows the option of setting the scope in free-running mode, typically for periodic signals, or to
single sweep mode to get a snapshot of a signal that might be real data or coming in short bursts.

1.1.6 CAL OUTPUT
This provides a known signal for checking the settings of the instrument and any probe attached.

1.1.7 MEASURE
These keys enable the user to place cursors on the trace to measure voltages, the period of a signal,
rise-time, fall-time, duty ratio, frequency, etc.

1.1.8 WAVEFORM
This key accesses a range of advanced waveformmeasurements and display setting to optimise
results for special cases.

1.2 Oscilloscope probes & settings
The input resistance of oscilloscopes is usually high (1M is standard) but with a large capacitance
in parallel (10-20pF is typical). Furthermore, if a coaxial cable is used to connect the circuit under
test to the scope, the capacitance of the cable will load the circuit as well (the order of 20pF per foot
is typical). To avoid these loading effects, passive probes are commonly used. A X10 passive
probe has a 9M series resistor, giving a voltage division factor of 10 due to the potential divider
effect with the scopes 1M input resistance. In addition, so that the 9M does not forma low pass
filter with the scopes input capacitance, it is bypassed with a capacitance. A small tuneable
capacitor in incorporated within the probe or its connector for fine tuning the response. The process
of compensating the probe means tuning this capacitor, usually by measuring a good square wave
reference signal (e.g. the CAL output) and optimising the display to match. The X10 voltage
division factor of the probe is accounted for by selecting the appropriate option on a modern scope.
There are many other kinds of probe, including active probes, differential probes, multi-point
probes, current probes and high frequency probes.

1.3 The DSO6000 series scopes

The DS3000 scope is easy to use and excellent value. However, in some measurement applications
its performance limitations may become evident. In particular, economy scopes have limited
memory depth typically 4k points.. This means the number of measured waveform samples that
it can process is rather limited. The low effective sampling rate will become problematical if you try
to measure modulated waveforms. A modulated waveform has a high frequency carrier, but low
frequency envelope, so higher sampling rates are required.
For this reason, the Communications & Circuits Lab has DSO6014 oscilloscopes, illustrated
in Fig.A2, which have 4 channels, 100 MHz bandwidth and 8M points waveformmemory. Having
four channels means that a transmitter/receiver system can be measured, comparing I&Q
waveforms at input and output.
A major feature of the DSO6000 series scope is that it can be used with the Agilent Vector
Signal Analyser (VSA) software, running on a PC. Fig. A3 shows an example screenshot with
constellation, spectrum, etc. The software has powerful analysis function for a vast range of modern
wireless standards such as Zigbee, WiMAX, GSM, WiFi, UWB, 3G, RFID, etc.


Fig. A2 DSO6014 oscilloscope. Copyright 2008 Agilent Technologies, Inc.

Fig. A3 Example screenshot of the Agilent VSA software. Copyright 2008 Agilent
Technologies, Inc.

2. Benchtop power supply
A basic benchtop power supply unit (PSU) provides a user-set DC voltage with very low ripple and
has very low output resistance, so that the voltage is constant even when the PSU delivers large
current. The Agilent E3630A DC power supply shown in Fig. A4 is a particularly user-friendly
design. However, there are many different types of PSU and there may be some complications to be
wary of:-
1. The selected DC voltage may not appear at the output terminals until the output is enabled
by pressing a button.
2. There may be different maximum current ratings for different voltage ranges.
3. There may be many output terminals; some may provide fixed voltages, not set by the user.
4. The PSU may have a user-settable current limit; this can be used to protect devices and

components, or the PSU may be used as a constant current source in specialist applications.
Selecting a certain current does not automatically mean the PSU is delivering that current.
5. Some supplies may have a means to connect multiple outputs in parallel (for more current)
or series (for higher voltages).
6. The GROUND or EARTH terminal is rarely used in normal measurements. Earth or ground
loops are all too easy to create, leading to interference at the mains / line frequency.

In the case of the E3630A, two of the 3 outputs are linked (+/- 20V). This gives a convenient way
of getting +/- supplies for op amps, for example. If the tracking ratio knob is set to fixed, then
the +/- 0 to 20V outputs are set to equal magnitude. The meter switches determine which output is
displayed on the LED display, so make sure the correct output is selected before varying the
control.

Fig. A4 Agilent E3630A DC power supply. Copyright 2007 Agilent Technologies, Inc.

3. Arbitrary Waveform / Function Generator
The purpose of a function generator is to generate a variety of waveforms for testing circuits. The
most common are sine, square and triangle waves. The frequency and amplitude are adjustable, and
often the DC offset and symmetry as well. More advanced models may also be able to generate
sawtooth and pulse train waveforms with variable parameters such as slope and pulse duty ratio,
respectively. There may be a number of different output connectors such as a TTL output for
square wave and pulses, a 600 Ohmstandard output and a 50 Ohmoutput for high frequency work.
Most modern instruments will use digital techniques to synthesise the waveforms and some, such as
the Agilent 33220A illustrated in Fig. A5, can allow the user to download their own samples into
memory. This arbitrary waveformgeneration (ARB) is useful for replicating specialist signals such
as ECG heartbeats and modulated communications waveforms, for example. The 33220A can
produce 20MHz sine and square waveforms plus ramp, triangle, noise, pulse generation with
variable edge, and AM, FM, PM, FSK, and PWM Modulation. In arbitrary function generator
mode, it can generate 14-bit, 50 MSa/s, 64 kpoint arbitrary waveforms. With option001, two
33220As can be phase locked together to make an IQ modulation baseband signal generator.
However, be aware that 64kpoints is not enough to create a realistic 3G mobile RF signal, for
example. To produce such sophisticated waveforms requires much more expensive ARBs, or a
signal generator such as the ESG series that can have dual high performance ARBs built in.


Fig. A5 Agilent 33220A function / arbitrary waveform generator. Copyright 2008 Agilent
Technologies, Inc.

4. N9310A 9kHz to 3 GHz signal generator
The signal generator is used to provide a test signal, which may be a (nearly) pure sine wave or may
be modulated increasingly, signal generators are available that can produce general digitally
modulated signals such as QPSK, 16-QAM, and specific telecommunications standards such as
DECT, GSM, CDMA, etc. At low frequencies test equipment has become much cheaper a
basic signal source up to 4 GHz costs about 8000. A digital modulation type operating to 4 GHz
costs typically 20,000. At the higher frequencies, costs are high and power levels low. For
example, a 50MHz to 50GHz generator typically costs about 50,000 and only gives 3dBmat 50
GHz.

Fig. A6 Agilent N9310A 9kHz to 3 GHz signal generator. Copyright 2008 Agilent
Technologies, Inc.

The N9310A, shown in Fig. A6, operates from 9 kHz to 3 GHz, with output power controllable
from -127 to +13 dBm. It has built-in analogue modulation for AM, FM, Phase, and Pulse
modulation. More importantly, option 001 gives it an internal IQ modulator, with 40 MHz
bandwidth. This gives a powerful capability for experiments & project work on wireless systems.
Be warned that the IQ inputs have 1V maximum DC levels and so extreme caution must be
exercised.

5. N9320A 9kHz to 3 GHz Spectrum analyser
It is very common for engineers to study signals in the frequency domain. For example, wireless
transmissions must meet stringent specifications for avoiding unwanted out-of-band emissions, and
so things such as the effects of power amplifier nonlinearity on the RF spectrummust be measured
precisely. Fig. A7 shows such a measurement; it is important to realise that the basic spectrum
analyser is just a receiver, and that the RF signal must be generated separately. Many digital
oscilloscopes have a built-in mathematical function to transforma measured waveforminto the
frequency domain. This method of deriving a signal spectrumdoes generally have many limitations,
however, and a dedicated spectrumanalyser will give much better results.
The spectrum analyser is essentially a tuneable frequency-selective power meter. It is a vital
tool for measuring the output signals of systems; it can measure harmonic distortion much more
accurately than an oscilloscope and can measure noise down to very low levels. The basic spectrum
analyser is equivalent to a radio receiver with a swept LO; the instrument continually sweeps across
the desired frequency range and displays what it measures in a certain narrow received band around
each frequency on the screen, as illustrated in Fig. A8a. The received band of the instrument is
determined by the IF or baseband filtering inside the spectrum analysers receiver and this
parameter is referred to as the resolution bandwidth. The shape of the displayed signal is a very
strong function of resolution bandwidth. When measuring noise, randomsignals and modulated
signals, it is important to ensure that the resolution bandwidth is set appropriately to display the
signal both its fine features and its power level.

Power vs. frequency
n.b. POWER i s averaged over a certai n bandwidth
AMPLIFIER
UNDER TEST

Fig. A7 Linearity test on an RF power amplifier

As shown in Fig. A8b, a sine wave in the time domain does not, therefore, lead to just a
single spike at the signal frequency on the spectrumanalyser display: When the receiver is tuned
to a frequency far away fromthe signal, to the left or right, the receiver will pick up noise in the
received band. As the instrument sweep reaches the frequency of the signal itself, the trace first
rises smoothly as the signal partially enters the received band. The display peaks when the signal is
in the centre of the received band, and then falls smoothly as the measurement band sweeps past the
signal.

Mixed down with the swept LO
INPUT SIGNAL (sine wave)
"P"
Frequency
IF filter
response

SIGNAL
(sine wave)
"P"
Frequency Freq
of sine
wave
noise

Fig. A8 Spectrum Analyser (frequency domain) measurement of a pure sine wave signal
(a) showing the swept LO principle; (b) typical resulting display

Fig. A9 Agilent 3GHz spectrum analyser. Copyright 2007 Agilent Technologies, Inc.

Fig. A9 shows the Agilent N9320A spectrumanalyser, which operates from9kHz to 3GHz. The
main control keys are to select the FREQUENCY, SPAN and AMPLITUDE. These allow the user
to set the desired measured frequency range (the horizontal axis), and the amplitude scale of the
display (the vertical axis). The amplitude scale will normally use decibel units, described in the
appendix. The BW/AVG key allows the user to set the resolution bandwidth parameter (RBW)
and apply averaging to the measurement. The speed at which the instrument sweeps across the
measurement frequency range is related to the resolution bandwidth; the parameters are normally
linked by setting the RBW/sweep rate to AUTO. The averaging function is quite different;
whatever the setting of sweep rate and RBW, the averaging function takes multiple measurements
at that setting and averages the chosen number of trace points to give a result.
The signal input connector is at the bottomright. Next to that is a socket for powering active

probes, then a CALIBRATION test signal output (BNC connector), then an optional TRACKING
GENERATOR output (which we do not have). The tracking generator option means that the
frequency response of components such as amplifiers and filters can be conveniently measured
without a separate signal generator and without manually stepping through the frequencies. The
instrument has softkeys to the right of the colour LCD, and the menu systemprovides access to a
range of powerful functions that include channel power, occupied bandwidth, adjacent channel
power and intermodulation.

6. Vector Network Analyers
To understand fully the operation of the Vector Network Analyser, it is necessary to have a good
background in transmission lines and S-parameters. It will then be evident that when making high
frequency S-parameter measurements:-

1. Proper terminations are required to prevent reflections.
2. Impedance is a function of position along a line.

These are the major reasons why microwave engineers have shunned conventional measurements of
voltage and current. For many years, measurements of VSWR and impedance were made using
slotted lines; here, a straight section of coaxial line or rectangular waveguide has a slot machined
down one side so that a diode detector can be slid up and down (on a precision carriage). This
means that the standing wave pattern can be measured directly. With suitable consideration of
reference planes, the impedance of an unknown load can be determined. However, making these
measurements over a wide range of frequencies is very laborious.

V.S.W.R
DIODE DETECTOR ON SLIDING PROBE
A sl otted l i ne

Fig. A10 VSWR and impedance measurement with a slotted line

A vector network analyzer (VNA), like the 8753 shown in Fig. A11, measures the S-parameters of a
device-under-test (DUT) over a wide frequency range. In order to make accurate measurements it is
necessary to be fully familiar with calibration techniques. Calibration refers to the procedure
whereby the unknown reflections and losses fromcables, connectors, couplers, bias tees, etc., are
determined via measurements on a series of known calibration standards.


Fig. A11 8753 9kHz to 3 GHz Vector Network Analyser

6.1 Connector Care
Dirty or damaged connectors will lead to results which are not repeatable and so this vital topic
comes first. In addition, some apparently simple connectors and adaptors can cost thousands of
pounds (e.g. 1 mmcoaxial connectors, which operate to 110 GHz), so TAKE CARE. Connector
care is an important aspect of measurements and an RF/microwave engineer must learn connector
skills to get good results.
Most microwave connectors, such as the SMA connector shown in Fig. A12 have a
threaded-type outer conductor collar to ensure a tight connection. The connector sex (fnaar fnaar) is
determined by the centre conductor; the one shown, with a pin, is the MALE end. In other countries
it is common to talk about a J ACK (female) and a PLUG (male) think of a mains plug and you
should be able to remember which is which. The following points must be noted when using high
frequency connectors:-

1. When screwing connectors together, the outer collar must be rotated whilst keeping the
inner body fixed.
2. If the centre pin rotates, it will get damaged or worn very quickly.
3. The outer collar (or nut) must always be done up gently by hand BEFORE a torque
spanner is applied.
4. A torque spanner is used for the last half a turn or so to ensure that the connector is
always done up with the same tightness, to give a repeatable connection.
5. If you start with a spanner you can easily cross the threads.

If you do it the correct way, doing up an SMA connect is an awkward process requiring
considerable dexterity. See the Agilent Technologies web site for more information on
connector care. There is a lot more to know, especially if you make measurements above a few
GHz: connector gauges, pin recession limits, eccentricity, etc, etc.


Fig. A12 An SMA connector:

6.2 The Scalar Network Analyser
Before looking in more detail at the VNA it is worth studying the scalar network analyser in order
to get used to the principle of transmission-reflection measurements and also in order to see its
limitations. Fig. A13 shows a network analyser being used to measure the S11 and S21 of a filter.
The two ports of the filter (input and output) are connected to the two ports of the network analyser
(Port 1 and Port 2). The main functional blocks inside a SCALAR network analyser are shown in
Fig. A14. The main thing that is different compared to measurement setups that you may have used
yourself before (e.g. using a function generator and scope to measure the frequency response of an
audio amplifier) is that there is a directional bridge or coupler that can separate the incident and
reflected waves at port one. Fig. A14 shows a one path two-port analyser; that means, to measure
S22/S12 you would have to turn the DUT (device under test) around.

PORT 1 PORT 2
Transmi ssi on S21
Refl ecti on
S11
S21
S11

Fig. A13 Illustration of a transmission-reflection measurement on a bandpass filter

R = i nput power
B = refl ected power
A = transmi tted power
B/R = return l oss
A/R = gai n
POWER
DETECTOR
DIRECTIONAL
BRIDGE
or coupler
POWER
DETECTOR
POWER
SPLITTER
POWER
DETECTOR
DUT
PORT 1 PORT 2
R
B
A
SIGNAL
GENERATOR

Fig. A14 One-path two-port scalar network analyser

6.2.1 Scalar network analyser calibration
Calibration typically refers to the process where the accuracy of an instrument is checked annually
by the manufacturer by measuring reference standards such as voltages, power levels, etc. In
network analyser measurements, however, it refers to the day-to-day process of correcting for the
unwanted reflections and losses in the measurement system. For example, you might wish to make
a measurement using a long pair of cables with adaptors on the ends, as shown in Fig. A15. In this
case, the instrument itself is not affected, but the cables and adapters certainly need to be
CALIBRATED OUT. You do not need to call the manufacturer!

DUT
adapter
cable

Fig. A15 Typical VNA measurement of a two-port DUT, using cables


A simple method of calibrating out the cable loss is:-

1. CONNECT THROUGH-LINE (loss0dB)
- set gain trace to 0 dB

2. CONNECT SHORT CIRCUIT (S110dB)
- set reflection trace to 0 dB

Modern scalar analysers can obviously store the data over a wide frequency range and correct out
the losses at each frequency. However, a typical through-line measurement EVEN AFTER THIS
CALIBRATION is shown in Fig. A16. The S21 trace is close to 0dB, but there is a big ripple in the
S11 measurement. In theory, an ideal through line would give dB (zero reflection). In practice, -
60dB is reasonable (reflection coefficient of 0.001). However, this systemis showing around -20dB
in places, which is a reflection coefficient of 0.1. The scalar systemis therefore not good for making
precision measurements of reflection coefficient. The ripples are there because the reflections from
adapters, cables, the analyser components themselves and the DUT add constructively and
destructively at different frequencies. All the unwanted reflections must be calibrated out in order to
measure the DUT accurately. Scalar measurements are therefore fundamentally limited because this
is only possible if their phase is known. The overall reflection coefficient is the vector sum of all the
individual components, and varies with frequency.

dB
0
-10
-20
-30
18 GHz
0
S21
S11

Fig. A16 Typical thru line measurement of a scalar network analyser, after calibration

6.3 Principles of the Vector Network Analyser
The basic coupler arrangement, signal generator, etc., are much the same as for the scalar analyser.
The key difference is that the power detectors are replaced with superheterodyne receivers, as
shown in Fig. A17. By downconverting to a low IF frequency, phase be measured accurately
because narrow IF filters can be used to remove noise. Unfortunately, the local oscillator is a second
signal generator, adding cost to the system. With vector measurements, the unwanted reflections,
lengths of line & losses can be calibrated out. In any case, *** WITHOUT PHASE OF YOU
CANNOT MEASURE IMPEDANCE *** because impedance varies with distance. With
appropriate options, VNAs can measure all four S-parameters of the DUT, as will be shown later.

~
Mag
Phase IF
filter FREQUENCY
CONVERTER
wave
input
LO

Fig. A17 Signal detector for phase measurement
(one each used for the reference, reflected and transmitted arms, R, B, A, respectively)

6.3.1 VNA Calibration
There are many methods these days for calibrating a vector network analyser. The simplest to
understand is the method using a short circuit, open circuit, 50 load and a through line. These
must be precision calibration standards with known characteristics.

In the ideal case:-

SHORT S11=-1
OPEN S11=+1
LOAD S11=0
THRU S11=0 S21=1 angle 0

By measuring these known standards, the errors in the measurements can be extracted. Once the
errors have been calculated (as vectors) they can be extracted frommeasurements of your DUT.
This calibration method is referred to as the SOLT method.

In order to analyse how the error correction is achieved, the sources of error must be identified and
represented as a mathematical model. Fig. A18 shows the sources of error for a one-port
measurement, and they area:

(1) LEAKAGE in the non-ideal directional bridge/coupler some signal goes straight through the
to the reflected power detector because the bridge/coupler does not have infinite isolation. The
figure of merit is called DIRECTIVITY, so the error is called the directivity term

(2) REFLECTIONS in the test components before the DUT
- cables, adaptors etc.


(3) NON-50 impedance of the systemitself.
- Source/Load MATCH

(4) Losses in the whole setup
- Transmission or tracking error

Receiver input
(transmitted
power)
1
2
4
3
Receiver input
(reflected power)
COUPLER

Fig. A18 Errors in the one-port measurement system

All these various unwanted signal components are lumped together into what is known as an error
model. The one-port error model is shown in Fig. A19; each signal is a branch in a signal flow
graph. The 3 error terms are:-

E
DF
is the DIRECTIVITY term
E
RF
is the REFLECTION TRACKING term
E
SF
is the SOURCE MATCH term

These are all vectors and vary with frequency. They can be found by connecting the calibration
standards: the full set of measurements for each calibration standard is stored, in turn, in memory.
When they are all stored, the calibration algorithmcan be used to calculate the error vectors. Once
they have been calculated, the data displayed on the screen can be corrected in real time, with the
effects of the errors removed.

1
DF
RF
SF
E E
E
S
11 meas
S
11 DUT

Fig. A19 One-port error model flowgraph

Referring to the one-port error model, the three error vectors can be found by measuring the three
calibration standards [S11=+1 (open) S11=-1 (short) and S11=0 (load)], and solving simultaneous
equations as follows:-

Using Masons rule:-

DUT SF
RF DUT
DF meas
S E
E S
E S
11
11
11
1
+ =

For the LOAD measurement:
DF meas
E S =
11

For the OPEN measurement:
SF
RF
DF meas
E
E
E S
+ =
1
11

For the SHORT measurement:
SF
RF
DF meas
E
E
E S
+
=
1
11

Once the values (magnitude and phase) of the error terms are known at each frequency, the
computer within a modern VNA can correct them out and display the true value of S
11DUT
.

6.3.2 Sliding Loads
For the 50 Ohmload, any residual reflection will cause an error in the calculated value of the
directivity term. A solution to this is to use a SLIDING LOAD. With a sliding load, S11 is
measured at a number of different physical positions. It is then found that S11 forms a circle on the
Smith Chart: The centre is exactly at EDF, and the radius is the magnitude of the S11 of the 50
Ohmload. By measuring at seven or more positions, a wide frequency range is covered. Sliding
loads are expensive precision mechanical devices, and have mostly been replaced because of more
modern calibration techniques, described in following sections.

E
DF
residual
reflection
from 50 ohm
load, at 7
different
positions
centre of chart

Fig. A20 Technique for finding directivity term using a sliding load


6.3.3 Calibration standards
In practice, there are no ideal calibration standards. For example, the open circuit has some fringing
capacitance, which is frequency dependant. The short circuit has some inductance. In addition, there
is an important issue of REFERENCE PLANES. Because PHASE is now being measured, and we
are at very high frequency (SHORT WAVELENGTH), even a very simple adapter has significant
electrical length. So, the correct position of the SOL and T must be maintained throughout the
calibration. You cannot mix different connectors and adapters when calibrating.

The calibration kit consists of all the calibration standards, plus a file or files describing their
electrical characteristics. The whole lot is supplied in a nice wooden box, with a diskette or tape,
and there may be other components such as connector gauges and male/female adaptors. Connector
gauges might be used to check there is no unacceptable protrusion or recession of the centre pin of
any coax connectors. The cal kit file has to be loaded at some point into the VNA memory.

The data on the tape/disk describes the electrical characteristics of each calibration standard. Coax
open and short circuits are usually offset from the connector reference plane. A waveguide
calibration set may contain set lengths of guide and offset shorts. Also, in real life, the open, short
and load are not perfect. For the open and short circuit, a common solution is to have an equivalent
circuit for them:- for example, the open could be treated as having a certain value of fringing
capacitance, which is frequency dependant. The short can be modelled with an inductance. The cal
kit file in the VNA stores all this information, and is supplied by the manufacturer of the
calibration standards on tape or disk. For on-wafer measurements, Cascade Microtech supplies its
own software package which runs the VNA remotely during calibration.

Fig. A21 A calibration kit in a box; contains calibration standards, adapters, spanners,
gauges, and a data disk possibly.

6.3.4 Two-port S-parameter measurements
In order to measure two-ports without turning the DUT around, the VNA essentially requires the
same hardware as the one-port, duplicated on Port 2 as illustrated in Fig. A22. For two-port devices,
the error model has to be extended and have either 8, 12 or 16 error terms depending on what
accuracy is needed. The block diagramshows a VNA with S-parameter test set: both ports have
dual directional couplers, and the RF stimulus is continually switched fromport1 to port2, usually
with a solid state PIN switch. The frequency converter usually has one channel for each raw
parameter. Then, all four parameters can be measured nearly simultaneously, and the calibration
applied to the displayed data. The full details of the two-port calibration algorithms can be found in
Agilent Application Notes, such as AN 1287-3 Applying Error Correction to Network Analyzer
Measurements

Frequency Converter
A to D COMPUTER
RF Signal
Generator
PORT1
b2
PORT2
TEST SET
"Network
Analyser"
display
IF signals
Directional coupler
a2
Directional coupler
DUT
a1 b1
Generator
LO Signal
Splitter
Splitter
Non-reflective
SPDT switch

Fig. A22 Simplified block diagram of a VNA with S-parameter test set.

6.3.5 Calibration Example
The following screen dumps are taken froma 6GHz 8753 VNA, before and after calibration. The
results should be self-explanatory and powerfully demonstrate the importance of calibrating the
instrument.

Fig. A23 S21 (0.5dB per division) and S11 (10dB per division) for a thru line, BEFORE
calibration (the reference line is 0dB)

Fig. A24 S11 of a short circuit, BEFORE calibration

Because the VNA is not calibrated this is almost completely useless: although the magnitude of S11
is approximately ONE, the phase is going round and round the Smith Chart. You cant even tell if
this is an open or a short.


Fig. A25 S21 (0.5dB per division) and S11 (10dB per division) for a thru line, AFTER
calibration (the reference line is 0dB)

Fig. A26 S11 of the short circuit, AFTER calibration (there is a dot on the left hand side)


Fig. A27 S11 of the open circuit standard AFTER calibration

Fig. A28 50 Ohm load, AFTER calibration

An advanced topic is hiding in these measurements: The 50 Ohmload appears to be really excellent
(70-80dB return loss). But, in fact, because the load is a calibration standard, you are actually just
comparing it with itself. The 70-80dB return loss limit shown here is largely the connector
repeatability limit. Likewise, we can now clearly identify that the short circuit is a tiny dot on the
left hand side of the chart, but in reality it has some inductance and it appears perfect only because
you told the VNA that it was. To get more precise measurements, a knowledge of the
imperfections of the calibration standards is needed. This is the purpose of the calibration kit data.

6.4 Time domain measurements
VNAs measure in the frequency domain using a swept or stepped signal source. The reason for this
is that the receiver(s) can then use heterodyne detection, giving a low noise floor and thus better
dynamic range. However, many VNAs can performa Fourier transform of the frequency domain
data to present the measurement in the time domain. This is mostly useful for troubleshooting; for
example, if you had a long cable which had an unacceptable return loss measurement, in the time
domain you could clearly identify whereabouts along the cable the problem lay. S11, for example,
in the time domain will show individual reflections separated in time:-

calibration
reference plane
termination
(e.g. port 2)
good
connector
faulty
connector

time
mag
t
t =0
(cal. ref . plane)
good connector
faulty connector

Fig. A29 Time Domain Measurement Example

In this cable example, the two reflections are separated by a significant distance compared with the
wavelength at the highest frequency of the measurement. In fact, the time between pulses, t is
equal to twice the delay of the cable. The delay can be calculated fromthe dielectric constant of the
material in the cable (or effective dielectric constant for microstrip / CPW / etc.) as follows:-

C
l
delay
eff r
or
=

where l is the physical length and C is the speed of light.

Note in the VNA display that the two reflections each have a Gaussian shape; this is a function of
the limited bandwidth of the frequency domain measurement and the windowing function used in
the Fourier transform. The window function can be made a bit more narrow, at the expense of
increased sidelobes.

As the two reflections get closer and closer together, they become impossible to resolve. The only
way to get a major improvement in resolution is to increase the measurement bandwidth. With a 45
MHz to 110 GHz measurement, for example, it is just possible to identify the different air-bridges
on a GaAs MMIC CPW line if they have a separation of ~200 microns.

Many VNAs offer a choice of LOWPASS or BANDPASS transform; the bandpass is most often
used, and gives the sorts of graph already described. The lowpass type has the advantage that it
yields a SIGN of mag , so that inductive and capacitive discontinuities can be distinguished.

DIRECT time-domain measurements are sometimes used: A time domain reflectometer uses a
nonlinear source (e.g. step recovery diode) to create an impulse train, which is then observed in the
time domain via a sampler and oscilloscope. More modern systems exist which employ the ultra-
short pulses froma laser to create impulses on a chip with ~THz equivalent bandwidth. The
impulses are often created by illuminating photoconductive switches, and the pulses detected using
opto-electronic sampling. These research-lab systems have been used to measure devices up to a
few THz. However, the frequency resolution is not as good as a frequency-domain measurement,
and the technique would not give good results for a narrowband filter, for example.

In passing, we note that opto-electronic techniques are sometimes also used for in-circuit field
probing of GaAs ICs. Here, the electro-optic effect in GaAs means that the electric field changes the
refractive index, so a laser beamcan be used to probe around the chip. This technique is known as
internal or direct electro-optic sampling. For greater sensitivity, and for application to circuits on
substrates which do not exhibit the electro-optic effect, a small crystal probe can be moved around
the surface of the circuit, and the crystal itself is probed via a laser beam. LithiumTantalate is often
used for the crystal as it exhibits a strong electro-optic effect. This technique is known as external
electro-optic sampling. In electro-optic sampling the probing systemis measuring the fields, and the
(microwave) stimulus signal and port terminations must be applied separately.

7. Microstrip Test-Fixture Measurements
For test fixture measurements on microstrip (or CPW etc) circuits there are several ways of making
measurements with reference planes located in the microstrip. These methods can be classified into
two groups:-

1. A coaxial calibration is performed, with the network analyser's reference planes located
at the end of its coaxial cables, and then de-embedding (or "stripping") is used to shift
the measurement reference planes to the DUT.

2. Calibration standards are placed directly within the test fixture, using techniques such as
TRL (through-reflect-line)

or similar calibration.

De-embedding can be performed using an equivalent circuit model of the test fixture, or by
employing a secondary calibration routine (such as a TRL calibration) on the test fixture itself. Test
fixtures are still widely used for device measurements because they offer a great deal of flexibility,
such as allowing DC bias circuitry to be located next to the device. An illustration of a basic 2-port
test fixture for measuring an MMIC is shown. The MMIC is permanently attached to the chip
carrier with either conductive epoxy glue or solder. The metal housing is employed to hold the chip
carrier and the connector/launchers in place. Because of the fixed nature of this setup, it would be
difficult to use in-fixture cal standards, and deembedding would be easier. The parameters for
deembedding are obtained by measuring an MMIC thru line (if available) so that all the connector,

fixture and microstrip-MMIC transition effects can be modelled (using tuning and optimisation on a
CAD package).
In principle, time-domain gating could also be used for deembedding, but in practice the
limited network analyser bandwidth means that the spatial resolution is too coarse to make this
reliable.

MMIC
50 line
Coax-to-
microstrip
launcher
"Filtercon"
DC feedthrough
Wires to PSU
Multilayer chip
capacitor
(e.g. 10000 pF)
Single layer
chip capacitor
(e.g. 100 pF)
Ground
connection
Raised surface
of chip carrier
Alumina
substrate
Housing wall
Bond-wires
Wires to PSU

Fig. A30 A typical 2-port test fixture

7.1 In-Fixture TRL calibration
The SOLT method has serious limitations for microstrip measurements and there has been a lot of
work to develop other techniques. When calibrating in microstrip, or on a semiconductor wafer,
clearly sliding loads were not convenient. The TRL calibration technique is an important solution,
fromwhich a number of others are derived. The standards used are a THROUGH, a REFLECTION
standard, and a known length of LINE.

In-fixture TRL-type calibration gives much better performance than deembedding using equivalent
circuits. Typically, a special purpose test fixture is used which allows the speedy but repeatable
insertion of the required microstrip calibration standards. For TRL calibrations the calibration
standards consist of a number of through lines of different lengths, and a non-critical reflection
standard (e.g. a short or open circuit). In order to cover a useful frequency range, it is necessary to
employ a number of different delay line lengths to overcome phase ambiguity at all the
measurement frequencies. In order to accommodate these different lengths of calibration standard
the test fixture must either have coaxial-to-microstrip launchers fixed onto sliding carriages, or it
must use a split-block design with an interchangeable centre section. For example, the Anritsu test
fixture uses the sliding-carriage approach and allows accurate measurements to be made from0.01
to 60 GHz.

Fig. A31 Anritsu Microstrip Test Fixture. Copyright 2008 Anritsu

Microstrip TRL standards

50 line
Coax-to-
microstrip
launcher
Sliding carriage
Measurement reference plane

THRU

50 line
Coax-to-
microstrip
launcher

REFLECT

50 line
Coax-to-
microstrip
launcher

LINE

Fig. A32 TRL in-fixture calibration example


8. Probe station measurements
Accurate MMIC measurements can easily be made using a microwave probe station. A photograph
of the Agilent Technologies / Cascade Microtech 45MHz to 110GHz systemis shown. Repeatable
measurements can be made up to 110 GHz as a result of development in measurement equipment,
probes, and calibration techniques. The key to the high accuracy is the use of CPW probes, which
allow a smooth transition to be made fromthe network analyser's coaxial connectors (or waveguide
flanges) down to the tiny probe pads of the MMIC, with 50 ohm characteristic impedance
maintained throughout by tapering the CPW centre conductor width and ground-plane spacing.

Fig. A33 Photograph of the Agilent Technologies / Cascade Microtech
8510XF RFOW System

Fig. A34 Close up view of the probes above the chuck
(these are low loss typeprobes where the coaxial connector is in-line with the probes,
rather than coming in vertically fromthe top)


coax outer
CPW tips
pitch

Fig. A35 Probe tip details

8.1 Waveguide Test Sets
Coaxial connectors are still restricted to 110 GHz, and even below that it is difficult to realise high
performance components in microstrip and coax. So, rectangular waveguide still plays an important
part in mm-wave measurement systems. Test port combining refers to the process whereby a
coaxial S-parameter test set is operated in tandemwith a waveguide test set, in order to achieve a
higher frequency range with a single connection to the DUT.
Test port combining can be external, using a diplexer to separate the coax and waveguide
test set signals:-

DUT
waveguide
test set
coax test set
RWG
65 GHz
coax
110 GHz
coax
diplexer

Fig. A 36 External test-set combining (one port shown)

This approach has the advantage that the coax and waveguide test sets can be operated
independently when required, making the system more flexible. However, the diplexer after the test
sets (and the adaptors etc) significantly degrade the raw performance of the VNA (especially the
directivity). Calibration still works, but the user may find that the calibration drifts off more rapidly
due to temperature changes etc.

To improve directivity, Agilent use internal combining in the (old) 8510XF system. In this system, a
single ultrawideband coaxial-connector directional coupler is used over the whole measurement
rage (45 MHz to 110 GHz). AFTER the incident and reflected signals have been separated, the
signals are separated into coax and waveguide bands (45MHz-50GHz goes into coax, 50-75 GHz
and 75-110 GHz go into separate waveguide mixers):

DUT
coax
frequency
converter
RWG
110 GHz
coax
45MHz - 110 GHz
coupl er
m
u
l
t
i
p
l
e
x
e
r

75-110 GHz
waveguide
tfrequency
converter
110 GHz coax
stimulus input
50-75 GHz
waveguide
tfrequency
converter
50 GHz coax

Fig. A37 Internal Coax/RWG combining (8510XF)

Above 110 GHz, waveguide test sets must be used in isolation. Currently, Oleson Microwave Labs
produce suitable modules for use with both Anritsu and Agilent network analysers. Waveguide
modules covering 90-140, 140-220 and 220-325 GHz are available. The mm-wave module
comprises predominantly directional couplers, frequency multipliers to multiply the ~50 GHz
source signal up, and harmonic mixers. The 140-220 GHz RFOW system, using a pair of
transmission-reflection modules is shown.


Fig. A38 220 GHz Measurement System

Fig. A39 220 GHz Measurement System: Close up of waveguide-fed Picoprobes
TM

8.2 Prober Calibration Techniques

Probe stations can use any of the following calibration procedures
:

1. SOLT
2. TRL / LRL
3. LRM
4. LRRM

The calibration standards can be on a wafer or on a precision impedance standard substrate
(ISS). On-wafer standards can characterise the probe-to-MMIC transition more accurately, whereas
ISS standards are not subject to manufacturing variations and can be more traceable.

Generally, the SOLT has poor accuracy above 50 GHz because of the difficulty in realising good
quality standards (especially the open circuit). The LRL and TRL techniques require a minimum of
two delay lines and a non-critical reflection standard (usually an open or short circuit), like the
microstrip in-fixture calibration already described. The reference impedance is taken fromthe
characteristic impedance of the delay lines. In order to cover a wide frequency range, a number of
different delay line lengths are required because each delays electrical length is limited to a range
between 20 and 160 degrees, approximately. This means that the probe separation has to be
adjusted during the calibration procedure. For many applications, such as automated test systems,
this is a major limitation and for these applications the Line-Reflect-Match (LRM) calibration,
developed by Cascade Microtech, is preferred to LRL/TRL. The multiple delay lines required with
the LRL/TRL calibration are replaced by matched loads, representing an infinitely long delay line.
LRRM (Line-Reflect-Reflect-Match) is an enhancement to LRM which uses both the short and
open standards to improve accuracy.

Fig. A40 WinCal Screen Dump showing main window and LRM cal submenu choice

The software package WinCal from Cascade Microtech is dedicated to on-wafer calibration and
measurement. For TRL/LRL calibrations, the Multical programme fromNIST is more powerful
but less user friendly. The steps required for calibrating with the LRM technique using an
impedance standard substrate (ISS) are as follows:-

Fig. A41 Probe set up and calibration:

(1) Planarise the probes (2) Align them to alignment marks
- make sure all three tips make equal with the probes not quite touching
marks on the contact substrate

(3) Set the overtravel (4) Measure the thru line standard
- the tips are moved down until
they skate the exact prescribed distance


(5) Measure the 50 Ohm loads standard (6) Measure the open standard
(lift the probes in this case)

(7) The software calculates the calibration constants; download them into the VNA

(8) Measure a test component for calibration verification
Here, a 25ps delay line, open at one end, gives a severe test
Note the black line along the edges is resistive material to help prevent unwanted modes
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.5 2 3 4 5 10 2050
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.5
2
3
4
5
10
20
50
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-1.5
-2
-3
-4
-5
-10
-20
-50
0.0 GHz
120.0 GHz
S11
HP 8510
04-22-199912:11:05

Fig. A42 This is the S11 of the open-circuited 25ps delay line

8.3 Microstrip MMIC On-Wafer Measurements
Most MMICs use microstrip, not CPW, and an arrangement for measuring a MIM capacitor for
modelling purposes is shown. It should be noted, of course, that the CPW-to-microstrip transitions
must be accounted for to give accurate measurements for the capacitor in a microstrip environment.
The best method of removing their effects is to performa calibration with microstrip standards, as
shown. Be warned, however, that microstrip standards are problematical because the characteristic
impedance is affected by dispersion and is critically dependant on the wafer thickness.

CAPACITOR UNDER TEST
FEED LINE
CPW-to-MICROSTRIP
TRANSITION
C
O
A
X
I
A
L

P
A
R
T

A
I
R
-
C
O
P
L
A
N
A
R

P
A
R
T

REQUIRED REFERENCE PLANES
C
O
A
X
I
A
L

P
A
R
T

A
I
R
-
C
O
P
L
A
N
A
R

P
A
R
T

Fig. A43 RFOW measurement of a capacitor

Some points to be aware of are:-

1. The line Zo depends on substrate thickness; the wafer thickness is surprisingly poorly
controlled (e.g. +/- 10%).
2. The measured data may be referenced to the line Zo, not 50 Ohms (depending on
software used).
3. The Thru must have sufficient length to ensure evanescent modes at the probe-
microstrip transition have decayed away.
4. The opens must be far enough apart that no coupling occurs.
5. Multiple LINE lengths will be required for wideband measurements, and their lengths
must be carefully chosen. Multical carefully smoothes over the band edges between the
useful range of each line standard.
6. At >> 100 GHz the LINE standard length is comparable to the overtravel skate
distance!!! Probe placement errors become a severe limiting factor.
7. Substrate modes (TM ) can be excited above ~100 GHz, depending on the substrate
height.


REFERENCE PLANES
THRU

REFERENCE PLANES
REFLECT

REFERENCE PLANES
LINE

Fig. A44 Microstrip on-wafer LRL calibration standards

8.4 Measuring Ordinary Microstrip Circuits on a Probestation
Such is the convenience of probestations, it is likely that one might try to measure an ordinary
microstrip circuit with one. The best method is to have laser-drilled via-hole grounds, to realise
wideband CPW-to-microstrip transitions, and to then use on-substrate calibration pieces like the
ones already described for MMICs. However, laser-drilling may not be available and is fairly
expensive to have done. So, several researchers have studied CPW-to-microstrip transitions that do
not need via-holes. One simple technique is to use radial stubs as (narrowband) grounds:-

Fig. A45 Narrowband CPW-to-microstrip transition without via holes

Further Reading

1. LUCYSZYN, S. : Measurement Techniques, Chapt 12, RFIC & MMIC Design and
Technology,, eds. I. D. Robertson and S. Lucyszyn, pub. IEE, 2001

2. S. Lucyszyn, "RFIC and MMIC Measurement Techniques", Chapter 11 fromMicrowave
Measurements, R. Collier and D. Skinner (Editors), Published by the IET, pp. 217-262,
London, Oct. 2007

3. LANE, R., 'De-embedding device scattering parameters', Microwave Journal, pp.149-156,
Aug. 1984

4. LUCYSZYN, S., MAGNIER, V., READER, H. C., and ROBERTSON, I. D.,
'Ultrawideband measurement of multiple-port MMICs using non-ideal test fixtures and a 2-
port ANA', IEE Proc. Part A, vol. 139, no. 5, pp. 235-242, Sep. 1992

5. HEUERMANN, H., and SCHIEK, B., 'The in-fixture calibration procedure line-network-
network-LNN', 23rd European Microwave Conf. Proc., pp. 500-503, 1993

6. GODSHALK, E. M., 'A W-band wafer probe', IEEE Int. Microwave Symp. Dig., pp. 171-
174, 1993

7. BAHL, I., LEWIS, G., and J ORGENSON, J ., 'Automatic testing of MMIC wafers', Int.
Journal of Microwave and Millimeter-wave Computer-aided Engineering, vol. 1, no. 1, pp.
77-89, 1991

8. EUL, H. J ., and SCHIEK, B.,' Thru-match-reflect: one result of a rigorous theory for de-
embedding and network analyzer calibration', 18th European Microwave Conf. Proc., 1988

9. PRADELL, L., CACERES, M., and PURROY, F., 'Development of self-calibration
techniques for on-wafer and fixtured measurements: A novel approach', 22nd European
Microwave Conf. Proc., pp. 919-924, 1992

10. FERRERO, A., and PISANI, U., 'Two-port network analyzer calibration using an unknown
"thru"', IEEE Microwave and Guided Wave Letters, vol. 2., no. 12. pp. 505-507, Dec. 1992

11. PURROY, F., and PRADELL, L., 'Comparison of on-wafer calibrations using the concept
of reference impedance', 23rd European Microwave Conf. Proc., pp. 857-859, 1993

12. PENCE, J . E., 'Technique verifies LRRM calibrations on GaAs Substrates', Microwaves &
RF, pp. 69-76, J an. 1994

13. MARKS, R. B.: A multiline method of network analyser calibration, IEEE Transactions,
MTT-39, J uly 1991, pp. 1205-1215


Decibel Units
The decibel (dB) is a unit based on the logarithmic ratio of powers. dB units are able to
conveniently represent a huge range of signal levels and high gain/attenuation ratio: e.g. from pW to
100's of Watts is often encountered in radio. In the case of an amplifier, for example, we can write:-
Gain in dB =10 log OUTPUT POWER
INPUT POWER

Note that this is a ratio and has no absolute units.
Since power =V
2
/R, it is important to be careful when working with voltages. For the same
amplifier, the squaring function to get power from voltage means that 20 log must be used:-

Gain in dB =20 log OUTPUT VOLTAGE
INPUT VOLTAGE

The following table shows that a 10dB step refers to a factor of ten in power ratio:-
dB Power ratio
60 1,000,000
50 100,000
40 10,000
30 1000
20 100
10 10
0 1
-10 0.1
-20 0.01
-30 0.001
-40 0.0001
-50 0.00001
-60 0.000001

A special case of the dB unit is 3 dB which closely approximates to DOUBLE the signal power,
or -3dB which is HALF the signal power.

For absolute units, for example to express the output power of an amplifier, it is common to use a
suffix on the dB unit:-

Watts) in 10log(P dBW in Power =
) mW in 10log(P dBm in Power =

In spectrum analyser measurements, it is common to encounter the unit dBm/Hz, which expresses
the fact that noise and randomdata signals have continuous spectra and the power is spread out over
a range of frequencies.

Appendix
The History of 50 Ohms

http://www.rfcafe.com/references/electrical/history_of_50_ohms.htm

This fromHarmon Banning of W.L. Gore & Associates, Inc. cable:
There are probably lots of stories about how 50 Ohms came to be. The one I am most familiar goes
like this. In the early days of microwaves - around World War II, impedances were chosen
depending on the application. For maximum power handling, somewhere between 30 and 44 Ohms
was used. On the other hand, lowest attenuation for an air filled line was around 93 Ohms. In those
days, there were no flexible cables, at least for higher frequencies, only rigid tubes with air
dielectric. Semi-rigid cable came about in the early 50's, while real microwave flex cable was
approximately 10 years later.
Somewhere along the way it was decided to standardize on a given impedance so that economy and
convenience could be brought into the equation. In the US, 50 Ohms was chosen as a compromise.
There was a group known as J AN, which stood for J oint Army and Navy who took on these
matters. They later became DESC, for Defense Electronic Supply Center, where the MIL specs
evolved. Europe chose 60 Ohms. In reality, in the US, since most of the "tubes" were actually
existing materials consisting of standard rods and water pipes, 51.5 Ohms was quite common. It
was amazing to see and use adapter/converters to go from 50 to 51.5 Ohms. Eventually, 50 won out,
and special tubing was created (or maybe the plumbers allowed their pipes to change dimension
slightly).
Further along, the Europeans were forced to change because of the influence of companies such as
Hewlett-Packard which dominated the world scene. 75 Ohms is the telecommunications standard,
because in a dielectric filled line, somewhere around 77 Ohms gives the lowest loss. (Cable TV) 93
Ohms is still used for short runs such as the connection between computers and their monitors
because of low capacitance per foot which would reduce the loading on circuits and allow longer
cable runs.
Volume 9 of the MIT Rad Lab Series has some greater details of this for those interested. It has
been reprinted by Artech House and is available.

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