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MODULE 11.12 ICE AND RAIN PROTECTION

Contents
12 ICE FORMATION, ........................................................................ 12-3
12.1 12.2 12.3 CLASSIFICATION AND DETECTION INTRODUCTION ...................... 12-3 FACTORS AFFECTING ICE FORMATION ................................. 12-3 TYPES OF ICE FORMATION ..................................................... 12-3 12.3.1 Hoar Frost ..................................................................... 12-3 12.3.2 Rime Ice........................................................................ 12-4 12.3.3 Glaze Ice ....................................................................... 12-4 12.3.4 Pack Snow .................................................................... 12-5 12.3.5 Hail ............................................................................... 12-5 AREAS TO BE PROTECTED...................................................... 12-5 12.4.1 Effects On Aircraft ......................................................... 12-6 12.4.2 Effects of Icing on The Ground ...................................... 12-7 ICE DETECTION ........................................................................ 12-7 METHODS OF ICE DETECTION ................................................ 12-7 12.6.1 Visual (Hot Rod) Ice Detector)....................................... 12-8 Pressure Operated Ice Detector Heads ...................................... 12-9 Serrated Rotor Ice Detector Head ............................................... 12-10 12.6.4 Vibrating Rod Ice Detector ............................................ 12-11 ICE FORMATION SPOT LIGHT ......................................................... 12-12 ANTI-ICING AND DE-ICING SYSTEMS .............................................. 12-12 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................. 12-12 12.9.1 De-icing ......................................................................... 12-12 12.9.2 Anti-icing System .......................................................... 12-13 DE-ICING/ANTI-ICING SYSTEMS - GENERAL ................................. 12-13 FLUID SYSTEMS ........................................................................... 12-13 12.11.1 Windscreen Protection .................................................. 12-13 12.11.2 Aerofoil Systems ........................................................... 12-16 12.11.3 Propeller Systems ......................................................... 12-18 PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS ............................................................. 12-19 12.12.1 Air Supplies ................................................................... 12-20 12.12.2 Distribution .................................................................... 12-20 12.12.3 Controls and Indication ................................................. 12-20 12.12.4 Operation ...................................................................... 12-21 THERMAL (HOT AIR) SYSTEM .................................................. 12-22 12.13.1 Exhaust Gas Heating System ....................................... 12-23 12.13.2 Hot Air Bleed System .................................................... 12-25 ELECTRICAL ICE PROTECTION SYSTEN ................................ 12-27 12.14.1 Heater Mat .................................................................... 12-27 12.14.2 Spray Mat ..................................................................... 12-28 Windscreen Anti-icing ................................................................. 12-31 WINDSCREEN CABIN W INDOW DE-MISTING SYSTEMS ..................... 12-33 RAIN REPELLANT AND RAIN REMOVAL ........................................... 12-35

12.4

12.5 12.6

12.7 12.8 12.9

12.10 12.11

12.12

12.13

12.14

12.15 12.16

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12.17 WINDSCREEN CLEARING SYSTEMS ....................................... 12-35 12.18 WINDSCREEN WIPER SYSTEMS ..................................................... 12-36 12.18.1 Electrical System........................................................... 12-36 12.18.2 Electro-Hydraulic System .............................................. 12-38 12.18.3 Windscreen Wiper Servicing ......................................... 12-39 12.19 PNEUMATIC RAIN REMOVAL SYSTEMS.................................. 12-41 12.20 WINDSCREEN WASHING SYSTEM .......................................... 12-41 12.21 RAIN REPELLANT ..................................................................... 12-43 12.22 DRAIN MAST HEATING .................................................................. 12-46 12.23 WATER SUPPLY AND DRAIN LINES ................................................. 12-46 12.24 DRAIN MASTS .............................................................................. 12-46

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12 ICE FORMATION,
12.1 CLASSIFICATION AND DETECTION INTRODUCTION The operation of aircraft in the present day necessitates flying in all weather conditions and it is essential that the aircraft is protected against the build up of ice which may affect the safety and performance of the aircraft. Aircraft designed for public transport and some military aircraft must be provided with certain detection and protection equipment for flights in which there is a probability of encountering icing (or rain) conditions. In addition to the requirements outlined above, certain basic standards have to be met by all aircraft whether or not they are required to be protected by the requirements. These basic requirements are intended to provide a reasonable protection if the aircraft is flown intentionally for short periods in icing conditions. The requirements cover such considerations as the stability and control balance characteristics, jamming of controls and the ability of the engine to continue to function. 12.2 FACTORS AFFECTING ICE FORMATION Ice formation on aircraft in flight is the same as that on the ground; it can be classified under four main headings, i.e. Hoar Frost, Rime, Glaze Ice and Pack Snow. Dependent on the circumstances, variations of these forms of icing can occur and two different types of icing may appear simultaneously on parts of the aircraft. Ice in the atmosphere is caused by coldness acting on moisture in the air. Water occurs in the atmosphere in three forms, i.e. invisible vapour, liquid water and ice. The smallest drops of liquid water constitute clouds and fog, the largest drops occur only in rain and in between these are the drops making drizzle. Icing consists of crystals, their size and density being dependent on the temperature and the type of water in the atmosphere from which they form. Snowflakes are produced when a number of these crystals stick together or, in very cold regions, by small individual crystals. 12.3 TYPES OF ICE FORMATION
12.3.1 HOAR FROST

Hoar frost occurs on a surface which is at a temperature below the frost point of the adjacent air and of course, below freezing point. It is formed in clear air when water vapour condenses on the cold airframe surface and is converted directly to ice and builds up into a white semi-crystalline coating; normally hoar frost is feathery.

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When hoar frost occurs on aircraft on the ground, the weight of the deposit is unlikely to be serious, but the deposit, if not removed from the airframe, may interfere with the airflow and attainment of flying speed during take-off, the windscreen may be obscured and the free working control surfaces may be affected. Hoar frost on aircraft in flight usually commences with a thin layer of glaze ice on the leading edge, followed by the formation of frost which gradually spreads over the whole surface. Again the effects are not usually serious, though some change in the landing characteristics of the aircraft can be expected.
12.3.2 RIME ICE

This ice formation, which is less dense than glaze ice, is an opaque, rough deposit. At ground level it forms in freezing fog and consists of a deposit of ice on the windward side of exposed objects. Rime is light and porous and results from the small water drops freezing as individual particles, with little or no spreading, a large amount of air is trapped between the particles. Aircraft in flight may experience rime icing when flying through a cloud of small water drops with the air temperature and the temperature of the airframe below freezing point. The icing builds up on the leading edge, but does not extend far back along the chord. Ice of this type usually has no great weight, but the danger of rime is that it will interfere with the airflow over the wings. If the super-cooled droplets are small enough and the temperature is low, each droplet freezes instantly on impact as an individual particle and being a nonadhesive dry powder in the slipstream the accumulation on the aircraft is not serious. This is called "opaque rime".
12.3.3 GLAZE ICE

Glaze ice is the glassy deposit that forms over the village pond in the depth of winter. On aircraft in flight, glaze ice forms when the aircraft encounters large water drops in clouds or in freezing rain (or super-cooled rain) with the air temperature and the temperature of the airframe below freezing point. It consists of a transparent or opaque coating of ice with a glassy surface and results from the liquid water flowing over the airframe before freezing. Glaze ice may be mixed with sleet or snow. IT WILL FORM IN GREATEST THICKNESS ON THE LEADING EDGES OF AEROFOILS AND IN REDUCED THICKNESS AS FAR AFT AS ONE HALF OF THE CHORD. Ice formed in this way is dense, tough and sticks closely to the surface of the aircraft, it cannot easily be shaken off and if it breaks off at all, it comes away in lumps of an appreciable and sometimes dangerous size.

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The main danger of glaze ice is still aerodynamic but also the weight of the ice produces unequal loading and propeller blade vibrations. Glaze ice is the MOST SEVERE and most dangerous form of ice formation on aircraft because of its high RATE OF CATCH. Super-cooled rain is rare in the British Isles but is more common on the Continent and East coast of North America.
12.3.4 PACK SNOW

Normally, snow falling on an aircraft in flight does not settle, but if the temperature of the airframe is below freezing point, glaze ice may form from the moisture in the snow. The icing of the aircraft in such conditions, however, is primarily due to water drops, though snow may subsequently be embedded in the ice so formed.
12.3.5 HAIL

Hail is formed when water droplets, falling as rain, pass through icing levels and freeze. Air currents in some storm clouds (Cumulo-nimbus) may carry the hail vertically through the cloud a number of times, increasing the size of the hailstone at each pass until it is heavy enough to break out of the base of the cloud and fall towards earth. Aircraft encountering this type of ice formation may suffer severe damage in the form of dented skin, cracked windscreens, blocked intakes and serious damage to gas turbine engines. 12.4 AREAS TO BE PROTECTED The following areas are critical areas on the aircraft where ice forms and where protection is essential. a. all aerofoil leading edges b. engine air intakes (including carburettor intakes) c. windscreens d. propellers e. pitot static pressure heads

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Icing Areas to be Protected Figure 1

12.4.1 EFFECTS ON AIRCRAFT

The build up of ice on the aircraft is known as 'ice accretion' and, from the foregoing, it is evident that if ice continues to be deposited on the aircraft one, or more, of the following effects may occur. a. Decrease in Lift This may occur due to changes in wing section resulting in loss of streamlined flow around the leading edge and top surfaces. b. Increase in Drag Drag will increase due to the rough surface, especially if the formation is rime. This condition results in greatly increased surface friction. c. Increased Weight and Wing Loading The weight of the ice may prevent the aircraft from maintaining height. d. Decrease in Thrust With turbo-prop and piston engines, the efficiency of the propeller will decrease due to alteration of the blade profile and increased blade thickness. Vibration may also occur due to uneven distribution of ice along the blades. Gas Turbine engines may also be affected by ice on the engine intake, causing disturbance of the airflow to the compressor. Furthermore, ice breaking away from the intake, may be ingested by the engine causing severe damage to the compressor blades and other regions within the engine. Mod 11.12 issue 1 Page 12-6

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e. Inaccuracy of Pitot Static Instruments Ice on the pitot static pressure head causes blockage in the sensing lines and produces false readings on the instruments. f. Loss of Inherent Stability This may occur due to displacement of the centre of gravity caused by the weight of the ice. g. Radio antennae Reduced efficiency h. Loss of Control Loss of control may occur due to ice preventing movement of control surfaces. (This is not usually a problem in flight but may occur on the ground).
12.4.2 EFFECTS OF ICING ON THE GROUND

The effects of ice accretion on the ground are similar to those occurring in flight but the following additional effects may be caused. a. Restriction of the controls may occur if ice is not removed from hinges and gaps in the controls. b. The take off run may be increased because of the increase in weight and drag. c. The rate of climb may be reduced because the weight and drag are increased. 12.5 ICE DETECTION The ANO Schedule 4 states that: In the case of an aircraft of MTWA exceeding 5700 kg (12500 lb), means of observing the existence and build up of ice on the aircraft must be provided. The equipment will be carried on flights when the weather reports or forecasts available at the aerodrome at the time of departure indicate that conditions favouring ice formation are likely to be met. 12.6 METHODS OF ICE DETECTION Ice detection systems use one of the following methods of detecting and assessing the formation of ice.

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12.6.1 VISUAL (HOT ROD) ICE DETECTOR)

This consists of an aluminium alloy oblong base (called the plinth) on which ismounted a steel tube detector mast of aerofoil section, angled back to approximately 300 from the vertical, mounted on the side of the fuselage, so that it can be seen from the flight compartment windows. The mast houses a heating element, and in the plinth there is a built-in floodlight.

Hot Rod Ice Detector Figure 2 The heating element is normally off and when icing conditions are met ice accretes on the leading edge of the detector mat. This can then be observed by the flight crew. During night operations the built-in floodlight may be switched on to illuminate the mast. By manual selection of a switch to the heating element the formed ice is dispersed for further observance.

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12.6.2 PRESSURE OPERATED ICE DETECTOR HEADS

MAST

OUTLET HOLES

INLET HOLES

ELECTRICAL CONNECTORS

Pressure Operated Ice Detector Figure 3 These consist of a short stainless steel or chromium plated brass tube, which is closed at its outer end and mounted so that it projects vertically from a portion of the aircraft known to be susceptible to icing. Four small holes are drilled in the leading edge of this tube and in the trailing edge are two holes of less total area than those of the leading edge. A heater element is fitted to allow the detector head to be cleared of ice. In some units of this type a further restriction to the air flow is provided by means of a baffle mounted through the centre of the tube. Each system comprises an ice detector head, a detector relay and a warning lamp. When in normal flight, pressure is built up inside the tube by the airstream, this pressure is then communicated by tubing, to the capsule of an electro-pneumatic relay tending to expand it and separate a pair of electrical contacts. When icing conditions are met, ice will form on the leading edge and close off the holes. As the holes in the trailing edge will not be covered by ice the air-stream will now tend to exhaust the system, collapsing the relay capsule and so closing the relay contacts. Generally these contacts operate in conjunction with a thermal device, to illuminate a warning indicator in the flight compartment and to switch on the heater in the detector head; the latter clears the head of ice and is then switched off allowing continued detection of icing conditions. A heater energised by the detector relays, automatically clears the ice from the head, but a cam holds the lamp on for a further 4 minutes and the heater for a further 30 seconds. Mod 11.12 issue 1 Page 12-9

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Should icing conditions persist and the detector heads again ice up, the cam is automatically re-set and the time cycle repeated.The pilot will switch on the deicing system when the warning lights indicate icing conditions. In some systems the warning phase is connected to automatically switch on the de-icing system. This cycling will continue until such time that the icing conditions no longer exist.
12.6.3 SERRATED ROTOR ICE DETECTOR HEAD

Serrated Rotor Ice Detector Figure 4 This consists of a serrated rotor, incorporating an integral drive shaft coupled to a small ac motor via a reduction gearbox, being rotated adjacent to a fixed knifeedge cutter. The motor casing is connected via a spring-tensioned toggle bar to a micro-switch assembly. The motor and gearbox assembly is mounted on a static spigot attached to the motor housing and, together with the micro-switch assembly, is enclosed by a cylindrical housing. The detector is mounted through the fuselage side so that the inner housing is subjected to the ambient conditions with the outer being sealed from the aircraft cabin pressure.The serrated rotor on the detector head is continuously driven by the electrical motor so that its periphery rotates within 0.050 mm (0.002 in) of the leading edge of the knife-edge cutter. The torque therefore required to drive the rotor under non-icing conditions will be slight, since bearing friction only has to be overcome. Under icing conditions, however, ice will accrete on the rotor until the gap between the rotor and knife-edge is filled, whereupon a cutting action by the knife edge will produce a substantial increase in the required torque causing the toggle bar to move against its spring mounting and so operate the microswitch, to initiate a warning signal. Once icing conditions cease, the knife edge cutter will no longer shave ice, torque loading will reduce and allow the motor to return to its normal position and the micro-switch will open-circuit the ice warning indicator. Mod 11.12 issue 1 Page 12-10

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12.6.4 VIBRATING ROD ICE DETECTOR

This ice detector senses the presence of icing conditions and provides an indication in the flight compartment that such conditions exist. The system consists of' a solid state ice detector and advisory warning light. The ice detector is attached to the fuselage with its probe protruding through the skin. The ice detector probe (exposed to the airstream) is an ice-sensing element that ultrasonically vibrates in an axial mode of its own resonant frequency of approximately 40 kHz.

SENSOR UNIT

DETECTOR PROBE

VIBRATING ROD

Vibrating Rod Ice detector Figure 5 When ice forms on the sensing element, the probe frequency decreases. The ice detector circuit detects the change in probe frequency by comparing it with a reference oscillator. At a predetermined frequency change (proportional to ice build-up), the ice detector circuit is activated. Once activated, the ice warning light in the flight compartment is illuminated and a timer circuit is triggered. The operation of the time circuit switches a probe heater on for a set period of time to remove the ice warning indicator and returns the system to a detector mode, providing that icing conditions no longer exist. If, however, a further ice warning signal is received during the timer period, the timer will be re-triggered, the warning light will remain on and the heater will again be selected on. This cycle will be repeated for as long as the icing conditions prevail.

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12.7 ICE FORMATION SPOT LIGHT Many aircraft have two ice formation spot lights mounted one each side of the fuselage, in such a position as to light up the leading edges of the mainplanes, when required, to allow visual examination for ice formation. Note: In some aircraft this may be the only method of ice detection.

Spotlight Ice detectors Figure 6 12.8 ANTI-ICING AND DE-ICING SYSTEMS 12.9 INTRODUCTION There are various methods of ice protection which can be fitted to an aircraft but they can be considered under one of two main categories, de-icing and anti-icing.
12.9.1 DE-ICING

In this method of ice protection, ice is allowed to form on the surfaces and is then removed by operating the particular system in the specified sequence. Mod 11.12 issue 1 Page 12-12

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12.9.2 ANTI-ICING SYSTEM

Ice is prevented from forming by ensuring that the ice protection system is operating whenever icing conditions are encountered or forecast. 12.10 DE-ICING/ANTI-ICING SYSTEMS - GENERAL

There are four primary systems used for ice protection. These are: 1. Fluid 2. Pneumatic 3. Thermal 4. Electrical 12.11 FLUID SYSTEMS

These may be used either as an anti-icing or de-icing system. When used as an anti-icing system it works on the principle that the freezing point of water can be lowered if a fluid of low freezing point is applied to the areas to be protected before icing occurs. When used as a de-icing system the fluid is applied to the interface of the aircraft surface and the ice. The adhesion of the ice is broken and the ice is carried away by the airflow. The system is normally used on windscreens and aerofoils and has also been used successfully on propellers. It is not used on engine air intakes - which are usually anti-iced.
12.11.1 WINDSCREEN PROTECTION

The method employed in this system is to spray the windscreen panel with an ALCOHOL based fluid. The principal components of the system are: Fluid storage tank Hand operated or electrically driven pump Supply pipelines Spray tubes

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The diagram illustrates a typical aircraft system in which the fluid is supplied to the spray tubes by two electrically driven pumps.

Typical Fluid De-icing System Figure 7 This design enables the system to be operated using either of the two pumps, or both pumps, according to the severity of the icing.

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The next diagram shows a hand pump installation on the HS 125 aircraft where it is used as an auxiliary system.

Windscreen Auxiliary De-icing System Figure 8

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AEROFOIL SYSTEMS

The fluids used for aerofoil ice protection are all GLYCOL based and have properties of low freezing point, non-corrosive, low toxicity and low volatility. They have a detrimental effect on some windscreen sealing compounds and cause crazing of perspex panels. The components in the system are the tank, pump, filter, pipelines, distributors, controls and indicators normally consisting of a switch, pump power failure warning light and tank contents indicator. When icing conditions are encountered, the system may be switched on automatically by the ice detector or manually by the pilot. Fluid is supplied to the pump by gravity feed from the tank and is then directed under pressure to the distributors on the aerofoil leading edges. After an initial 'flood' period, during which the pump runs continuously to prime the pipelines and wet the leading edge, the system is then controlled by a cyclic timer which turns the pump ON and OFF for predetermined periods. The leading edge distributors appears in one of two forms, i.e. strip and panel. Strip Distributor The distributor consists of a 'U' channel divided into two channels, called the primary and secondary channels, by a central web. The outer part of the channel is closed by a porous metal spreader through which the de-icing fluid seeps to wet the outer surface. The primary and secondary feed channels are interconnected by flow control tubes to ensure an even spread of fluid over the outer surface. The strips are let into the leading edge so that the porous element is flush with the surface of the leading edge curvature. This type of distributor is rarely used and would only be found on very old aircraft. Panel Distributors This type of distributor consists of a micro porous stainless steel outer panel, a micro-porous plastic sheet and metering tube. The fluid passes through the metering tube that calibrates the flow rate into a cavity between the plastic sheet and a back-plate. This cavity remains filled when the system is operating and the fluid seeps through the porous stainless steel outer panel. The airflow then directs the fluid over the aerofoil.

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The outer panel is usually made of stainless steel mesh although a new technique of laser drilling of stainless steel sheet is appearing on some new aircraft. DISTRIBUTOR PANELS FILTER VENT MAIN FEED PIPES GALLEY PIPES

PUMP

TANK

DISTRIBUTOR PANELS

Fluid De-icing System with Distribution Panels Figure 9 Mod 11.12 issue 1 Page 12-17

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When a system is to be out of service, or unused for an extended period of time, it should be functioned periodically to prevent the fluid from crystallising and causing blockage of the metering tubes, porous surfaces and pipelines. Distributors should be cleaned periodically by washing with a jet of water sprayed on to the distributor at an angle.

Section of a TKS Distribution Panel Figure 10

12.11.3 PROPELLER SYSTEMS

It is necessary to de-ice the propeller blade root and a section of the propeller blade to prevent the build up which could change the blade profile and upset the aerodynamic characteristics of the propeller. Uneven ice build up will also introduce imbalance of the propeller and cause vibration. The leading edge of the propeller blade is therefore de-iced and the ice is shed by centrifugal force. The blade root has a rubber cuff into which the de-icing fluid is fed by a pipeline from a slinger ring on the spinner back plate. From the cuff the fluid is spread along the leading edge of the blade by centrifugal force.

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Fluid is fed into the slinger ring from a fixed pipe on the front of the engine.

Propeller Slinger Ring De-Icing Figure 11 12.12 PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS

Pneumatic (or mechanical) systems are used for de-icing only, It is not possible to prevent ice formation and works on the principle of cyclic inflation and deflation of rubber tubes on aerofoil leading edges. The system is employed in certain types of piston engine and twin turbo-propeller aircraft. The number of components comprising a system and the method of applying the operating principle will vary but a typical arrangement is shown. The de-icer boots (or overshoes) consist of layers of natural rubber and rubberised fabric between which are disposed flat inflatable tubes closed at the ends. They are fitted in sections along the leading edges of wing, vertical stabilisers and horizontal stabilisers. The tubes may be laid spanwise, chordwise or a combination of each method. The tubes are made of rubberised fabric vulcanised inside the rubber layers and are connected to the air supply by short lengths of flexible hose secured by hose clips. Mod 11.12 issue 1 Page 12-19

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Depending on the type specified, a boot may be attached to the leading edge either by screw fasteners or by cementing them directly to the leading edge skin. The external surfaces of the boots are coated with a film of conductive material to bleed off accumulations of static electricity.

Pneumatic De-Icing Boots Figure 12

12.12.1 AIR SUPPLIES

The tubes in the overshoes are inflated by air from the pressure side of an engine driver vacuum pump or, in some types of turbo-propeller aircraft, from a tapping on the engine compressor. At the end of the inflated stage of the operating sequence, and whenever the system is switched off, the boots are deflated by vacuum derived from the vacuum pump or from the venturi section of an ejector nozzle in systems using the engine compressor tapping.
12.12.2 DISTRIBUTION

The method of distributing air supplies to the boots depends on the system required for a particular type of aircraft. In general three methods are in use: shuttle valves controlled by a separate solenoid valve individual solenoid valves direct air to each boot motor driven valves
CONTROLS AND INDICATION

12.12.3

The controls and indication required for the operation of a system will depend on the type of aircraft and on the particular arrangement of the system. In a typical system a main ON-OFF switch, pressure and vacuum gauges or indicating lights form part of the controlling section. Pressure and vacuum is applied to the boots in an alternating, timed sequence and the methods adopted usually vary with the methods of air distribution. In most installations, however, timing control is affected by an electronic device. Mod 11.12 issue 1 Page 12-20

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Pneumatic De-icing System Layout Figure 13

12.12.4 OPERATION

When the system is switched on, pressure is admitted to the boot sections to inflate groups of tubes in sequence. The inflator weakens the bond between ice and the boot surfaces and cracks the ice that is carried away by the airflow. At the end of the inflation stage of the operating sequence, the air in the tubes is vented to atmosphere through the distributor and the tubes are fully deflated by the vacuum source. The inflation and deflation cycle is repeated whilst the system is switched on. When the system is switched off, vacuum is supplied continually to all tubes of the overshoes to hold the tubes flat against the leading edges thus minimising aerodynamic drag.

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Pneumatic De-Icing Boots - Operation Figure 14 12.13 THERMAL (HOT AIR) SYSTEM

The thermal (hot air) system fitted to aerofoils for the purpose of preventing the formation of ice employs heated air ducted span-wise along the inside of the leading edge of the aerofoil and distributed between double thickness skins. Entry to the leading edge is made at the stagnation point where maximum temperature is required. The hot air then flows back chord-wise through a series of corrugations into the main aerofoil section to suitable exhaust points.

Thermal (Hot Air) de-Icing System Figure 15 In anti-icing systems a continuous supply of heated air is fed to the leading edges, but in de-icing systems it is usual to supply more intensely heated air for shorter periods on a cyclic basis. Hot gas may be derived from heat exchangers around exhausts, independent combustion heaters or direct tappings from turbine engine compressors. Mod 11.12 issue 1 Page 12-22

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EXHAUST GAS HEATING SYSTEM

The following diagram illustrates the principle of a thermal system using exhaust gases to heat ambient air. Ambient air enters an intake formed on one side of the engine nacelle and is ducted to pass through tubes of a heat exchanger. The exhaust gases from the jet pipe are partially diverted by electrically actuated flaps to flow between the tubes of the heat exchanger before discharging to atmosphere. The heated air from the heat exchanger passes to a duct containing an electrically operated hot air valve before passing to the leading edges. In the event of failure of the gas flap in the open position, an emergency manual override facility is provided to close the hot air valve and open an actuator operated spill valve to direct the hot air overboard. The gas flap actuator and the hot air valve actuator are electrically interlocked in such a way that the hot air valve must be fully open before the gas flap opens. Conversely, the gas flap must be fully closed before the hot air valve closes. This arrangement, controlled by the limit switches in the actuators, prevents overheating of the heat exchanger. Temperature control is automatic with a standby 'manual' facility. A control unit, in conjunction with 'normal' control and 'overheat' thermistors, provides automatic control and overheat protection. An overheat control unit, in conjunction with an 'override' thermistor and flame-stat provides a final overheat protection system.

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Exhaust Gas Heating system Figure 16

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HOT AIR BLEED SYSTEM

In this system, air is bled from a late stage of the gas turbine engine compressor before being distributed to aerofoil leading edges in the same manner as the exhaust system. The system may be used for anti-icing or de-icing purposes on wing and tail leading edges. It may also be used for ice protection of engine intakes In principle, the system works by either maintaining the temperature of the skin above that at which ice occurs or by raising the skin temperature to melt the ice after it has formed. On aircraft with engines mounted on the rear fuselage, distribution of air along the wing leading edges may be graded to give a higher intensity of heating for the inboard section. This is to prevent the shedding of ice accretions into the engine intakes of a size that could result in hazards to the engine. The following diagram illustrates, in schematic form, a thermal system for a four engine aircraft. In operation, anti-icing shut off valves on each engine open to supply air to the leading edge ducting at temperatures of about 200C. Wing and fuselage cross over ducts ensure a supply to all surfaces in the event of an engine shut down in flight.

Hot Bleed Air Anti-icing System Figure17 Mod 11.12 issue 1 Page 12-25

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On some installations, air temperature in the ducting may be controlled by mixing compressor bleed air with ram air admitted to the system by a cold air control valve.

Hot and Ram Air Mixing Figure 18 When initially switched on, hot air is fed undiluted into the cold leading edge ducting. Temperature sensors in the leading edge monitor the temperature rise and progressively open and close the cold air valve via an inching unit to control the skin temperature. In the event of failure of the: temperature sensor to control the temperature of the leading edge cold air valve

or blockage of the ram air inlet, the overhead sensor will control the temperature by regulation of the hot air valve. Note: Temperature regulation may also be achieved by controlling the position of the hot air valve.

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MODULE 11.12 ICE AND RAIN PROTECTION

ELECTRICAL ICE PROTECTION SYSTEN

Electrical heater elements are attached to the outer surface of the area to be protected. There are two methods; these being the heater mat and spray mat.
12.14.1 HEATER MAT

This type of element consists of two thin layers of rubber or PTFE sandwiching a heater element. Each mat is moulded to fit snugly over the section to be protected. Heater elements differ in design, construction and materials according to their purpose and environment. The latest mats have elements made from a range of alloys woven in continuous filament glass yarn. The diagram below shows the application of a heater element to the air intake of a turbo-prop engine.

Electrical Anti-Icing Heater Mat Figure 19

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SPRAY MAT

MODULE 11.12 ICE AND RAIN PROTECTION

This type of element is so called because it is sprayed directly on to the surface to be protected. The technique was developed by the Napier Company to provide a lightweight system for use on aerofoils and is ideally suited for application to compound curves. A base insulator is brushed directly on to the airframe and is composed basically of synthetic resin. The insulator is normally about 0.03 inches thick although in some cases this may vary. The heater element, made of either aluminium or Kumanol (copper manganese alloy) is sprayed on to the base insulation using a flame spraying technique. The insulation is of the same material as the base insulation and about 0.01 inches thick. Finally, a protective coating is used where the heater requires extra protection from mechanical damage, eg on leading edges. This protective coating known as 'stoneguard' consists of stainless alloy particles bonded with synthetic resin.

Napier Type Anti-Icing Spraymat Figure 20 Mod 11.12 issue 1 Page 12-28

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The system layout shows the distribution and heating elements on the leading edges of an aircraft tailplane and fin.

Distribution of Heating Elements Figure 21 Some of the elements are supplied continuously with electrical power (anti-icing) whilst others are supplied intermittently on a cyclic basis (de-icing). Areas provided with continuous anti-icing heating are situated immediately in front of areas on which limited ice formation is tolerable but which require de-icing by the cyclic application of heat. Heating of these areas is rapid in order to break adhesion as quickly as possible, allowing the detached ice to be blown away by the airflow. To ensure a clean breakaway of the ice, the cyclically heated areas are separated by continuously heated 'breaker' strips. A system requiring different intensifies of anti-icing and cyclic de-icing would require one or more cyclic switches, temperature sensing elements and temperature control units. In general, control methods may be classified as antiicing and de-icing.

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Anti-iced areas have their heat supplied continuously, the heating intensity being graded such that under operating conditions no ice formation occurs. The heat is regulated by means of either a sensing element embedded in the mat and an associated thermal controller or a surface mounted thermostatic switch which is pre-set to give cut-in and cut-out temperature levels. Cyclic De-icing Cyclic de-icing areas are usually arranged in groups being connected to a cyclic switch. The detailed design of the cycling switch depends upon the loading and type of power supply, e.g. dc or 3-phase ac. Its operation is controlled either by timed impulses from a pulse generator or by an electronic device built into the switch. The timed impulses are set to the appropriate rate for the range of ambient temperatures likely to be encountered. At a relatively high ambient temperature the atmospheric water content, and consequently the rate of icing, is likely to be high but only a comparatively short heating period will be required to shed the ice. At very low temperatures the atmospheric water content and rate of icing are lower and longer heating periods are required. The ratio of time ON to time OFF, however, remains unchanged. The typical ratio is 1:10. Setting of the pulse generator may be manual, as estimated from indications of ambient air temperature, or by an automatic control system in which the ON:OFF periods are varied by signals derived from an ambient air temperature probe, working in conjunction with either an ice detector or a rate of icing indicator. The source of power may be dc, single phase ac or 3-phase ac. In a 3-phase system the heated areas are arranged so as to obtain balanced loading of phases for both anti-icing or de-icing circuits, if possible. De-icing heaters are connected in such a manner that, as far as practicable, current requirements are constant. To achieve this the OFF period for certain areas is made to coincide with the ON period for others.

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MODULE 11.12 ICE AND RAIN PROTECTION

WINDSCREEN ANTI-ICING

The windscreens and other critical windows in the cockpit (e.g. direct vision windows, sliding side windows) of high performance pressurised aircraft are complicated and expensive items of the airframe structure as they are designed to withstand varying air pressure loads, possible shock loads due to impact of birds and hailstorms, and thermal stresses due to ambient temperature changes. In all cases, a laminated form of construction is used, similar to that shown

Typical Laminated Glass Windscreen Figure 22 Laminated glass panels were conceived in order to impart shatter proof characteristics to the glass. Such panels are produced by interposing sheets of clear vinyl plastic (polyvinyl Butyral) between layers of preformed and pretempered glass plies. The vinyl and glass plies are then bonded by the application of pressure and heat. Since the desired bird-proof characteristics of a windscreen depend to a large degree, on the plasticity of the vinyl, it therefore follows that it also depends upon its temperature. The optimum temperature range for maximum energy absorption by the vinyl is between 27C and 49C and the electrically heated windscreen panel assemblies are normally maintained within these limits. Below this range the bird-proof characteristics decline rapidly and depending upon the actual configuration, a panel's impact resistance can be reduced by 30% to 50% when still at quite a moderate temperature of 16C. Electric heating of a windscreen therefore is an important factor in maintaining the optimum bird-proof characteristics. Mod 11.12 issue 1 Page 12-31

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The heating element is an extremely thin transparent conductive coating which is 'floated' on to the inside surface of the outer glass ply; this being normally thinner in section allows a more rapid heat conduction. The coating may be a tin oxide or a gold film depending on a particular manufacturer's design. The conductive coating is heated by alternating current supplied to busbars at the edges of the windscreen panel. The power required for heating varies according to the size of the panel and the heat required to suit the operating conditions.

Windscreen Temperature Control Figure 23 The circuit of a typical windscreen de-icing system embodies a controlling device, the function of which is to maintain a constant temperature at the windscreen and also to prevent over-heating of the vinyl inter-layer(s). The controlling device is connected to temperature-sensing elements embedded in the windscreen. There are two methods of temperature sensing commonly in use. One of these utilises a grid in which the resistance of the grid varies directly and linearly with temperature. The other uses a thermistor, in which the resistance of the thermistor varies inversely and exponentially with temperature. The number of sensing elements employed depends on the system and circuit design requirements. A system of warning lights and/or indicators also forms part of the control circuit and provides visual indications of circuit operating conditions, e.g. 'normal', 'off' or 'overheat'.

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When the electrical power is applied, the conductive coating heats the glass. When it attains a temperature predetermined for normal operation the change in resistance of the appropriate sensing element causes the controlling device to isolate the heating power supply. When the glass has cooled through a certain range of temperature, power is again applied and the cycle is repeated. In the event of a failure of the controller, the glass temperature will rise until the setting of the overheat system sensing element is attained. At this setting an overheat control circuit cuts off the heating power supply and illuminates a warning light. The power is restored again and the warning light extinguished when the glass has cooled through a specific temperature range.
12.15 WINDSCREEN CABIN WINDOW DE-MISTING SYSTEMS

Glass is a very poor conductor of heat and at altitude the low atmospheric temperature will maintain the inside of the windscreens and cabin windows at low temperature resulting in condensation on the inner surface and obscured vision. Windscreens are normally kept mist free by blowing hot air, from the air conditioning system, across the inner surface of the glass. In addition, demisting of some windscreens and, usually, all cabin windows is achieved by using windows of "dry air sandwich" construction. This is rather like double-glazing with outer and inner layers of glass sandwiching a layer of dry air between them. The outer layer of glass is of thick laminate construction (glass and vinyl) to give the necessary impact and shatterproof qualities. The inner layer of glass is much thinner allowing it to be warmed by the cabin air temperature, thus preventing condensation. The air sandwich is kept dry to prevent internal condensation of the outer glass, by one of two methods: During manufacture the two layers of glass are hermetically sealed with dry air between them. The space between glass layers is vented to the cabin to allow the pressure in the air space to equalise with cabin pressure. Venting takes place through a desiccant unit that absorbs moisture from the air during the venting process to maintain the dry air sandwich.

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On some larger aircraft the fixed cabin windows are interconnected to a common desiccant unit whilst escape windows have their own integral unit. The diagram shows typical fixed window and escape hatch desiccant systems. The desiccant used is Silica Gel crystals which are blue in colour but gradually change to pink or white as they absorb moisture. Frequent checks must be made on the state of the desiccant which must be replaced when it begins to turn pink. Failure to take this action may result in condensation within the dry air sandwich which may involve lengthy rectification to dry out the sandwich or may require the windscreen/window to be replaced.

Cabin Window Desiccant System Figure 24

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MODULE 11.12 ICE AND RAIN PROTECTION

RAIN REPELLANT AND RAIN REMOVAL WINDSCREEN CLEARING SYSTEMS

Vision through windscreens may become obscured by factors other than ice and misting. For example, rain, dust, dirt and flies can impair vision to an extent where methods of clearing the screens must be provided to enable safe ground manoeuvring, take off and landing. Windscreen clearing systems may be considered under the following headings: a. Rain clearing systems which can be further broken down into
a. b. c. d.

windscreen wipers pneumatic rain removal rain repellent windscreen washing

Windscreen washing systems.

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12.18 WINDSCREEN WIPER SYSTEMS 12.18.1 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM

In this type of system the wiper blades are driven by an electric motor(s) taking their power from the aircraft electrical system. Sometimes the pilot's and copilot's wipers are operated by separate motors to ensure that clear vision is maintained through one of the screens in case one system should fail. The following diagram shows a typical electrical wiper and installation. An electrically operated wiper is installed on each windscreen panel. Each wiper is driven by a motor-converter assembly that converts the rotary motion of the motor to reciprocating motion to operate the wiper arm. A shaft protruding from the assembly provides an attachment for the wiper arms.

Electric Windshield Wiper System Figure 25 Mod 11.12 issue 1 Page 12-36

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The wiper is controlled by setting the wiper control switch to the desired wiper speed. When the "high" position is selected, relays 1 and 2 are energised. With both relays energised, fields 1 and 2 are energised in parallel. The circuit is completed and the motors operate at an approximate speed of 250 strokes/minute. When the "low" position is selected, relay 1 is energised. This causes fields 1 and 2 to be energised in series. The motor then operates at approximately 160 strokes/minute. Setting the switch to the OFF position allows the relay contacts to return to their normal positions. However, the wiper motor will continue to run until the wiper arm reaches the "park" position. When both relays are open and the park switch is closed, the excitation of the motor is reversed. This causes the motor to move off the lower edge of the windscreen, opening the cam operated park switch. This de-energises the motor and releases the brake solenoid applying the brake. This ensures that the motor will not coast and re-close the park switch.

Windshield Wiper Circuit Diagram Figure 26

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The path swept by the wiper blade may clear an arc as shown in the diagram on the left, or in a parallel motion as shown on the right. The parallel motion is preferred as it provides a greater swept surface, but the operating mechanism is more complex.

Windshield Wiper Swept Areas Figure 27

12.18.2 ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

Older aircraft employed hydraulic motors instead of electric motors to drive the wiper blades. A typical example is shown in the figure below. It consists of two independently operated motors powered from each hydraulic system with control valves operated from a selector on the flight deck

Figure 28 Mod 11.12 issue 1 Page 12-38

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WINDSCREEN WIPER SERVICING

Servicing of the windscreen wiper systems consists of inspection, operational checks, adjustments and fault finding. Inspection a. Examine the system for cleanliness, security, damage, connections and locking b. Examine blades for security, damage and contamination. Blades should be replaced at regular intervals. c. Check level of fluid in pump reservoir (electro-pneumatic system) d. Examine hydraulic pipes for leakage and electrical cables for deterioration and chafing

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Operational Check Before carrying out an operational check, the following precautions must be taken: a. Ensure that the windscreen is free of foreign matter b. Ensure that the blade is secure and undamaged During the check ensure that the windscreen is kept wet with water. NEVER operate the windscreen wipers on a dry screen. It may cause scratches. Adjustments The following adjustments may be made: a. Blade tension should be adjusted to the value stated in the Maintenance Manual. This is carried out by attaching a spring balance to the wiper arm at its point of attachment to the wiper blade and lifting at an angle of 90. If the tension is not within the required limits, the spring may be adjusted by the appropriate pressure adjusting screw. b. Blade angle should be adjusted to ensure that the blade does not strike the windscreen frame. This would cause rapid blade damage. This may involve re-positioning the operating arm on the drive spindle. Where a parallel motion bar is used, the length of the tie rod may be altered to vary the angle of sweep. c. Proper parking of the wipers are essential to ensure that they do not obscure vision. If the wipers do not park as they should, they should be adjusted by the method laid down in the Maintenance Manual. Trouble shooting may be carried out using charts in the Maintenance Manual (Chapter 30-42-0 in the ATA100 Scheme).

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PNEUMATIC RAIN REMOVAL SYSTEMS

Windscreen wipers suffer from two basic problems. One is that at speed the aerodynamic forces tend to reduce the blade pressure on the screen and cause ineffective wiping. The other problem is to achieve blade oscillation rates that are high enough to clear the screen during heavy rain.

Pneumatic Rain Removal System Figure 29 Pneumatic rain clearance systems overcome these problems by using high pressure bleed air from the gas turbine engine and blowing it over the face of the windscreen from ducts mounted at the base of the screen. The air blast forms a barrier that prevents the rain spots from striking the screen. 12.20 WINDSCREEN WASHING SYSTEM

A windscreen washing system allows a spray of fluid (usually de-icing fluid, e.g. Kilfrost), to be directed on to the windscreens to enable the windscreen wider to clear dust and dirt from dry windscreens in flight or on the ground.

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The fluid is contained in a reservoir and sprayed on to the screen through nozzles. The fluid may be directed to the nozzles by an electrically driven pump or by pressurising the top of the reservoir with compressor bleed air via a pressure reducing valve. An example of an electrically driven system is shown.

Electrically Driven Windscreen Wash System Figure 30 Servicing of the system involves functionally testing the system, replenishment of the reservoir and checks for security, leaks and damage. The system may be used in flight and on the ground. Mod 11.12 issue 1 Page 12-42

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RAIN REPELLANT

MODULE 11.12 ICE AND RAIN PROTECTION

When water is poured onto clear glass it spreads evenly to form a thin film. Even when the glass is tilted at an angle and subjected to an air stream, the glass will remain wetted and reduce vision. However, when the glass is treated with certain chemicals (typically silicone based), the water film will break up and form beads of water, leaving the glass dry between the beads. The water can now be readily removed. This principle is used on some aircraft for removing rain from windscreens. The chemical is stored in pressurised, disposable cans and is discharged on to the windscreen through propelling nozzles. Examples of rain repellent systems are shown. The following system shows a combined rain repellent and windscreen washing system.

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Combined Windscreen Wash And Rain Repellent System Figure 31

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The system shown below is a rain repellent only system and uses a disposable pressurised canister.

Rain repellent System Figure 32 The system is operated by a push button which causes the relevant solenoid valve to open. Fluid from the container is discharged onto the windscreen for a period of about 5 seconds under the control of a time delay unit. About 5cc of fluid is used with each discharge from the container which holds approximately 50 cc. The solenoid will be de-energised and the button must be re-selected for a further application. The fluid is spread over the screen by the rain which acts as a carrier. The system may be used with, or without wipers, depending on the aircraft speed, but it is normally used to supplement the wipers in heavy rain at low altitude where airspeeds are low. It is essential that the system is not operated on dry windscreens because: heavy undiluted repellent will cause smearing the repellent may form globules and distort vision

If the system is inadvertently operated, the windscreen wipers must not be used as this will increase the smearing. The screen should be washed with clean water immediately. The windscreen wash system, if fitted, may be used. Rain repellent residues can cause staining or minor corrosion of the aircraft skin. Mod 11.12 issue 1 Page 12-45

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DRAIN MAST HEATING

On many large aircraft, the water supply and water drain lines are electrically heated to prevent ice formation. Power is normally supplied via the AC bus line and is available both on the ground and in flight. 12.23 WATER SUPPLY AND DRAIN LINES

Heater tapes and blankets are wrapped around some water supply and drain lines, the temperature being controlled by thermostats. In a typical aircraft (Boeing 757), the thermostats control the heating, to open when the temperature exceeds 15.5C and closes when the temperature drops to 7.2C. Heating gaskets may be installed on the ends of toilet drain pipes. 12.24 DRAIN MASTS

Drain masts are heated to allow in-flight drainage without freezing. Drain mast heating is controlled by an air/ground relay. Low heat is supplied on the ground and high heat in flight. Figure 37 overleaf illustrates some of the heating methods used.

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Waste Water Heater Components Figure 33 Mod 11.12 issue 1 Page 12-47

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INTENTIONALLY BLANK

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