Fluid Flow

A flowing fluid is unable to change direction suddenly and, if there are abrupt
changes in section in the flow path such as sharp corners, the average direction
of the fluid may be represented by a series of continuous lines as streamlines
with eddies occurring in the region of voids.

Streamlines for Flow through a Shaped Nozzle

If the flow conditions do not change appreciably with time, the flow is steady
and, under steady state conditions, the mass of fluid entering and leaving the
system must be the same.
Steady and Unsteady Flow of a Liquid

All molecules of a flowing fluid seldom have the same velocity magnitude or
direction and the velocity at any point is known as the local velocity.
Actual (Local) and Average Velocity

The mathematical expression of steady flow condition is known as the equation of

continuity.
The volume-flow rate of the fluid entering and leaving the system must be the
same. The mass flow rate of the fluid entering and leaving the system must also be
the same.
Relationship between Flow and Velocity

Head is a very important concept in fluid mechanics because head is directly

proportional to the energy of the fluid. A flowing fluid has velocity head, if
under pressure it has also pressure head and if elevated above a datum it also has
potential head. The sum of these three heads is the total head. If there are no
flow losses, fluid energy and therefore head must be conserved. The mathematical
statement of this is known as Bernoulli’s equation.
Pressure and Velocity Head
When real fluids flow, a loss of useful energy occurs as a result of friction and
eddies. This causes a flow loss so that the total head downstream is less than the
total head upstream. That is H2 = H1 - HL or H1 = H2 + HL

Head Loss

Pictorial Representation of the Bernoulli Equipment

Pressure drop due to head loss, Δp = ρgHL where Δp is the pressure drop (p2 – p1)
in Pa and HL is the head loss in m.

Fluid Force

The force due to a flowing fluid may be calculated by use of the impulse-momentum
equation F = m (ν2 – ν1). This equation can be applied only in a single direction,
that is, the force is in the same direction as the change in velocity. When ν2 is
the final velocity and ν1 is the initial velocity, this equation gives the force
on the fluid. The reaction force exerted by the fluid is equal and opposite.

When a fluid jet strikes a surface, the change in direction of the fluid will
result in a force being exerted by the fluid on the surface. Usually fluid
friction forces are negligible compared with momentum forces, and when this is the
case, the force on the surface acts perpendicular to the surface at any point.
Therefore, for a flat surface (when friction is negligible), the resultant force
acts perpendicular to the surface regardless of the angle of inclination to the
jet.

Jet Striking a Perpendicular Flat Surface

x- direction – initial velocity ν1 = ν
y- direction – initial velocity ν1 = ν2 = 0 (therefore force in y-direction is
zero)
Jet Striking an Inclined Flat Surface
Perpendicular direction – Initial velocity = ν1sin θ
Final velocity, ν2 = 0

If the surface is curved and the jet enters smoothly (parallel to the initial
inclination of the surface), then the resultant force acts midway between the
entry and exit angles of the jet. If the surface deflects the surface through 180˚
the force is twice as large as the force that occurs when the deflection angle is
90˚.
Fluid Jet Striking a Curved Surface

If the surface is moving, the force should be calculated using the relative mass-
flow rate and the relative change in velocity. If there is a series of moving
surfaces (as in the case of an impulse turbine) the force is calculated using the
absolute mass-flow rate and the relative change in velocity.