ethos

(Greek: disposition or character) in rhetoric, the character or emotions of a speaker or writer that are expressed in the attempt to persuade an audience. It is distinguished from pathos, which is the emotion the speaker or writer hopes to induce in the audience. The two words were distinguished in a broader sense b ancient !"assica" authors, who used pathos when referring to the #io"ent emotions and ethos to mean the ca"mer ones. $thos was the natura" disposition or mora" character, an abiding %ua"it , and pathos a temporar and often #io"ent emotiona" state. &or 'enaissance writers the distinction was a different one: ethos described character and pathos an emotiona" appea". no rhetoric, no car(ter ou nas emo)*es de um a"tofa"ante ou de um escritor %ue s+o expressadas na tentati#a de persuadir uma audi,ncia. - distinta dos pathos, %ue . a emo)+o as esperan)as do a"tofa"ante ou do escritor indu/ir nas audi,ncias. 0s duas pa"a#ras foram distinguidas em um sentido mais "argo pe"os autores c"assica" antigos, %ue usaram pathos ao consu"tar 1s emo)*es e aos ethos #io"entos para significar mais ca"mos. $thos era a disposi)+o natura" ou o car(ter mora", uma %ua"idade abiding, e pathos um estado emociona" pro#is2rio e fre%uentemente #io"ento. 3ara escritores do renascimento a distin)+o era diferente: os ethos descre#eram o car(ter e os pathos uma ape"a)+o emociona".

Greek music
the music of the ancient Greeks. 4cho"ars ha#e "ong specu"ated about the music p"a ed in ancient Greece. It is known that ancient Greek phi"osophers he"d music in high esteem5 its stud was deemed essentia" to a "ibera" education. 6oth 0ristot"e and 3"ato be"ie#ed that music permanent" affected the human sou", and the e#en went so far as to categori/e the #arious musica" modes in terms of their effects, specif ing which wou"d be beneficia" to the estab"ishment of good character. The 3 thagorean phi"osophers #a"ued music because it was a manifestation of fundamenta" mathematica" truths5 the disco#ered the fact that certain mathematica" re"ationships coincide with musica" inter#a"s. The "ack of extensi#e archaeo"ogica" e#idence, howe#er, pre#ents a reconstruction of Greek music as it was performed in its da . 0bout 78 unearthed fragments of notated music are extant. The ha#e been deciphered with the aid of contemporar theoretica" treatises, and their notationa" s stems pro#ide some know"edge of me"odic and rh thmic st "e. 'e"ics of ancient instruments ha#e a"so sur#i#ed, but the are unp"a ab"e, so our understanding of how the music sounded rests so"e" on contemporar writings. These musica" fragments show that Greek music was predominant" #oca", a"though instrumenta" pieces were sometimes presented. The music was homophonic5 i.e., it consisted of sing"e me"odic "ines. 9ne of the most important compositions was the dith ramb, a poetic text set to music and sung b a chorus in honour of :ion sus. These choruses became more e"aborate and more dramatic and e#entua"" e#o"#ed into Greek tragic drama. 3oetic texts were a"so sung b indi#idua"s, the most striking examp"e being the epic poems of ;omer, in which the singer accompanied himse"f on a " re. 0ncient Greek was a pitched "anguage, so me"od had to be an outgrowth of the natura" inf"ections of the spoken "anguage. Greek #owe"s had "ong and short #a"ues that corresponded to "ong and short notes in the musica" settings. Thus musica" rh thms were deri#ed from metric forms, and me"odic mo#ement was go#erned b the natura" rise and fa"" of the text. 0ncient Greece appears ne#er to ha#e had a de#e"oped instrumenta" art. 3ercussion, brass, wind, and string instruments were a"" p"a ed, but the two primar instruments were the au"os, a doub"e<reed pipe that accompanied the chorus in the dith ramb, and the kithara, a hand<he"d " re used to accompan so"o songs. The exact nature of the accompaniment st "e is unknown, but since no e#idence of counterpoint or harmon appears in contemporar accounts, the accompaniment probab" p"a ed a #ersion of the me"odic "ine, occasiona"" adding two<note p"ucked chords. 0ristoxenus, a music theorist and phi"osopher in the =th centur 6!, wrote extensi#e" about the harmonic s stem used in Greek music. >usica" modes were deri#ed from #arious t pes of tetrachords, so ca""ed because each tetrachord contained four notes. The highest and "owest pitches of a"" tetrachords were a"wa s a perfect fourth apart. The two interior pitches #aried5 the cou"d be who"e tones, ha"f tones, %uarter tones, or other microtona" inter#a"s. Tetrachords cou"d be ?oined to make "onger sca"es either b making the top note of one tetrachord the bottom note of another or b beginning a second tetrachord a who"e step up from the

first tetrachord. 0 three<octa#e sca"e that wou"d co#er the combined #oca" range of men and women was constructed b connecting man tetrachords. Though nothing remains of ancient Greek musica" practice and few instruments sur#i#e, the inf"uence of c"assica" Greek music theor was wide and "asting. In ear" !hristian times the Gnostics used the Greek sca"e in their incantations, and 6 /antium adopted the Greek modes. The 'omans acknow"edged Greek musica" "eadership and transmitted Greek theor to $urope through 6oethius ( c. 0: =@8AB7=), and the ear" !hristian church modes drew upon its modes. 6ut Is"am is the principa" heir to Greek theor through the 3ersians, 0rabs, and Turks, whose writings in turn inf"uenced $uropean music from the Cth centur onward. See also church mode5 tonos. a mDsica dos gregos antigos. 9s scho"ars specu"ated por muito tempo sobre a mDsica ?ogada em Greece antigo. 4abe<se %ue os fi"2sofos gregos antigos prenderam a mDsica no esteem e"e#ado5 seu estudo foi ?u"gado essencia" a uma instru)+o "ibera". 0ristot"e e 3"ato acreditaram %ue a mDsica afetou permanentemente a a"ma humana, e foram mesmo assim distante a respeito de categori/am as #(rias moda"idades musicais nos termos de seus efeitos, especificando %ua" seria ben.fico ao estabe"ecimento do car(ter bom. 9s fi"2sofos de 3 thagorean a#a"iaram a mDsica por%ue era um manifestation de #erdades matem(ticas fundamentais5 descobriram o fato %ue determinados re"acionamentos matem(ticos coincidem com os inter#a"os musicais. 0 fa"ta da e#id,ncia archaeo"ogica" extensi#a, entretanto, impede um reconstruction da mDsica grega como foi executada em seu dia. 0proximadamente 78 fragmentos unearthed de notated a mDsica s+o extant. &oram decifrados com o dae (dispositi#o autom(tico de entrada) de treatises te2ricos contemporar , e seus sistemas notationa" fornecem a"gum conhecimento do esti"o me"odic e rEtmico. 9s re"ics de instrumentos antigos sobre#i#eram tamb.m, mas s+o unp"a ab"e, assim nossa compreens+o de como a mDsica soou descansos unicamente em escritas contemporar . $stes fragmentos musicais mostram %ue a mDsica grega era predominant" #oca", embora as partes instrumentais se?am apresentadas 1s #e/es. 0 mDsica era homophonic5 isto ., consistiu em Dnicas "inhas me"odic. Fma das composi)*es as mais importantes era o dith ramb, um texto po.tico a?ustado 1 mDsica e cantado por um chorus na honra de :ion sus. $stes choruses tornaram<se mais e"aborados e mais dram(tico e e#o"uEdo e#entua"mente no drama tr(gico grego. 9s textos po.ticos foram cantados tamb.m por indi#Eduos, o exemp"o o mais impressionante %ue . os poemas epic de ;omer, em %ue o singer se acompanhou em um " re. 9 grego antigo era uma "Engua "an)ada, assim %ue a me"odia te#e %ue ser uma conse%G,ncia dos inf"ections naturais da "Engua fa"ada. 0s #ogais gregas ti#eram os #a"ores "ongos e curtos %ue corresponderam 1s notas "ongas e curtas nos a?ustes musicais. 0ssim os ritmos musicais foram deri#ados dos formu"(rios m.tricos, e o mo#imento me"odic foi go#ernado pe"a ascens+o natura" e pe"a %ueda do texto. Greece antigo parece nunca ter tido uma arte instrumenta" desen#o"#ida. 3ercuss+o, bron/e, #ento, e os instrumentos todos da corda foram ?ogados, mas os dois instrumentos pre"iminares eram os au"os, uma tubu"a)+o da dobro<"ingGeta %ue acompanhasse o chorus no dith ramb, e o kithara, um " re hand<he"d usado acompanhar can)*es de so"o. 0 nature/a exata do esti"o do acompanhamento . desconhecida, mas desde nenhuma e#id,ncia o counterpoint ou a harmonia aparece em c"ientes contemporar , do acompanhamento ?ogou pro#a#e"mente uma #ers+o da "inha me"odic, ocasiona"mente adicionar cordas arrancadas dois<nota. 0ristoxenus, um theorist da mDsica e o fi"2sofo no H s.cu"o 6!, escre#eram extensi#amente sobre o sistema harmonic usado na mDsica grega. 0s moda"idades musicais foram deri#adas dos #(rios tipos de tetrachords, chamados assim por%ue cada tetrachord conte#e %uatro notas. 9s passos os mais e"e#ados e os mais baixos de todos os tetrachords esta#am sempre uns %uarto separados perfeito. 9s dois passos interior #ariaram5 podiam ser tons inteiros, reticu"a)*es, tons de um %uarto, ou outros inter#a"os do microtona". Tetrachords podia ser ?untado para fa/er umas esca"as mais "ongas fa/endo 1 nota superior de um tetrachord a anota)+o inferior de outro ou come)ando um segundo tetrachord uma etapa inteira acima do primeiro tetrachord. Fma esca"a do tr,s<three<octa#e %ue cobrisse do a esca"a #oca" combinada os homens e as mu"heres foi construEda conectando muitos tetrachords. $mbora nada remanesce da pr(tica musica" grega antiga e poucos instrumentos sobre#i#em, a inf"u,ncia da teoria grega c"assica" da mDsica era "arga e dur(#e". $m .pocas christian adiantadas o Gnostics usou a esca"a grega em seus incantations, e 6 /antium adotou as moda"idades gregas. 9 'omans reconheceu a "ideran)a musica" grega e transmitiu a teoria grega a $uropa com 6oethius (0IJI!I9 =@8KB7= do c.), e as moda"idades christian adiantadas da igre?a desenharam em cima de suas moda"idades. >as o is"am . o heir principa" 1 teoria grega atra#.s dos persas, dos (rabes, e dos turks, cu?as as escritas inf"uenciaram por sua #e/ a mDsica europ.ia dos Ct

plural Tonoi, concept in ancient Greek music, pertaining to the p"acement of sca"e patterns at different pitches and c"ose" connected with the notion of octa#e species (q.v. ). Through transposition of the Greater

3erfect 4 stem (comprising two octa#es descending from the 0 abo#e midd"e ! to the second 0 be"ow) to a higher or "ower pitch "e#e", each tonos causes a different octa#e species to fa"" within the octa#e eLAe ($ abo#e midd"e ! to the $ be"ow), which is important in Greek performance. The names of the tonoi correspond to the names of the octa#e species that are created between eL and e when the tonoi are used. In effect, a tonos can cause the octa#e species bearing its name to fa"" within the eLAe octa#e. &or examp"e, when the Greater 3erfect 4 stem is begun on the pitch bL (rather than aL, as in the abstract), the octa#e species fa""ing between eL and e is the 3hr gian5 hence, the tonos is a"so 3hr gian. 0ccording to most modern scho"ars, the tonoi thus render the high" theoretica" Greater 3erfect 4 stem eminent" practica" in actua" performance. The concept of tonos first appeared in the =th centur 6! and became the sub?ect of contro#ers a"most immediate" . 0ristoxenus (f"ourished =th centur 6!) "ists MN tonoi; 3to"em of 0"exandria (7nd centur 0:), O5 other theorists, MB. The conf"icting #iews of the Greek theorists ha#e their modern counterparts. &or examp"e, some scho"ars be"ie#e the tonoi were rea" ke s in the modern sensePi.e., that the pro#ided contrasting tona" centres of specific pitch (a"though the Greeks did not ha#e an abso"ute pitch standard). 9thers insist that the tonoi were abstract theoretica" concepts or that the were me"odic frameworks (me"od t pes). Tonoi p"ura", conceito na mDsica grega antiga, pertencendo 1 co"oca)+o dos testes padr*es da esca"a em passos diferentes e conectados prQxima com a no)+o da esp.cie do octa#e (%.#.). !om o transposition do sistema perfeito mais grande (%ue compreende dois octa#es %ue descem do 0 acima de ! m.dio ao segundo 0 abaixo) a um mais e"e#ado ou "ance mais baixo ao nE#e", cada causas dos tonos uma esp.cie diferente do octa#e para cair dentro do eLKe do octa#e ($ acima de ! m.dio ao $ abaixo), %ue . importante no desempenho grego. 9s nomes do tonoi correspondem aos nomes das esp.cies do octa#e %ue est+o criadas entre o eL e o e %uando o tonoi . usado. :e fato, os tonos podem causar a esp.cie do octa#e %ue carrega seu nome cair dentro do octa#e do eLKe. 3ara o exemp"o, %uando o sistema perfeito mais grande est+o come)ados no bL do passo (me"hor %ue no aL, como no sum(rio), a esp.cie do octa#e %ue cai entre o eL e e . o 3hr gian5 da%ui, os tonos s+o tamb.m 3hr gian. :e acordo com a maioria de scho"ars modernos, o tonoi rende assim o sistema perfeito mais grande a"tamente te2rico eminente pr(tico no desempenho rea". 9 conceito dos tonos pareceu primeiramente no H s.cu"o 6! e transformou<se o assunto da contro#.rsia %uase imediatamente. 0ristoxenus (H s.cu"o f"orescido 6!) a"ista o tonoi MN5 3to"em de 0"exandria (Q 0IJI!I9 do s.cu"o), O5 outros theorists, MB. 0s opini*es opondo os theorists gregos t,m suas contrapartes modernas. 3ara o exemp"o, a"guns scho"ars acreditam %ue o tonoi era cha#es reais no senseKi.e. moderno, %ue forneceram centros contrastando do tona" do passo especEfico (embora os gregos n+o ti#eram um padr+o abso"uto do passo). 9utros insistem %ue o tonoi era conceitos te2ricos abstratos ou %ue eram estruturas me"odic (tipos da me"odia).

Greek Music
Greek Music, music primarily of ancient Greek civilization. Only a few examples of ancient Greek music have survived. Music, however, was extremely important to the ancient Greeks, and all the major Greek philosophers theorized about the origin, nature, and function of music. Most of the music seems to have been monophonic, that is, composed of one unharmonized melodic line. Melodies and rhythms in vocal music were related to the rhythms and speech inflections of the text instrumental music may have been similarly related to dance movement. !he peak of musical activity came during the classical age "#$%&'($ )*+, when annual festivals and contests of vocal and instrumental music were held. !he principal instruments were two forms of lyre, the lyra and the kithara and a double oboe, the aulos. !hey were all used as solo instruments and to accompany singing and recitation. ,tringed instruments were used in religious ceremonies associated with the cult of -pollo, and wind instruments were used in the cult of .ionysus and in drama.

!he ancient Greek philosophers ascribed a divine origin and a continuing religious significance to music. !hey believed that music represented in microcosm the order and harmony of the universe and that by studying the acoustical properties of musical intervals they would come closer to understanding the cosmos. !he ancient Greeks also believed that music had power over human emotions and behavior and that when written in the various modes, music would cause predictable reactions.