Style and Sociolinguistic Variation edited by Penelope Eckert and John R.

Rickford Stanford University

AMBRIDGE UNIVERSIT PRESS !a"#rid$e% Ne& ork% Mel#o'rne% Madrid% !ape To&n% Sin$apore% S(o Pa'lo !a"#rid$e Uni)er*it+ Pre** The Edin#'r$h B'ildin$% !a"#rid$e !B, ,RU% United -in$do" P'#li*hed in the United State* #+ !a"#rid$e Uni)er*it+ Pre**% Ne& ork &&&.ca"#rid$e.or$ Infor"ation on thi* title. &&&.ca"#rid$e.or$ /01234,5405055 6 !a"#rid$e Uni)er*it+ Pre** ,335 Thi* #ook i* in cop+ri$ht. S'#7ect to *tat'tor+ e8ception and to the pro)i*ion of rele)ant collecti)e licen*in$ a$ree"ent*% no reprod'ction of an+ part "a+ take place &itho't the &ritten per"i**ion of !a"#rid$e Uni)er*it+ Pre**. 9ir*t p'#li*hed in print for"at ,33, ISBN:5; 012:3:455:34041:4 eBook <Ado#e Reader= ISBN:53 3:455:34041:> eBook <Ado#e Reader= ISBN:5; 012:3:4,5:40505:5 hard#ack ISBN:53 3:4,5:40505:3 hard#ack ISBN:5; 012:3:4,5:40120:3 paper#ack ISBN:53 3:4,5:40120:1 paper#ack !a"#rid$e Uni)er*it+ Pre** ha* no re*pon*i#ilit+ for the per*i*tence or acc'rac+ of UR?* for e8ternal or third:part+ internet &e#*ite* referred to in thi* #ook% and doe* not $'arantee that an+ content on *'ch &e#*ite* i*% or &ill re"ain% acc'rate or appropriate. Contents

List of figures List of tables List of contributors Acknowledgments Introd'ction. John R. Rickford and Penelope Eckert Part I Anthropological approaches 5 @St+leAa* di*tincti)ene**. the c'lt're and ideolo$+ of lin$'i*tic differentiation JUDITB T. IRVINE , Variet+% *t+le:*hiftin$% and ideolo$+ SUSAN ERVIN:TRIPP ; The ethno$raph+ of $enre in a Me8ican "arket. for"% f'nction% )ariation RI!BARD BAUMAN > The C'e*tion of $enre RDNA?D MA!AU?A Part 2 Attention paid to speech 4 The anato"+ of *t+le:*hiftin$ EI??IAM ?ABDV F A di**ection of *t+le:*hiftin$ JDBN BAUGB 1 St+le and *ocial "eanin$ PENE?DPE E!-ERT 2 Geroin$ in on "'lti f'nctionalit+ and *t+le E?IGABETB !?DSS TRAUGDTT :)ii: art 3 Audience design and self-identification 0 Back in *t+le. re&orkin$ a'dience de*i$n A??AN BE?? 53 Pri"iti)e* of a *+*te" for @*t+leAand @re$i*terA MA?!AB AEGER:DRDR 55 ?an$'a$e% *it'ation% and the relational *elf. theoriHin$ dialect:*t+le in *ociolin$'i*tic* NI-D?AS !DUP?AND 5, !o'plandia and #e+ond BDEARD GI?ES 5; St+le and *t+liHin$ fro" the per*pecti)e of a non:a'tono"o'* *ociolin$'i*tic* JDBN R. RI!-9DRD Part 4 Functionally motivated situational variation 5> Re$i*ter )ariation and *ocial dialect )ariation. the Re$i*ter A8io" EDEARD 9INEGAN AND DDUG?AS BIBER

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54 !on)er*ation% *poken lan$'a$e% and *ocial identit+ ?ES?E MI?RD ,F2 5F St+le and the p*+cholin$'i*tic* of *ociolin$'i*tic*. the lo$ical pro#le" of lan$'a$e )ariation DENNIS R. PRESTDN References Index :)iii: Contri utors JDBN BAUGB i* Profe**or of Ed'cation and ?in$'i*tic* at Stanford Uni)er*it+. Bi* p'#lication* incl'de Out of the Mouths of Slaves African American Language and !ducational Mal"ractice <5000=% and #eyond !bonics Linguistic $ride and Racial $re%udice <,333=. RI!BARD BAUMAN i* Di*tin$'i*hed Profe**or of !o""'nication and !'lt're% Anthropolo$+% and 9olklore at Indiana Uni)er*it+% Bloo"in$ton. Be ha* *er)ed a* Pre*ident of the Societ+ for ?in$'i*tic Anthropolo$+% and a* Editor of the &ournal of American 'olklore( The principal foci of hi* p'#lication* incl'de the ethno$raph+ of *peakin$% oral poetic* and perfor"ance% narrati)e% and $enre. A??AN BE?? i* Profe**or of ?an$'a$e and !o""'nication in the School of ?an$'a$e*% A'ckland Uni)er*it+ of Technolo$+. Bi* paper @?an$'a$e St+le a* A'dience De*i$nA <Language in Society) 502>= ha* #een fo'ndational in the *ociolin$'i*tic *t'd+ of *t+le. Be i* <&ith Nikola* !o'pland= fo'ndin$ editor of the &ournal of Sociolinguistics( DDUG?AS BIBER i* Re$ent*I Profe**or of En$li*h <Applied ?in$'i*tic*= at Northern AriHona Uni)er*it+. Bi* p'#lication* incl'de *ariation across S"eech and +ritings <5022=% ,imensions of Register *ariation <5004=% -or"us Linguistics <&ith S. !onrad and R. Reppen% 5002=% and .he Longman /rammar of S"oken and +ritten !nglish <co:edited% 5000=. NI-D?AS !DUP?AND i* Profe**or and !hair of the !entre for ?an$'a$e and !o""'nication Re*earch at !ardiff Uni)er*it+% Eale*. Be i* <&ith Allan Bell= fo'ndin$ editor of the &ournal of Sociolinguistics( Bi* principal re*earch intere*t* are. *ociolin$'i*tic )ariation% *ociolin$'i*tic theor+% *t+le and *t+liHation in lan$'a$e% and the *ociolin$'i*tic* of later life. PENN E!-ERT i* Profe**or of ?in$'i*tic* and co:!hair of the Pro$ra" in 9e"ini*t St'die* at Stanford Uni)er*it+. Ber "o*t recent &ork foc'*e* on the role of )ariation in the co:con*tr'ction of *t+le* and identitie*. :8iii: ,10 ;34 ;;2

Ber p'#lication* incl'de &ocks and #urnouts Social Identity in the 0igh School <5020=J*ariation as Social $ractice <,333=J *he i* co:a'thor <&ith S. Mc!onnell: Ginet= of a forthco"in$ te8t#ook on lan$'a$e and $ender. SUSAN M. ERVIN:TRIPP i* a Profe**or of P*+cholo$+ E"erit'* at the Uni)er*it+ of !alifornia in Berkele+% !alifornia. Ber p'#lication* incl'de -hild ,iscourse) Language Ac1uisition and -ommunicative -hoice) and article* on child lan$'a$e% #ilin$'ali*"% and child and ad'lt pra$"atic*% incl'din$ e8ten*i)e &ork on reC'e*t*. EDEARD 9INEGAN i* Profe**or of ?in$'i*tic* and ?a& at the Uni)er*it+ of So'thern !alifornia. Be i* a'thor of Language its Structure and Use <;rd edn.% 5002= and Attitudes toward !nglish Usage <5023=% and coeditor of Sociolinguistic $ers"ectives on Register <500>=. Be ha* "o*t recentl+ contri#'ted chapter* on $ra""ar and '*a$e to t&o )ol'"e* of the !a"#rid$e Bi*tor+ of the En$li*h ?an$'a$e. BDEARD GI?ES i* Profe**or of !o""'nication at the Uni)er*it+ of !alifornia% Santa Bar#ara &ith an affliated po*ition there in P*+cholo$+ and ?in$'i*tic*. Bi* "ain re*earch intere*t* are in inter:$ro'p co""'nication e*peciall+ a* it relate* to inter:$enerational and policeKcitiHen i**'e*. Be ha* p'#li*hed an arra+ of #ook* in the*e do"ain*. JUDITB T. IRVINE i* Profe**or of Anthropolo$+ at the Uni)er*it+ of Michi$an% Ann Ar#or. Pre)io'*l+ *he &a* on the fac'lt+ at Brandei* Uni)er*it+. Ber p'#lication* incl'de Res"onsibility and !vidence in Oral ,iscourse <co:edited &ith Jane Bill% 500;=% .he $sychology of -ulture <500;=% and "an+ article* in lin$'i*tic anthropolo$+ and African *t'die*. EI??IAM ?ABDV i* Profe**or of ?in$'i*tic* and Director of the ?in$'i*tic* ?a#orator+ at the Uni)er*it+ of Penn*+l)ania. Bi* p'#lication* incl'de .he Social Stratification of !nglish in 2ew 3ork -ity <50FF=% .he Study of 2on4Standard !nglish <50F0=% Sociolinguistic $atterns <501,=% +hat is a Linguistic 'act5 <5014=% and $rinci"les of Linguistic -hange 6 <500>=. RDNA?D MA!AU?A i* E"erit'* Profe**or of ?in$'i*tic* at PitHer !olle$e in !lare"ont% !alifornia. Bi* #ook* incl'de Language) Social -lass and !ducation <5011=% Locating ,ialect in ,iscourse <5005=% and Standards and *ariation in Urban S"eech <5001=. Be i* the a'thor of a forthco"in$ #ook on di*co'r*e *ociolin$'i*tic*. ?ES?E MI?RD i* Ban* -'rath !olle$iate Profe**or of ?in$'i*tic* at the Uni)er*it+ of Michi$an. Ber p'#lication* incl'de.Authority in Language :8i): <&ith Ja"e* Milro+% 5024J ;rd edn.% 5002=% Observing and Analysing 2atural Language <5021=% Linguistics and A"hasia <&ith R'th ?e**er% 500;=% Real !nglish <ed. &ith Ja"e* Milro+% 500;=% One S"eaker) .wo Languages <ed.% 5004=. DENNIS R. PRESTDN i* Profe**or of ?in$'i*tic* at Michi$an State Uni)er*it+ and Pre*ident:Elect of the A"erican Dialect. Be *pecialiHe* in the interface #et&een

lan$'a$e )ariation and chan$e and attit'de* to&ard* and perception* of lan$'a$e )ariet+. Bi* p'#lication* incl'de the 0andbook of $erce"tual ,ialectology <ed.% 5000= and 'olk Linguistics <&ith Nanc+ NiedHiel*ki% 5000=. JDBN RI!-9DRD i* the Martin ?'ther -in$% Jr.% !entennial Profe**or of ?in$'i*tic* and Director of African and Afro:A"erican St'die* at Stanford Uni)er*it+. Bi* "o*t recent p'#lication* incl'de African American !nglish <co:edited% 5002=% African American *ernacular !nglish <5000=% -reole /enesis) Attitudes and ,iscourse <co: edited% 5000=% and S"oken Soul <&ith R. J. Rickford% ,333=. E?IGABETB !?DSS TRAUGDTT i* Profe**or of ?in$'i*tic* and En$li*h at Stanford Uni)er*it+. Ber p'#lication* incl'de A 0istory of !nglish Syntax <501,=% Linguistics for Students of Literature <&ith Mar+ ?. Pratt% 5023=% On -onditionals <co:edited% 502F=% /rammaticali7ation <&ith Pa'l Bopper% 500;=% and Regularity in Semantic -hange <&ith Richard Da*her% forthco"in$=. MA?!AB AEGER:DRDR i* pre*entl+ re*earch *cienti*t in the Uni)er*it+ of AriHona !o$niti)e Science* Pro$ra". She ha* &orked on *o'nd chan$e in real ti"e% anal+Hin$ chain *hiftin$ in #oth En$li*h and !anadian 9rench. Ber p'#lication* incl'de contri#'tion* to $a"ers in Laboratory $honology III <ed. P. -eatin$% 500>=% .owards a Social Science of Language I <ed. G. G'+ et al.=% Language *ariation and -hange) and S"eech -ommunication( :8): Introduction John R. Rickford and Penelope Eckert ! "he place of style in the study of variation St+le i* a pi)otal con*tr'ct in the *t'd+ of *ociolin$'i*tic )ariation. St+li*tic )aria#ilit+ in *peech afford* '* the po**i#ilit+ of o#*er)in$ lin$'i*tic chan$e in pro$re** <?a#o) 50FF=. Moreo)er% *ince all indi)id'al* and *ocial $ro'p* ha)e *t+li*tic repertoire*% the *t+le* in &hich the+ are recorded "'*t #e taken into acco'nt &hen co"parin$ the" <Rickford and McNair:-no8 500>.,F4=. 9inall+% *t+le i* the loc'* of the indi)id'alIS internaliHation of #roader *ocial di*tri#'tion* of )ariation <Eckert ,333=. In *pite of the centralit+ of *t+le% the concerted attention that ha* #een paid to the relation of )ariation to *ocial cate$oriHation* and confi$'ration* ha* not #een eC'aled #+ an+ contin'o'* foc'* on *t+le. In other &ord*% &e ha)e foc'*ed on the relation #et&een )ariation and the *peakerIS place in the &orld% at the e8pen*e of the *peakerIS *trate$ie* &ith re*pect to thi* place. B't a* *ocial theorie* of )ariation de)elop $reater depth% the+ reC'ire a "ore *ophi*ticated% inte$rati)e treat"ent of *t+le that place* )ariation &ithin the &ider ran$e of lin$'i*tic practice* &ith &hich *peaker* "ake *ocial "eanin$. 9or thi* rea*on% the editor* of thi* )ol'"e or$aniHed a t&o:da+ &ork*hop on *t+le at Stanford Uni)er*it+ in 9e#r'ar+ 500F% f'nded #+ the National Science 9o'ndation <no. SBR:04551,>=. Brin$in$ to$ether *cholar* &ho ha)e &orked on *t+le in lan$'a$e fro" a )ariet+ of theoretical and "ethodolo$ical per*pecti)e*% the &ork*hop had the $oal of *ti"'latin$ di*c'**ion* that &o'ld *et ne& direction* for f't're &ork on *t+le in )ariation. Thi* )ol'"e i* a prod'ct of that &ork*hop.

2 "he history of the study of style in variation The *t'd+ of *ociolin$'i*tic )ariation i* co""onl+ characteriHed <Bell 502>.5>4% 9ine$an and Bi#er 500>.;5F= a* in)ol)in$ three principal co"ponent*.linguistic or internal con*traint*% social or inter:*peaker con*traint*% and stylistic or intra:*peaker con*traint*. The *t'd+ of linguistic con*traint* i* the area in &hich the concern* of 5 :5: )ariationi*t* artic'late the "o*t clearl+ &ith lin$'i*tic re*earch in other area*% addin$ '*e data to int'ited or e8peri"ental data% and #rin$in$ C'antitati)e in*i$ht* to an other&i*e e8cl'*i)el+ C'alitati)e enterpri*e. The e8a"ination of lin$'i*tic con*traint*% #oth C'alitati)e and C'antitati)e% ha* #een an acti)e co"ponent of )ariationi*t &ork fro" the 50F3* to the pre*ent. The C'antitati)e *t'd+ of lar$e corpora of )aria#le *peech data ha* +ielded detailed in*i$ht* into *e)eral a*pect* of lan$'a$e% incl'din$ con*traint* on )aria#le *peech o'tp't% *o'nd chan$e and *+ntactic chan$e% the "echani*"* of )o&el *hift*% and *tr'ct'ral relation* a"on$ re$ional dialect*. The *t'd+ of social )ariation ha* al*o #een contin'o'* and prod'cti)e o)er thi* period. The pa*t thirt+:fi)e +ear* ha)e *een a flo'ri*hin$ of e"pirical *t'die* of )ariation. *t'die* not onl+ in 'r#an *ettin$*% #'t al*o in *'#'r#an and r'ral *ettin$*% in a ran$e of *ocietie* o't*ide the USA% and dra&in$ on #oth *'r)e+ and ethno$raphic "ethod*. In the*e *t'die* re*earcher* ha)e refined their 'nder*tandin$ of the relation #et&een )ariation and *ocial para"eter*% incl'din$ cla**% $ender% ethnicit+% *ocial net&ork*% identit+% local cate$orie*% and ideolo$+. The *t'd+ of stylistic )ariation% ho&e)er% ha* #een "ore 'ne)en. The traditional deli"itation of *t+le in the )ariationi*t paradi$" ha* #een an+ intra:*peaker )ariation that i* not directl+ attri#'ta#le to perfor"ance factor* <in the *trict *en*e= or to factor* &ithin the lin$'i*tic *+*te". Ee &ill #e$in &ith thi* definition% partiall+ to *ho& that the ne8t pha*e of *t+li*tic *t'die* &ill ha)e to foc'* on the hi$hl+ per"ea#le #o'ndarie* a"on$ lin$'i*tic% *ocial% and *t+li*tic con*traint*. Eillia" ?a#o)IS <50FF= Ne& ork !it+ *t'd+% &hich la'nched the c'rrent C'antitati)e *t'd+ of )ariation% $a)e central theoretical and "ethodolo$ical i"portance to *t+le. Thi* *t'd+ e*ta#li*hed that *t+li*tic )ariation con*tit'te* a cr'cial ne8'* #et&een the indi)id'al and the co""'nit+ K #et&een the lin$'i*tic% the co$niti)e% and the *ocial. ?a#o) de"on*trated that the '*e of *ociolin$'i*tic )aria#le* i* *ocioecono"icall+ *tratified% and that each *peakerIS *t+li*tic ran$e co)er* a contin'o'* *'#*et of '*e &ithin the *ocioecono"ic "atri8. Placin$ $lo#al pre*ti$e at the 'pper end of the *ocioecono"ic hierarch+ and $lo#al *ti$"a at the lo&er% ?a#o) characteriHed each *peakerIS *t+li*tic contin''" in relation to the*e t&o pole*. Be )ie&ed the @pre*ti$io'*A end of the *peakerIS ran$e a* the re*'lt of "ore for"al% caref'l% *peech% and the @*ti$"atiHedA end a* the re*'lt of "ore ca*'al% 'n"onitored *peech. The *peakerIS *t+li*tic acti)it+% therefore% &a* directl+ connected to the *peakerIS place in% and *trate$ie* &ith re*pect to% the *ocioecono"ic hierarch+.

Ehile the notion of pre*ti$e pla+* an i"portant role in ?a#o)IS &ork on *t+le <e.$. 501,=% it i* attention paid to *peech that he p't* at the center of the theor+% pre*'"a#l+ #eca'*e attention i* the co$niti)e "echani*" that :,: link* *ocial to lin$'i*tic factor*. 9'nda"ental to hi* &ork% then% i* the notion of the *peakerIS )ernac'lar K that *peech that i* "o*t nat'ral% that i* prior to an o)erla+ of correction% and that e"er$e* &hen the *peaker i* not "onitorin$ their *peech. And it i* in the )ernac'lar that ?a#o) e8pect* to find the "o*t nat'ral *peech and the #e*t e)idence of the proce**e* of chan$e. Eith thi* theoriHin$ of *t+le ca"e a foc'* on field "ethod*% "akin$ the "anip'lation of infor"ant*I *t+le central to the proce** of data e8traction. ?a#o) de*i$ned the *ociolin$'i*tic inter)ie& to elicit a* &ide a ran$e of a *peakerIS *t+le a* po**i#le% fro" the "o*t caref'l to the "o*t ca*'al *peech. 9'nda"ental to the inter)ie& i* &hat ?a#o) called the @o#*er)erIS parado8A <?a#o) 5014= K that the )ernac'lar the lin$'i*t &i*he* to o#*er)e i* 'nlikel+ to #e prod'ced in the relati)el+ for"al conte8t in &hich *peaker* interact &ith inter)ie&er* &ho are *tran$er*. ?a#o) *o'$ht to elicit a #roader ran$e of inter)ie&ee*I *t+le* pri"aril+ #+ "anip'latin$ the topic% on the a**'"ption that *o"e topic* &ill foc'* inter)ie&ee* on their *peech &hile other* &ill foc'* the" a&a+ fro" it. Ehile topic i* the para"eter that ?a#o) "o*t con*cio'*l+ control* in the inter)ie&% the need for *'ch a *trate$+% the o#*er)erIS parado8% *te"* fro" the fact that a'dience i* a f'nda"ental infl'ence in *t+li*tic prod'ction. ?a#o) *ho&ed *o"e earl+ reco$nition of thi* <50FF.535K>= in*ofar a* he defined *peech to fa"il+ "e"#er* and friend* rather than the inter)ie&er a* potential ca*'al *peech conte8t* &ithin the inter)ie&. St+li*tic )ariation e"er$ed fro" the Ne& ork !it+ *t'd+ a* a"on$ the "o*t i"portant con*tr'ct* in the field. et de*pite it* i"portance% *t+le #eca"e le** of a foc'* of e"pirical re*earch fro" the 5013* on&ard% at lea*t in the infl'ential A"erican C'antitati)e tradition. Thi* &a* partl+ #eca'*e people C'e*tioned ?a#o)IS foc'* on attention paid to *peech <Milro+ 5021.51,K2;=% partl+ #eca'*e of the operational diffc'lt+ of *eparatin$ ca*'al *peech fro" caref'l *peech )ia inter)ie& conte8t* and channel c'e* <Eolfra" 50F0.42K0=% and partl+ #eca'*e re*earcher* #eca"e a#*or#ed in the *t'd+ of the lin$'i*tic and *ocial con*traint* on )ariation. <See Rickford and McNair:-no8 500>.,;2K0 for f'rther di*c'**ion.= Social p*+cholo$ical &ork in acco""odation theor+ <Gile* and Po&e*land 5014% Gile* 502>% Gile*% !o'pland% and !o'pland 5005= ran parallel for *o"e ti"e to effort* in )ariation% *ho&in$ a"on$ other thin$* the i"portant infl'ence on lan$'a$e *t+le of the *peakerIS orientation and attit'de to addre**ee*. So"e earl+ )ariation *t'die* e8plicitl+ e8plored the effect on )ariation of the addre**ee <Van den Broeck 5011% Ba'$h 5010% Bindle 5010% Rickford 5010% !o'pland 5023= and of a'dience "ore $enerall+ <Bell 5011=. Bell <502>= follo&ed 'p the*e earl+ *t'die* &ith foc'*ed re*earch that p't a'dience at the center of *t+li*tic prod'ction. Specificall+% he ar$'ed that *t+li*tic )ariation can #e e8plained a* a re*pon*e to the :;: pre*ent a'dience. pri"aril+ the act'al addre**ee% #'t al*o third per*on* <i.e. a'ditor* and o)erhearer*=. Be ar$'ed that the apparent infl'ence of topic *hift i* act'all+ d'e

to the a**ociation of topic* &ith a'dience t+pe*. Reco$niHin$ that not all *t+li*tic *hift* are o#)io'* re*pon*e* to pre*ent participant*% he po*ited the effect of @referee*A K a#*ent reference $ro'p* K &ho*e pre*ence in the "ind of the *peaker co'ld infl'ence )aria#ilit+. Thi* paper not onl+ introd'ced a coherent )ie& of *t+le:*hiftin$% it al*o inte$rated a &ide ran$e of pre)io'*l+ di*parate *ociolin$'i*tic findin$*% and po*ited a n'"#er of no)el theoretical $eneraliHation* and te*ta#le prediction* a#o't the relation #et&een *ocial and *t+li*tic )ariation. In their <500>= paper on the relation #et&een re$i*ter and *ocial dialect )ariation <fir*t circ'lated in draft in 5003= 9ine$an and Bi#er credited Bell &ith e8plainin$ the parallel relation #et&een *t+li*tic and *ocial )ariation% #'t not the internal *+*te"aticit+ of each cate$or+ <&h+ con*onant cl'*ter *i"plification de crea*e* a* for"alit+ in crea*e*% for in*tance=. Their o&n e8planation for thi* *+*te"aticit+ &a* a f'nctional one% &hich ar$'ed <p. ;;0= that @Social dialect )ariation L depend* 'pon re$i*ter )ariation% and re$i*ter )ariation i* lar$el+ *haped #+ co""'nicati)e con*traint* inherent in partic'lar *it'ation*. A Ehere Bell foc'*ed on a'dience% 9ine$an and Bi#er foc'*ed on the #roader situation) and *o'$ht to e*ta#li*h a link fro" the )aria#le* the"*el)e* to the *it'ation* in &hich the+ are '*ed and finall+ to the *ocioecono"ic hierarch+. The+ #e$an &ith the ar$'"ent that *ociall+ *tratified )aria#le* tend to in)ol)e *o"e kind of red'ction or *i"plification% and that co"ple8it+ of lin$'i*tic for" correlate* &ith *ocioecono"ic *tat'*. The+ ar$'e that "ore co"ple8 lin$'i*tic for"* are called for in "ore @literateA *it'ation*% a* a f'nction #oth of the ta*k* #ein$ 'ndertaken in the*e *it'ation* and of a relati)e lack of *hared conte8t. The+ then attri#'te the *ocial *tratification of lan$'a$e '*e to the *tratification of acce** to the*e *it'ation t+pe*. Eith !o'pland <5023=% &e co"e f'll circle% &ith a foc'* on the *peaker* the"*el)e*. Introd'cin$ an e"pha*i* on the @identit+ di"en*ion*A of *t+le% !o'pland treat* *t+li*tic )ariation a* a d+na"ic pre*entation of the *elf. 9or thi* rea*on% rather than foc'*in$ on the c'"'lati)e '*e of )aria#le* #+ *peaker* or $ro'p* of *peaker*% he foc'*e* on the *trate$ic '*e of )aria#le* in di*co'r*e. Thi* e"pha*i* al*o led hi" to approach the *election of )aria#le* differentl+. Beca'*e of the *tr'ct'ral foc'* in the field of )ariation% )aria#le* ha)e #een c'*to"aril+ *elected not *o "'ch on the #a*i* of their apparent *ocial *i$nificance a* on the #a*i* of their intere*t to the *t'd+ of lin$'i*tic *tr'ct're and chan$e. !o'plandIS foc'* on the *peakerIS identit+ led hi" to take *erio'*l+ the participant*I perception* of *t+le% and to ar$'e that the tendenc+ to foc'* on indi)id'al )aria#le* a#*tract* a&a+ fro" &hat *peaker* the"*el)e* percei)e a* *t+le. :>: Thi* e"pha*i* on *t+le a* a *et of co:occ'rrin$ )aria#le* that are a**ociated &ith the *peakerIS o&n per*ona &a* a "a7or depart're fro" the *t'die* of *t+le that preceded% and i* #eco"in$ increa*in$l+ i"portant in the *t'd+ of )ariation. Rickford and McNair:-no8 <500>.,F;K4= and Rickford and Rickford <,333.5,2= ha)e rai*ed the i**'e of perfor"ati)it+ in *t+le% *'$$e*tin$ that )aria#ilit+ can pla+ a role in the perfor"ance of the *peakerIS o&n *ocial affliation* and identit+. The !alifornia St+le !ollecti)e <500;= and Eckert <,333= ha)e e8plored the role of )ariation in the acti)e con*tr'ction of per*onal and $ro'p *t+le*% )ie&in$ indi)id'al )aria#le* a* re*o'rce* that can #e p't to &ork in con*tr'ctin$ ne& per*onae.

So"e of the*e e8ploration* are part of a "o)e"ent in the field of )ariation a&a+ fro" the p'rel+ *tr'ct'ral "odel* of *ociet+ that for"ed the ori$inal #a*i* of )ariation theor+% into a )ie& of )ariation a* *ocial practice. An e"er$in$ foc'* on a$enc+ i* #rin$in$ re*earcher* to e8a"ine )ariation a* part of a proce** of con*tr'ction of identitie* and *ocial "eanin$ <!alifornia St+le !ollecti)e 500;% B'choltH 500F% Eckert ,333=% and to )ie& )ariation in ter"* of relation* of lin$'i*tic prod'ction <Bo'rdie' 502,= rather than *i"pl+ in ter"* of appropriatene** to @*ocial addre**A <Eckert and Mc!onnell:Ginet 500,=. The*e e8ploration* re"ain in the earl+ *ta$e*% and are #rin$in$ )ariation *t'die* into *+nch &ith &ork in anthropolo$+. Ro'$hl+ the *a"e decade* that ha)e *een the de)elop"ent of "odern )ariation theor+ ha)e al*o *een the de)elop"ent of the anthropolo$ical *t'd+ of co""'nicati)e co"petence and the ethno$raph+ of *peakin$ <e.$. B+"e* 50F>% 501,% Ba'"an and SherHer 501>% Beath 502;% Bri$$* 5022=. Re*earcher* &orkin$ on the*e topic*% foc'*in$ on )er#al perfor"ance% ha)e de)eloped per*pecti)e* on lin$'i*tic practice that are C'ite cr'cial and co"ple"entar+ to the e8ploration* of *t+le that ha)e #een de)elopin$ in the field of )ariation. Ehile in earlier +ear* there &a* con*idera#le interaction #et&een people *t'd+in$ )ariation and people *t'd+in$ the ethno$raph+ of *peakin$% a* )ariation e"er$ed a* a field in it*elf% thi* interaction d&indled. A* a re*'lt% there ha* #een little inte$ration #et&een the *t'd+ of )ariation and the *t'd+ of )er#al $enre* a* p'r*'ed in folklore and the ethno$raph+ of *peakin$. The "odel* of *t+le di*c'**ed a#o)e that ha)e ari*en in the *t'd+ of )ariation are not contradictor+ or "'t'all+ e8cl'*i)e. Dne "i$ht think that% for e8a"ple% ?a#o)IS )ie& of *t+le a* a f'nction of attention paid to *peech i* irreconcila#le &ith the )ie& of the '*e of )aria#le* in ter"* of @identit+ perfor"ance*. A A re*ol'tion #et&een the )ie&*% ho&e)er% "a+ &ell lie in an e8a"ination of difference* a"on$ )aria#le*% and al*o of the interaction a"on$ )ariant* of a *in$le )aria#le% and of the *it'ated '*e of )ariation. :4: A* thi* )ol'"e &ill *ho&% the )er+ definition of *t+le "'*t e8pand. Ehile the di)i*ion into internal% *ocial% and *t+li*tic con*traint* ha* #een he'ri*ticall+ i"portant% a* &ork pro$re**e* in the field% the area* of o)erlap are #eco"in$ increa*in$l+ intere*tin$. It &ill #eco"e apparent in thi* )ol'"e that the di)i*ion #et&een *ocial and *t+li*tic con*traint* i* a fine and hi$hl+ per"ea#le one indeed. Specificall+% earlier "odel* ha)e )ie&ed *ocial cate$orie* and identitie* a* $i)en% and *t+li*tic )ariation a* the *peakerIS &a+ of na)i$atin$ &ith re*pect to the *ocial. A* &e "o)e to&ard )ie&in$ *ocial life a* a contin'al proce** of con*tr'ctin$ the*e )er+ cate$orie* and identitie*% *t+le #eco"e* in addition a re*o'rce for the proce** of con*tr'ction. The )ie& of )ariation i* e8pandin$% therefore% fro" "arkin$ cate$orie* to con*tit'tin$ a "ore fl'id land*cape of "eanin$J fro" a )ie& of lan$'a$e a* reflectin$ the *ocial to a )ie& of lan$'a$e a* al*o creatin$ the *ocial. Ee #e$in thi* )ol'"e &ith paper* #+ the anthropolo$i*t* J'dith Ir)ine and Richard Ba'"an% &ith the p'rpo*e of *ettin$ a #roader conte8t for the *t'd+ of *t+li*tic )ariation. The )ariation paper* follo&% in ro'$hl+ the chronolo$ical order of the de)elop"ent of the fra"e&ork* that the+ repre*ent. The feat'red paper* are follo&ed #+ co""entarie* #+ people &ho ha)e #een en$a$ed in related *t+li*tic &ork.

3 Anthropological approaches to style #udith Irvine$S cro**:c'lt'ral% ethno$raphic &ork on for"alit+ <5010= and *tat'* and *t+le <5024= ha* directl+ addre**ed i**'e* rele)ant to )ariationi*t*% altho'$h the )ariationi*t literat're ha* rarel+ taken it into con*ideration. Ber chapter in thi* )ol'"e% @St+le a* di*tincti)ene**. the c'lt're and ideolo$+ of lin$'i*tic differentiationA <chapter 5=% contin'e* to #rin$ the anthropolo$ical per*pecti)e to the *t'd+ of )ariation. She #e$in* #+ re"indin$ '* that *t+le in lan$'a$e% a* in other area* of e)er+da+ life% i* e**entiall+ a#o't distinctiveness &ithin a *+*te" of po**i#ilitie*% and that &e need to e8plore the contra*t* and #o'ndarie* a"on$ alternati)e* to appreciate their f'll *i$nificance. Ir)ineIS conception of *t+le a* a @*ocial *e"io*i* of di*tincti)ene**A cr'ciall+ in)ol)e* attention to the lan$'a$e ideolo$ie* of nati)e *peaker* and the principle* of differentiation &hich @link lan$'a$e difference* &ith *ocial "eanin$*. A In partic'lar% *he identifie* three *e"iotic proce**e* K iconi7ation) recursivity) and erasure K &hich ha)e e"er$ed fro" her 7oint &ork &ith S'*an Gal <e.$. Gal and Ir)ine 5001=% and *he $oe* on to define and e8e"plif+ the" &ith anal+*e* of *t+li*tic )ariation in a r'ral Eolof co""'nit+ in Sene$al and a B'n$arian/Ger"an *peakin$ co""'nit+ in So'thern B'n$ar+. Altho'$h *he i* caref'l to e"pha*iHe that @lan$'a$e ideolo$ie* are to #e in)e*ti$ated independentl+ of the di*tri#'tion of :F: o#*er)a#le *ociolin$'i*tic fact*% not a* a *'#*tit'te for the"% A it i* clear that 'nder*tandin$ the" allo&* '* to appreciate the &orkin$* of *t+le in &a+* that "i$ht other&i*e e*cape '*. 9inall+% Ir)ineIS paper incl'de* a '*ef'l di*c'**ion of the di*tinction* #et&een register) dialect) and style( She *'$$e*t* that altho'$h re$i*ter <)ariet+ defined accordin$ to '*e= "i$ht in theor+ i"pl+ differentiation &ithin a *et "ore readil+ than dialect% the di*tinction i* not a* '*ef'l in practice% *ince *peaker* are often a&are of a ran$e of '*er:differentiated )arietie*% and dialect* and re$i*ter* are clo*el+ connected. <Indeed% a&arene** of *ocial di*tinction* i* a f'nda"ental part of BellIS 502> "odel of ho& *t+le* co"e to #e differentiated and deplo+ed accordin$ to a'dience.= 9or Ir)ine% *t+le i* e**entiall+ a *'perordinate cate$or+ &hich e"pha*iHe* proce**e* of lin$'i*tic <a* &ell a* non:lin$'i*tic= di*tinction in $eneral% &hile re$i*ter i* re*tricted "ore to relati)el+ *ta#le% often na"ed% )arietie* like @*port* anno'ncer talkA&ithin the lar$er cate$or+. Susan %rvin-"ripp& &ell kno&n in the *t'd+ of *t+le for her <501,= e8ten*ion of the lin$'i*tic notion* of @alternationA and @co:occ'rrenceA to incl'de different @&a+* of *peakin$% A pro)ide* a co""entar+ on Ir)ineIS paper &hich e8tend* it* fra"e&ork to incl'de "onolin$'al a* &ell a* "'ltilin$'al *it'ation* <chapter ,=. She *'$$e*t* that Ir)ineIS appeal to lan$'a$e ideolo$ie* i* rele)ant to the acC'i*ition of "ore than one lan$'a$e )ariet+ a* &ell a* it* di*pla+ in *&itchin$ #et&een code* or *t+le*. She liken* *t+le*hiftin$ &ithin a *in$le lan$'a$e '*in$ dialect feat're* to code:*&itchin$ #et&een different lan$'a$e* in*ofar a* #oth can #e affected #+ chan$e* in addre**ee and *peech condition*% and #oth can #e '*ed to effect rhetorical *hift*% to $et attention% per*'ade% ela#orate% per*onaliHe% "ark identit+% and perfor" a )ariet+ of other

f'nction*. Dne difference i* that dialectal *t+le*hift* are potentiall+ acce**i#le to a lar$er a'dience% *ince intelli$i#ilit+ i* not '*'all+ an i**'e. Another i* that co: occ'rrence re*triction* are la8er% altho'$h *peaker* are )er+ *en*iti)e to *hift* in the pro#a#ilitie* or freC'encie* of occ'rrence of *pecific feat're*. Mo*t of Er)in:TrippIS paper i* taken 'p &ith a detailed anal+*i* of rhetorical *hiftin$ in recordin$* of t&o Black political leader*. Stokel+ !ar"ichael and Dick Gre$or+. The anal+*i* of !ar"ichael i* #riefer% foc'*in$ on the '*e of one pro*odic% one )o&el hei$ht/len$th% and one le8ical feat're to ro'*e the a'dience at a Black Po&er rall+ in Dakland. The anal+*i* of Gre$or+IS *peech i* lon$er and "ore detailed% re)ealin$ the co"edian/&riter/politicianIS *trate$ic '*e of phonolo$ical and "orpho*+ntactic feat're* of AAVE <African:A"erican Vernac'lar En$li*h= and Standard En$li*h to incite% parod+% a"'*e% and/or pro)oke *erio'* political reflection. Ber lar$er point i* that Gre$or+IS deft code:*hiftin$ e8ploit* *ociall+ e*ta#li*hed ideolo$ie* a#o't the relation*hip #et&een *peech *t+le* and different :1: *ocial $ro'p*. Ehite* )er*'* Black*% old )er*'* +o'n$% rioter* )er*'* *ophi*ticated con*'"er* and prote*ter*% A"erican coloni*t* )er*'* the Briti*h% and *o on. The rec'rrent iconiHation of &hich Ir)ine *peak* i* not *i"ple% #'t co"ple8% re)ealed in the *'cce**i)e reali$nin$ of potential contra*t* in Gre$or+IS 'nfoldin$ talk. 'ichard (auman$S chapter <;= #rin$* ne& in*i$ht* fro" hi* &ork on $enre and poetic* <Ba'"an 5011% Bri$$* and Ba'"an 500,= to the 'nder*tandin$ of ho& )ariation take* on *ocial "eanin$. The paper* that follo& Ba'"anIS in thi* )ol'"e foc'* on *t+le a* a f'nction of *it'ation% of *peaker% of hearer% of te8t t+pe K #'t al&a+* one at a ti"e. A* Ba'"an pre*ent* hi* anal+*i* of "arket call* in San Mi$'el de Allende% he fore$ro'nd* the in*epara#ilit+ of *peech *t+le*% te8t*% *it'ational conte8t*% and *ocial cate$orie*. Ba'"anIS anal+*i* of "arket *ale* $enre* foc'*e* on @call*A and @*piel*% A $enre* that one co'ld *a+ ha)e #eco"e thoro'$hl+ reified in the co""'nit+. The*e ha)e clear for"al propertie*% and are '*ed for the ha&kin$ of e)er+da+ ite"*. Eithin the land*cape of call*% Ba'"an ar$'e*% there i* e"er$in$ a ne& $enre called the @pitch% A&hich #'ild* on and ela#orate* propertie* of the *i"pler $enre to prod'ce a "ore ela#orate $enre appropriate to the ha&kin$ of l'8'r+ ite"*. In other &ord*% the c'rrentl+ e8i*tin$ $enre* pre*ent a di*c'r*i)e land*cape &ithin &hich ne& $enre* can de)elop and take on "eanin$. Variationi*t* ha)e looked to di*co'r*e a* a &a+ to conte8t'aliHe )ariation. An o#)io'* relation #et&een &ork on $enre and &ork on )ariation lie* in the potential for $enre to define the *it'ation* &ithin &hich )aria#le* are deplo+ed% to circ'"*cri#e *t+le and to e*ta#li*h *t+li*tic eC'i)alence. ?a#o)IS paper in thi* )ol'"e *eek* to e*ta#li*h *o"e kind of *it'ational/interactional eC'i)alence &ithin &hich the differential '*e of )ariant* can #e *aid to reflect *peaker difference*. Genre% th'*% i* )ie&ed a* i*ola#le and *ta#le. Ba'"anIS paper% ho&e)er% foc'*e* on $enre a* e"er$in$% )ar+in$% and chan$in$ in practice. Rather than )ie&in$ $enre a* i"po*in$ con*traint% he pre*ent* $enre a* the re*'lt of *trate$+% a reification to &hich co""'nit+ "e"#er* can orient the"*el)e* in "akin$ "eanin$. So"e $enre* are "ore reified than other*% and the

de$ree and nat're of thi* reification lea)e* roo" for *peaker and a'dience #oth to '*e con)ention and to chan$e it. Ba'"anIS paper th'* e"#odie* a *hift of per*pecti)e fro" *che"a for the cate$oriHation of te8t to fra"e&ork for the prod'ction and interpretation of te8t. Be define* $enre in ter"* of it* affordance* for chan$e in di*c'r*i)e practice. Mo*t i"portantl+ for the )ariationi*t% thi* di*c'r*i)e practice i* not a#*tracted fro" the da+:to:da+ '*e of )ariation% #'t i* a ke+ ele"ent in the con*tr'ction of *ocial "eanin$ in )ariation. Ba'"an point* o't that the*e te8t* are tied to a rec'rrent conte8t% the "arket% to a cate$or+ or cate$orie* of *peaker*% the ha&ker*. The *'#$enre*% f'rther"ore% are a**ociated &ith :2: different cla**e* of &are*% &ea)in$ e)er "ore *'#tle *ocial "eanin$ into the *t+le*. Ba'"an ar$'e* that a* children $ro& 'p% hearin$ the*e call* "'*t #e an inte$ral part of their *ociolin$'i*tic de)elop"ent. The*e call* fore$ro'nd lin$'i*tic for"% pro)idin$ a *ta$e for the perfor"ance of 'n'*'al lin$'i*tic )ariant*% &hich i* in t'rn enhanced #+ the poetic *tr'ct'rin$ of the call* K the le8ical repetition and the phonolo$ical paralleli*". 'onald )acaulay$S co""entar+ on Ba'"anIS chapter point* o't earl+ on a the"e that e"er$e* in *e)eral of the paper* in thi* )ol'"e% and that i* at the heart of the pro#le" of *t+le <chapter >=. That i*% &hile *t'die* of )ariation foc'* on tho*e )aria#le* that are relati)el+ ea*+ to define% "ea*'re and C'antif+% the*e )aria#le* e8i*t in a "'ch #roader *t+li*tic land*cape that *o far ha* not #een *'#7ect to co"pati#le treat"ent. Maca'la+ o#*er)e* that the &ider field of )aria#le* that characteriHe re$i*ter* and $enre* "a+ &ell #e "ore intere*tin$ than cla**ic *ociolin$'i*tic )aria#le* @Lif&e can find a &a+ to deal &ith the". A 9or thi* rea*on% "'ch of Maca'la+IS co""entar+ foc'*e* on pro#le"* &ith the operationaliHation of the notion of $enre% and partic'larl+ on pro#le"* of identif+in$ $enre* and a**i$nin$ lin$'i*tic feat're* to the". D#*er)in$ that the "arket $enre* in Ba'"anIS anal+*i* for" a contin''" fro" cate$orie* that are clearl+ *hared #+ anal+*t* and *peaker* alike <call*= to tho*e that "a+ at thi* point onl+ #e an anal+*tIS cate$or+ <*ale*talk*=% he rai*e* the i**'e of &hether the *peaker* of San Mi$'el de Allende act'all+ *hare Ba'"anIS )ie& of the di*c'r*i)e land*cape% and ho& far the anal+*t can $o in #reakin$ $enre* do&n into *'#$enre*% or $ro'pin$ the" into "acro:$enre*. Be $oe* on to point o't *i"ilar pro#le"* el*e&here% "o*t nota#l+ in the ca*e of narrati)e% &hich i* a f'nda"ental $enre for the anal+*i* of )ariation +et C'ite )aria#l+ defined acro** the literat're. 4 Attention paid to speech The fir*t fo'r *ection* of *illiam +a ov$S chapter <4= e"pha*iHe the i"portance of *t+li*tic )ariation to the 'nder*tandin$ of lan$'a$e chan$e% oppo*in$ the *t'd+ of *t+le:*hiftin$ in nat'rali*tic conte8t* to it* *t'd+ &ithin the *ociolin$'i*tic inter)ie&% and defendin$ the )al'e of the latter. ?a#o) ar$'e* that #oth a'dience de*i$n and a'dio:"onitorin$ <attention paid to *peech= are factor* in *t+le:*hiftin$% and recap* ke+ findin$* in the *t'd+ of *t+le o)er the pa*t t&o decade*. 9or hi"% the central

pro#le" in *t+li*tic anal+*i* i* *eparatin$ ca*'al and caref'l *peech &ithin the *pontaneo'* *ection* of the *ociolin$'i*tic inter)ie&% and the "echani*" that he and hi* *t'dent* ha)e fo'nd "o*t '*ef'l for doin$ *o i* the @deci*ion treeA and it* ei$ht conte8t'al #ranche*. Re*pon*e% Narrati)e% ?an$'a$e% Gro'p% Soap#o8% -id*% Tan$ent*% and Re*id'al. :0: All of thi* i* i"portant $ro'nd&ork #+ the *ociolin$'i*t "o*t re*pon*i#le for the attention paid to *peech "odel. B't it i* &ith the fifth *ection that &e reall+ $et do&n to ne& de)elop"ent*. Bere ?a#o) dra&* on a lar$e data pool <52> *peaker* fro" the ?an$'a$e Variation and !han$e corp'* at the Uni)er*it+ of Penn*+l)ania= to e8a"ine the nat're of *t+le:*hiftin$ in three *ta#le *ociolin$'i*tic )aria#le*. <ING=% <DB=% and <NEG=. The "ain point of thi* *ection i* that altho'$h the )ario'* *'#$ro'p* of the *peech co""'nit+ <*ocial cla**e*% a$e:$ro'p*% and $ender*= are differentiated #+ their a#*ol'te '*e* of the )aria#le% the+ are NDT differentiated #+ their relati)e '*e in ca*'al and caref'l conte8t*. A* ?a#o) ha* noted earlier% *hared pattern* of *t+le: *hiftin$ are one of the definin$ characteri*tic* of "e"#er*hip in a *peech co""'nit+. In the *i8th and *e)enth *ection*% ?a#o) e8plore* the i**'e of &hether the deci*ion tree "i$ht #e refined #+ eli"inatin$ indi)id'al *'#cate$orie* &hich are le** o#7ecti)el+ identifia#le and/or &hich contri#'te le** to the differentiation of caref'l and ca*'al *t+le*. Bi* o)erall concl'*ion i* that the ei$ht *'#cate$orie* all contri#'te to the differentiation of *t+le* and there i* no "oti)ation for di*cardin$ an+ of the"% e)en &hen differentiation #+ *ocial cla** and $ender i* con*idered. Ehile ?a#o) *kilf'll+ deplo+* C'antitati)e "ethodolo$+ to refine o'r 'nder*tandin$ of the role of the )ario'* *'#cate$orie* of the deci*ion tree% hi* re*earch rai*e* a n'"#er of C'e*tion* for f't're re*earch. 9or in*tance% the *t+le:*hiftin$ effect* of the different )aria#le* ?a#o) con*idered <DB% ING% NEG= &ere not 'nifor"% and &ere &e to con*ider other*% the ran$e of )ariation &o'ld 'ndo'#tedl+ increa*e. Bearin$ in "ind that *peech i* an a"al$a" of )aria#le*% ho& do their differential effect* contri#'te to the o)erall @*t+le*Athat *peaker* create and a'dience* interpretM Another C'e*tion i* &hether *t+le:*hiftin$ for )aria#le* 'nder$oin$ chan$e i* different than it i* for *ta#le *ociolin$'i*tic )aria#le*. 9ro" other findin$* <for in*tance% the cro**:o)er pattern for <r= in Ne& ork !it+% and the fact that the Philadelphia )aria#le* in chan$e *ho&ed little *t+le:*hiftin$=% thi* appear* to #e the ca*e. B't thi* "ake* the *t'd+ of *t+le:*hiftin$ thro'$h )aria#le* 'nder$oin$ chan$e e)en "ore co"pellin$% e*peciall+ $i)en the centralit+ of *t+le to the *t'd+ of lan$'a$e chan$e. In hi* co""entar+ on ?a#o)IS chapter%#ohn (augh e"pha*iHe* the de)elop"ent of ?a#o)IS approache* to the *t'd+ of *t+le #et&een the 50F3* and the pre*ent% i*olatin$ fo'r area* in &hich i"pro)e"ent ha* alread+ occ'rred or *till *ee"* nece**ar+ <chapter F=. The fir*t i* the '*e of readin$ pa**a$e* and &ord li*t*% a central *trate$+ for elicitin$ "ore caref'l *t+le* in the fra"e&ork of ?a#o)IS earl+ Ne& ork !it+ *t'd+. A* Ba'$h point* o't% thi* *trate$+ i* inappropriate &ith illiterate *'#7ect*% a $ro'p &hich can incl'de children and "an+ ad'lt* in "etropolitan *ocietie*% and :53:

)irt'all+ the entire pop'lation in oral% non:"etropolitan co""'nitie*% *o other creati)e *trate$ie* for increa*in$ attention to for"al *peech need to #e e8plored. Secondl+% the role of field&orker* K their *ocial attri#'te* in relation to their inter)ie&ee*% and their relati)e acco""odation to their inter)ie&ee*I *peech K de*er)e* f'rther *t'd+% a* a factor that co'ld *i$nificantl+ affect the nat're and ran$e of *t+le* elicited in an inter)ie&. Thirdl+% the inter)ie&er need* to "aintain ethno$raphic *en*iti)it+ in tr+in$ to e8tend the inter)ie&eeIS *peech to&ard* the for"al or infor"al end of the *t+li*tic contin''". 9inall+% in the anal+tical pha*e% it "i$ht #e '*ef'l to cla**if+ *peech &ithin each #ranch of the deci*ion tree a* @for"al/caref'lA or @infor"al/ca*'al% A in reco$nition of the fact that each c't in)aria#l+ lea)e* on one *ide of the tree *peech that reall+ #elon$* on the other. To *o"e e8tent% thi* final propo*al r'n* co'nter to the deci*ion tree% &ho*e p'rpo*e i* to pro)ide a clear:c't for"al proced're for cla**if+in$ inter)ie& *peech a* caref'l or ca*'al% #'t to the e8tent that clear:c't proced're* can #e de)eloped for the additional cla**ification* at the end of each #ranch% it i* &orth e8plorin$. Penelope %c,ert& notin$ the centralit+ to ?a#o)IS anal+tic practice of the *ociolin$'i*tic inter)ie& a* a con*tr'cted *peech e)ent% #e$in* her co""entar+ on ?a#o)IS chapter #+ criticall+ con*iderin$ the *'#e)ent* in the inter)ie& that repre*ent #ranche* on hi* deci*ion tree and their relation to the lar$er *t+li*tic &orld in &hich inter)ie&* occ'r <chapter 1=.Res"onse )er*'* .angent *peech% *he *'$$e*t*% "i$ht #e defined "ore $enerall+ in ter"* of topic control% the latter #rin$in$ o't the )ernac'lar for a )ariet+ of rea*on*% incl'din$ the inter)ie&eeIS $reater *en*e of en7o+"ent and co"fort &ith *elf:*elected topic*.Language and 8ids relate to topic and po**i#l+ $enreJ Soa"box and 2arrative are definitel+ related to $enre% the latter perhap* to an o)erarchin$ cate$or+ of re"ini*cence./rou" *peech i* related to a'dience% #'t al*o in)ol)e* topic control and other factor*. Each of the*e *'#e)ent* need* to #e con*idered too in relation to the kind of pop'lation #ein$ inter)ie&ed% for in*tance% adole*cent* )er*'* ad'lt*% &ho*e *t+le*hiftin$ nor"* can #e C'ite different% a* ?a#o)IS paper *ho&*. Different )aria#le* "i$ht al*o ha)e )er+ different *ocial:*t+li*tic "eanin$* in relation to *pecific *'#e)ent* in the inter)ie&% Eckert note*. 9or in*tance% :ing i* not *ti$"atiHed in it*elf% #'t ne$ati)e concord i*% a**ociated &ith li"ited ed'cation and &orkin$: and 'nder:cla** "e"#er*hip. The relation of attention:paid:to:*peech to @ethno$raphicA and *ociall+ "eanin$f'l "oti)e* for *t+le:*hiftin$ al*o reC'ire* f'rther con*ideration. ?ike Bell and other*% Eckert o#*er)e* that the '*e of )ernac'lar *peech in an inter)ie& "i$ht re*'lt fro" more rather than le** attention paid to *peech and that the role of *t+le in *ocial "eanin$% partic'larl+ in the *ocial con*tr'ction of *elf% de*er)e* clo*er attention. Na"ed $ro'p *t+le* K e.$. @Valle+ :55: GirlA or @Ne& ork Je&A K are )er+ *alient% and the*e pro)ide part of the re*o'rce* on &hich indi)id'al* dra& to con*tr'ct their per*onal *t+le*. Eckert *'$$e*t* that not onl+ do certain $ro'p *t+le* and $enre* <e.$. "arket call*= pro)ide @*ta$e*A for the con*tr'ction of *ocial "eanin$ and per*onal *t+le% #'t that certain indi)id'al* and $ro'p* of indi)id'al* do *o too. She $i)e* t&o e8a"ple*. Dne i* the hi$h *chool @#'rned:o't #'rno't*A *he *t'died in a Detroit *'#'r#an hi$h

*chool% &ho repre*ented the "o*t e8tre"e e8e"plar* of the #'rno't *t+le in dre**% de"eanor% and attit'de% and al*o in the '*e of *pecific )ariant*% like the rai*in$ of <a+= and the #ackin$ of <'h=. The other i* Tr'd+ and her pri"aril+ Me8ican A"erican @ho"e $irl*A in a San Jo*e% !alifornia% *i8th $rade. The+ are clear leader* in the hetero*e8'al *cene and in the con*tr'ction of *t+leJ an+thin$ that Tr'd+ doe* ha* @hi$hli$hted "eanin$ #eca'*e of her po*ition in the a$e cohort a* a c'lt'ral icon. A Eckert 'r$e* '* to *t'd+ the*e lar$er proce**e* of "eanin$ and *t+le con*tr'ction to enrich and infor" o'r collection and anal+*i* of *t+li*ticall+ )aria#le data in inter)ie&*. %li-a eth "raugott note* the contri#'tion* that ?a#o)ian *ociolin$'i*tic* ha* alread+ "ade to o'r 'nder*tandin$ of lan$'a$e chan$e% and e8plore* in her co""entar+ on ?a#o)IS chapter the potential for contri#'tion* in the oppo*ite direction K fro" re*earch on $ra""aticaliHation to the *ociolin$'i*tic *t'd+ of *t+li*tic )ariation <chapter 2=. In $ra""aticaliHation% the tran*ition of )ariant* fro" open: to clo*edcla** ite"* i* central% and *t'd+in$ it often in)ol)e* attendin$ caref'll+ to the $ra""atical% *e"antic% and pra$"atic f'nction* of each for". Mi$ht a *i"ilar per*pecti)e ad)ance the attention:paid:to:*peech approach to *t+le that ?a#o) cha"pion*M Tra'$ottIS an*&er i* +e*% and *he offer* *e)eral ill'*trati)e e8a"ple*. 9or in*tance% #'ildin$ on o#*er)ation* #+ Ellen Prince on )ariation in the iddi*h of Sarah Gor#+% *he *'$$e*t* that open:cla** ite"* "i$ht pla+ a "ore *i$nificant role in con*cio'* *t+le:*hift than clo*ed:cla** ite"* and "orphophone"ic )ariant*. E)en the latter "i$ht in)ol)e $ra""atical f'nction K for in*tance% the <dh= )aria#le that i* *o central in ?a#o)IS anal+*i* "i$ht #e "ore *i$nificant than other phonolo$ical )aria#le* #eca'*e of it* connection &ith definitene** and dei8i* <in &ord* like the) this) that) and there=. More $enerall+% Tra'$ott *'$$e*t* that @*t+le can and *ho'ld #e related to different lin$'i*tic f'nction* a* &ell a* to the different p'rpo*e* of *peaker* '*in$ the"A K a point *he *'pport* #+ notin$ *e"antic and pra$"atic difference* in the '*e of &ord* like obviously) in fact) actually) and anyway( Man+ of the*e in)ol)e the *peakerIS *'#7ecti)e attit'de to di*co'r*e% &hich *he call* @self4designA <@I% A parallelin$ BellIS audience design <you= and referee design <they) we=. Ber re"ark* foc'* on )aria#le* a#o)e the le)el of phonolo$+% recallin$ #'t e8tendin$ ?a)anderaIS t&o:decade*:old o#*er)a: :5,: tion that "orpho*+ntactic and le8ical )ariant* are pol+*e"ic &hile phonolo$ical )ariant* are not% and pointin$ to one direction that the *t'd+ of *t+le a* attention paid to *peech "i$ht fr'itf'll+ p'r*'e. . Audience design and self-identification Allan (ell& alread+ &ell kno&n in the )ariationi*t *t'd+ of *t+le for hi* <502>= a'dience de*i$n "odel <con)enientl+ *'""ariHed in hi* chapter of thi* )ol'"e% chapter 0=% propo*e* *o"e theoretical and "ethodolo$ical refine"ent* and de*cri#e* a ne& re*earch pro7ect he ha* *tarted in Ne& Gealand to te*t *o"e of it* ke+ co"ponent*. A ke+ inno)ation i* that the referee de*i$n co"ponent of the "odel%

in)ol)in$ initiati)e *hift% i* no lon$er tho'$ht of a* appl+in$ onl+ after a'dience de*i$n% or onl+ in occa*ional or e8ceptional ca*e*. Dn the contrar+% the t&o a*pect* of *t+le:*hift are no& concept'aliHed a* potentiall+ @conc'rrent% per)a*i)e proce**e*. A Bell #elie)e* that C'antitati)e "ethod* are likel+ to #e "o*t '*ef'l in the anal+*i* of a'dience de*i$n *t+le:*hift% and C'alitati)e "ethod* for referee de*i$n *t+le:*hift% #'t the di*tinction i* <thankf'll+= not a#*ol'te. Additionall+% Bell note* that the anal+*i* of co:occ'rrence <and pre*'"a#l+ co)ariation= i* i"portant for 'nder*tandin$ *t+le:*hift% #'t little i* *aid a#o't thi* a*pect of the "odel. The ne& re*earch pro7ect that Bell de*i$ned and cond'cted in Ne& Gealand K di*c'**ed in *ection* ; and > of the chapter K repre*ent* a cle)er atte"pt to control *o"e of the ke+ )aria#le*. 9o'r inter)ie&ee* K one "ale and one fe"ale Maori% one "ale and one fe"ale Pakeha <&hite= K are inter)ie&ed on different occa*ion* o)er a three:&eek period% 'nder *i"ilar condition* and on *i"ilar topic*% #+ three different inter)ie&er* &ho )ar+ in $ender and/or ethnicit+. Ee *ee clear e)idence of *t+li*tic )ariation #+ a'dience in the "ale Maori inter)ie&eeIS '*e of <eh=% #'t inter)ie&er*I '*e of thi* )aria#le i* harder to interpret in ter"* of a'dience de*i$n. More of the paper i* de)oted to the anal+*i* of ho& *peaker*I ethnic identitie* and attit'de* are re)ealed thro'$h their pron'nciation of do'#let* <like "ane= &hich can #e read either a* En$li*h "ono*+lla#le* or Maori di*+lla#le*% and of Maori place na"e* &hich can #e $i)en En$li*h or Maori pron'nciation*. The "ale Pakeha inter)ie&ee% lea*t a&are of and *+"pathetic to Maori i**'e*% read all the Maori/En$li*h do'#let* a* En$li*h &ord*% &hile the "ale Maori inter)ie&ee appeared to "ark hi* pride in hi* ethnic herita$e #+ pro)idin$ the "o*t con*i*tentl+ @MaoriA pron'nciation* of the Maori place na"e*. Both C'antitati)e and C'alitati)e data are pre*ented. BellIS paper repre*ent* a &elco"e e8ten*ion to the a'dience de*i$n fra"e&ork% #'t &e &ill ha)e to a&ait later report* for f'ller di*c'**ion of :5;: a'dience de*i$n effect* and for ela#oration on ho& co:occ'rrence and co)ariation are to #e inte$rated into the anal+*i*. Dne other C'e*tion that re"ain* rele)ant to the a'dience de*i$n fra"e&ork% a* to )irt'all+ all the fra"e&ork* in thi* )ol'"e% i* &hether and ho& &e can #e *'re that *peaker* do ha)e prod'cti)e acce** to the f'll ran$e of )ariant* 'nder di*c'**ion. Thi* i* of co'r*e nece**ar+ for interpretin$ '*e or non:'*e a* *t+li*ticall+ *i$nificant. )alcah /aeger-0ror& in co""entin$ on BellIS chapter% addre**e* a lar$er concern a#o't &hat are to #e the pri"iti)e* or #a*ic 'nit* for the anal+*i* of *t+le and ho& the+ *ho'ld #e *t'died <chapter 53=. 9indin$ little a$ree"ent a"on$ the leadin$ fi$'re* in the *t'd+ of *t+li*tic )ariation% incl'din$ tho*e repre*ented in thi* )ol'"e% *he *et* o't to pro)ide clarification a* a #a*i* for f't're con)er$ence. She a$ree* &ith Bell% for in*tance% that a'dience de*i$n and referee de*i$n are &orth+ pri"iti)e* for the *t'd+ of *t+le <*ee BellIS paper for definition*=% and note* their re*pecti)e parallel* &ith !o'plandIS relational and identit+ )aria#le*. B't *he )i$oro'*l+ re7ect* the *'$$e*tion that C'antitati)e "ethod* appl+ onl+ to a'dience de*i$n% pointin$ to *e)eral *t'die* fro" the 5013* to the 5003* in &hich referee or identit+ )aria#le* &ere C'antitati)el+ "ea*'red. At the *a"e ti"e% *he re"ind* '* that the deter"ination of

&hether a *hift i* the for"er or the latter @can onl+ #e "ade #+ caref'l C'alitati)e anal+*i*. A ae$er:Dror al*o re"ind* '* of a &hole *erie* of other para"eter* &ho*e effect* on *t+li*tic )ariation ha)e #een repeatedl+ de"on*trated% #'t &ho*e *tat'* a* *tand:alone pri"iti)e* or "etaphorical *'#pri"iti)e* re"ain* to #e deter"ined. The li*t incl'de* topic% p'rpo*e% *ettin$% plannin$ <N attention to *peech/"e**a$e=% fra"e <N $enre/ke+=% footin$% and *tance <e.$. confrontational/*'pporti)e=% and relatedne** to infor"ational )er*'* interactional para"eter* <nicel+ ill'*trated &ith her o&n anal+*i* of ne$ation=. In her concl'*ion% *he 'r$e* '* to con*ider a &ider ran$e of )aria#le* and c'lt'ral and *ocial *it'ation* a* &e tr+ to deter"ine the opti"al pri"iti)e* for the anal+*i* of *t+le. ?ike J'dith Ir)ine%1i,olas Coupland foc'*e* on *t+le a* di*tincti)ene** <chapter 55=. Ehile Ir)ine concentrate* on co""'nit+ proce**e* that create di*tincti)ene**% reif+in$ partic'lar per*onae and the relation #et&een tho*e per*onae and *e"iotic re*o'rce*% !o'pland concentrate* on the indi)id'al *peakerIS '*e of lin$'i*tic re*o'rce* to e)oke the*e per*onae. To ill'*trate hi* approach to *t+le% !o'pland pro)ide* the e8a"ple of a !ardiff DJ &ho i* pop'larl+ kno&n for hi* pro"otion of local !ardiff c'lt're% and for hi* '*e of non:*tandard dialect in *o doin$. !o'pland *ho&* ho& the DJ '*e* *tandard and non:*tandard !ardiff feat're*% a* &ell a* feat're* fro" nonlocal dialect* *'ch a* !ockne+ and A"erican En$li*h% to in)oke a )ariet+ of *ocial "eanin$*. The*e "eanin$* are #a*ed in *ocial characteriHation* a**o: :5>: ciated &ith *tereot+pic *peaker* of the *o'rce dialect*% #'t the+ interact al*o% !o'pland e"pha*iHe*% &ith *pecific content and conte8t'al factor* to prod'ce all kind* of other "eanin$*. Be point* o't that the*e d+na"ic* cannot #e taken into con*ideration in correlational approache*% *ince the+ in)ol)e "o"ent:to:"o"ent e8pre**i)e *trate$ie* that *i$nal chan$e* in *'ch thin$* a* attit'de or ke+. !o'pland ar$'e* that #eca'*e traditional anal+tic practice foc'*e* on the relation #et&een lan$'a$e '*e and *ocial *tr'ct'ral confi$'ration*% it doe* not en$a$e &ith the *ocial and interacti)e f'nction of lan$'a$e )ariation. !o'pland e"pha*iHe* *peaker a$enc+% foc'*in$ on the *peaker a* perfor"er% and )ie&in$ *t+le a* a *it'ational achie)e"ent rather than *i"pl+ conditioned #+ *it'ational factor*. The *peaker th'* i* not *i"pl+ a re*ponder to conte8t #'t a "aker of conte8t% definin$ *it'ation* and relation*hip*. Th'* he ar$'e* a$ain*t anal+*e* of )ariation that foc'* on one a*pect of identit+% or that #e$in &ith conte8t a* a condition for )ariation% ar$'in$ that *t+le "'*t #e theoriHed &ithin the real" of di*c'r*i)e *ocial action. !o'plandIS chapter ar$'e* a$ain*t 'nidi"en*ional "odel* of *t+le that predo"inate in the *t'd+ of )ariation% ar$'in$ that an+ one of the*e di"en*ion* <*'ch a* attention: paid:to:*peech or for"alit+= interact* &ith an+ n'"#er of other *e"iotic proce**e*. Be )ie&* the feat're* that preocc'p+ the *t'd+ of )ariation a* a *'#*et of *t+li*tic feat're*. The*e @dialect *t+leA feat're*% &hich tend to con*tit'te re$ional dialect differentiation% are related in *t+li*tic *trate$ie* pri"aril+ to identit+ and relational $oal*. A* *'ch% the+ con*tit'te a *'#*et of a &ide ran$e of *t+li*tic feat're* that *er)e not onl+ identit+ and relational $oal*% #'t e8pre**i)e and attit'dinal role* a* &ell.

In re*pon*e to !o'plandIS clai" that co""'nication acco""odation theor+ doe* not addre** i**'e* of *elf:pre*entation%2o3ard 4iles <chapter 5,= #rin$* recent re*earch in *ocial p*+cholo$+ to #ear on a n'"#er of i**'e* rai*ed in !o'plandIS chapter. S'pportin$ !o'plandIS $eneral call for a "'ltidi"en*ional )ie& of *t+le% he pro)ide* a ca'tion to &hat he )ie&* a* an e8tre"e decon*tr'cti)e po*ition% and ar$'e* for a foc'* on *peaker*I and hearer*I int'ition* to te"per the anal+*tIS con*tr'ct*. Be ar$'e* that ina*"'ch a* people acco""odate to @&here the+ believe tar$et other* are% A re*earch need* to e8plore *peaker*I and hearer*I o&n definition* of *it'ation*% identitie*% and *t+le*. Dn the one hand% he *'$$e*t* that participant* "a+ not percei)e all of the *t+le:*hift* that !o'pland identifie* in the DJIS *peech K that *o"e of the" "a+ in fact #e co"ponent* of a lar$er *t+le K and on the other hand% he point* to findin$* that hearer* "a+ percei)e *t+le*hift* &hen in fact there ha* #een no chan$e in lin$'i*tic o'tp't% on the #a*i* of non:lin$'i*tic factor*. Be concl'de* hi* co""entar+ &ith a *et of f'nda"ental and challen$in$ C'e*tion* that he &o'ld po*e to a *t'd+ of *t+le. :54: #ohn 'ic,ford$s co""entar+ on !o'plandI* chapter a$ree* &ith "an+ of !o'plandI* critiC'e* of 'nidi"en*ional *t'die* of *t+le% #'t e"pha*iHe* the i"portance of e8pandin$ rather than replacin$ approache* to *t+le <chapter 5;=. Be ar$'e* that *ociolin$'i*tic* ha* a "'ltiplicit+ of $oal*% and that different approache* to *t+le &ill *'it different $oal*. Partic'larl+% he note* that the $oal* and a**'"ption* that 'nderlie the @*ociall+ con*tit'ted *ociolin$'i*tic*A of B+"e*% "ake non:dialectal a*pect* of *t+le <e.$. le8ical )ariation% addre** ter"*% and t+pe* of *peech e)ent*= of central concern% &hile the*e a*pect* of *t+le are peripheral $i)en the $oal* and a**'"ption* that 'nderlie the @*ociall+ reali*tic *ociolin$'i*tic*A of ?a#o). Ehile Rickford a$ree* that the *t'd+ of *t+le "'*t reco$niHe that *t+le i* an @acti)e% "oti)ated% *+"#olic proce**% A he ca'tion* a$ain*t re7ectin$ the "ore predicta#le% often a'to"atic% a*pect* of *t+li*tic )ariation that are the foc'* of C'antitati)e *t'die* of )ariation. Be al*o ca'tion* a$ain*t di*cardin$ the e"pirical ad)anta$e* of 'nidi"en*ional "odel* of *t+le% and a$ain*t di*cardin$ the *ocial $ro'p or cate$or+ in fa)or of foc'*in$ on indi)id'al* and their *trate$ie*% ar$'in$ that an 'nder*tandin$ of *t+le reC'ire* a "'ltiplicit+ of approache*. Rickford e"#race* !o'plandI* foc'* on $oal*% #'t C'e*tion* hi* di*tinction #et&een dialect *t+le and other &a+* of *peakin$. Be ar$'e* that not onl+ are feat're* of dialect *t+le capa#le of di*tin$'i*hin$ ideational "eanin$*% #'t that &a+* of *peakin$ often fi$'re in dialect differentiation. In part ; of hi* co""entar+% Rickford pre*ent* an e8a"ple of a G'+ane*e radio per*onalit+% *ho&in$ ho& he '*e* a )ariet+ of re*o'rce* in &a+* *i"ilar to !o'plandI* DJ% reinforcin$ !o'plandI* o#*er)ation of the "o"ent:#+:"o"ent co"ple8it+ of *t+li*tic )ariation. B't he then rai*e* the C'e*tion of &hether the e8tent of thi* *t+liHin$ i* not *pecific to p'#lic perfor"ance* K &hether the po**i#ilitie* for the '*e of e8tre"e *t+liHation do not increa*e &ith the *iHe of the a'dience. Be *pec'late* that the*e "a+ #e C'ite di*tinct kind* of perfor"ance*% and C'e*tion* the e8tent to &hich &e can $eneraliHe fro" #roadca*t *t+le* *'ch a* the*e to e)er+da+ *poken *t+le*. 5 Functionally motivated situational variation

A f'nda"ental fact of *t+li*tic )ariation i* that *ocial and *t+li*tic )ariation "irror each other% and %d3ard Finegan and 0ouglas (i er$s chapter <5>= offer* an e8planation for thi* fact that differ* f'nda"entall+ fro" "o*t &ork on )ariation. Bell ha* "ade e8plicit &hat ha* #een taken for $ranted in )ariation *t'die*% that i*% that *ocial )ariation i* f'nda"ental% and that *t+li*tic )ariation i* deri)ati)e. <Pre*ton adopt* thi* )ie&% #'t *'#ordinate* #oth *ocial and *t+li*tic )ariation to lin$'i*tic con*traint*.= 9ine$an and Bi#er% :5F: ho&e)er% offer a )ie& in &hich *it'ation* are f'nda"ental. The+ propo*e a @Re$i*ter A8io"A that 'nite* )aria#le* #+ their co:occ'rrence in re$i*ter*% t+in$ re$i*ter* to the kind* of *it'ation* in &hich the+ are '*ed% and e8plainin$ *ocial $ro'p*I differential '*e of )ariant* in ter"* of differential acce** to the *it'ation* in &hich their re$i*ter* are '*ed. Thi* "odel e8tend* to acco'nt for lin$'i*tic con*traint* on )ariation a* &ell% and it i* the interaction #et&een lin$'i*tic con*traint and *it'ation that i* at it* heart. 9ollo&in$ a n'"#er of other anal+*t* <Bern*tein 5015% -roch 5012% Beath 502;=% 9ine$an and Bi#er ar$'e that *ocial and *t+li*tic )aria#le* co""onl+ fall alon$ a contin''" #et&een *i"plification and ela#oration. The+ tie the*e to a ta8ono"+ of *it'ation* a* "ore or le** literate% hence "ore or le** planned% "ore infor"ational or "ore affecti)e in p'rpo*e% and in)ol)in$ le** or "ore *hared conte8t #et&een interloc'tor*. More literate *it'ation*% then% reC'ire "ore ela#orated lan$'a$e% &hile le** literate *it'ation* call for $reater econo"+. A$ain*t a #ack$ro'nd of pre)io'* anal+*e* of corp'* data that confir" thi* h+pothe*i*% the+ $o on to e8a"ine three *ocioecono"ic $ro'p* of *peaker* fro" the Briti*h National !orp'*% findin$ that "'ch of the *it'ational )ariation the+ ha)e fo'nd i* not "irrored in *ocial difference*. +esley )ilroy$s co""entar+ on 9ine$an and Bi#erI* paper pre*ent* *e)eral ar$'"ent* a$ain*t a *in$le "odel that enco"pa**e* *'ch a )a*t arra+ of t+pe* and a*pect* of *it'ational )aria#ilit+ <chapter 54=. She point* to the hetero$eneit+ of the )aria#le* that 9ine$an and Bi#er *eek to acco'nt for% and the #readth and hetero$eneit+ of the *cholar*hip that "'*t #e #ro'$ht to #ear% C'e*tionin$ #oth the fea*i#ilit+ and the de*ira#ilit+ of *'ch an o)erarchin$ acco'nt. The core of Milro+I* di*c'**ion lie* in the di*tinction #et&een literate and non:literate *t+le* K a di*tinction that 9ine$an and Bi#er treat a* *o"e&hat contin'o'*% and a* *pannin$ &ritten and *poken $enre*. Ehile Milro+ a$ree* &ith 9ine$an and Bi#er that differential acce** to literar+ practice i* central to an acco'nt of differentiated lin$'i*tic repertoire*% *he take* C'ite a different approach to the *i$nificance of literac+ in thi* )aria#ilit+. Ehere 9ine$an and Bi#er foc'* on deper*onaliHation% lack of *hared conte8t% and infor"ational priorit+ in literar+ $enre*% Milro+ propo*e* that the ke+ i**'e in the literateKnon:literate di*tinction i* colla#orati)it+. Specificall+% *he point* o't the i"portance of di*tin$'i*hin$ #et&een con)er*ation% &hich i* f'nda"entall+ interacti)e% and "onolo$ic di*co'r*e% &hich i* not. She ar$'e* that econo"+ and ela#oration are a colla#orati)e enterpri*e in interacti)e di*co'r*e% and hence not to #e fo'nd in the '*e of partic'lar *tr'ct're* #+ indi)id'al *peaker*. In other &ord*% the act'al loc'* of the feat're* that 9ine$an and Bi#er are concerned &ith i* different in the t&o kind* of di*co'r*e.

:51: Milro+ al*o challen$e* "ore $enerall+ their clai" that it i* econo"+ that characteriHe* *ocial difference* in *peech% pro)idin$ e)idence of in*tance* in &hich )ernac'lar* are "ore @ela#orateA than their *tandard eC'i)alent*% and *'$$e*tin$ that on the contrar+% *tandard )arietie* in fact often e8hi#it the *i"plified characteri*tic* of contact lan$'a$e*. Milro+ al*o C'e*tion* the $ro'pin$ of hetero$eneo'* )aria#le*% 'nder*corin$ the i"portance of dra&in$ a clear di*tinction #et&een )aria#le* that are referentiall+ eC'i)alent and pri"aril+ indicator* of identit+ <i.e. cla**ic *ociolin$'i*tic )aria#le*=% and tho*e that ha)e a non:*ocial co""'nicati)e f'nction. 0ennis Preston$s co""entar+ <chapter 5F= treat* thi* latter point at len$th% dra&in$ a contra*t #et&een 9ine$an and Bi#erI* approach to )aria#ilit+ and the approach taken #+ C'antitati)e *t'die* of )ariation. Pre*ton foc'*e* on 9ine$an and Bi#erI* clai" that it i* *it'ational factor* that *tr'ct're *t+li*tic )ariation <and hence *ocial )ariation=% a direct contradiction of BellI* <502>.545= ar$'"ent that *t+li*tic )ariation i* para*itic on *ocial )ariation. Be ar$'e* that thi* i* an incorrect concl'*ion *te""in$ fro" 9ine$an and Bi#erI* fail're to di*tin$'i*h a"on$ t+pe* of )aria#le. The cla**ic *ociolin$'i*tic )aria#le% &hich ha* #een fo'nd to )ar+ *+*te"aticall+ accordin$ to *t+le and *ocioecono"ic *tat'*% con*i*t* of )ariant* that are eC'i)alent in e)er+ &a+ e8cept *ociall+. Variant* of cla**ic *ociolin$'i*tic )aria#le* are interchan$ea#le in the *a"e di*co'r*e conte8t% potentiall+ +ieldin$ *ocial inappropriatene** #'t not a&k&ard con*tr'ction*. Pre*ton ar$'e* that the fe& )aria#le* that 9ine$an and Bi#er fo'nd to *ho& *ocial a* &ell a* re$i*tral )ariation &ere of thi* t+pe. The re*t of 9ine$an and Bi#erI* )aria#le*% Pre*ton ar$'e*% are not of thi* t+pe. Rather% in the*e ca*e*% the choice of )ariant* i* con*trained #+ the infor"ation *tr'ct're* characteri*tic of the te8t* in C'e*tion rather than #+ the *ocial *it'ation* the"*el)e*. :52:

. "he anatomy of style-shifting

William Labov

! "a6onomies of style and their uses

The de)elop"ent of *ociolin$'i*tic "ethodolo$+ ha* &itne**ed a contin'al ten*ion #et&een t&o approache* to conte8t'al *t+le. *t+le:*hiftin$ a* a nat'rali*tic% ethno$raphic pheno"enon% and *t+le:*hiftin$ a* a controlled de)ice for "ea*'rin$ the d+na"ic* of *ociolin$'i*tic )ariation. 5 In "an+ &a+*% the nat'rali*tic approach i* the "o*t i""ediatel+ appealin$ and *ati*f+in$. Ee &o'ld like to kno& a* "'ch a* po**i#le a#o't the &a+* that *peaker* *hift for"* and freC'encie* in the co'r*e of e)er+:da+ life. Styleshifting *ee"* to #e one of the ke+* to &hat &e no& *ee a* the central pro#le" of the theor+ of lan$'a$e chan$e. the tran*"i**ion pro#le". In

the course of linguistic change& children learn to spea, differently from their parents& and in the same direction that their parents learned to tal, differently from their o3n parents. To trace thi* po*t:)ernac'lar reor$aniHation% &e &ill need to record the
d+na"ic inter:pla+ #et&een *peaker* and their *t+le* in the *ocial *etttin$* of "o*t *i$nificance to their life chance*. The kind* of data needed are )er+ e8actin$. hi$h C'alit+ recordin$* &ith "ini"'" o#tr'*i)ene** of $ro'p interaction* in &hich a &ell: kno&n indi)id'al interact* &ith a )ariet+ of interloc'tor* and *ocial *it'ation* <Bindle 5023% !'kor:A)ila 5004% !o'pland 5023% Bell 502>=. The diffic'lt+ of o#tainin$ *'ch data "ean* that &e cannot rea*ona#l+ e8pect to o#tain a repre*entati)e *a"ple of *t+le:*hiftin$ for an entire co""'nit+ #+ thi* "ean*. The "o*t *olid and replica#le findin$* of *ociolin$'i*tic* *o far re*t on repre*entati)e *t'die* of co""'nitie* thro'$h co"para#le inter)ie&*% and in "o*t ca*e*% thi* in)ol)e* the clo*e *t'd+ of *t+li*tic difference* &ithin the inter)ie&% that i*% intra:*peaker )ariation 24 OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 5 Thro'$ho't thi* paper% I ha)e #een dra&in$ 'pon the &ork and the idea* of "an+ *t'dent* in ?in$'i*tic* 4F3% The St'd+ of the Speech !o""'nit+% one of the pri"ar+ *ite* of inno)ation* in *ociolin$'i*tic "ethodolo$+ o)er the pa*t fe& decade*. I a" eC'all+ inde#ted to "+ a**ociate* in the Pro7ect on ?in$'i*tic !han$e and Variation in Philadelphia% *'pported #+ NS9% and in partic'lar to Anne

Bo&er and De#orah Schiffrin% &ho did the anal+*i* of the *ta#le *ociolin$'i*tic )aria#le* in Philadelphia &hich pro)ide* the pri"ar+ data of thi* *t'd+. :24: &here the interloc'tor* and the *ocial *it'ation are ro'$hl+ con*tant. So"e co""'nit+ *t'die* ha)e e8ploited the difference* #et&een inter)ie&er* <An*hen 50F0=% and other* ha)e o#tained a *iHea#le *erie* of recordin$* in)ol)in$ $ro'p interaction <G'"perH 50F>% ?a#o) et al. 50F2% Do'$la*!o&ie 5012% ?a#o) and Barri* 502F=. B't on the &hole% the direct *t'd+ of *t+le:*hiftin$ in *ocial $ro'p* ha* #een an a'8iliar+ 'ndertakin$% de*i$ned to thro& li$ht on the "ain findin$* of the co""'nit+ pattern. The*e findin$* in re$ard to *t+le "a+ #e o'tlined 'nder *i8 headin$*. 5. SD!IA?/ST ?ISTI! S MMETR . Ehile pre)io'* *t'die* <-en+on 50>2= had ar$'ed that c'lt'ral le)el* are di*tinct fro" f'nctional )arietie*% in act'al fact co""'nitie* di*pla+ #oth *ocial *tratification and *t+li*tic *tratification &ith the *a"e )aria#le. 9or a *ta#le *ociolin$'i*tic )aria#le% re$'lar *tratification i* fo'nd for each conte8t'al *t+leJ and con)er*el+% all $ro'p* *hift alon$ the *a"e *t+li*tic di"en*ion in the *a"e direction &ith ro'$hl+ *lope* of *t+le:*hiftin$. ,. BE??IS PRIN!IP?E. In $eneral% the ran$e of *ocial *tratification i* $reater than the ran$e of *t+li*tic *tratification% *o that one "a+ infer that *peaker* deri)e their *t+li*tic para"eter* fro" o#*er)ation* of *ocial difference* in the '*e of lan$'a$e <Bell 502>J Pre*ton 5020=. ;. TBE !RDSS:DVER PATTERN. The *econd hi$he*t *tat'* $ro'p &ill nor"all+ *ho& a $reater *lope *t+le:*hiftin$ than other* <?a#o) 50FF#=. Ehen chan$e i* in pro$re**% thi* "a+ act'all+ re)er*e *ocial *tratification for the "o*t e8tre"e *t+le*. Thi* con*ideration applie* to #oth the *ocioecono"ic and $ender a8e* of *ocial differentiation. >. ST ?ISTI! REINTERPRETATIDN. Gro'p* of *peaker* &ho are in contact &ith the co""'nit+ #'t are *till e8cl'ded fro" it* "ain ri$ht* and pri)ile$e* &ill often participate in the '*e of lin$'i*tic )aria#le* &ith altered *t+li*tic pattern*. Thi* applie* to "inorit+ ethnic $ro'p* <Poplack 5012% ?a#o) 50F;=% children of the "ain*trea" co""'nit+% and $eo$raphic nei$h#or* of *"aller *iHe <Modare**i:Tehrani 5012=. 4. ST ?ISTI! EVD?UTIDN. St+le:*hiftin$ i* not fo'nd in the earlie*t *ta$e* of lin$'i*tic chan$e% #'t #eco"e* *tron$er a* the chan$e "at're* and i* "a8i"iHed if the feat're i* a**i$ned pre*ti$e or *ocial *ti$"a a* the chan$e reache* co"pletion <?a#o) 50F4=. F. TBE SD!ID?INGUISTI! INTER9A!E. In $eneral% *t+le:*hiftin$ i* related to the de$ree* of *ocial a&arene** of a lin$'i*tic )aria#le #+ "e"#er* of the co""'nit+% &hich in t'rn i* #a*ed on the le)el of a#*tractne** in the *tr'ct're* in)ol)ed. Ma8i"al *t+le:*hiftin$ i* characteri*ticall+ fo'nd in the alternation of allophone* and "orpholo$ical *te"*. Difference* in phonolo$ical in)entor+ and a#*tract *+ntactic pattern* are nor"all+ con*tant acro** conte8t'al *t+le% #'t e8ception* can #e fo'nd <?a#o) 500;=. :2F: The*e findin$* of the *econd half of the t&entieth cent'r+ &ere not predicted #+ earlier% int'iti)e &ritin$* on the *'#7ect of *t+le <-en+on 50>2% Joo* 50F5=. The+ ha)e recei)ed *tron$ *'pport fro" con)er$ent *t'die*. et for each% there are area* of

'ncertaint+ and "+*ter+ that de"and f'rther e8ploration. 9or e8a"ple% BellI* principle can #e *'pported #+ a $reat "an+ co""'nit+ *t'die*J #'t Van den BroekI* *t'd+ of *+ntactic co"ple8it+ in Maa*eik *ho&* the re)er*e relation*hip <5011=J it re"ain* to #e deter"ined &hat the li"it* of thi* principle are. Tho'$h in $eneral% a#*tract *tr'ct'ral pattern* are not the topic of *ocial e)al'ation% ne$ati)e concord in En$li*h i* a *trikin$ co'ntere8a"ple. Bo& thi* *+ntactic )aria#le ca"e to #e *o hi$hl+ e)al'ated i* a "atter of $reat intere*t. It doe* not *ee" likel+ that nat'rali*tic indi)id'al *t'die* of *t+le:*hiftin$ &ill contri#'te to the re*ol'tion of the*e 'ncertaintie*% or 'nco)er "ore lar$e:*cale co""'nit+ pattern* of thi* t+pe. 2 *hat is style after all7 Man+ di*c'**ion* of *t+le hope to 'nif+ all the pheno"ena &ithin a *in$le di"en*ion. The or$aniHation of conte8t'al *t+le* alon$ the a8i* of attention paid to *peech <?a#o) 50FFa= &a* not intended a* a $eneral de*cription of ho& *t+le:*hiftin$ i* prod'ced and or$aniHed in e)er+:da+ *peech% #'t rather a* a &a+ of or$aniHin$ and '*in$ the intra:*peaker )ariation that occ'r* in the inter)ie&. BellI* contention that all *t+li*tic )ariation i* a prod'ct of a'dience de*i$n can #e e8tended #+ i"a$inati)el+ treatin$ intra*peaker )ariation a* a for" of "etaphor. *peaker* *peakin$ to the *a"e a'dience as if the+ &ere a different a'dience. , Bo&e)er% thi* ar$'"ent doe*nIt appl+ to the findin$* of Prince <5021=% that *t+li*tic )ariation in the iddi*h of Sarah Gor#+ &a* con*idera#l+ $reater for content &ord* than for f'nction &ord*. Bere it &o'ld *ee" clear that it i* the diffc'lt+ of $i)in$ the *a"e de$ree of attention to f'nction &ord* a* to content &ord* that i* re*pon*i#le for the effect. Gi)en the fact that #oth adaptation to different a'dience* and different de$ree* of a'dio:"onitorin$ are in)ol)ed in *t+le:*hiftin$% it #eco"e* a "a7or pro#le" to apportion the )ariance a"on$ the*e t&o effect*% and to deri)e the hi$her le)el $eneraliHation that &ill predict the re*'lt. A &ide ran$e of *t+li*tic *t'die* &o'ld #e needed to e8plore thi* "atter f'rtherJ it &ill #e nece**ar+ to track and co"pare #oth intra:*peaker and inter*peaker )ariation acro** *e)eral different conte8t*. In an+ ca*e% the *t'd+ of intra:*peaker )ariation "'*t #e p'r*'ed *+*te"aticall+. Thi* report i* intended a* a contri#'tion to that *+*te"atic *t'd+. OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO , Indeed% G'"perHI* ori$inal ter" for inter:*peaker )ariation &a* meta"horical shifting) a* oppo*ed to transactional shifting <G'"perH 50F>=. :21: 3 Cues to the identification of style An+ *ociolin$'i*tic *t'd+ that foc'*e* 'pon lin$'i*tic )aria#le* *ho'ld contain a *ection for for"al elicitation and e8peri"ent* on *peech perception. In the*e area* of controlled *peech% it i* a *i"ple "atter to re$'late the a"o'nt of attention paid to *peech% and there are no real challen$e* to #e "et here. The "ain pro#le" i* to di*tin$'i*h relia#l+ le)el* of *t+le:*hiftin$ in *pontaneo'* *peech% &here the in)e*ti$ator ha* no e8peri"ental control* and in fact *eek* to lo&er to the "ini"'" the de$ree of control e8erci*ed o)er the flo& of *peech <?a#o) 502>=. The "a7or concern ori$inall+ &a* to di*tin$'i*h @!a*'alA fro" @!aref'lA *peech. A$ain% there i*

no pro#le" in definin$ !aref'l *peech. it i* defined a* the "ain #od+ of con)er*ational e8chan$e* #et&een the inter)ie&er and the *'#7ect. Bere the *ocial *it'ation i* defined a* @an inter)ie&A% a &ell:defined $enre in &hich the inter)ie&er a*k* C'e*tion* and o#tain* an*&er* fro" the *'#7ectI* #io$raph+. The pri"ar+ $oal of all *ociolin$'i*tic inter)ie&in$ i* to alter thi* $o)ernin$ *it'ation infor"all+ *o that it approache* a* clo*el+ a* po**i#le the for"at of a con)er*ation #et&een people &ho are &ell acC'ainted% if not friend*. Eith )ar+in$ de$ree* of *'cce**% the inter)ie&er con*tr'ct* a *+""etrical e8chan$e of idea* and reaction*% definin$ hi"*elf or her*elf a* the perfect and attenti)e li*tener% &ith no other $oal* and a"#ition* #'t to learn a* "'ch a* po**i#le fro" the *'#7ectI* life e8perience. Ehile the inter)ie&er lead* the con)er*ation to&ard* topic* of "a8i"al intere*t and e"otional in)ol)e"ent% he or *he i* &illin$ at the fir*t opport'nit+ to re"it control o)er the direction of the con)er*ation% and follo& the *'#7ectI* lead. The re*'lt of thi* effort i* an ho'r or "ore of recorded *pontaneo'* *peechJ the $oal of *t+li*tic anal+*i* i* to di*en$a$e tho*e *ection* &here the effect* of o#*er)ation and a'dio:"onitorin$ are "o*t clearl+ di"ini*hed% &hich co"e a* clo*e a* po**i#le to the )ernac'lar *peech that i* '*ed &hen the inter)ie&er i* a#*ent. The fir*t approach that I took to thi* pro#le" &a* to define fi)e conte8t* in &hich the effect* of o#*er)ation &ere "o*t likel+ to #e di"ini*hed. <5= *peech o't*ide the inter)ie& for"at% <,= *peech &ith a third per*on% <;= *peech not in re*pon*e to a C'e*tion% <>= talk a#o't kid*I $a"e*% and <4= the dan$er of death C'e*tion <?a#o) 50FFa=. T&o of the*e conte8t* in)ol)e *hift* in a'dience de*i$n% and three in)ol)e "etaphorical *hift* of topic and con)er*ational $enre. Shift* in the a'dience ha)e #een a "a7or co"ponent of all the *ociolin$'i*tic *t'die* in &hich I ha)e #een in)ol)ed% and *o"eti"e* the pri"ar+ "ean* of controllin$ *t+le:*hiftin$. Bo&e)er% &e cannot e8pect to $ather *'ch data in a lar$e proportion of a co""'nit+ *'r)e+% and the "ain #od+ of ca*'al *peech co"e* fro" the la*t three conte8t*. In 50FF% I tried to *hrink the *ection* of ca*'al *peech #+ incl'din$ onl+ :22: tho*e &here an act'al *t+le:*hift occ'rred% rather than *ection* &here *t+le*hiftin$ &a* likel+ to occ'r. Thi* &a* done #+ the '*e of channel c'e*. chan$e* in )ol'"e% pitch% te"po% #reathin$ and la'$hter that are independent of the lin$'i*tic )aria#le* #'t *i$nal o)erall *hift of lin$'i*tic #eha)ior and e"otional in)ol)e"ent. Eith one or t&o e8ception*% "o*t other re*earcher* ha)e decided not to follo& that ro'te% *ince it &a* not ea*+ to $et relia#le e)idence that the *a"e criteria &ere #ein$ follo&ed. The $eneral reaction &a* to prefer to '*e conte8t'al criteria *'ch a* <5= to <4= alone% and thi* *ee"* to #e the clear con*en*'* of the field. 4 "he 0ecision "ree The "o*t )i$oro'* de)elop"ent of *t+li*tic anal+*i* occ'rred in the earl+ +ear* of the co'r*e ?in$'i*tic* 4F3% The St'd+ of the Speech !o""'nit+ at Penn% in the 5013*. Bere &e de)eloped ei$ht conte8t'al criteria a* a deci*ion tree for the anal+*i* of *pontaneo'* *peech% and applied the tree to a lar$e n'"#er of inter)ie&* < fi$'re 4.5 =. 9o'r of the conte8t* are cate$oriHed $enerall+ a* -asual s"eech <on the ri$ht=% and fo'r define -areful s"eech <on the left=. The deci*ion* are arran$ed in the order of

decrea*in$ o#7ecti)it+% *o that the fir*t fo'r deci*ion* can #e "ade &ith the hi$he*t de$ree of relia#ilit+. RESPDNSE. The fir*t c't i* to *eparate the fir*t *entence that follo&* *peech of the inter)ie&er a* a Res"onse( Thi* incl'de* the fir*t *entence of a narrati)e% a tan$ent% or an+ other t+pe of *peech e)ent. The *entence "a+ not ha)e a f'll finite )er#% #'t a re*pon*e &ill #e "ore than a #ack channel feed#ack% or an echo. ; In the e8a"ple* &hich follo&% the *ection* coded a* Re*pon*e are in *C'are #racket*. NARRATIVE. The *econd *tep in the deci*ion tree i* to *et a*ide all per*onal narrati)e* a* a *eparate cate$or+ <after e8cl'din$ the fir*t *entence a* a re*pon*e=. Since the inter)ie&in$ techniC'e* here place a hi$h pre"i'" on the elicitation of per*onal narrati)e* K dra"atiHed acco'nt* of e)ent* a* percei)ed #+ the *peaker K thi* ha* pro)ed to #e the *in$le "o*t i"portant #a*i* for a di)i*ion of *pontaneo'* *peech. In the *i8t+:odd ann'al $ro'p report* co"pleted #+ *t'dent* in ?in$'i*tic* 4F3% it i* rare to find a lin$'i*tic )aria#le that doe* not *hift *i$nificantl+ to&ard* the )ernac'lar le)el in narrati)e a* oppo*ed to other *peech *t+le*. Bere per*onal narrati)e* are di*tin$'i*hed fro" p*e'do:narrati)e* OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO ; So"e 7'*tification for thi* di*tinction can #e fo'nd in the *t'd+ of a S+dne+ hi$h *chool #+ Ei*iko)it* <5025=. She di*tin$'i*hed all 'tterance* &here *he &a* the pre)io'* *peaker fro" tho*e &here another *t'dent &a* the pre)io'* *peaker. 9or the "a7orit+ of the lin$'i*tic )aria#le*% the $irl* *hifted in her direction &hen *he &a* the la*t *peaker% &hile the #o+* "o)ed in the oth <acco'nt* of *eC'ence* that are *aid to ha#it'all+ occ'r% a* in we9d "ut u" the :x;9S first <=% chronicle* <'ndra"atiHed acco'nt* of e8tended e)ent*% all of a#o't the *a"e d'ration=% and narrati)e* of )icario'* e8perience% &here the *peaker* rehear*e e)ent* that the+ did not act'all+ &itne**. The follo&in$ e8a"ple of narrati)e *t+le% like the other e8a"ple* to follo&% i* fro" an inter)ie& &ith a *i8t+:*e)en:+ear:old third $eneration Philadelphian of Iri*h de*cent inter)ie&ed in -en*in$ton #+ Anne Bo&er in 501>. To" McInt+re <T. M.= &a* a "iddle &orkin$ cla** *peaker &ho '*ed a controlled and deli#erate% ea*il+ paced *t+leJ the challen$e of elicitin$ ca*'al *peech &a* a *'#*tantial one. The e8a"ple* $i)en are de*i$ned to ill'*trate and contra*t the $eneral le)el of )oca#'lar+ and $ra""ar a**ociated &ith each *t+le% in thi* e8a"ple% &ith a narrati)e *t+le. Bracket* deli"it the Re*pon*e portion of the e8cerpt. Parenthe*e* *ho& the re"ark* of the inter)ie&er. <5= IVER. Did +o' ha)e a fa)orite teacherM T. M.. A fa)orite teacherM <A fa)orite n'n=. 9a)orite n'n% Si*ter Ur*'la. <Si*ter &hoM= PUr*'la. She &a* an elderl+ *i*ter and *he &a* )er+% )er+ niceQ. Man+ a ti"e *he patted "e and 'h <+o' pro#a#l+ de*er)ed it too=. eah. E" K &hen I &a* older &e &ere 'h:&ell a* 'h K +o' kno&% in "+ teen* +et I &a* 'h% &ith "+ "other and father. Eell *he '*ed to *top in o'r ho"e% Si*ter Ur*'la% and 'h K &e &ere talkin$ o't there and 'h% *he &a* talkin$ a#o't "e% +o' kno&% *he ta'$ht "e. And I *aid% @Ehen I &a* in +o'r roo" I $ot $ood "ark*% didnIt

I% *i*terMA She *aid% @ o' *'re did. A I rolled 'p "+ *lee)e and I *aid% @I *till ha)e *o"e of the"RA I *aid. < o' $ot her=. Eell% *he *"acked "e in the face then. ?ANGUAGE. To&ard* the end of the inter)ie&% there &ere al&a+* C'e*tion* a#o't $ra""ar% attit'de* to&ard* Philadelphia% Philadelphia dialect% and lan$'a$e in $eneral% a* &ell a* "ini"al pair*. Thi* or an+ other *ection &here the topic &a* lan$'a$e% &a* *et a*ide 'nder the ne8t deci*ion. <,= IVER. Ehat &o'ld it "ean to +o' if *o"eone *aid% @John drink* a lot an+"oreAM. T. M.. PI think he drink* a lot an+"oreQ. That "ean* heI* increa*ed hi* drinkin$ I &o'ld *a+% +eah. IVER. Barr+ pla+* hand#all an+"oreM T. M.. PEell% he ne)er '*ed to pla+ that "'ch #efore.Q No& heI* increa*in$ hi* acti)it+ in the *port an K <It doe*nIt "ean he doe*nIt like to pla+M= No% definitel+ not. GRDUP. The *econd portion a**i$ned to the @!a*'al SpeechA cate$or+ &a* an+ *peech addre**ed to third per*on* other than the inter)ie&er. Thi* corre*pond* to conte8t* <5= and <,= in the 50FF approach. Since thi* did not occ'r in the To" McInt+re inter)ie&% no e8a"ple* are $i)en here. :03: SDAPBDS. Thi* i* the fir*t of three deci*ion* that are le** o#7ecti)e than the precedin$. The Soap#o8 *t+le i* characteriHed a* an e8tended e8pre**ion of $eneraliHed opinion*% not *poken directl+ to the inter)ie&er% #'t en'nciated a* if for a "ore $eneral a'dience. The chief characteri*tic* are an ele)ated )ol'"e le)el and a repetiti)e rhetoric. In "an+ inter)ie&*% *peaker* di*co'r*e at len$th on *'ch co""on topic* a* the pre)alence of cri"e in the *treet*% the corr'pt character of the police or local $o)ern"ent% the #eha)ior of "inoritie*% and *o on. Since thi* repre*ent* a lar$e part of the inter)ie& ti"e% it i* i"portant to di*tin$'i*h it fro" tan$ent* <*ee #elo&=. In thi* e8a"ple% T. M. take* the Soap#o8 *t+le to e8pre** a "ore li#eral )ie&point% a* indicated in italic*. <;= IVER. Bo& did +o'r dad feel a#o't itM T. M.. PI donIt think he &a* *o "'ch eh K to a #i$oted C'ite% +o' kno&% #'t he &a* a *trict on 'h% li)inI 'p to hi* reli$ion.Q Be &a* a practical !atholic and ehh K #'t aah K I "ean he &o'ldnIt fi$'re an+one &a* no $ood #eca'*e the+ &erenIt !atholic% 'h K like a lot of that &ent on in tho*e da+*..oday they9re trying to dis"el a lot of that which ehh4 is a good thing) I think) because the only thing that kee"s "eo"le se"arated is ignorance and if you dis"el the ignorance your = your "roblem is licked( Uh( And then to "rove that = uh = I don9t care a lot for football) and "eo"le that go cra7y over it) well I = the only reason I don9t care for it is ignorance because I never went so dee" into finding out about first down) second down) and what the rules of the game really are( And if I did this) uh = I would "robably like it as much as anyone else) but the fact I don9t know these things) and it makes me ignorant of the game) and the same with a "erson( If you don9t know a "erson) you9re ignorant of what ty"e of "erson that "erson is) and rather than try to find out) you %ust ignore him because he9s $rotestant or he9s -atholic or he9s whatever) and if you would sto" and talk to that "erson) and find out what = uh = what a beautiful "erson they are) and the religion has nothing to do with it(

-IDS. It i* a *i"ple "atter to identif+ the topic* of kid*I $a"e*% kid*I e8perience*% and *o on. B't not all *peech on thi* topic C'alifie* for thi* deci*ion. An ad'lt can talk a#o't childrenI* e8perience fro" an ad'lt point of )ie&% or fro" the kid*I point of )ie&. It i* the latter that &e &ant to *et a*ide a* a co"ponent of ca*'al *peech. The '*e of we rather than they i* a '*ef'l cl'e% #'t it i* the o)erall per*pecti)e &hich co'nt* "o*t. In the follo&in$ e8a"ple% T. M. #e$in* &ith a $eneral o#*er)ation a#o't parent*% plainl+ takin$ the ad'lt point of )ie&. Be then "o)e* on to hi* childrenI* e8perience% and then% in re*pon*e to the inter)ie&erI* pro#e% *hift* to hi* per*onal e8perience. The *t+li*tic *hift i* a *trikin$ one. <>= T. M.. o' donIt *ee parent* takin$ their children o't *o "'ch like that% &here the+ can ha)e their o&n f'n and plea*'re% +o' kno&. I '*ed to take the" o't% the+Id $o 'p the crick and &eId ha)e a *tick e)en &ith a line onto it L and the+ &o'ld :05: fi*h in the creek and "a+#e the+ &o'ldnIt. <!o'ld +o' eat &hat +o' ca'$htM= 2o) we = no = because you get these little sunfish and all that = and aaah when I was a boy we had = right u" above !rie Avenue here was a little woods) and we had = a creek run under the rail road through there and had these crayfish) there were like little lobster) and we used to catch them for fun) and they had a big farm that we used to have to cross and the guy would shoot the rocks all at us) you know) and we9d run so) every once in a while you could steal a tomato) as you9re on your way through < TANGENTS. The la*t of the cate$orie* to fall into the !a*'al r'#ric i* the Tan$ent% defined a* an e8tended #od+ of *peech that de)iate* plainl+ fro" the la*t topic introd'ced #+ the inter)ie&er% and repre*ent* the *tron$ intere*t of the *peaker. In thi* e8a"ple% the inter)ie&er ha* #een a*kin$ a#o't other ethnic $ro'p* #e*ide* the Iri*h in North Philadelphia. T. M.IS re*pon*e #e$in* &ith an acco'nt of a Black ice:crea" )endor% #'t then "o)e* on to another )endor &ho had nothin$ to do &ith ethnic difference*. <4= IVER. Ea* it hard for an Italian kid to 7oin a $ro'p of $'+*M T. M.. No. I &o'ldnIt *a+ *o% no. Not &hen I &a* a kid. IVER. Bo& a#o't Poli*hM T. M.. PNor Poli*h either% no.Q And &hen I &a* a kid% I LI donIt kno& &hen 'h K the fir*t ti"e I *a& a #lack per*on. Uh% "a+#e 'h *o"eti"e on a &a$on. Dn &e did ha)e K thatI* *o"ethin$ I can tell +o' a#o't &hen I &a* a little kid..hey had a man come around the street with a closed cart) you know) one of these long carts) and it had a to" on it) like uh a rectangular) what you would say = >canvas5? = and uh he sold ice cream) little tiny blocks of ice cream) and they were two cents and they were called hokey "okies( 0ave you ever heard of hokey "okies5 >Only the dance?( And uh) he used to holler @0okey) "okey) ice creamAB you know) and we were kids) we used to go out and we9d buy this little block of ice cream and uh = he was a colored man( And uh) they we had another one used to sell fish and crabs = mostly crabs he sold( 0e would come in with a cartload of crabs) you know) with ice on it and used to holler) @Maryland crabsAB you know( Su""osed to have got them from Maryland) I su""ose he did because he did a tremendous business) "eo"le = the crabs were very good that he had) so uh he did a tremendous business(

Ee &o'ld e8pect the &ide*t ran$e of di)er*e re*pon*e* in the identification of tan$ent*. et it *ee"* i"portant to identif+ the lon$ *ection* in &hich the *peaker* follo& their o&n lead fro" tho*e in &hich the+ are follo&in$ the inter)ie&er*Ilead. In fact% the concept of the Tan$ent a* a *t+li*tic cate$or+ i* a *pin off fro" the Principle of Tan$ential Shiftin$% for"'lated #+ I)an Sa$ in Gro'p ;K1;. Thi* i* perhap* the "o*t #a*ic $'ide for *ociolin$'i*tic inter)ie&in$. Ehene)er the inter)ie&er reco$niHe* that the *peaker ha* "o)ed in a different direction fro" the inter)ie& "od'le% and ha* chan$ed the *'#7ect% he or *he p'r*'e* that topic &itho't atte"ptin$ to ret'rn to the pre)io'* one. The principle here i* "o*t &idel+ reco$niHed a* ori$inall+ *tated #+ R'th to Boa* in the #ook of R'th.+hither thou goest) I go( :0,: The final cate$or+ i* *i"pl+ the re*id'al one. All *peech that ha* not #een "arked 'nder an+ of the precedin$ *e)en cate$orie* &ill #e cla**ed a* !aref'l *peech. That i* not to *a+ that all *'ch re*id'al "aterial &ill ha)e a co""on *t+li*tic character. Undo'#tedl+ "'ch *peech *i"ilar to the *ection* "arked ca*'al &ill e*cape cla**ification #+ the fo'r headin$* Narrati)e% Gro'p% -id*% and Tan$ent. It i* a**'"ed that thi* &ill #e *o. The proced're of the deci*ion tree i* de*i$ned to filter o't a *'#*ection that i* plainl+ di*tinct fro" the "ain #od+ of *peech #+ it* topical and conte8t'al character. Ee can *'""ariHe the operation of the deci*ion tree in the follo&in$ direction*. A* +o' li*ten to *peech% *et a*ide the fir*t 'tterance of e)er+ re*pon*e to +o'r*elfJ then take e)er+ per*onal narrati)e and p't it into the !a*'al *peech #inJ other&i*e% e8cl'de an+ di*c'**ion of lan$'a$e. An+ $ro'p di*c'**ion not a#o't lan$'a$e i* !a*'al. ?ook for e8tended% lon$:&inded $eneral prono'nce"ent* and e8cl'de the" a* !aref'l. Mark an+ di*c'**ion of kid*I affair*% fro" their o&n point of )ie& a* !a*'al% and incl'de an+ *iHea#le e8c'r*ion of the *peaker into a different topic. Dther&i*e% inter)ie& *peech i* cla**ed a* !aref'l *peech. In "o*t of the ?in$'i*tic* 4F3 report*% the fo'r co"ponent* of !aref'l *peech and the fo'r co"ponent* of !a*'al *peech &ere "er$ed in the final *t+li*tic anal+*i*% *ince there &ere not lar$e eno'$h #odie* of data to 7'*tif+ an e8a"ination of the indi)id'al cate$orie*. The Pro7ect on ?in$'i*tic !han$e and Variation in Philadelphia '*ed the deci*ion tree on a "'ch lar$er #od+ of data% &hich &ill allo& '* to e8a"ine it* effecti)ene** in di*tin$'i*hin$ !a*'al *peech fro" !aref'l *peech. . "he stylistic analysis of sta le sociolinguistic varia les The Nei$h#orhood St'd+ of Philadelphia incl'ded re*earch o)er *e)eral +ear* in a *erie* of repre*entati)e nei$h#orhood* &hich co)ered a &ide $eo$raphic and *ocial area. The anal+*i* of *t+le &a* not directed at the "ain tar$et of the ?V! pro7ect% the e)ol'tion of the Philadelphia )o&el *+*te"% *ince there &a* no *tron$ e)idence of *t+le:*hiftin$ &ithin *pontaneo'* *peech for tho*e )aria#le*. A *t+li*tic anal+*i* &a* carried o't for three *ta#le *ociolin$'i*tic )aria#le*. <DB=. the alternation of *top*% fricati)e*% and affricate* in initial po*ition. The inde8 &a* con*tr'cted #+ a**i$nin$ a )al'e of 3 to a fricati)e% 5 to an affricate or Hero

initial% and , to a *topJ the "ean )al'e of the*e% "'ltiplied #+ 533% $a)e the <DB= inde8% &hich )arie* fro" 3 to ,33. <ING=. the alternation of apical and )elar con*onant* for the 'n*tre**ed *+lla#le /iN/% &here the inde8 i* the percent )elar for". Proper no'n* are e8cl'ded. The )aria#le &a* *'#di)ided :0;: 9i$'re 4.5 Deci*ion Tree for *t+li*tic anal+*i* of *pontaneo'* *peech in the *ociolin$'i*tic inter)ie&

#+ $ra""atical cate$or+. pro$re**i)e*% participle*% and no'n*. The *t+li*tic anal+*i* &a* carried o't on the lar$e*t *'#cate$or+ &ith the hi$he*t percent of the apical

)ariant% the pro$re**i)e*. <NEG=. the percent of ne$ati)e concord in *entence* &here a ne$ati)e precede* an indeter"inate of the 'nderl+in$ for" ever) either) or any( A total of 52> *peaker* fro" the Nei$h#orhood St'd+ &ere *t'died for the di*tri#'tion of the*e )aria#le*% a lar$er $ro'p than the 5,3 *peaker* &ho*e )o&el *+*te"* &ere anal+Hed% and incl'din$ a *iHea#le n'"#er of +o'n$er *peaker* fro" ei$ht to nineteen +ear* old. In "an+ ca*e*% there &ere e8tended *erie* of inter)ie&*% fro" t&o to ei$htJ for co"para#ilit+% onl+ the initial inter)ie&* &ere anal+Hed here. All ei$ht *t+li*tic *'#cate$orie* &ere '*ed. In the fir*t anal+*i* to #e pre*ented here% the*e are co"#ined into !aref'l *peech and !a*'al *peech a* indicated in fi$'re 4.5. 9i$'re 4., i* a *erie* of three hi*to$ra"* *ho&in$ the difference* #et&een the co"#ined !a*'al *peech and !aref'l *peech fi$'re* for the three )aria#le*. It i* i""ediatel+ e)ident that <DB= *ho&* the $reate*t de$ree of *t+le:*hiftin$. Dnl+ 5; of the 5F2 *peaker* &ho*e *t+le:*hift* &ere recorded had )al'e* #elo& Hero% &hile the $reat "a7orit+ *ho& *tron$l+ po*iti)e )al'e*. The "odal )al'e :0>: 9i$'re 4., St+le:*hiftin$ of *ta#le *ociolin$'i*tic )aria#le* in Philadelphia <inde8 for !a*'al *t+le "in'* inde8 for !aref'l *t+le=

i* #et&een ,4 and ;3. No *tron$ difference #+ $ender appear*% tho'$h &e do find a concentration of &o"en a"on$ the hi$he*t )al'e*% o)er 24 <1 o't of 2=% and a concentration of "ale* a"on$ tho*e &ith ne$ati)e )al'e* <F o't of 2=.

?e** prono'nced *t+le:*hiftin$ i* *ho&n for <ING=% &here the predo"inant "odal )al'e i* clo*e to Hero. A$ain% a *"all n'"#er i* fo'nd #elo& Hero% :04: 9i$'re 4.; St+le:*hiftin$ of <NEG= for Philadelphia *peaker* &ith <NEG= )al'e* $reater than 53 in !a*'al *peech <NN2>=

and the "a7orit+ of the *peaker* ha)e po*iti)e )al'e* for *t+le:*hiftin$. The *a"e i* tr'e to an e)en lar$er de$ree for <NEG=% #'t thi* i* d'e to the fact that "an+ "iddle: cla** *peaker* '*e no ne$ati)e concord at all. 9i$'re 4.; correct* for thi* fact% *ho&in$ the di*tri#'tion of *t+le:*hiftin$ onl+ for the ei$ht+:fo'r *peaker* &ith )al'e* of <NEG= in !a*'al *peech of 53 percent or hi$her. Bere &e *ee a pattern *i"ilar to that for <DB=. onl+ ten *peaker* &ith )al'e* #elo& Hero% onl+ ele)en &ith )al'e* clo*e to Hero% #'t &ith a &ide ran$e of lar$e po*iti)e )al'e*. The "odal )al'e for the *hift i* #et&een ;3 and ;4 percent. A$ain% there i* little difference #et&een "en and &o"en. The *t+le:*hiftin$ *ho&n in fi$'re* 4., and 4.; i* a *ta#le characteri*tic of the co""'nit+. Tho'$h there i* a &ide ran$e of indi)id'al )ariation% there i* little differentiation #+ *ocial characteri*tic*. Thi* i* not the ca*e for the indi)id'al )aria#le* the"*el)e*% &hich are )er+ *en*iti)e to a$e% *ocial cla**% and $ender. Ta#le 4.5 *ho&* *i$nificant factor* e"er$in$ fro" the "'ltiple re$re**ion of <DB= in !aref'l *peech. The a$e $ro'p* here are not C'antitati)e #'t C'alitati)e cate$orie*. the eC'ation a**i$n* a )al'e of ;> for "e"#er*hip in the ei$ht:to:t&el)e:+ear:old $ro'p *o that% all other thin$* #ein$ eC'al% a *peaker nine +ear* old i* e8pected to ha)e a <DB= )al'e that i* ;> "ore than a *peaker o)er fift+. The t+pical a$e profile for a *ta#le *ociolin$'i*tic )aria#le e"er$e*. There i* no *i$nificant effect of a$e for tho*e o)er t&ent+ <the re*id'al $ro'p for co"pari*on are tho*e o)er fift+ +ear* of a$e=. Dn the other hand% &e find a *iHea#le adole*cent *pike% &ith a "a8i"'" of 2, point* in the <DB= inde8 for the *i8teen +ear old* < fi$'re 4.>a =. The *ocioecono"ic profile for <DB= i* the near:linear "onotonic pattern to #e e8pected for a *ta#le *ti$"atiHed )aria#le. The SE! "ea*'re i* con*tr'cted fro" an eC'all+ &ei$hted *et of three indice*. occ'pation% ed'cation% and ho'*e )al'e. 9i$'re 4.># *ho&* the *tead+ decline fro" the #a*e

:0F: 9i$'re 4.>a A$e coeffcient* for <DB= in !aref'l *peech

9i$'re 4.># Social cla** coeffcient* for <DB= in !aref'l *peech

:01:

T'e*tia Media A"erica% Inc. www(1uestia(com Pu lication Information8 Book Title. St+le and Sociolin$'i*tic Variation. !ontri#'tor*. Penelope Eckert : editor% John R. Rickford : editor. P'#li*her. !a"#rid$e Uni)er*it+ Pre**. Place of P'#lication. !a"#rid$e% En$land. P'#lication ear. ,335. Pa$e N'"#er. 01. Thi* "aterial i* protected #+ cop+ri$ht and% &ith the e8ception of fair '*e% "a+ not #e f'rther copied% di*tri#'ted or tran*"itted in an+ for" or #+ an+ "ean*.

le)el of the lo&er &orkin$ cla** for each *'cce**i)el+ hi$her *ocial cla** $ro'p. In addition% there i* a *"all #'t *i$nificant di*fa)orin$ effect of 'p&ard "o#ilit+.

Ta#le 4.5 al*o *ho&* a *iHea#le and *i$nificant $ender effect. Eo"en are e8pected on the a)era$e to ha)e a <DB= )al'e t&ent+:fo'r point* lo&er than "en. 9inall+% ta#le 4.5 *ho&* that #ein$ fro" an+ of the three So'th Philadelphia nei$h#orhood* ha* a#o't the *a"e effect% #'t in the oppo*ite direction. If &e take a* o'r dependent )aria#le the *iHe of *t+le:*hiftin$ for <DB=% the re*'ltin$ pict're i* C'ite different. Ta#le 4., *ho&* that there are onl+ t&o *i$nificant coeffcient* to #e deri)ed fro" *'ch an anal+*i*. The *i8teen+ear:old $ro'p% &hich had the hi$he*t e8pected )al'e for <DB= in !aref'l *peech% i* e8pected to *ho& a red'ced ran$e of *t+le:*hiftin$. t&ent+:three point*. It i* clear that thi* $ro'p of adole*cent *peaker* not onl+ '*e* hi$h :02:

)al'e* of <DB= in $eneral% #'t al*o re*i*t* the nor"al tendenc+ to correct do&n&ard* in !aref'l *t+le*. Me"#er*hip in the Upper Eorkin$ !la** $ro'p prod'ce* a *"all #'t *i$nificant e8pectation of a hi$her ran$e. The total a"o'nt of )ariance e8plained #+ thi* re$re**ion a* indicated #+ r:*C'are i* *"all. > percent% a* co"pared to >2 percent for ta#le 4.5. ?et '* no& e8a"ine the act'al di*tri#'tion of the <DB= *t+le:*hift in detail. 9i$'re 4.4 i* a *catter$ra" that locate* each indi)id'al on a t&odi"en*ional field &here the )ertical a8i* i* the *iHe of the <DB= *hift% and the horiHontal a8i* i* a$eJ $ender i* indicated #+ *olid circle* <fe"ale= )er*'* open *C'are* <"ale=. The *trai$ht *olid line acro** the "iddle i* the o)erall re$re**ion lineJ it i* a#*ol'tel+ flat% indicatin$ no o)erall a$e:effect. The t&o dotted line* indicate partial re$re**ion* for "ale* and fe"ale*J the+ are onl+ *li$htl+ different% *'$$e*tin$ a *"all tendenc+ for "ale* to *hift

"ore a* the+ $ro& older% fe"ale* to *hift le**. B't thi* i* not to #e taken *erio'*l+. the correlation of a$e &ith <DB= *hift for "ale* i* onl+ .32J and for fe"ale* onl+ U.3;. The *catter$ra" of fi$'re 4.4 doe* i*olate a fe& local tendencie* of intere*t for the *t'd+ of *t+le:*hiftin$. Ne$ati)e )al'e* of the <DB= *hift% #elo& Hero in fi$'re 4.4% repre*ent *peaker* &ho are di*pla+in$ #eha)ior contrar+ to the do"inant nor" of the *ociet+% and the+ therefore de"and a clo*er look. At the lo&er left of fi$'re 4.4% there i* a cl'"p of *i8 *peaker* &ith *tron$l+ ne$ati)e <DB= *hift a"on$ the +o'n$e*t *peaker*% the cl'*ter at the lo&er left% and point e)en lo&er% #'t no *'ch point occ'r* a"on$ the older *peaker*. Thi* i* in line &ith earlier o#*er)ation* <?a#o) 50F>= that altho'$h children #e$in to acC'ire the *ociolin$'i*tic nor"* of the co""'nit+ C'ite earl+% thi* i* a $rad'al proce** controlled #+ #oth a$e and *ocioecono"ic cla**. Ta#le 4.; e8a"ine* thi* tendenc+ for all three )aria#le* #+ di)idin$ *peaker* into +o'n$er <'nder thirt+= and older <thirt+ and o)er= a$e $ro'p*. It $i)e* the percenta$e &ho *ho& *hiftin$ in a re)er*e direction% :00: 9i$'re 4.4 Di*tri#'tion of <DB= *t+le:*hift #+ a$e and $ender

&ith )al'e* le** than Hero% for <DB=% <ING=% and <NEG=. It i* clear that for #oth <DB= and <ING= the effect i* a lar$e one. three ti"e* a* "an+ +o'n$er *peaker* de)iate fro" the co""'nit+ nor".

9or <NEG=% there i* no *i$nificant difference% indicatin$ that the *ti$"atiHation of thi* )aria#le i* "ore po&erf'l% and control* #eha)ior at an earlier a$e. Thi* *ee"* incon*i*tent &ith the fact that the act'al percenta$e of re)er*al* for <NEG= i* in the *a"e ran$e a* the other t&o% &hile &e "i$ht e8pect it to #e "'ch *"aller. Thi* appear* to #e the re*'lt of the fact that the data for <NEG= i* *par*er. It ha* #een $enerall+ e*ta#li*hed that *ociolin$'i*tic )aria#le*% like all other *tocha*tic e)ent*% approach their li"itin$ )al'e a* the freC'enc+ of data ri*e <G'+ 5023% Ro#ert* 500;=. To e8a"ine thi* C'e*tion "ore clo*el+ &e can di*pla+ the *t+le:*hift* a$ain*t the total freC'enc+ of data for each *peaker. 9i$'re 4.Fa di*pla+* the <ING= *hift data #+ total freC'enc+. it *ho&* that the difference #et&een older and +o'n$er *peaker* i* not the re*'lt of freC'enc+ for thi* )aria#le. Speaker* 'nder thirt+ are *ho&n #+ open *C'are*J tho*e thirt+ and o)er #+ *olid circle*. To the left of the Hero )al'e for the <ING= *t+le: *hift% &e *ee ei$hteen e"pt+ *C'are* &hich ran$e acro** the &hole freC'enc+ *pectr'"% #'t onl+ fo'r *olid circle*J in other re*pect*% th

icantl+ different. 9i$'re 4.F# i* the corre*pondin$ dia$ra" for <NEG=. A$ain% the di*tri#'tion* for older and +o'n$er *peaker* are )er+ *i"ilar. The +o'n$er *peaker* are concentrated at lo&er freC'enc+ le)el*% ho&e)er% &here the+ *ho& a &ider ran$e of *t+le:*hiftin$. The+ do not *ho& the hea)ier concentration of *t+le re)er*al that &e *a& for <ING= <and for <DB= in ta#le 4.>=. The re*i*tance of a *"all $ro'p of +o'n$er *peaker* to the nor"* for *t+le:*hiftin$ of the*e t&o )aria#le* doe* not hold for <NEG=. It i* thi* *"all concentration of +o'n$er *peaker* in the ne$ati)e *t+le*hift area that i* re*pon*i#le for the t&o *i$nificant re$re**ion effect* of ta#le 4.,. Dther than thi*% the *t+le:*hift of *ta#le *ociolin$'i*tic )aria#le* i* 'nifor" and co"pellin$ acro** the Philadelphia *peech co""'nit+. That i* not to *a+ that e)er+one #eha)e* in the *a"e &a+. there are &ide*pread indi)id'al difference*% a* fi$'re* 4.F and 4.1 *ho&. B't the*e difference* in de$ree* of *hiftin$ are not *ociall+ or$aniHed% and do not corre*pond to *ocial cate$orie* in the *a"e &a+ that the act'al le)el of the )aria#le* do a* e8hi#ited in ta#le 4.5. The+ "a+ in fact corre*pond to the difference* a"on$ the )ario'* *'#cate$orie* in the *t+le deci*ion tree. If it t'rn* o't that *o"e *peaker* had hi$her n'"#er* of token* in Tan$ent *ection*% and other* in Narrati)e *ection*% and the*e *'#cate$orie* )ar+ in their effcienc+ in re$i*terin$ *t+le% thi* "i$ht #e

re*pon*i#le for the &ide *catter of )al'e* in fi$'re* 4.Fa and 4.F#% &ith *tandard de)iation* of ,, and ,0. 5 "he contri ution of individual decisions to stylistic analysis The*e re*'lt* indicate that the "ethod for di*tin$'i*hin$ !aref'l fro" !a*'al *peech ha* a *olid #a*i* in the *peech practice* of the *peech co""'nit+. At thi* point% ho&e)er% &e do not kno& &hich of the indi)id'al deci*ion* of the *t+le cla**ification tree are contri#'tin$ to the differentiation of *t+le*. An anal+*i* of the indi)id'al co"ponent* of !aref'l and !a*'al *peech "i$ht allo& '* to refine the "ea*'re* f'rther. It &a* pointed o't a#o)e that the fir*t fo'r deci*ion* are "ore o#7ecti)e than the other*. A* a re*'lt of a certain de$ree of 'ncertaint+ a"on$ *t'dent* a#o't concept* like Soa"box) 8ids) and .angent) "ore recent *t+li*tic anal+*e* carried o't :535: 9i$'re 4.Fa <ING= *t+le:*hift #+ *iHe of data *et and a$e

in ?in$'i*tic* 4F3 ha)e #een confined to the o#7ecti)e *'#*et% ter"inatin$ at the identification of /rou" *t+le in fi$'re 4.5. It i* po**i#le that the le** o#7ecti)e "ea*'re* are act'all+ dil'tin$ o'r )ie& of *t+le:*hiftin$% and that the "ore o#7ecti)e "ea*'re* &ill $i)e a *harper and "ore acc'rate pict're.

The data on the ei$ht *'#cate$orie* of the *t+le deci*ion tree ha)e #een pre*er)ed for a *'#*a"ple of fift+:*i8 *peaker* fro" the Philadelphia Nei$h#orhood St'd+. Thi* *'#*a"ple co)er* the *a"e *ocial and a$e ran$e a* the "ain *a"ple of 52> *peaker* that &e ha)e 7'*t con*idered. It incl'de* t&ent+:ei$ht "ale and t&ent+:ei$ht fe"ale *'#7ect*% &ith *peaker* fro" all nei$h#orhood* and a$e cate$orie*. Ee &ill con*ider the data for <DB= and <ING=% #'t not <NEG=% *ince there i* not eno'$h data to $i)e "eanin$f'l re*'lt* &ith thi* fine *'#di)i*ion. 9i$'re 4.1 *ho&* the )al'e* for <ING= on the left% and <DB= on the ri$ht. The open circle* and da*hed line* *ho& the "ean <ING= )al'e* for the fo'r !aref'l *peech cate$orie* on the left% and the fo'r !a*'al *peech cate$orie* on the ri$ht. The *olid *C'are* and line* :53,: 9i$'re 4.F# <NEG= *t+le:*hift #+ *iHe of data *et and a$e

*ho& the corre*pondin$ )al'e* for <DB=. The "ean )al'e* for all *t+le* for the t&o )aria#le* are *ho&n #+ the t&o horiHontal line*. All fo'r of the !aref'l *peech *'#cate$orie* of <ING= are #elo& the <ING= "ean% and there are not lar$e difference* a"on$ the". Three of the fo'r !aref'l *peech cate$orie* are a#o)e the "ean% &hile Narrati)e lie* at the "ean le)el. The $reate*t difference fro" the "ean i* fo'nd in the lea*t o#7ecti)e cate$orie* of Tan$ent. Ehile thi* "i$ht at fir*t lead '* to think that thi* i* in fact the "o*t effecti)e indicator of

*t+li*tic difference*% a certain de$ree of ca'tion i* reC'ired. it i* po**i#le that the le** o#7ecti)e character of the deci*ion to call a pa**a$e a Tan$ent allo&* the realiHation of the lin$'i*tic )aria#le* to #ia* the deci*ion "ore than &ith "ore o#7ecti)e cate$oriHation*. A certain a"o'nt of circ'larit+ "i$ht enter into the lin$'i*tic anal+*i* of *t+le. The <DB= *t+li*tic difference* are con*idera#l+ lar$er% e)en #earin$ in "ind that the *cale co)er* t&ice the ran$e. The *'#7ecti)e cate$or+ of Soap#o8 i* the "o*t differentiated fro" the "ean in !aref'l *peech% &ith no difference* a"on$ the other threeJ in !a*'al *peech% Narrati)e and -id* :53;: 9i$'re 4.1 St+li*tic differentiation of <DB= and <ING= for ei$ht cate$orie* of the St+le Deci*ion Tree

are the hi$he*t% tho'$h all fo'r *'#cate$orie* are &ell a#o)e the "ean le)el. The o)erall )ie& of the ei$ht *'#cate$orie* pro)ided #+ fi$'re 4.1 i* that the+ all appear to contri#'te to the differentiation of *t+leJ no "oti)ation i* pro)ided here for di*cardin$ an+ one of the". 9 0ifferentiation y gender and social class 9i$'re 4.2 *eparate* the )al'e* for the t&ent+:ei$ht "en fro" the t&ent+:ei$ht &o"en for <ING=. In $eneral the <ING= )al'e* for "en are hi$her than for &o"en% a* o'r re$re**ion anal+*i* of the lar$er data *et &o'ld predict. Thi* difference i* "'ch "ore con*i*tent in !a*'al *peech% &here the t&o *et* follo& parallel path*% than in !aref'l *peech. In the*e *'#*et*% Soap#o8 *t+le i* not differentiated fro" the !a*'al

*peech *t+le* for &o"en% &hile for "en% it i*. Dn the other hand% the Re*pon*e cate$or+ doe* not di*tin$'i*h "enI* !aref'l *peech fro" Narrati)e. The )ie& of <DB= *ho&* a *iHea#le o)erall differentiation of the fo'r !aref'l *'#cate$orie* fro" the fo'r !a*'al *'#cate$orie*. A "ore *e)ere te*t of the *+*te"atic character of the fo'r *'#cate$orie* i* a correlation &ith three *ocioecono"ic cla**e*. 9i$'re 4.0 di*pla+* thi* anal+*i* for <ING=. The three cla**e* are &ell *tratified% &ith the lo&e*t )al'e* *ho&n for the Middle !la** $ro'p 0K5 9i$'re 4.2 St+li*tic differentiation of <ING= and <DB= #+ *e8 for ei$ht cate$orie* of the St+le Deci*ion Tree

Upper Eorkin$ !la** FK2% and the hi$he*t )al'e* for the ?o&er Eorkin$ !la** ,K4. There i* con*idera#le differentiation a"on$ the *'#cate$orie* for 0K5>% &here the lo&e*t <ING= )al'e* are fo'nd for ?an$'a$e% and the hi$he*t in Tan$ent and Gro'p. 9or the FK2 $ro'p% onl+ Soap#o8 *t+le i* &ell #elo& the "ean% and -id* i* &ell a#o)e it. 9or the ,K4 $ro'p% it i* a$ain :534:

9i$'re 4.0 St+li*tic differentiation of <ING= and <DB= for ei$ht cate$orie* of the St+le Deci*ion Tree

:53F: ?an$'a$e &hich i* the lo&e*t *'#cate$or+. Dn the &hole% &e cannot point to an+ one *'#cate$or+ that i* not contri#'tin$ to the o)erall cate$oriHation of *t+le. there i* no

rea*on to think that droppin$ an+ one of the" &o'ld enhance o'r )ie& of *t+li*tic difference*. Indeed% the narrati)e cate$or+% &hich &e ha)e relied on a* the "o*t *'#*tantial and the "o*t o#7ecti)e% i* doin$ le** &ork in thi* anal+*i* than an+ other. Thi* i* contrar+ to "+ o&n initial e8pectation. The <DB= data *ho&* the "o*t *ati*factor+ deplo+"ent of the ei$ht *'#cate$orie*. 9or each of the fo'r cla**e*% all fo'r !aref'l *peech *t+le* are lo&er than all fo'r !a*'al *peech *t+le*. No one *'#cate$or+ appear* to #e e8ceptional on the &hole% tho'$h there are "inor fl'ct'ation* in the #eha)ior of each. <DB= i* the protot+pical *ta#le *ociolin$'i*tic )aria#le in ter"* of the C'antit+ of data and the clarit+ of co""'nit+ nor"*. : Conclusion Thi* report on the St+le Deci*ion Tree ha* led to a concl'*ion C'ite different fro" the one that I had ori$inall+ anticipated. Thi* data *et held o't the po**i#ilit+ of differentiatin$ a"on$ the ei$ht *'#cate$orie*% refinin$ and re"o)in$ tho*e that &eakened the force of the *t+li*tic anal+*i*. Bo&e)er% it appear* that the *'#cate$orie* are all on a par. the fo'r a**i$ned to !aref'l *peech are on the &hole C'ite different in le)el* of the )aria#le* than the fo'r a**i$ned to !a*'al *peech. The concl'*ion i* that in*tead of pr'nin$ the St+le Deci*ion Tree% it "i$ht &ell #e de)eloped f'rther. The fact that the Re*id'al cate$or+ i* not the lo&e*t for <DB= or <ING= "ake* it *ee" likel+ that there are "an+ other !a*'al *peech cate$orie* that can #e e8tracted fro" it. B't it i* not )er+ far fro" the lo&e*t cate$or+% *o that one &o'ld not e8pect an+ "a7or addition* of thi* t+pe. The de)elop"ent that *ee"* "o*t pro"i*in$ i* to $i)e "ore anal+*t* trainin$ in the reco$nition of *'ch cate$orie* a* Soap#o8% Tan$ent% or -id* *t+le% in &ork*hop* or other 7oint *e**ion* &here a confident con*en*'* can #e reached. S'ch a con*en*'* *ho'ld not #e hard to achie)e. The codin$ of the ?V! pro7ect &a* done #+ three different anal+*t*% and the a$ree"ent appear* to #e *'#*tantial. 9'rther e8ploration of intra:*peaker )ariation in the inter)ie& *it'ation% co'pled &ith &ider in)e*ti$ation* of *t+le:*hiftin$ o't*ide the inter)ie&% *ho'ld thro& li$ht on the 'nan*&ered C'e*tion* rai*ed in the fir*t part of thi* paper. E)en &ithin the li"ited *cope of thi* "ethodolo$ical *t'd+% *'#*tanti)e C'e*tion* of con*idera#le intere*t ha)e e"er$ed. The de)iant #eha)ior of a *'#*ection of adole*cent +o'th appear* to #e an intrin*ic part of the *tr'ct're of *ta#le )aria#le*. Their re*i*tance to the do"inant nor"*% and their 'lti"ate acC'ie*cence in the"% i* a &ell:reco$niHed part of the *ociolin$'i*tic ecolo$+. Ehat i* ne& here i* the po**i#ilit+ of "ea*'rin$ the :531: