College Algebra (9th Ed) (1973) (Gnv64)

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COLLEGE ALGEBRA
For First Year and Pre-Degree Student
BY
T . G . K U L K A R N I , M. A., Professor of Mathematics Jai Hind College and Basantsing Institute of Science,
Bombay
and
M. K . K E L K A R , M.SC., B . T . , Professor of Mathematics and Head of the Department of Mathematics Statistics, Ismail Yusuf College, Bombay and
1973
Published by :
Smt. SlNDHU KULKARNI, B. a , T D., Umasadan, 4th Lane, 102, Hindu Colony. Dadar, Bombay 14
First Edition Second Edition Third Edition Fourth Edition Fifth Edition Revised Sixth Edition Revised Seventh Edition Revised Eighth Edition Revised Nineth Edition
; 1958 1959 1961 1962 1964 .1965 1968 1970 1973
All rights including those of translation and reproduction as well as those of preparing and publishing a key giving the solutions of the examples in this book are reserved by the Authors.
Printed by :
R. S. Gupte,
Aryabhushan Press, 915/1, Shivajinagar, Poona 4.
REVISED
SYLLABUS for
IN
ALGEBRA
F. Y. Arts and Science, Bombay University 1. Elements of set theory : sets, subsets, empty sets, union and intersection of sets, complementation, Venn diagrams. Number systems : Natural numbers, integers, numbers, real numbers, complex numbers. rational
2.
The real number system : correspondence of real numbers with points on a straight line ; concept of order and existence of real number between two given numbers to be introduced informally. Approximation of irrational numbers by rational numbers. Surds: Rational operations with binomial quadratic surds ; conjugate surds and rationalising factors; Theorem : If a + yjb = c + \[d, then a '= c and b = d under prescribed conditions. Properties of real numbers with reference to closure for elementary operations, commutativity, associativity and distributivity. The complex number system : Correspondence between complex numbers and points in a co-ordinate plane referred to rectangular axes; conjugate complex numbers ; rational operations with complex numbers ; reduction of given complex expressions to the form a + ib (a, b real ) . 3. Theory of Quadratic Equations with real coefficients: Solution of quadratic equations ; nature of r o o t s ; relations between roots and coefficients; generalisation to cubic and quartic equations ( s t a t e m e n t o n l y ) . Simple symmetric functions of roots of a quadratic. Equations with roots related in a simple way to roots of a given quadratic equation.
iii
Exponents and Logarithms: Definition of a" for a > 0 and m rational, Theorems: rn m n m +n , t \m i m / "l < a Xa =a ,{ab) a b , (a ) =a , m, n being rational numbers (proofs for positive integral exponents o n l y ) . Informal discussion of a" when x is irrational. Definition of log,, x, a > 0, a 1 and x > 0. Theorems on logarithms of product, quotient, power and change of base. Permutations and Combinations : Linear permutations with distinct objects. Combinations (case of repetitions excluded ). Theorems:
M+
_V
4- V
"r "r
Relation between nPr and "C,. Simple Illustrations for the use of Mathematical Induction : Formulae for 2 r=t n 2 1 r, r= n r, 2 r=l
2
a + (r-l)d,
2 ^ / ; r0
ft 2 r . r=l
3
The Binomial Theorem for a positive integral exponent ( Exclude determination of greatest coefficient, greatest term, properties of coefficients).
iv
Preface to the Revised Eighth Edition, 1 9 7 3

This book, first published in 1958, is today running nto its tkineth edition. All along we have been very keen to incrase the utility of this book to the students. In view of the Itest decisions taken by all the Indian Universities to introduce :)me essential mathematical concepts to the First Year student: we had introduced an elementary treatment of the theory of ses in the very first chapter. The chapter on the number system had been thoroughly revised and made more logical to suit the eds of the present tendencies in developing this topic. The ch pter on Method of Induction now has been taken earlier so as to :take the use of this method wherever possible. Determinants, th>ugh not included in the syllabus of the University of Bombay,'nave been considered in the last chapter to increase the utility cf the book to a genera] reader of the First Year standard. Tt is sujgest ed that the first two chapters on Set Theory and the Nunber System need not be studied in detail at the first reading. Thf new ideas introduced in these chapters can be better understood f the book is read " backwards and f o r w a r d s " as suggested by G. Chrystal a famous author of a book on Algebra. Some Test Papers have been added at the end ii the Appendix to give the students some practice for the examiiation under the new course. We are thankful to the Authorities of Bombay University for allowing us to include their papers it our book. The copy right of these papers vests with the University of Bombay. Our thanks are due to Shri. S. A. Bhide and the staff of Aryabhushan Press for helping us in all respects in the printing of this book. Any suggestions for the further improvement of the book will be gratefully received.
T. G. M. K.
KULKARNI, KELKAR.
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION The Bombay University, from this academic year, has revised he syllabus in mathematics for the First Year students. The Poona University and some other Universities have started the Pre-degree classes. The present book has been written so as to meet the needs of the new syllabus in Algebra prescribed for the First Year and Pre-degree Courses. The Authors have kept in view the standard of the present students passing the S. S. C. Examination with Elementary Mathematics in their regional languages. Special effort has been made to present the subject matter in simple language without sacrificing the mathematical rigour. Necessary important results from School Algebra are given in the Appendix for immediate reference. Ample illustrative problems have been worked out to illustrate every new principle and formula. Few examples have been given immediately at the end of every important article to enable the students to use and remember the result of the article. Every effort has been made to prepare carefully the gradation and selection of examples for every chapter. Attempt has been made t o complete the subject matter in every chapter instead of restricting ourselves completely to the exact syllabus of any particular University. Teachers may omit some articles to suit their needs. The arrangements of the various chapters is flexible and permits of any sequence desired by the teacher. We hope that this book will enable the students to understand the subject matter and also will create interest in the subject. Our sincere thanks are due to the Manager Shri V. A. Patwardhan, and the staff of the Aryabhushan Press for the care they have taken throughout the printing of the book.
T. G.
KULKARNI,
M . K . KELKAR.
vi
CONTENTS
Chapter
Page
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
Appendix
Sets Real Numbers Complex Numbers Indices ( Exponents ) Logarithms Surds Quadratic Equations Method of Induction Progressions Summation of Series Permutations and Combinations Binomial Theorem Determinants '-
....
..... 43 79 ... 92
115 141 -- 177 ...213 - 222 ... 265 ... 280 -- 307 325
Logarithmic and A.nti-logarithmic Tables
... 355 ... 359 369
2 Important Formulae and Results 3 Test Papers Bombay University Papers

vii
Symbols and Abbreviations used in this book A \ a, b, c, A is a set of elements a, b, c, ... A = \ x j x satisfies a given property P A is a set of elements x such that x satisfies a given property P. s. t. such that iff if and only if 0 the empty set A' complement a set A e belongs to does not belong to g there exists V for all c subset C proper subset => implies o implies and is implied by U union f) intersection N set of positive integers JV set of negative integers J set of integers Q set of rational numbers Qi set of irrational numbers R set of real numbers C set of co7nplex numbers A 2 n ! or ]_ "p discriminant of a quadratic equation summation 1 2 3 n number of permutations of n distinct objects taken r at a time number distinct time. of combinations of n objects taken r at a
*C r
Chapter 1
Sets
1. The concept of a set. 2. Notation. 3. Representation of a set 4. Finite. Infinite and Empty sets. 5 Subsets, Equal and Equivalent sets. 6. Universal set, complement of a set. Exercise 1 (a). 7. Union of two sets. 8. Intersection of two sets. 9 Extension to three sets. 10 Operations o n s e t s . 11. Illustrative Examples. Exercise 1 ( b ) .
1.
The Concept of a Set.
The idea of a set forms the basis of all the higher branches of Mathematics. We, therefore, begin with a brief discussion of sets. A set is a well defined collection of objects. Consider the following collections : ( i ) ( ii ) (iii) The colleges affiliated to the Bombay University. The books on Algebra in your college library. The points on a given straight line.
In ( i ), we have a collection of colleges affiliated to the Bombay University. The colleges not affiliated to the Bombay University are not included in this collection. The objects in this collection are " colleges" and they are all given by the rule that they are affiliated to the Bombay University. In ( ii ), we have a collection of books on Algebra in your college library. The objects in this collection are " b o o k s " . These objects are given by the rule that " they are written on Algebra and that they belong to your library ". The books which are not in your library or those of the books in your library which are not written on Algebra are not included in this collection. a Similarly in ( iii ), we have a collection of points lying on given line. The objects in this collection are the points
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA
The objects are given by the property that they all lie on a given straight line. The points not lying on the given straight line are not included in this collection. Thus, when we talk about a set we have in mind ( i ) ( ii ) the collection or the set, the objects in the set,
( i i i ) the rule or the property which enables us to decide whether a particular object belongs to the given set or not. Thus, a collection of objects, defined by a given rule, forms a set. Note : Just as in the study of plane geometry, points and lines are undefined terms, similarly we consider the term set as undefined ; but we agree intuitively that a set is a collection of objects described or identified in such a way that there is no doubt as to whether a particular object does or does not belong to the set. 2. Notation.
Sets are usually denoted by capital letters such as A, B, C, P,Q,R, X,Y,Z. The objects in a set are called " members " or " elements " of the set and they are usually represented by small letters such as a, b, c,., x, y, z. While referring to an object * of a given set A we say that " x is in A " or " x belongs to A " or that " x is a member of A " and write this symbolically as " x e A". The symbol e ( t h e Greek letter epsilon ) stands in the context of sets for " lies in ", " belongs to ", or " is a member o f " . Similarly, when we want to say that " the object x does not belong to the set A " or " the object x is not in A ", or that " x is not a member of A", we write it symbolically as " x ( A ". Thus, the symbol ; stands for " b e l o n g s t o " or " i s i n " and the symbol stands for " does not belong t o " or " is not in ".
SETS : 3
Represention of a Set. We will consider the following three forms in which sets may be represented. I. Tabular Form. In this form we enumerate or list all the elements. The names of the individual elements arc separated by commas and are written within a set of braces ; for example the set A of even numbers between 1 and 11 may be written as A = ) 2 , 4 , 6 , 8, 10 This may be read as " A is a set of elements 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10". Tabular form of describing a set is known as the Roster Method. II. The Rule Method. In this method we indicate a set by enclosing in brace brackets a general element and describe it in words by a property or the rule satisfied by it. Thus the set A of even numbers between 1 and 11 may be indicated as : A = ) x | x is an even integer and 1 < x < 11 ( and may be read as: "A is a set of all elements x such that x is an even integer and x is greater than one and less than eleven. " The symbol " \ " which looks like a small vertical line, in the context of set notation, will stand for " such that '*. The Tabular Method of indicating a set is particularly useful when the number of elements in the set is small; for example the Set B of all the vowels of the English alphabets may be indicated as B = } a, e, i, o, u (. Sometimes all objects in a set may not possess any common property and in this case it becomes convenient to describe the set by listing all its elements. Thus we may have a set C of a table, a bottle, a taxi, a pen and the letter k. This may be expressed in the Tabular form as C = \ a table, a bottle, a taxi, a pen, the letter k (. However, if the elements in a set are large or if they can not all be listed then we have to describe a set only by the
4 I COLLEGB ALGEBRA.
Rule Method. For example a set D of positive even integers may be indicated as D = } x In ( n is a positive integer $. We may, however, write this set as D = J 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, f, the dots in the braces indicate that all the elements can not be listed and there are infinite number of elements in this set. The rule method of describing a set is also known as builder notation. set-
Remark 1. If we make a list to show the elements of a set, the order of listing is not important. For example, the sets \ a, b,c,d\ and ) c,b, a, d\ are considered as identical. Similarly the sets } 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 | and j 5, 3, 4, 2, 1 j are the same. Remark 2. When we indicate the elements in a set, it is conventional not to count the same member more than once. For example, in a set { 0, 1, 2, 1, 0, ] there are only three elements namely 0, 1 and 2. III. Diagrammatic Representation of a Set. Many of the ideas about sets which we will be considering in this book can be made more clear by means of diagrams called Venn diagrams (sometimes also called as Venn-Euler diagrams. )
v- '1
Set A, element Fig. 1
x, e A.
Tn these diagrams a set, say, A is represented by some closed curve such as a square, an ellipse, a circle or a rectangle. The elements of the set A are represented by points in the closed figure; this enables us to show clearly the idea o f
SETS : 5
belonging to a set". The Figure 1 shows how the element * indicated by a point belongs to the set A. 4. Finite, Infinite and Empty Sets. If we start counting the elements of a set, one of two possibilities may arise ; ( i ) a definite number is reached beyond which no more number is needed because each element has already been counted; (ii ) a definite number can not be reached to exhaust the counting of all the elements of a set. Definition. If the elements of a set can be counted by a finite number, then that set is called a finite set; otherwise it is called an infinite set. The set of positive integers less than 100 may be indicated as ) 1, 2, 3, ... 99 ( and is a finite set ; whereas the set of positive integers may be indicated as \ 1, 2, 3, 4, ... $ and is an infinite set. It should be noted that a set containing a very large number of members is not an infinite s e t : for example the set of ail Indians in the world is a finite set. The difference between a finite set and an infinite set is that the process of counting the number of elements in the finite set has an end; while in the infinite set the process of counting the elements is an endless oneFor example, the set (i. e. set (i. e. F = \ x | x is an even positive integer < 14 { F = \ 2, 4, 6, 8,10, 12 O is a finite set. E } x | x is an even positive integer | E = \ 2, 4, 6, 8 , . . . ( ) is an infinite set; whereas the
<;
Definition. A set with one element is called a singleton or a unit set. For example, a set of real numbers possessing neither a positive nor a negative sign is a singleton set and has zero as its element. Note : It is important to note that ) a [ & a, since \ a | denotes a set having an element a, whereas ' a' denotes only the element.
6 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA.
Empty Set. Definition. A set which has no elements in it is called an empty or the null or the void set. The symbol which is used to denote the empty set is 0. The symbol (p is S c a n d i n a v i a n letter and not the Greek letter phi. Whenever this symbol appears, in the context of sets, read it as ' the empty set " or " the null set". Here the rule or the property describing a given set is such that no element can be included in the set. It is obvious that the set A of all married bachelors in the world is an empty set. Similarly the sets B, C, D given below are empty sets. B = ) x i s a college in Delhi ; x is affiliated to Bombay University j ; C = \ | is a negative number satisfying the equation : x2 - 3x + 2 = 0 { ; D = $ x | x is a perfect square of an integer; 65 < x < 80 We know that there is no college in Delhi affiliated to the Bombay University. The roots of the equation x2 - 3x + 2 = 0 are 1 and 2 and hence this equation has no negative root. Similarly there is no number lying between 65 and 80 which is a perfect square of an integer. Thus, there are no elements which can be counted in the sets B, C, and D and hence they are null sets. In general, we may say that laying down an impossible condition for the formation of a set immediately produces an empty set.
Example. State with reasons whether the sets given below are empty, finite or infinite: (1 ) (2) (3 ) (4 ) (5 ) An?. A = \ x I x = a3; A = j 1, 2, 3, 4, and 26 < * < 35. A is the set of all houses in the city of Bombay A = $ * 1 * is a positive integer which is a multiple of 3 ,, (1) (5) Infinite. Infinite. (2 J Finite. (3) Empty. (4) Finite a is an integer 5 500 \.
A is the set of integers x, where x is a perfect square of an integer
5.
Subsets, Equal and Equivalent Sets. only
Subset. Definition. Set A is a subset of set B if and if every element of A is an element of B.
SETS : If
We write this relationships as ACB an d read it as "A is a subset of B " or " A is contained in B " or " A is included in B ". Some times the same statement is also written as B Oi A. and is read as " B is a superset of A " or " B contains A " or " B includes A". Observe that ACB means that every element of A is an element of B. This puts no restrictions on B other than that the set B includes the set A.
A^B Fig. 2 ( i )
As B Fig. 2 ( i i )
We can represent by Venn diagrams the relation i c B . We draw closed figures for sets A and B; but since every element of A is also in B, the closed figure for A should be completely in or coincident with the closed figure for B. This is shown in the figures 2 ( i ) and ( i i ) . Figure 2 ( i ) shows that every set is a subset of itself. For example ( i ) If A = p , 2, 3 ) and B = ) 1, 2, 3, 4 then every element of A viz. 1, 2, 3 is also the element in B and hence ACB. ( ii ) If A = } I, 2 ( and B = J 1, 2 then A CB. ( iii) If A is a set of schools in Bombay and B is a set of schools in India then it is clear that every school in Bombay is also a school in India, Bombay being itself in India. Hence ACB. Thus i C B i f f x e A^> xe B. [ We shall use the abbreviation " i f f " to denote if and only if and the symbol for " implies ". We shall also use symbol o for "implies and is implied b y " . Thus " P = > Q " means P implies Q and " P o Q" means P implies Q and is implied by Q. ] Proper Subset. Definition. Set A is called a proper subset of B i f f A is a subset of B and at least one element of B is not an element of A.
We write this relationship as A c proper subset of B
B and read it as "A
is a
Thus A C B iff A C B and 3 b e B s. t. b < A. [We shall use the abbreviation " s. t. " to denote ' such t h a t ' and the symbol ' g ' f o r ' there exists.' ]
(i) A ctB
(ii) A qt B Fig. 3
( i i i ) AC
We can represent the proper subsets by Venn diagrams. If B is not a subset of A, then three possibilities are to be considered : ( i ) A is a proper subset of B i. e. every element of A is an element in B and Aj=B. [ See Figure 3 ( i i i ) ]. ( ii ) There are some elements that are common to A and B and there are also some elements not common to A and B. [ See Figure 3 ( ii ) ]. ( iii ) There are no common elements i. e. the sets A and B are disjoint. [ See Figure 3 ( i ) ]. Illustration. If A = ) 1, 2, 3 ( and B = | 1, 2, 3, 4 \ then A c B since every element of A is also an element of B and there exists an element 4 in B which does not belong to A. Equal sets. Definition. The sets A and B are said to be equal i f f both of them consist of exactly the same elements. We write this relationship as " A = B " and read it as " A is equal to B ''. Equal sets can be represented by drawing two coincident closed figures as in Fig. 2 ( i ), Illustration. Let A = ) x | x is a letter in the word " sister " \; B = j x 1 x is a letter in the word " resist *' f ; C = ) e, i, r, s, t<\.
SETS : 9
We find that A = B = C as each set has the same elements namely e, i, r, s and t. The example shows that even if the rules forming the given sets are different, yet they produce identical elements, of course, irrespective of the order and hence the sets are equal. It can be shown that the sets A and B are equal iff A is a subset of B and B is a subset of A. i. e. A = B <=> A C B and B c A. Equivalent Sets. Definition. If the elements of one set can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the elements of another set, then the two sets are called equivalent sets, For example, if A = ) Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday j and B = ) a, b, c \ , then the sets A and B are equivalent. One can easily observe that if two sets are equal, then they must be equivalent. However two equivalent sets need not necessarily be equal. For example, if A = ) a, b, c, d B = \ 1, 2, 3, 4 j, C = \ d, a, c, b, c, a, d then A and C are equal and A, B, C are equivalent. We now show t h a t : " " The null set (or the empty s e t ) is a sabset of every set". In order to show this, let A represent any set. Then there are only two possibilities namely 0 is a subset o t A or <j> is not a subset of A. The condition for a subset viz. " xe A, if xe<j>" is satisfied since there is no element in 0. Thus one has to remember that a null set is a subset of every set. Similarly one can easily see that every set is a subset of itself. The number of subsets of a finite non-empty s e t : We now show t h a t : " From a set containing n elements 2" subsets can be formed. " ( i ) Consider a singleton set A = j a j. It has two i. e. ( 2 1 ) subsets namely A and ( i i ) Consider a set of two elements say B = $ 1, 2 has four ( i. e. 22 ) subsets, namely, } 1 1, } 2 ( . n 2 ( a n d * . It
(iii)
Consider a set of three elements say

3
C(a,b,c).
It has eight ( i. e. 2 ) subsets, namely, ) a )b ) c I ) a, b\, ) a,c
) b, c
) a, b, c( and <f>.
By Induction it can be shown that a set containing n elements has 2" subsets. We now summarize some of the above results about the subsets. ( i ) ( ii ) (iii) Every set is a subset of itself i. e. A C A. Every set has the empty set as its subset i. e. <t> C A. From a set containing n elements 2" subsets can be
formed and the set consisting of these 2M subjects is called the Power set of the set A and is denoted by P ( A ), in the context of set A. The definition of equal sets gives us the following results : ( i ) A m A. ( i i ) If A = B and B = C, then A = C. (iii) A = fiiff^Cfiand BCA. The first two are obvious. A proof of ( i i i ) is given below as (iii ) is very often used to establish the equality of two sets. First we shall assume that A = B and prove that ACB and BCA. Then we shall assume that ACB and BCA and prove that A = B so that the proof will be complete. ( i ) Let A = B. This means by definition that A and B have the same elements and if x e A then x e B and vice versa. This proves that A C B and BCA. ( i i ) Let ACB and BCA. Here ACB means if xe A, then x e B. Also BCA means if x s B, then x e A. But both these results must hold simultaneously and hence the sets A and B must have the same elements. Therefore A = B. Disjoint sets. Definition. Two sets A disjoint sets if they have no common elements. For example, the sets A and B given below ( i ) A = ) 1 , 2 . . 3, 4 ( a n d B = } 5, 6, 7, and B are called [ See Fig. 3 (i) J. are disjoint, 8$.
SETS : If ( ii ) A = ) a, e, i, o, u } and B = ) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 (iii) A = J a | a is an even integer ( and B = ) b | is a prime number > 2 ( 6. Universal Set. Complement of a Set.
Whenever we speak of sets or subsets we usually think of them to be subsets of some given ( o r fixed) set called the Parent set or the Universal set. In a particular context when the Universal set is obvious, it need not be explicitly stated The universal set is also sometimes called the universe of discourse and is generally denoted by the letters X, U, SL or simply by S. Illustrations. ( i ) A set of real numbers may be considered as the universal set for any set of integers. ( ii ) A set of Indians may be considered as a universal set for any set of literate Indians. ( i i i ) For a set of colleges in Bombay, a universal set may be taken as a set of colleges in the Maharashtra State or a set of colleges in India. (iv ) For a set of books on Mathematics in your library, a universal set may be taken as a set of all books in your library. Complement of a Set. Definition. The complement of any set A which is a subset of some universal set X 4s the set of elements of X which do not belong to A. The complement of a set A from the definition that A' = is denoted by A'. It follows
)x\xeX;xiZA\
Set A, Universal set X, A' complement of A Fig. 4.
In a Venn diagram, a universal set is represented generally by a Tectangle, The Figure 4 shows the set A, its complement A' and the universal set X. Illustrations. ( i ) number (, ( ii ) then A' = (iii) then A' = If J = | n | n is an integer X = J x | * is a real then J ' = } x | x is a real number, x(J If A = ) x | .x is a literate Indian (, J x | x is an Indian, x A }, If A = j x is a college in Bombay (, \ x \ x is college in Maharashtra State x A j.
[ N o t e that, here, we have taken the universal set as the one formed by all colleges in Maharashtra State]. (iv) library | If A = ) x | x is a book on Mathematics in your
then A' = ] x | x is a book in your library, x A Remarks. ( 1 ) The set of elements of A and A', taken together form the parent or universal set. ( 2 ) ACX; also A' c X. But A and A' are disjoint. ( 3 ) If A = X, then A' = For, as A = X, there is no element of X which does not belong to A or in other words A' has got n o element i. e, A' = <fi, the null set. ( 4 ) A, B are the subsets of the universal set X, then if ACB, then B' C A'. Proof: If x e B' then x B, A c B and hence x ^ A . xeA'. Hence * e B' => x e A'. B' C A'. = A. This means that the complement of
( 5 ) (A')' A' is A. Proof:
xe(A'y=>xg;A'andxZ;A'=>xeA. (A')'CA ( i )
Again x e A => x A' and x A' => x e (A')'. ACiA'Y (ii) From ( i ) and ( ii ), it follows that {A')' = A. [ The method employed in proving the result may be carefully noted. ].
SETS
13
Exercise 1 (a) 1. Explain, by giving an illustration, the concept of a set. If A = \ 1,3, 5, 7, 9, 11 describe the set A (i) in words and ( ii ) in set builder notation ( i. e. by the rule method ). Express in symbols the fact that 5 is a member of the set A and that 4 is not a member of the set A. If N = J n | is a positive integer (, describe the set N ( i ) in words, ( i i ) in tabular form and express in symbols whether the number zero is an element of the set N. Express by ( i ) tabular method and ( ii) rule method ( i e. in set builder notation ) the set of integers. Explain what you understand by ( i ) a finite, ( i i ) an infinite set. State whether the sets given in examples 1, 2, 3 above are finite or infinite. Define an empty set and express it by a symbol. Is the set ) 0 | an empty set ? If it is not an empty set what particular name can be given to this set ? Express the following set by ( i ) the Roster method (i. e. tabular method ), ( i i ) the rule method (i. e. in set builder notation ) and state whether they are finite, infinite or null. ( i ) A set of all even positive integers less than 16, ( ii ) A set of all odd positive integers, ( iii) A set of positive numbers x satisfying the equation x2 + 3x + 2 = 0. State whether the following relations are correct. If they are not correct write them correctly. ( i ) ) x | ( x - 3 )i = 0 { = 3, ( ii ) 8. ) a, a,a, b,b, b \ = \ a, b
2.
3. 4.
5.
6.
7.
State when the sets are said to be ( i ) equal ( i . e. identical ), ( i i ) equivalent. Find which of the following sets are ( i ) equal, (ii ) equivalent. A = ) x | x2 = 0 I B = ; x | = 1 C = i 0, 1, - 1 {, D = )l, - 1 ( , E = J H , F= ) 0 |.
26:COLLEGE ALGEBRA.
9.
( i ) A is a set of 5 red balls and B is a set of 5 red chalks. Is = B? ( ii ) Which of the sets given below are equal ? <M o ) <M. ( i i i ) A = ) x \ xe A;xÂ (;. What are the elements of the set A ? Is A = 0 ? Is A a subset of 0 ?
10.
If N is a set of positive integers and A = \ x | x e N\ x2 - 5x + 6 = 0 B = ) x | xeN, 1 < * < 4 [, find whether A = B. State when ( i ) A is a subset of B, ( ii) A is a proper subset of B. Express both the relations symbolically. Is 0 a subset of itself ? Is 0 a proper subset of itself ? Let A = )l, 4 \,B = } 1 , 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 j. ( i ) Is A a subset of B1 ( i i ) Is A a proper subset of B? (iii) Is 0 a subset of B ? (iv ) Is 0 a subset of A ? Is it true ( i ) 0 ( ii ) A (iii) A that for every set A : C A i. e. 0 is a subset of A? C A i. e. A is a subset of A ?' c A i. e. A is a proper subset of A!
11.
12.
13.
14.
Fill in the gaps : ( i ) ( ii ) (iii) (iv ) ( v) The set which has no members is called the set and it is denoted by the symbol A set having only one element is called X is a subset of Y iff X is a proper subset of Y iff When all the elements of two sets A and B are identical we say that the two sets are ; they are also When there is one-to-one correspondence between the elements of two sets, but the elements are not identical, we say that the sets are A and B are disjoint sets iff
( vi )
(vii)
SETS :
If
15.
16. 17. 18. 19.
State the disjoint sets among the following : A = ) 1, 3, 4 }, B = j 2, 0, 3, 1 {, C = \ 4, 5, 6 E = } 5, 6, 7 F = J 2, 4, 6, 8 f. If ^ C S and S c C , show that A C C. ( i ) ( ii ) Write the subsets of a singleton j a j . Write the subsets of \ x, y, z \ .
What is meant by a Power Set of A ? Write it when A = j 1, 2 Show that the number of proper subsets of A = J aua2,a3, , aH f is 2" 1.
20. 21.
Show that every subset of a finite set is finite. If A = ) 0 , 2 then state whether the following statements are correct or not (i)
\2\
C/f,(")
\ 2\eA,(m)i>eA,
(iv)2c^,
(v)Oe^,(vi)0CJ4. 22. Let A \ Q\,B = )G, l\,C = 4>, D = \ <t> E = ) x | x is a human being walking more than 200 miles per hour (, F = J x | x e A and x e B j . State which of the following are correct : ( i ) ACB, ( i i ) B = F, (iii) C C D , ( i v ) C = E, ( v ) A = F, ( vi ) F = 1, ( vii ) E = C = D. 23. Give one illustration of ( i ) a singleton or unit set; ( ii ) an empty set; (iii ) a finite set; ( i v ) a n infinite set; ( v ) a subset of }0, 1 (, ( v i ) a proper subset of } 1, 2, 3 ( ; ( vii) a super set of j 0, 1 (; ( viii) the power set of J a, b (; ( i x ) two equal sets; ( x ) two equivalent ( but not equal ) sets; (xi ) two disjoint sets; ( x i i ) the complement of a set of women members of a club ; state also its universal set. 24. What do you mean by saying that two sets are ' equivalent ' ? Give an example of each of the following cases:
( i ) ( ii ) 25.
a set A which is equivalent to a proper subset of itself ; a set A which is not equivalent to any proper subset of itself.
Explain what we understand by ( a ) a universal set, ( b ) complement of a set. Give answers for the following : ( i ) What is the complement of a universal set? ( ii ) (iii) (iv ) Is universal set, a subset or a proper subset of itself? Can A = A'1 Can A C..A' or A' c A? Can two universal sets be equal if the number of elements in them are equal but different in character ? If [ / ( t h e univereal set) = ) 1,2,3, write the complements of the following : ( 1 ) ) 0 ( , ( 2 ) 0 , ( 3 ) ) 2, 4, 6, 8, j, ( 4 ) ) x | x is a + ve integer < 12 (. Answers. Exercise 1 ( a )
(v )
1.
( i ) (ii)
A is a set of all odd positive integers less than 13. A = J * | * is a positive odd integer * < 13 ( ; 5eA, 4&A. N is a set of all elements n such that n is a positive integer; ( t h i s is also called a set of natural numbers). N = ) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 0 N since the number zero is not | ;
2.
( i ) (ii )
a positive integer. 3. 4. ( i ) / = } (11) - 3, - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2 . 3 . J = * * I * is an integer
Set A in example 1 is finite and sets in examples 2 and 3 are infinite.
5 . ^ 0 ^ is a set having an element zero. It is not an empty set since an empty set contains no element at all. Since this set contains one element, it can be called " a singleton ". 6. finite, ( ii ) B = J 1 , 3 , 5 , 7 This set is infinite. (j B = J * | * is an odd positive integer} ( i) A = J 2. 4 , 6 , 8, 10, 12, 14 A = J * | * is an even positive integer < 1G This set is
SETS : 17 (iii) The relation is ( * + 2 ) ( * + U = 0 . This is satisfied by x = 1 and * = 2. There is no positive number satisfying the equation. The set has no element and hence it is a null set This set may be described as $ = ) x \ xe A ; x ^ A 7. ( i ) The condition in the braces gives a set having only one element 3. The relation is not correctly written since a set cannot be equated to its element. W e can write it a s : ) x | ( * - 3)a = 0 $ = ) 3 This is " a singleton ". C i i ) The relation is correct since the repetition of the elements while describing it does not alter the set. 8 . The sets A and F have the same element namely z e r o The sets B and D have the same two elements viz, 1 , - 1 . The sets A, E and F have one element, the element in however is different from that of A and F. Thus, A and F, B and D are equal whereat E, F and A are equivalent. 9. ( i ) A ^f B. A and B are equivalent sets.
( i i i All the three sets are different from each other <fi contains no element, j 0 J contains one element and is a singleton. ) 4> i is a set containing the null set as an element. However j o ( and )4>[ can be considered as equivalent. (iii) 10. No element, yes, yes. B = \ 2, 3 ( . Hence A = B.
A = 5 2, 3
1 1 . Every set is a subset of itself. Hence i> is a subset of itself. One set can be a proper subset of the other only when the two sets are not equal; and hence no set can be a proper subject of itself. Hence 0 can not be a proper subset of itself. 12. 13. (i) Yes, (ii) (ii) yes, yes, (iii) (iii) yes, no. (iv) yes,
( i 1 Yes,
14. ( i ) Empty, null or void ; ( i i ) A singleton or unit s e t ; (iii) Every element or X is an element of V ; ( i v ) Every element of X is an element of V and there is at least one element of Y which is not an element of X . (v) Equal; equivalent, ( v i ) Equivalent ( v i i ) There is no element common to both of them 15. 16. A and E ; B and C ; B and E. I f * f A, t h e n x e B since A S B Since * B, it follows that * E C since B S C From ( i ) and ( i i ) it follows that if * tA, then xf C. ... (i) (ii)
:.
17. ) y. " (i) \
A^C.
\x.z).
0 a n d M , ( i i ) <p,) x\, )y ) z \,\x,y\. * \ There are in all 2 s i e. 8 subsets.
C. A.2
18 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA. 18. A set formed by the subsets of A is called a power set of A and is symbolically denoted by P ( 4 ) ; and this is read as power set of A. If A = j 1, 2 P [A ) = } } 1 f, j 2 i 19. For A there are n elements. It has 2n subsets. Hence proper subsets will be 2n - 1 ( t h e one which is subtracted is the set A itself ). 2 0 . A finite se^ is one of which all the elements can be counted and counting comes to an end. A subset has elements either equal to or less than its superset. If the superset is finite then its subset must be finite. 21. wrong. ( i) " j 2 \ A " is correct since j 2 j is a subset of A. Hence the statement is A,
(ii) J 2 \ is a set and not an element. Correct statement will be " 2 e A ",
(iii) The statement is not correct since <j> is not an element of Correct statement is " A ". set.
( i v ) The statement is not correct since 2 is an element and not a Correct statement is " 2 e A " or " j 2 j E A. " (v ) (vi) Correct, since 0 is an element of A. Correct, since <fi is a subset of A,
2 2 . ( i i ) , (vi ) and Cvii) are not correct; others viz. ( i ) , ( i i i ) , ( i v ) , (v) are correct. In ( v i i ) E = C ; but B = D. 23. ( j ) ) 0 j , ( i i ))x]x is a human being having 10 thousand hands j, I iii) \ 0 ( i v l j ..., - 3 , 2, - 1 , 0, 1, 2, 3, ... <, ( v ) j 0 (, I v i ) J 1 (, ( v i i ) ) 0, 1, 2 [, ( v i i i ) )(p,) a \ b Ja b [ (ix i $ 0, 1 j 0 , 0 , 1, 1 {, (x) ) 0. 1 ( , ) a, b J, i x i ) j 0 | , ] 1 \ , ( xii) The set of men members of the club. The universal set is the set of all members of the club, 24-. to (i ) ( ii) of itself. 25. (i ) (ii ' (iii) (iv) 0 is the complement of a universal s e t ; universal set is a subset of itself; no no, no ; since \ 0 J is not a subset of V, (4 ) ) x 1 x f U ; x > 12 (3 , ) 1. 3, 5, ... n o ; ( v ) ( 1 ) no complement ( 2 ) 1 / itself 4 = ^1,2,3,4 \ and B = J 2, 4, 6, [; A is equivalent
B.
If A is a finite set it cannot be equivalent to a proper subset
7.
Union of Two Sets.
In Arithmetic we learn the operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication of numbers; that is, to each pair of numbers a and b we assign the numbers a + b, a b and ab which are called the sum, the difference and the product respectively. In this and later paragraph we shall consider the operations of union, intersection and difference of sets; that
SETS :
If
is we will assign new sets to pairs of sets A and B. These operations are in a sense somewhat similar to the operation on numbers given above. Consider the set of all students in a college. Let us consider this set as the universal set X. Some of the students from the set X know Marathi; let us say that they form the set A. Similarly some of the students from X know Gujarathi; let us say that they form the set B. It is quite clear that there may be some elements common to A and B; for there may be students who know both the languages, Marathi and Gujarathi. The union of these two sets A and Bis defined as the set of students who know Marathi or Gujarathi or both these languages. This set of the union of the sets A and B, is denoted by the symbol " A U B " ; we read the symbol as " A union B " or " A cup B '' In the set notation we write A = j x | x is a student of the college; x knows Marthi ; B = ) x | x is a student of the college; x knows Gujarathi (; /HJj9 = ) x | x i s a student of the college; x knows either Marathi or Gujarathi or both Marthi and Gujarathi Thus for the sets A and B we may write AU B = \ x \ x z A or xzB or xe both A and B j. Breifiy, A U B is the set of elements which are common and uncommon in A and B, i. e. in A and/or in B. Definition. The union of sets A and B, denoted by A U B, is the set of all elements which belong to A or to B or to both A and B. Illustrations. ( 1 ) If A = J a, b, c, d, e ( and B = ) c, p,q, d\, AUB = ) a,b, c, d,e,p,q\. ( 2 ) A = ) x | x is an integer; 1 < x < 50 ( and B = ) x | x is an integer; 31 < x < 70 ( than A U B = ) x | x is an integer; 1 < x < 70 ( 3 ) If A is the set of Bombay and B is the set A U B is the set of all Ration It may be noted in this AU B = A. then
all Ration Shops in the city of of all Ration Shops in Dadar, then Shops in the city of Bombay. example that S c A and we get
2 0 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA.
( 4 ) If is the set of all even positive integers 2, 4, 6, ... and B is the set of all odd positive integers 1, 3, 5, 7 then A U B is the set of positive integers 1, 2, 3, 4, Here, it may be noted that the sets A and B are disjoint sets i. e. there are no elements common to A arid B. Also the sets are infinite.
Representation of the union of two sets by Venn diagrams ;
The figure ( 5 ) shows how we can exhibit union of two given sets A and B. The set A and the set B are shown below.
W
( ) Whole portion of A and B together shows A U B in each case. In figure 5 ( i ) A c B. However some elements of A and B are common. The two circles taken together will show all elements in A and B. Hence AU B will be represented by both the circles taken together. In figure 5 ( i i ) A c. B. Hence the whole portion of B (which obviously includes the portion of A ) will represent A U B. In this case All B = B. In figure 5 ( iii ), no portion is common. Obviously A and B are disjoint sets. The following standard identities on set union can be easily obtained from the definition of the union of two sets A and B. ( i ) For every set A, A U A = A. For if x e A U A, then x t A and/or x s A i. e. x t A. This means that A U A C A. ... ... C i ) Similarly we can prove ACZ AD A. ... ... ( ii) From ( i ) and ( ii ), we have A U A = A. ( ii ) If A C B, then A U B = B.
SETS : 2 1
Proof : xzA\iB=t-xzA, and/or xzB and since Ac. B, we must have x z B. AU BCB. ... ... ... ( i ) If x z B, x z A U B, since A U B is a set of all common and uncommon elements of A and B. BCAU B. ... From ( i ) and ( ii ), it follows that A U B = B. Similarly if B c A, then A U B = A. ( iii ) A U < = A. ( iv ) A U A' = X. ( v ) A U X = X. ... ... ( ii )
( v i ) A<z ( A U ) and B C (A U B) if A # B. ( vii) If A C B and B C C, then A U B C C. (viii) A U B = B U A, this is a commutative property set union. Proof : xzA\JB=>xzA xzBVA. and / or B.
in
:. (AU B)C(BU A). (i) Similarly x z B U A=>xzB and/or A. x s A u B. (BU^)c(y)UB). (ii) From ( i ) and ( i i ) it follows that A U B = B U A. 8. Intersection of Two Sets. Consider the example in the paragraph 7 where we have defined the union of two sets A and B. In this example the universal set X was the set of all the students in the college; the sets A and B consisted of all the students from this set X, who knew Marathi and Gujarathi respectively. As was stated there, it is quite possible that there might be some elements common to A and B; i. e. some students might be knowing both the languages, Marathi and Gujarathi. This set of elements common to both the sets A and B is called the intersection of the sets A and B ; we denote this set of intersection of the sets A and B by the symbol " A fl B " ; and we read it as " the intersection of A and B", or " A cap B ".
22
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA.
In set notation, we write / t n f i = J x | x i s a student of the college ; x knows both Marathi and Gujarathi Or having defined the sets A and B as given in that paragraph, we can write AO B = I x l x e / l a n d x e f i j . Thus A 0 B is the set of elements common to A and B. Definition. The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by AO B, is the set oj elements which belong to both the sets A and B. We can now consider again the illustrations given in paragraph 7. Illustrations. ( 1 ) If A = )a, b, c, d, e $ and B = ) c,p, q, d,\ then AOB = ) c, d ( 2) If A = j x | x is an integer: 1 x < 50 ( and B = ) x | x is an integer; 31 < x < 70 j ; then A0B = } x \ x is an integer; 31 < x < 50 f.
( 3 ) If A is the set of Ration Shops in the city of Bombay and B is the set of Ration Shops in Dadar, then A fl B is the set of Ration Shops in Dadar. As in the paragraph 7, we note here that B e . A; and it follows that if B C A then we have A fl B = B. ( 4 ) If A = ) 2, 4, 6, 8, ( and B = ) 1, 3, 5, 7, ( then there is no element common to A and B, thus AO B =<j>. In general, it is clear that if A and B are disjoint sets A n 5 = 0. Representation of the intersection of two sets by Venn diagrams. The figures given below show how the intersection of two sets A and B can be exhibited in Venn diagrams. In figure 6 ( i ), there is n o common portion so that A and B do not have any common elements and hence they are disjoint sets so that we have A fl B = 0 as in illustration 4 given above.
SETS :
If
In figure 6 ( ii ), we have a common portion which is shaded and has also vertical lines in it. This shows that the two sets
(i)
= 0
(ii)
Fig 6
AOS
(iii)
4 fl B
( Common Portion)
A and B have common elements but neither A C f i n o r JSC A. In figure 6 ( i i i ) , Ac B and hence obviously all the elements belonging to A will also belong to B and hence Af\B = A. As in the case of the union of two sets, we can obtain the following standard identities on the intersection of sets. ( i ) AflA = A. Proof : x t A fl A =>Je t A and x e A i. e. x e A. A C\ AC A. Again x t A =s- x e A and x e A i. e. x s A fl A. AC Ad A. Hence from ( i ) and ( i i ) A fl A = A. ( ii ) AC\ A' =<t>. Proof: xsAHA'^xsAandxeA'. But A and A' are compliments of each other and have no common element and hence this set is A PI A' = <t>. ( i i i ) Ad<t> = (t>. P r o o f : xeAD0=>xsA and x e <f>. But < p has no element. Hence there is no element which belongs to A and 0 both. .*. a n * = 0. ( iv ) A fl B C A and A fl B C B.
( i )
2 4 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA
Proof, follows. (v)
xe Af\
xe A and A; e 2? and hence the CCLAftB.
result
If CCZA and C C f i , then
Proof, xe C x e A and xe B, from the given data; and this =>xeA H B. CCA ( vi ) Proof, commutative. xe A fl B => xe A and xeB=>xeBC\ A. ( i ) (ii) AriBCBnA. ... Similarly xeB(lA=>xeB and xeA=^xeAf\B .'. B H A C A D B ... From ( i ) and ( i i ), it follows that Ad B = B(1 A. OB. A fl B = 2?f) A, i. e. the intersection of two sets is
( vii ) ) A fl B ( fl C = A fl ) B fl C ) i. e. the intersection of three sets is associative. xe J ^ H B C ^ - x e J .4 0 B $ and x e C , => x e A and x e B ; and x e C x e ,4 and ;c e J B?\C\ jflflCj\ AViBinCC-Aft) BC\C\. ... Similarly we can prove that ^ r u B n c i c M n ^ n c . ... From ( i ) and (ii ), it follows that ) AV\B 9. ( 0 C = Af\ | B f l C ( Extension to Three Sets.
( i ) (H>
As a result of the definitions of union or intersection of sets, we have if A, B, C are three given sets, A U B and A D B are sets ; we can, therefore, easily extend these operations as indicated below : C , ( ^ U B ) R C and ( ^ O B ) U C , ( A t \ B ) ( \ C . Since A U B is a set of all elements common and uncommon to A and B, we can write , 4 U . B = | * | ; c e a t least one of A and B j and A n B = j x ]. X e both A and B
sets : 25
Then it follows that ( i U B ) U C = the set of elements x such that x e at least one of ( A U B ) and C; i. e. = ) x | x e at least one of A, B, C f ; and ( A U B ) l~l C = the set of elements x such that x e both ( < 4 U B ) and C; i.e. = j .t | .x e A and C or x e B and C ( ; and both and and
Similarly ( A D B ) U C = the set of elements common uncommon to ( A D B ) and C i. e. = ) x \ x e A, B, C ; x e A and B and x C; x e C and x both A and B ( ; < A PI B ) fl C = the set of elements x common to ( A fl B ) C i e. = j x | x e A, B and C (
The meanings of these operations as indicated in the above symbols are made clear by Venn diagrams as shown below :
( ^ U B ) U C is the whole of the portion shaded, (either by lines, vertical, horizontal or inclined) in the figure 7.
( A U B ) fl C is the portion shaded in the figure 8 ; part (1) is common to A and C ; part (2) is common to C and B and part (3) is common to A, B and C.
Fig. 8
26
: college
algebra
( A B ) u C is the portion shaded in the figure; it is the portion common to A and B and the whole portion of C.
( A D B ) (1 C is the portion ( 7) shaded sets in the figure 10 ; it is common to the A, B and C.

Fig. 10
Example. Let A = set of men, B = set of graduatesand C = set of teachers. Interpret P U B L I C , / f f l B f l C , ( A U B ) fl C and ( A D B ) U C. Let the sets A, B, C be denoted by the circles as shown in the figure 10. The interpretation is simplified by the parts of the figure marked ( 1 ), ( 2 ), ( 7 ), where part ( 1 ) = all those elements in A which do not belong to B or C and similarly for parts ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) . Part ( 4 ) = all those elements in A and C but not in B and similarly for parts ( 5 ) and ( 6 ) . Part ( 7 ) = all those elements common to the sets A, B and C. Then A U B U C = the set of elements * which belong either A, jB or C, to either A and B, B and C or C and A or to the sets A, B, C; i. e. it = all the parts ( 1 ), ( 2 ) , . . . ( 7 ); A U B U C is the set of elements who are men, graduates teachers, men graduates, graduate teachers or men teachers are men graduate teachers. to all or or or
sirrs : 27 A fl B fl C = the set of all elements common to the sets A, B, C i. e. the set of men graduate teachers. It is shown by part ( 7 ). ( A U B) (1 C = the set of elements x which belong to C and to A or B or both A and B; this set is shown by parts ( 4 ), ( 5 ) and ( 7 ) . The set may be said to consist of those men ( n o t graduates) who are teachers, those graduates ( not men ) who are teachers and also of men graduate teachers. ( A fl B ) U C the set of all elements x common to A and B, which belong or do not belong to C and also of those elements x which belong to C but are not in A fl B i.e. are not in A and B\ i. e. this set = the elements in parts ( 6 ) , ( 7 ) , ( 4 ) , ( 5 ) and ( 2 ) i. e. it consists of the men who are graduates but not teachers ( 6 o f men graduate teachers ( 7 ), of men teachers who are not graduates ( 4 ), of graduate teachers who are not men ( 5 ), and of teachers who are neither men nor graduates ( 2 ). 10. Operations on Sets.
Students are familiar with operations on numbers. For example, addition, subtraction, multiplication, division etc. are operations on numbers. We can similarly think of operations on sets. If the operation is done only on one set, it is called a unitary operation. Complementation is a unitary operation since it operates on a single set only. If the operation involves two sets we call it a binary operation. The union of two sets and intersection of two sets are binary operations. These operations of union and intersection may be extended to more than two sets also. These operations satisfy some properties which are similar to those satisfied by operations no numbers. ( i ) Commutative Property. Students are familiar with commutative property for addition and multiplication of two numbers, namely, m + n = n + m and mn nm, i. e. the effect of the addition and multiplication of two numbers remains the same even if the order of numbers is changed. This commutative property remains true for the binary operations of union and intersection. In using the commutative property only two numbers or sets are used. Thus if A and B are two sets then we have A D B = Bl) A and A C\ B = B C\ A.
28
: college
algebra
( ii ) Associative Property. If there are more than two numbers the operations of addition and multiplication are associative i. e the order in which the numbers are associated is immaterial. For example, {m + n) + r = m + ( n + r ) and (mn)r = m (nr ). This property holds for the operations of union and intersection of sets also. For example, AUBUC=(AUC)UB*=(CUB)UA etc. and AC)BnC = (AnC)HB = (BnC)DAetc. ( i i i ) Distributive Property of Union and Intersection. Students know that the operation of multiplication is distributive with respect to addition. For example, we have m(n + r ) = mn + mr. In the case of sets we have union of sets is distributive over intersection of sets. For example,
^ u ( s n c ) = (y4u B>n(îu c>.

This can be illustrated by the following Venn diagram. Shaded portion A U ( B f l C). indicates
Shaded portion also indicates (ÛB)fl(ÛC). Û(JSnC)

Fig. 11 I
Similarly intersection of sets is distributive over the union of sets. For example This can be illustrated by the following Venn diagram. Shaded portion indicates A(\{BV C). Shaded oprtion also indicates {Aft B)U ( A f t C ) . ^ n ( s u c )
Fig. U 2
SETS : 2 9
( i v ) We now consider here the operation of difference on two sets. If A and B are two sets then ( i ) A. B is a set of all elements of .A which do not belong to B and ( ii ) B A is a set of all elements of B which do hot belong to A. Thus A - B = } *e>4; x e B ( and B - A = ) x\xe B-,x<A\.
(i)
Shaded portion A B. Fig. 12
(ii j
Shaded portion B A .
Example. If A = ) 0, 1, 2 j and B = j 2, 3, 4 f, then A B = set of elements which belong to to B. A - B = ) 0, M; and similarly B A = J 3, 4
but
not
Following identities on difference of sets may be noted. ( 1 ) A - B = A 0 B' = B' - A'. Proof : We have A - B
= j x j x e A;
= A 0 B';
= \x\xeA
x<ZB\ B' ( ... ( i ) this proves the former

X e
part. Again A - = ) x f y 4 , x e f i ' j , from ( i ) above A'; xe B' | = ) x e B -, x<Z_A' f B - A'; this proves the latter part.
= j xC
( 2)
A Let We Aft
B = <p, iff A C B. A - B = <t>. have A B = A Pi B' from ( i ) above. B' = <f> since AO B' = A - B = <p.
30
: college
algebra
But A n B' = <j> means that A and B' have no element. A and B' are disjoint sets, ... <#> Again B and B', being complements are disjoint sets. From ( i ) and ( i i ) it follows that A .B. Conversely if A S. B, then A fl B' = <p and hence A .8 = 0. ( 3) One can easily see that A - B = B - A, only when A = B\ and A - B = A, only when A fl B = <f>.
common ( j ) ( ii )
11.
Illustrative Examples.
Write in set notations (tabular or set builder notion ) the follow", ".
Ex.i, ing sets.
( 1 ) A is the set of letters in the word " college (2) B is the set of letters c, e, g, I, o. ( 3 ) C is the set of letter? i n the word " calculus ( 4 ) D is the set of letters a, c, I, s, u. ( 5 ) i s the set of letters in the word "leg". ( 6 ) F is the set of letters in the word " cell '.
Answers
(1 ) A = ) x j x is a letter in " college " (2) B = i c,e.g.l,o ( 3 ) C = ' x | x is a letter in " calculus " |. (41 D = ) a,c,l, s, it ( 5 J B = J x \x is a letter in ' kg" ( 6 ) F = ) x\x is a letter in " cell " j. Ex. 2, (1 ) (2 ) (3 ) (4) (5) With reference to the sets in Ex. 1 above, answer the following: W h i c h of these sets are subsets of the sets in the example ? Which of these sets are equal sets ? Which of these sets are finite sets ? Write down the sets A (J B. A U C, C (J D, C U E and A U E. Write down the sets ,4 f l B f ] C. C f l D, C f | E and C f~l F .
Answers ( 1 ) It is evident that A <= B , B = A; and E and F C l o r B. This follows from the fact that the letters in the word college'' are " c , o,le,g" which are the same as in B ; i e. 4 = B. As the letters " I e, g " are also to be found in A or B, E is a proper subset of A or B. F is also a proper subset of A or B.
SETS : 3 1 Similarly, C S Z 3 and C C ; hence C = P. These are the or B. Also
(2) As seen in the above answer, A = B and C = P. only equal sets. It should be noted that u A or B ; s ^ C or D. Hence A C or D and B 4= C or P. g
Note : The elements of a set can be written in any order ; thus the elements in A and B are the same ; but the order is different. Similar remarks hold for the sets C and D . If the elements in a set are repeated, they are to be counted once only. Thus the letters I and e are repeated by the rule for the formation of A ; yet A - B. ( 3 ) It is evident that all the six sets are finite. There are five elements in tbe sets A, B, C and D and there are three elements in each of the sets E and F. ( 4 ) It is obvious that A [ j B = /i or B, as A = B ; similarly C IJ D = C or D. Since A = B and C D, A |J C = B (J D ; the c o n m o n elements in B and D are c, I; the uncommon elements are e, g, o and a, s, u, : i l ) C = B U D = j c, I, e, g, o, a, s, u, Similarly C U E = D U E = j I a, c, s, u e, g Since E C. A or B , A U-B = - 6 L ) E = 4 o r B . Similarly A U F = B l J f = - A o r B . (5) Since A f ) B = the set of elements common to A and B = A B f ) C = B f | O, Since C = D, and C f| = O f|
this
oiB.
Similarly C (~) > = C or D ; i.e. = ) l \ . Finally, c n f = >riF'

=
(''
C = D) ;
I c.1
s h w s that
EX. 3. A = \ 0, 1, 2, 3 subsets has the set A ? (i ) (ii) ) 0. 3 (,
Write down all the subsets of A.
How many
<t>, the empty set, is a subset of every set A ; Subsets of A with one element only are ) 0 (, ) 1 | , ) 2 ^, ) 3 { ; ) 0, 1 j 0, 2 j ;
(iii) Subsets of A with two elements only are J I, 2 j 1, 3 and \ a, 3 ( ;
( i v ) Subsets of A with three elements are ) 0 1 , 2 ^ , j 0, 1 , 3 j , \ 0, 2, 3 [ and j 1, 2. 3 ( v ) Finally A, tbe set of four elements is a subset of itself. There are thus sixteen ( = 2 ' ) subsets of A and there are fifteen proper subsets of A. Ex. A. The sets A, B , C, D, E, F are given as follows : A = | * | * is an even integer : * > 0
32 : c o l l e g e
algebra
B J * | x is an odd integer ; * > 0 j. C = j * | * is a multiple of 3 ; * > 0 \. D = J * | x is a multiple of 5 ; * > 0 j . E = j x | x i s a multiple of 3 ; 1 < * < 50 (. F =') x | * is a multiple of 5 ; 1 < * 50
F i n d ( i 1 ) which of the sets are finite and which are infinite ; ( i i ) A U B and / I f l B , (iii ) A U C and A f ) C ; ( i v ) A (J E and A E ; and ( v ) E U F and E f ) F. Answers ( i ) A = \ 2, 4 6, 8, J and B = \ 1, 3, 5 \ ; similarly C = \ 3, 6, 9 \ and D = ) 5, 10, 15, 20 These are thus infinite sets. H o w e v e r E = J 3, 6, 9, 48 ^ i e. there are sixteen e l e m e n t s in E ; a n d F = j 5. 10, 15 50 \ i.e. there are 10 elements in F. T h u s E and F are finite sets. ( i i ) There are no common elements in A and B as seen above ; h e n c e A U B = J 1, 2, 3 4 , 5 , 6 ( ; i e. A U B is the set of all positive integers. A s there are n o common elements in A and B, B is an empty set ; or
a n B = <t>.
( i i i ) A is the set of multiples of 2 ( * > 0 if x e A) and C is the set of moltiples of 3 ( * > 0 if * e C ); h e n c e A U C is a set of multiples of 2, multiples of 3 and multiples of both 2 and 3 ( i. e. multiples of 6 ) ; i e. A JJ C = j 2, 4, 6, 8, .. a n d 3 , 9, 15, ... . ( or A U C = j x | x is an even integer or an odd multiple of 3 ; * > 0 A f") C * the set of common elements in A and C i. e. = { 6 , 1 2 , 18, Or j 4 f l C = ^ * | * i s a multiple of 6, * > 0 {. It may b e noted that both A U C and A (~) C are infinite sets. ( i v ) A U = ! 2 , 4 , 6, ; and 3, 9, 15, . . . . 45 | i. e. A (J E is the set of all even integers ( > 0 ) and odd multiplies of 3 between 1 and 50. Similarly it is evident that = ) 6 12, 18, 24, A f \ E = $ * | * i s a multiple of 6 ; 1 < * < 50 (. 48 ( ; or
{ v ) W e leave it to the students to show that E U F = ) 3, 6, 0 48 ; 5, 10, 20, 25, 35, 40, 50 $ = ) * | * is a multiple of 3 and x > 0 ; * is a multiple of 5 and 1 < * < 50 B f ) F = ] 15- 30, 45 j. E*. 5. show ( i ) (a) If A C.X, B'. A U B and (A A H B and (A BCLX and A f ) B 4= 0 . draw V e n n diagrams to
(ii)
(iii) (v) (vij
U
fl B)'.
(iv) A ' f l B ' .
X'nBT.
B)'. A)'
li'UB')'-
A B and {A B - A and (B -
SETS : 3 3 (6) If any two of the sets A, B, C have common elements and they are proper subsets of X, draw Venn diagrams to show
(i) An(BuC)and/lu(BuC) (ii) (A OB) n (A DC) and (A f l B ) u ( A n c ) Answers:

(a) (i)
Rectangle indicates universal set. Plain area indicates B; shaded portion indicated by horizontal lines indicates B'.
Fig. 13 () (ii)
Rectangle indicates universal set. A u B = 5 * | * e A and or * e B | = unshaded area. (A j B ) ' = shaded area.
Fig. 14
() (Hi)
Rectangle indicates universal set. .A D B = } * | * e A and e B f, shaded area. (A 0 B )' = unshaded area. (a (iv) Fig. 15 Rectangle indicates universal set. Portion indicated by straight line* inclined towards the right hand side ( i . e. having positive slopes) indicates A'. Portion indicated by straight lines inclined towards the left hand side (i. e. having negative slopes ) indicates B'. A' n B' = I xe A' and x "-B' j. This is indicated by crossed area
F i g . 16
formed by the two types of inclined C. A.3
34 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA ( A' n B' y = A u B, indicated by two circles taken together. ( A ' U S ' ) ' is indicated by plain area i . e . common portion of two circles. () (v)
Rectangle indicates universal s e t . A - B =) x e A, x f c B , j plain area ( A B )' = shaded area. () (vi )
am
Fig. 18 Fig. 20
Fig. 17 Rectangle indicates universal set. B - A = ) xe B; x A shaded portion. (B - A )' = plain area i. e. whole unshaded portion.
(6) (>)
A is indicated by right slant lines. B |J C isindicated by drawing left lines. A f ) ( B (J C ) is indicated by cr area formed by the two types of lines. A U < B (J C ) is indicated by the shaded area. Fig. 19 (b) (n) A n B is indicated by drawing lines inclined towards the right having positive slope. A f l C i s indicated by drawing lines inclined towards the left having negative slope. ( A n BJ n ( A n C) is indicated by crossed area formed by the two types of inclined lines. ( A 0 B ) u ( A 0 C) is indicated by the whole shaded types of lines and the crossed area. portion i. e., by the two
SETS : 3 5
Exercisc 1 (b> 1. Define the operation of union between two sets A and B. Explain its meaning by an example. Illustrate by means of Venn diagram, the union of two sets. Define intersection of two sets and explain the definition by means of an exampie and with the aid of Venn diagram. if A = ) a, b, c,d B = \ c, e j \ and \ X = J a, b, c, d, c , f , g, h write in the tabular form the sets ( i ) A U B and ( ii ) A 0 B and indicate them by a Venn diagram. Also write down the sets which are equal to ( i ) A U X, ( ii) A fl X, ( iii ) A U A', ( iv ) A fl A'. Let X = j 4, 3, A = } - 4, - 3, C = j 1, 2, 3, 4 j, by Roster method ) the ( i ) ( v ) 5. 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4 (, - 2, - I f , B = J - 1, 0, 1 express in the tabular form ( i . e . following sets
2.
3.
4.
A', ( i i ) A'ClB, ( i i i ) AUC, ( i v ) (AU C ) \ vi A fl x ( ) A U 0. Verify that AC\X = A\J<f>.
If A = ) a, b, c B = J c, x, y, z (, find ( i ) AuB, U . 4 ; ( ii ) Aft B, Bft A. Is ( i ) /4 U 5 = B I) A, ( i i ) At\B BViAl
6.
if X = } 1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6 { and its subsets A = \ 1, 2, 3, 4 B = j 2 , 4 j, C = j 3, 5, 6 write in tabular form, the sets ( i ) A U C, ( ii ) C B, ( iii ) A' - B, ( iv) (A- C)', ( v ) ( A - B' )', ( vi ) .Bfl A, ( vii) B\ (viii) B' U C, ( i x ) C' fl A, (x) ( A fl A' )'.
7.
If X - set of all students in F. Y. Arts class, A = set of all students who have taken Mathematics in the class, B = set of all male students in the class. Describe in~words the sets ( i ) A' U B', ( ii ) ( A fl B )'. State whether .4' U B' = ( A fl B )'. illustrate with the aid of Venn diagram.
46:COLLEGE ALGEBRA
8.
If the universal set X = j x | x is a positive integer less than 10 j, and A - J 2, 4, 7, 9 j, B= J 1, 5, 7 verify that ( /I U B )' = A' fl B'. When are two sets said to be equal ? Define empty set. Give an example of empty set and show that A C 0 A = 0. If A = set of all fat people, B = set of all short people,
9. 10.
describe in words ( i ) A' fl B\ ( ii ) ( A U B ) and state whether A' fl B' = ( A U B )'. Illustrate by means of Venn diagram. 11. If X = )a, b, c, d, e,f\, A = \c,d,e\, B = ) a, d j find ( i ) ( A U B )', (ii ) A' fl B' and state whether {AUB)' = A'VlB'. If X is the universe with A and B as its subsets, show that ( i ) ( A U B)' = A' fl B' i. e. the complement of the union of A and B is equal to the intersection of the complements of A and B ; ( A f t B)' = A'U B' i. e. the complement of the intersection of A and B is equal to the union of the complements of A and B.
12.
( ii )
Illustrate by means of Venn diagrams the equality of these sets. [ T h e results given above are known as De Morgan's laws. ]. 13. If the universe X = ) 0, A , ! , ?, a, 5, x [ and subsets A = J A, ?, B = ) o , 0, A i then find ( i ) ( A D B)', ( ii ) A' U B' and state whether ( A fl B)' = A' U B'. With the usual notation, show that ( i ) ( ii ) A ^ B o B'CA';
14.
if A C C and B C C, then ( A U B ) Q C and ( A f ) B ) C C .
SETS : 3 7
15.
Given two sets M and N with NC- M, which of the following is true ? (a) (Z>) M f \ N = N or M C\ N = M. M U N = N or M U N = M.
16. 17.
Prepare a Venn diagram to show that A B + <*>, A C = B f l C * <t>.
Given subsets ,4, B, C of the universe AT, write the sets which are equal to (i (ii)Af)(f>, (iii )AUA, (iv)Ar\A', fv)0', (vi)(i4')', ( v i i ) ^ n j f , ( v i i i ) A \J X, (a)AC\A, (x)AUA\ ( x i ) X', (xii)A-<fi, ( xiii ) A - A, ( xiv ) A 0 B'. If A = )4, 5, 6, 7 = J 1,2,3 express in tabular form the sets ( i ) AU{B\JC), ( i i ) ( / t U B) U C and verify that X U ^ B U C ) = U U 5 ) U C. Draw a Venn diagram to show this result. ( This is called associative property for union of sets A, B,C.) C=}8,10{
18.
19.
Taking A, B, C as subsets of the universe X, show by means of Venn diagram or otherwise that (i) (H) = (BflC) ^n(Bnc)=(yinJB)nc.
[ This is called the associative property for intersection of sets A, B, C. ] 20.

subsets If X = } 1. 2> 3> 4< 5> 6> 7' 8- 9 10' H' 12 * and A = \ 1 , 9 , 1 0 j , f l = J3, 4 , 6 , 1 1 , 12 t and C = ) 2 , 5 , 6 | , find ( i ) AU ( B f \ C), ( i i ) (A\jB)r\(A\jC) and verify that ^ u ( 5 n c ) = (û5>n(ûc).
[ This is called intersection. ]
distributive
law
of
union
over
38 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA
21.
With the sets in example 18, find ( i ) Aft ( 5 U C ) , ( ii ) ( Aft ) U ( ^ f l C ) and verify that -4n(j3uc) = (/<ns)U(y<nc). [This is called distributive law of intersection over union. ] If A, B, C are three non-empty sets, state giving reasons whether the following statements are true. ( i ) If ,4 U = ,4 U C, then B = C ; ( i i ) I f ^ n s = Af\C, t h e n f i = C. Sets A and B are such that A has 32 elements ; B has 42 elements and A U B has 62 elements. Find the number of elements in the set A D B. Show that (AU 5 ) D B' - A only if A D B = <f>. S h o w by using Venn diagrams or otherwise that ( i ) AUB = BVA, ( i i ) Aft B = BV\ A, ( i v ) X l l = A iff BCA, (iii) (A')'=*A, ( v ) ^ 0 5 = Biff fiC/1, ( v i ) ( ^ U B ) ' = / n 5 ' , (vii) (At\B)'= A'UB\ (viii) A D (BflC) = ( ^ D B / l C , ( i x ) A D ( B U C) = ( ^ U B ) U C, (x) ^ U ( B n C ) = ( ^ U B ) n ( 4 U C ) , (xi) ^ n ( B u c ) = ( / < n s ) U ( ^ n c ) , (xii) A- B = B'-A'. Answers. Exercise 1 (b)
22.
23.
24. 25.
1. 2. 3.
A (J = )x\xe If A = * 1, 2
A and/or B j . B = ) 2, 3, 4, (, then A U B = ) 1, 2, 3, 4
A f \ B = ] x i x e A and B j. If A = j 1, 2, 3, 4 j and B = j 3 , 4 , 5,6, 7 | , then A f l B = ) 3 , 4 A (J B = ) a, b. c, d, e / A f | B = ) c (.
Fig. 21
SETS : 3 9 ( i ) (iii) 4. (i) (iii) (v) (vi) 5. (i) A U-Y =
x,
(ii ) (iv)
A n
A.
A I U ' = X. A' = ] 0 , 1 . 2 , 3 . 4 $ .
A f l A' - <t>. (ii) A ' n B = | 0 , l j , (iv) (A (J C)' = j 0 \.
A u C = j - 4 , - 3, - 2 , - 1 , 1, 2, 3, 4,' ( , A OX = A = J -4, -3. -2, A u<t> - A = ) -4, -3, -2, -1 -1 B UA -
A u B = \ a, b, c, x, y,'z A\JB = BUA.
] x, y, z, a, b,
c\.
(ii)
A n B " \ c \ , BU A = ) c \ ,
6.
( i ) (ii) (iii) (iv)
A u C = S 1. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 j, C - B = } 3, 5, 6 $, A' - B 5, 6 [ | 2, 4 { = j 5, 6 j,
First let us write A - C = ) 1, 2, 3, 4 ( - $ 3 , 5 , 6 ( = J 1 , 2 , 4 } , ( A - C ) ' = ) 3, 5 , 6 ' . \ 1, 3, 5 6 [ = ]2. 4
(v ) (vi) (viii) . (ix) (x)
First we write A - B' = \ 1, 2, 3 , 4 ( -
A (A - B ' ) ' = (1,3,5,6).

B H i = j 2, 4 $ , ( vii) B' = ) 1 , 3 , 5 , 6 B ' u C = J 1, 3, 5, 6 $ u i 3, 5, 6 $ = \ 1 , 3 , 5 , 6 5, C' 0 A = j 1 , 2 , 4 ( fl j 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 | = ] 1 , 2 , 4 AflA'^0, :. (A D A ' ) ' = </>' = X = J 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 mathematics
7 . ( i ) A ' u B' = set of all students who have not taken and or who are not males. (ii)
A H b = set of all male students who have taken mathematics.
( A O B ) ' = set of all students who are neither male nor have taken mathematics. the two sets are equal and we have A' u B ' = ( A O B ) ' , i. e. 10. short. (i ) (ii ) the union of complements = the complement of intersection. A'0 B' = set all people who are not fat and who are not
4 u B = set of all people who are fat and/or short ( A u B ) ' = set of all people who are not fat and who are not short.
/.
11. (i) (ii)
(A'n B') - u
uB)'.
( A u S ) ' = }M
i. e. the intersection of the complements = the complement of the anion. We have A u B = ) c, d, e, a, f We have A ' = ) a, b, / B' = \ b, c, e (.
(AuB)' = A ' n B ' = j 4 | .

12. ( i) Starting from the left hand side set, we have xe (A nor * g ; x e A' and xe ^ x e (A' 0 B' ) B'
B
(A U J B ) ' S ( A ' n B ' ) .

Similarly starting from the right hand side set, we have x e (A' 0 B'} => xe A' and B', both => x e :.
A
... ( i )
B simultaneously ... (ii)
^xe(ADB)'. ( A' n B' ) S

= (A' DB').
( A uB)'.
From ( i ) and I i i ) we conclude that (A (jB)' (ii) Arguing out as in ( i ) . show that ( A H B )' (A' u B' ) and ( A ' U B') ( A D B)'
and hence deduce the result. 13. ( i) (ii ) 14. () ( b ) (A n B)' = \ 0, * 1, ?, 5, * \ !, ?, 5, * I
(A' u B ' i = \ 0,
The two sets are equal. " ( M O W ) = N " is true. "(SI (j AT) = M " is true.
1$.
Fig. 22
SETS : 4 1
17.
( I ) A U <t>=A. (iv ) A 0 A' = 0,

(vii) A F|-X = A , ( * ) A L M ' = X, (xiii) A - A = 0 ,
I. ii ) A n <t> = 1>. I v * 0' = X,

(viii) A U X = X . ( xi ) X' = (xiv) A f l B ' = A B.
( HI) A U A= , (vi) (A'Y=A,

( i x ) A (1 A = A, ( x i i ) A 0 = A>
18.
(i )
B 1JC = ) 1, 2, 3, 8, 10 A U < B U C ) = j 4, 5, 6. 7. 1, 2. 3, 8. 10 ( = ) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10 |
( il
A U B = J 4, 5, 6. 7. 1. 2 , 3 ( A U - B ) U C = \ 4. 5. 6, 7, 1, 2, 3, 8. 10 [ = } 1. 2. 3. 4, 5, 6, 7 . 8 , 10 Thus A U(B\JC) = (A{JB)\JC.
19.
(i)
Consider the set ( A D B ) f l C. * e ( A f ) B > n C ^ i E A f l B a n d C, both s - i f A, B, C simultaneously *f A and ( B f | C )

(A
nB )n
=> xt A (1 ( B O C ). c E A n ( B n c)
... (1)
... (2)
Similarly we can show that AF) ( B N C ) = ( A D B ) D C . From ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) , we deduce that

(A
)nc
= A
n(B nc
(ii) iO. ( i ) (ii)
Similar proof as in ( i ) can be g i v e n .

(BFL C) = ) 6
/.
A U(BOC)
= ) 1. 9, 10, 6
W e have A (j B = } 1, 9, 10. 3, 4. 6, 11. 12 [ A (_|C = ) 1, 9, 10, 2, 5, 6

(A U B )
(A UC> =
J i,
9,
io,
From ( i ) and ( i i ) we see that
A u(snc)
21. (i) (II)
- (A U B ) D M UC).
W e have B U C = ) 3, 4, 6, 11, 12, 2, 5 J.

A H {B U C) = Similarly A 0 B = 0 , A L " L C = 0.
( A f ) B ) U ( A f l C ) = 0 and hence the result. 2 2 . ( i ) Not true. There may be more elements common to say A and C than the elements common to B and C (or vice versa). For example let A = J 1 , 2 , 3, (, B = } 2, 3, 4 $ and C = j 1, 2, 3, 4 (. Then A U B = A U C = \ 1, 2, 3, 4 But B 4 = C .
4 2 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA (ii ) Not true. There may be more (or different ) elements in C which are not in A ) than those in B ( w h i c h are not in A) or vice versa Let A = J 1, 2,1 B = > 2, 3, 4 ( and C = J 2. 3. 5 j. Then A f l B = A |") C = ] 2. 3 '< 2 3 . A ( j B will have maximum A has 32 and B has 42, A (j B can given that A y B has 62 elements They intersect and must have 74 A 0 B has 12 elements 24. B u t B 4= C.
elements if A and B axe disjoint Since have 32 + 42 i. e. 74 elements. B u t we are H e n c e the sets A and B are not disjoint. 62 i- e , 12 elements in common Hence
Plain area B ; Shaded area B ' .
Fig 23 To show that ( A u # > Proof : .'. the union of sets. (A UB )f1 B = ( A 0 B') u ( B O B' )
n
B' = A only if A D B = 0 .
W e have the property that intersection of sets is distributive over
= UnB')u<*>.
( s i n c e B and B' do not have any common element.)
= iflB'.
If A n B = (j>, then A and B are disjoint sets and intersect and A C S and hence A f ) B' = Ahence A and B do not
Chapter 2
Real Numbers
( l ) Natural numbers. ( 2 ") The number corresponding to an empty set. ( 3 ) Integers. ( 4 ) Rational numbers. ( 5 ) Representation of rational numbers by points on a straight line. ( 6 ) Irrational numbers. ( 7 ) Correspondence of irrational numbers with points on a straight line. ( 8 ) Approximation of irrational numbers by rational numbers, ( 9 ) Real numbers. ( 1 0 ) Imaginary numbers. (11) Illustrative Examples. Exercise 2.
1.
Natural Numbers.
The students are already familiar with the positive number s 1, 2, 3,..., n,...These positive numbers are called natural numbers as they arose from the natural process of counting. The set o f natural numbers, which we shall denote by N, is an infinite set. The process of counting can be considered as asso;iating a set o f objects with a set of natural numbers N = ) 1, 2, 3,... } in such a way that one and only one object of the set corresponds to one and only one natural number. This type of association is called one-one ( or one to one or 1-1 ) correspondence from one set to the other. Let us consider a finite set of natural numbers 1, 2, 3, This set has k elements ; denote this set by Nk so that Nh - ) 1 , 2, 3 k\. , k.
If A is a given set and the elements of A can be put in 1-1 correspondence with Nk , then obviously A has k elements. We shall write the statement that " the set A has k objects corresponding to k natural numbers " as " n ( A ) =k." For example, if there are 15 objects in a set A corresponding to the natural numbers 1, 2, ,15 we shall describe the correspondence by the equation it ( A ) = 1 5 . Similarly if A ~ \ a, b, c, d. .. j \ and Ni0 = j 1, 2, 3,..., 10 j, then the two sets can be
43
44
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA
put in one-one correspondence and we may write this relation as n (A) = 10. Consider the two sets N = | 1, 2, 3 and A = J 2, 3, 4,..., n, n + 1, .. . . j. Observe that ( i ) ( ii ) (iii ) ( iv) N and A are infinite sets; A is a proper subset of N, since 1 e N and 1 g; A ; there is one-one correspondence between the infinite set N and its proper subset A; and the two sets N and A are equivalent.
Thus, an infinite set can have one-one correspondence with its proper subset whereas a finite set cannot have one-one correspondence with any one of its proper subsets. If n ( A) = r and n ( B ) = s i. e. if the number of elements in A is r and the number of elements in B is s, and if r > s, then process of counting the elements in B comes to an end first. Suppose that there are 15 elements in the set A and 30 elements in the set B, such that the 30 elements in the set B are distinct from the 15 elements in the set A. Here, two sets A and B are disjoint since they do not have any common elements and hence A n B = 0, but n ( A U B ) = 45. This illustration will help us to define the addition in N. 1-1. Addition in AT. If n ( A ) = r and n ( B) = s and A n B = 0, then the sum of two natural numbers r and s is given byr + J = n ( ^ U B ) . We shall now derive some fundamental properties of the natural numbers. ( i ) Closure Property. If disjoint sets A and B have r and s elements respectively then A U B has r + s elements; hence r + s is also a natural number. This shows that the addition of two n a t u r a l numbers is also a natural number. This fact is expressed by saying that the set of natural numbers is closed for
REAL NUMBERS :
45
addition. A set is said to be closed ( or is said to have the closure property ) for an operation if the result of the operation is an element of the same set. Thus, if re N, se N, then r + s e N and hence N is closed for addition. ( i i ) The Addition is Commutative. finite, disjoint sets such that r = n ( A) and s = ( B ). Let A and B be two
By definition, r + s = n(AU B) r} ( B U A ), since the commutative property holds for the union of two sets. = s + r. This shows that the addition of two natural numbers is commutative i. e. the sum of two natural numbers remains the same even if their order is changed. ( iii ) The Addition is A ssociative. Let A, B, C be three disjoint sets such that r = n(A),s=n(B), t =n(C). by definition, ( r + s ) + r = n j ( ^ U f i ) U C | = n \ A U ( B U C ) ( as the union of more than two sets is associative. = n(A) +n(BUC) r + (s + t ) = r + s + t. This shows that the addition of three natural numbers is associative, and hence we have the property that in the addition of more than two natural numbers, the order in which the numbers are associated is immaterial. It follows from this result that if r, s, t e N and if r + s = r + t then s = t. This is called the Cancellation Law for addition. 1-2. Multiplication in the Set N. If there are s disjoint sets, A,, A2, A3...As, any two of them being disjoint and :.
say
46
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA
n ( Ax ) = n ( A2 ) = ... = n(As) r, then the product of two natural numbers r and s is given by rs = n j At U A2U A3 ... U A, j. We can see from the associative property of addition that n Mi U A2 U A3... U As ( = 11 ( Ax ) + n ( A2 ) + ... + n(As) = r + r + r + s times = r s. We shall now derive some fundamental properties of the operation of multiplication of natural numbers. ( i ) Closure Property in N. If r and s are two natural numbers then the disjoint sets Av A2,...AS can be found such that n( Ai) = n( A2) = ... =n( As) = r. The number of elements in the union of the sets is given by n ) AÛA2 U A3... U As j and is some natural number ; hence the product rs is also a natural number. This means that the set N is closed for the operation of multiplication. Thus if r, s t N, then rs t N. ( ii ) Commutative and Associative Properties in N . Let there be J sets, say, At, A2, A3...AS, any two of them being disjoint and n ( A\) =/? ( A2 ) = ...=( As) =r. Hence the set, say, C = ] At U A2 U A3 U As ( contains rs elements. From these, we can form the sets Bu B2, B3,...Br, any two being disjoint and n(Bi) = n(B2) = ...=n(Br) = s. Hence the set, say, elements. D = B^ U B2 U B3 U Br contains sr
Since Au A2, ..., As are disjoint and u B2,...Br are also disjoint and B - sets are formed from the union set C, the union sets D and C contain the same number of elements and hence we must have rs = sr\ and this establishes the commutative property in N. Let, as usual, r = n ( A ), s = n ( B), r = n ( C ) . By definition, (rj)t=|(Û5)UCj = n)A U (fiUC)( = r(st).
REAL NUMBERS : 4 7
This establishes the associative property in N. For example, ( 3-5 ) -9 = 15-9 = 135; and 3- ( 5-9) = 3-45 = 135 and hence ( 3-5 )-9 = 3 ( 5 - 9 ) and. this verifies the associative property. ( i i i ) Distributive Property in N. Multiplication is distributive over addition and we can show that r ( s + t) = rs + rt if r, s, t e N. ( iv ) Identity Element in N. If r e N, we know that r X 1 = r = 1 X r. Thus, if any natural number is multiplied by 1, the product is the natural number itself. Hence unity i. e. 1 is called an identity element for multiplication. 1-3. Order in N. If we are given two different natural numbers r and s and it is known that there is another natural number t such that r + t - s, then we say that s is greater than r and write it as s > r or that r is less than s and write it as r < s. We can thus see that ( i ) for two different natural numbers r and s we have either r > 5 or r < 5. A = ) 1, 2. 3, ..., r then n ( A ) = r, B = ) 1,2, 3, , 5 then n ( B) = s, C = ) 1, 2, 3. ..., t j , then ( C ) = then ( 1 ) if r < 5, A <= B and (2) if 5 < t, B c c . It is clear that in the process of counting 1, 2, 3,... any number is less than its following and greater than its preceding. All natural numbers being positive integers, there is no natural number less than one. Hence 1 is the smallest natural number and it has no predecessor but it has a successor ; every other natural number has a unique ( i e. one and only o n e ) predecessor and a unique successer. If q, r, s, t e N. then we also have ( i i ) i f r > 5 , r + t>s + t, ( i i i ) if J">s, rt > st, ( i v ) i f r > s and tyq, r-\-t>s + q, ( v ) if r > 5 and tyq, rt>sq. These are known as order relations in N. If
48
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA
2. The Number Corresponding to an Empty Set. Let Ax = { 1 \,A2 = ) 1, 2 ),A3 = M- 2, 3 (, ,4, = } 1, 2,...r j so that ( ) = 1, n ( /42 ) = 2 , n (A3) = 3,..., n = r. Thus, a natural number r can be assigned to every finite nonempty set by one-one correspondence with the set. No natural number is associated with the empty set 0. We, therefore associate the number zero with the empty set and have the relation
n ( 0 ) = 0.
The system of numbers is thus enlarged M J ) 0 ( = jO, 1,2, 3 {. to the set
2-1. Operations in the Set NU J 0 (. The operations of addition and multiplication are performed in the set N U ) 0 j by the following rules. ( i ) If r and s are non-zero elements of NU ) 0 (, then r + 5 = s + r and rs = sr. ( ii ) If r is a natural number or zero, then r + 0=0 + r=r. ( i i i ) If r is a natural number or zero, then r x0=0xr=0. From ( i i ) , we observe that if zero is added to the element of NU J 0 (, then the result is the same element. The number zero, therefore, is called the identity element for addition. From ( iii ), we see that r X 0 = 0 y r eN U ) 0 ( . all [ The symbol ' v ' looking like an inverted A means ' for ]
Hence, even if r ^ s, r x 0 = 0 = s x 0 and therefore we can not cancel zero from the relation r x 0 = s X 0. Thus, the concellation law " r x s = rt => s = t" is valid in the set N U \ 0 j only if r 0. We can also see that the set N U ) 0 j is closed for the operations of addition and multiplication and that these operations are commutative and associative We can also see that the distributive property of multiplication over the sum is also true in this set. It may also be noted that the set N U ) 0 { has both the identities-the additive identity " z e r o " and the multiplicative identity " one ", ( also called unity ).
REAL NUMBERS : 4 9
3.
The Integers.
The set N U ) 0 j is closed for the operations of addition and multiplication. This means that if r and se NU ) 0 then we can always find the elements, t and u e NU ) 0 $ such that r + s = t and rs = u. If s = 0, then r = t and if s # 0, then r < t. Conversely, if we are given two elements, r and t e NU such that r = t or r < t ( written as r < t ) then we can find an element s e NU } 0 such that r + s = t. In this case we say that it is possible to subtract r from t and that s is the difference t r, written as 5 = t r. Thus, subtraction is the operation inverse to that of addition. We can, however, observe that the operation of subtraction is not closed for the set N U } 0 J, since we can not find an element s e NU } 0 f such that s=t r if r>t. We, therefore, enlarge the number system by introducing a new set of numbers. This is done as follows. Let r e N, then we know that there is no element zNU J 0 j, which when added to r gives zero. We now assume that there is such an element ( or a number ) denoted by r such that r + ( r ) = 0. Thus for each element se N we have an element s. Thus we have now two equivalent sets ) 1, 2,3, ,n,... | a n d ) - 1 , - 2 , - 3 , ,-,... Since we denote the first set by N the second set will be denoted by N. The elements of N are called negative integers since the elements of N are called positive integers. The set consisting of negative integers, zero and positive integers is called the set nf imagers and we shall represent it by Thus we have J= N^J. If r and t are two natural numbers ( positive integers ) such that r > t, then the difference r t is a positive integer. In this case the difference t r can be defined as the negative integer (r t). Addition in the set J . We define the operations in J so as to make them consistent with the operations in AÛ ) 0 j and N. C. A N U J 0 $ UN. Obviously JVC J and.
60
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA
Thus, we define addit ion in J in such a way that it remains commutative and associative and that the number zero remains as the additive identity. We should remember that if teN, then the negative of / is t i. e. ( t) = t. If r e J, s e J we now define the sum r + s. ( i ) ( ii ) ( iii) (iv) If reN U defined. seN\J J0 r + s is already
If r e N U j 0 j, 5 e N, then - s e JV and r + 5 is defined as the difference r ( s). If r e N and 5 e N U \ 0 then - r e N and r + s is is defined as ( r ) + s. If reN and s e N, then - r e N , - s e N and r +s = - ( - r ) - ( - 5 ) i . e . - [ ( - r ) + (-s)].
With these definitions it can be seen that the sum and difference of two integers is an integer ( closure property ) and that the addition is commutative and associative with zero as the identity element. Multiplication in J. We define multiplication in J in such a way that the multiplication is commutative and associative in the set J and the set J is closed with respect to multiplication. For these reasons, if r and s s J, we define the product r X s as follows : ( i ) (ii) (iii) I f r , s e J V U ) 0 { , then r x If r e W a n d s e N, then
s
is already defined. Xr, [rX (-s)]. -[(r)Xs].
If r = 0 ands e / then r X s = 0=s <=
r X s = -
similarly if s s N and r s N, then rXs
( iv ) If r t N and s s N, then r X j = ( r ) X ( J ) . The product defined in this way has all the required properties stated above. We can also see that unity ( i. e. 1 ) is the identity element for multiplication in the set J. We also observe that, as in the case of N, the distributive property of multiplication over addition holds in / . Order in J. If r and s s / , then we have either (i) r s
= 0 or (ii) r -
seN
or ( iii ) r-s s N. In these cases we say that ( i ) r = s or ( ii ) r>s or ( i i i ) r<s respectively.
REAL NUMBERS : 5 1
With this definition of order, the set J can be described as J = \ ... , - ( n + I ), - n, - 1, 0, 1 n, < n + 1 ),... The element which is to the left of another element is less than it. Thus, - 2 0 < - 5 , - 2 < - 1 , - 3 0 < 6 etc. For r, 5, t, e J the order relation satisfies the following properties : ( i ) if r < s, then r + t < s + t. ( ii ) If r < s and 0 < t, then r X t < s x ( i i i ) If r < s, and t = 0, then r X t s X t. ( i v ) If r < 8 and t < 0, then r x t > s x t. 4. Rational Numbers. If r, s, t e J and r # 0 and r x s =t, then we define the number s as the quotient of t and r and write it as s = -y or
s t + r. This operation of finding the quotient is called division. Just as subtraction is the inverse operation of addition, we may consider division as the inverse operation of that of multiplication. The set N is closed for the operation of addition and multiplication but not for subtraction. In order to generalize the process of subtraction we extended the number system from N to J. However the set J is closed for the operations of addition, multiplication and subtraction but not for division. For, although 1 5 - 4 - 3 = 5, ( - 28) -s- 7 = - 4, ( 18 ) -7- ( 6 ) = 3, we do not have any no- re J such that 5 -r 3 = r o r ( - 2 0 ) - i - 7 = r . We, therefore extend the number system to generalize the operation of division and form a new set of numbers, in which division is closed except in the case of division by zero. The new set is of numbers of the type p/q, where p,qef, such a n u m b e r p j q , where and q # 0 is called a fraction or a rational number. We assume that the rational number pjq is always given by the equation q (piq) = p, q * 0. While considering the operation of division of p by q we have always to exclude the case in which q = 0; for as we have seen in para 2 above, 5 x 0 = 0, ( - 18 ) X 0 = 0 etc., and thus if the operation of multiplication is to be consistent, we cannot have an appropriate meaning for pjq when q 0; for, by the definition of division, "we will get, in the above illustrations, 5 = 0 / 0 a n d ; ( - 18 ) = 0/0 or 5 = - 18 which is absurd.
We DOW define a rational number. Definition. A number which can be expressed in the form 0 is caljed a rational number. If
~ ~ , where p and q e J and q
We shall denote the set of all rational numbers by Q. p = 0, then -q = 0 and if q = 1, A q =

p
Thus the set of rational numbers includes the number zero as well as + ve and ve integers; i. e. 0 e Q and NC1Q, Nc. Q. The rational number S - is usually written so as to q
have a positive sign for q. 2 2
Thus - 4, ^ , 3, - j etc. are some rational numbers We thus have, JclQ. equal if
Two rational numbers q and s are said to be ps qr = 0. 2 8

since 2 x
For example, 3 " = j y
12 - 3 x 8 = 0.
Addition in the set Q. Let and be two rational numbers so that q s p, q,r, s e J and q # 0 s and hence qs # 0.
".* P. <7, r, s e J, the numbers ps and qr and their sum ps + qr are all integers since J is closed for addition and multiplication. Ps qs ^ r is a rational number. This is defined as the
sum of rational numbers and q s
REAL NUMBERS : 5 3
We see therefore, that the set Q is closed for the operation of addition and we have
+
1. s
qs
t h e number on the right hand side of the equation being also a rational number. Multiplication in Q. If pjq and rjs are two rational numbers then pr and qs are integers and qs 0. qs is also a rational number This number is said to
be the product of plq and rjs. Thus the set Q of rational numbers is closed for the operation of multiplication defined as S- x q =
s
qs
Properties of Rational Numbers. By using the definitions and properties of integers it is now possible to state in brief the properties possessed by the set Q of rational numbers. Since similar properties have been discussed once for N and secondly for J, we propose only to "state them and the students can verify them for themselves. Let a = plq, b = r/s where p, q, r, s,e J and q=h 0, s 4* 0 be two rational numbers. I. Addition. ( i ) Closure property : If a and b are rational numbers, then a + b is a unique ( i. e. one and only one ) rational number. ( ii ) Addition is commutative : a + b = b + a. ( i i i ) Addition is associative : ( a + 6) + c = a + ( 6 + c). ( i v ) Additive Identity : The number zero is additive identity i. e. a + 0 = a . ( v ) Additive Inverse : For every rational number a there is a rational number ( a ) such that a + ( a ) = 0 . a is called the additive inverse of a.
( v i ) Cancellation law for addition . If a b, c, are rational numbers such that a -f-c = b + c, then a b II. Multiplication. ( i ) Closure Property : If a and b are rational numbers, then a x b or ab is a unique rational number. ( i i ) Multiplication is commutative : ab = ba. ( i i i ) Multiplication is associative : (ab) ca (6c). (iv ) Multiplicative Identity : The number 1 which belongs to Q is such that a X 1 =a y ae Q; 1 is called the multiplicative identity. ( v ) Multiplicative Inverse : To every rational number a ( 0 ), there is a rational number 1 /a such that ax = 1. Ma is called the multiplicative inverse of a.
It should be noted that zero has no multiplicative inverse ( v i ) Multiplication is distributive with respect to addition ( and subtraction ) : a { b + c ) = ab + ac. (vii) Cancellation Law for multiplication: If ac = be then a=Z> iff III. Order. Let a, b, c, be rational numbers and a = p/q, b = r/s where p,q,r,sej and q # 0 # s. and <7>0, s > 0 then a b = ^ 2 1 . qs
We say that a=.b, a>b or a<b according as ps qr 0, > 0 , or < 0 . It should be noted that a may be equal to b although pj=r and q=s. For example, L = as 3 x 2 0 - 4 x 1 5 = 0 . then
( i ) Order relation is transitive : If a > b, and bye a > c. Similar properties hold for = and < relations.
REAL NUMBERS :
65
( i i ) If a > b, then a + c > b + c and similarly for and , < relations. (iii) If a > b, ac > be if c > 0 and ac < be if c < 0.
IV. The product of a rational number a and zero is zero. A s a result of this property we have if ab = 0, then either a 0 or b = 0. V. Denseness. If a and b are distinct rational numbers; then the number
a b
is a rational number lying between a and b~
We give below, a proof for this result. Let a > b. We have a "t
b
> 0,
> V
a > fc.
a > h
Similarly,
a>>b.
= "^T^
'
Similarly if a < b, we can prove that "

a <
a + b 2
,
<
Hence between any two rational numbers we can find a third rational number. If we write ax =
a b
always
, we have a > at> b, assuming that
a > b. We can similarly find rational numbers a2 and a3 between a and a\ and between a\ and b\ and we, then, have a > a2 > ai > a3 > b. As this process can be repeated as many times as w e like, we can get an unlimited group of rational numbers ( o r infinitely many rational n u m b e r s ) between a and b. We express this property by saying that the set Q of rational numbers is dense.
Remarks : 1. The operation of subtraction is not commutative, for in general a b 4 b a. For example 7 3 =j= 3 7. 2. Similarly the operation of division is not commutative; for a-i-b 4 b + a in general. For example 8/5 4=- 5/8. 3. The operation of addition is not distributive multiplication; for 3 + ( 5 x 7) = ( 3 + 5 ) X ( 3 + 7 ) . over
Eiampla :
Obtain s o y three rational numbers between - 1/2 and 1/3.
i s o n e rational number between
- 1/2 and 1/3.
Again - J -
( - -J- -
( - j - )
i f !
and - f ( - -/2- + -}-) = \

and between - 1/12 and 1/3 respectively. H e n c e - 1/12, - 7/24, and lj3. Alternatively, we may write -1 -12 . 1 8
= -J-
- 1/2 and - 1/12
T h u s the rational n u m b e r s a n d are between 24 8
1/8 are three rational numbers between* - 1/2 \
- ^-and =
and hence
24
...,
t4
24
are a few rational numbers between
- 1/2 and 1/3 Or we may write = - -5 and = -3333 -1, -2, -3 are also some rational numbers
and hence - -4, - -3. - -2, between - 1/2 and 1/3.
5.
Representation
of
Rational
Numbers
by
Points on
Straight Line. Let X'OX be a straight line. Let a point O on this line be taken as origin. Let A, B, C, ... be points at distances of
REAL NUMBERS : 5 7
1,2, 3, ... units and to the right of O. Similarly let the points A', B\ C", ... be at distances of 1, 2, 3, ... units, and to the left
B
'
2
K> ^
Fig. 24
A +1
R ^/n
B +2 X
"
of <9. Then the points O, A, B, C... correspond to the numbers 0, 1, 2, 3, ... and the points A', B', C' ... similarly correspond to -1, -2, -3,. Similarly, if the point P is the mid-point of BC, it corresponds to the rational number 2 i or 5/2 as OP = 2J units and P is to the right of O; if Q is a point on B' C' such that B'Q = 2/5 then the point Q' corresponds to the rational number - 2f as OQ = OB' + B' Q - 2f units and Q is to the left of O. I n general, to respresent any positive rational number m/n, we divide the unit segment OA into n equal parts and take off a length OR on the line equal to m such parts to the right of O. The point R would then represent the positive rational number m/n. If we cut off a length OR' from X' OX in such a way that R' is to the left of O, then the point R' would represent the negative rational number, m/n. Thus every rational number can be represented by a point on the line X'OX. This naturally raises the question : Is every point on the line a representation of a rational "number ? We shall show in the following paragraphs that the answer to this question is in the negative. 6. Irrational Numbers. The students are already acquainted with the simple equations of the type 2x + 3 = 0, x2 5x + 4 = 0 etc. When we want to solve these equations, we obtain the roots i. e. numbers which when substituted for x, the two sides of the equation are equivalent. Thus the root of the first equation above is 3/2 for, if we substitute 3/2 for x in the equation we get 2 ( 3 / 2 ) + 3 = - 3 + 3 = 0 . Similarly for the second equation, we have ( x 1 ) ( j c 4 ) = 0; i. e. x = I or x = 4, The roots of the equation are thus 1 and 4. In general, for an equation of the first degree viz. ax + b = 0 where a, b e J
and a = b/a or the rational number bja is a roo( of the equation. Consider now the equation x* = 2. It is shown below that = 2.
there is no rational number pjq such that there
Hence, we write the root as 2 and yf 2 where (\[T )2 = ( - V T )2 = 2. These numbers \f~2 and - \f~~2 are called irrational numbers. In general, we can say that if a is a positive rational number, and there is n o rational number b such that (b )" = a, we write " a root of the equation x = a " as the irrational number " Thus ty 7 , ^ 1 9 1 are irrational; however the numbers T , - ^ 2 1 , $ 625 are rational as they are 2 , 3 , 5 respectively. As stated above, if a is a rational number and the number x satisfies the equation -xn = a, then we write x = a The process of finding the number x or the nth root of a is called evolution A rational number x statisfying the equation x3 = 8 or x* = 16/81 can be found. But as seen above a rational number cannot be found to satisfy the equation x 3 = 7; hence is not a rational number. In other words the set Q is not closed for the evolution. We therefore extend the number system and introduce " irrational numbers ". The number \f 2 is not a rational number; the students can easily verify this by proceeding to extract the square root of 2 in decimal notation. It will be found that the value of is an endless (non-terminating) decimal. The value of V 2 can only be written correct to some places of decimals, say, as 1-1414, 213,6 Thus the number cannot be a c t u a l l y a a d c o r r e c t l y expressed as a terminating decimal and hence cannot be expressed "In the fogm^fiLft fraction Im/n. "Therefore the number is jyot a . j p i f o n a l number? "In order tP prove this rigorously, we require the following lemma.
Limma: If 2 is a factor of **, than 2 is a factor of the integer m . m is an integer; hence it is either an even or an odd integer.
REAL NUMBERS : 5 9 m 2n or m = 2n + 1, where i s any integer. m 1 = 4K* or m* = 4 ' + 4 * + I. If 2 is a factor of w ' t h e n m 1 cannot be equal to 4n* + 4 + 1 which i s not divisible by 2. fn* = 4 s and hence m 2n. ' 2 is a factor of m . w e may argue that i. e. of m. m . 2 is a factor of .".
Alternatively
2 must be a factor of either of the two factors and hence of m .
We now prove that V 2 cannot be a rational number. We have 1 < 2 < 4. 1 < ^ 2 < 2. 1 and 2 are consecutive integers and sf2 lies in between them, n/2 cannot be an integer. If possible, letV2 = a fraction, say, mjn where m and n are integers having no common factor and n 4 0. 2 = m2/n2 m2 = 2 n \ /. 2 must be a factor ofTO2and consequently of m. 4 must be a factor of m2 and consequently of In2. 2 must be a factor of 2 and consequently of n. .'. 2 is a factor common to both m and n. " This contradicts our supposition that m and n have no common factor. V 2 cannot be a fraction of the form m/n. cannot be a rational number. Similarly, it can be seen that 'sT^T $ 1 ^ 1 1 are numbers which cannot be expressed as the ratio of two integers such as mjn and hence are not rational numbers. Such numbers are called irrational numbers. 7. Correspondence of straight line. irrational numbers with points on a
At the end of paragrah 5, we had raised the question : " Is every point on the line X'OX a representation of a rational number ?" The answer is in the negative. Although the system of
rational numbers is dense i. e. although we can find infinitely many rational numbers between any two given rational numbersthere are gaps in this system. We will illustrate this in this paragraph .
The figure of paragraph 5 is shown again here. Let us draw a right, angled triangle OAM having AM = OA = 1 unit and having a right angle at A. Then by the Pythagoras theorem, we have OM2 = OA2 + AM2 = 1 + 1 i e. 2. Therefore OM = \[2 units. Let a circle with O as centre and radius = OM, cut in points P' and P. X'OX
Then OP = OM =\[2, OP' = - s f l . Thus the points P' and P on the line X'OX correspond to the numbers \[2 and \[2 respectively. Similarly any irrational number of the type y[2 can be represented by some point on the straight line X'OX. This shows that the gaps in the system of rational numbers are filled by irrational numbers. We therefore have the following result. A number which cannot be rep resented as ratio of two integers alb, ( fc = 0 ), but which corresponds to some point on the number axis is an irrational number. The irrational numbers are of two kinds. The irrational numbers of the t y p e s j l ^ V 1 + \ / 3 are the roots of the algebraic equations x2 2 = 0 and x* 2x2 2 = 0 . Such
REAL NUMBERS : 6 1
irrational numbers which are the roots of equations are called! algebraic irrational numbers. The number 7r, which the students know, as the ratio of the circumference oTany circle to its diameter is another type of irrational number. T h e value of 7r which the students take as 22/7 or 3-14 is only its approximate value. Attempts which were made to find the value of 7r failed to express it either as a terminating or as a recurring decimal. The number e which is taken as the base of Napierian logarithms (Refer to 12 Chapter 5 ) , is also an irrational number. The numbers such as -n and e which are not the roots of equations and are irrational, are called Transcendental irrational numbers. The following illustration will now show how irrational numbers between any two rational numbers can be found.
Illustration. State three irrational numbers between - 5 and 4. 5 = V 25 and 4 = Vl6. W e now see that 4.
Let us write - V24, - V 2 3 ,
V l 7 are irrational numbers between
- 5 and -
In (act if N i s any positive rational number, which is not a perfect square of any rational number and which lies between 16 and 25, then for different values of N will give the Irrational numbers lying between - 5 and - 4.
Enmfln :
1. 2. Express the natural number 3 in the form of a rational nu mber. If a and b are two rational numbers, prove that a + 6 is also a
rational number. [ Hint : Take a = m/tt and b = plq where m, n, p, q are integers and , 5 4= 0. U s e also the fact that the sum and product of two integers i s also an integer. 3 Further show that a - b, ab, a/b ( b =)= 0 ) are also rational numbers. 3 If m and n are any positive rational numbers, show that
2 m + 3 * m + n
is a rational number between 2 and 3. [ H i n t : S i n c e m and n are rational, tn + tt, 2m + 3n and hence
m + n
2m + 3 m + 4.
are ratjoaa| numbers.
Further observe that . are both positive. ] integer
, , 2 and 3
2m + in ; m + n
State the smallest integer greater than 6 and the greatest
greater than 6.
6 2 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA [ Smallest integer greater than 6 is 7. Observe that the greatest integer greater than 6 can not be given. Every integer is followed by the next greater integer and hence the system of integers is endless ] 5. 6. State ( i ) three rational numbers between - 2 and 1 ; ( i i ) three irrational numbers between 2 and - 1. T h e numbers 5 + V 3 and 5 - -J 3 are irrational. I s their snm also an irrational number ? Is their product an irrational number ? 7. 8. State two irrational numbers whose sum i s a rational number. State two irrational numbers whose sum i s an irrational number. ( Assume that V l 5 where
9 . Show that J i + V 5 is not a rational numberis not a rational n u m b e r ) . [ Let if possible V 3 + V 5 be a rational number m and n are integers and 0. by squaring, we get 3 + 5 + 2 /l5 = I/.'/M*. .' V l 5 =
equal to m / n ,
2n
which i s a rational number.
W e thus arrive at an
absurd conclusion. Ji + <J 5 cannot be rational number. ] is irrational, show that a + V b i s not a
1 0 . If a is rational and Jb rational number. [ If possible, let a + -J b =
a rational number.
/-
m
n
m p
n
; where q
b
q
... j j = 2SJL2* .
nq But the result is absurd since I. h. s. is irrational and r. h. s. i s rational since in, , p, q are alt integers where n, q ^ 0. H e n c e the given result. ]
8.
Approximation of Irrational Numbers by Rational Numbers.
As will be seen in paragraph 9, the real numbers form an ordered set. AU the real numbers can be represented in decimal notation? The rational numbers form either terminating o7 recurring ( i. e. same digils being repeated ) decimals; the" irrational numbers form non-terminating and nonrecurring ( infinite ) decimals. Thus ( 1 ) the rational number 2/5 = 0-4, a terminating decimal; ( 2 ) the rational number 1/3 = 0-3333 ... a recurring
REAL NUMBERS : 6 3
decimal ( denoted as 0-3 ); and ( 3 ) the irrational number\(~2 = 1*414.216, ... a non-terminating, aon-recurring decimal. Elementary arithmetical methods might be used to find an approximate value of an algebraic irrational number. Thus the method of extracting the square root of a number enables us to know the value of say a (especially when a is a positive integer and not a perfect square) correct to any number of places of decimals. In addition to the methods suggested in illustrative examples given below, logarithmic tables can be conveniently used for finding approximate values of irrational numbers. Use of the Logarithmic Tables will be explained in the chapter on Logarithms.
Ex. 1. F i n d tbe value o f V 5 7 correct to three places of decimals.
145 5 1504 4 15089 9 150988f
800 725 7500 6016 148400 135801
'f
1259900
H e n c e the value of /57 correct to three places of decimals is 7 -550. Ex. 2 . Obtain an approximate (rational v a l u e ) of \ / 2 .
B y using method of finding the square root, as is done in Ex am pie above we can find the approximate value to any number of places of d e c i m a l s One may however find the value by inspection and successive trials as indicated below. W e have 1 < 2 < 4. [ Considering the preceeding and following perfect squares ] . L < V2 < 2. Again taking the numbers 1-1, 1-2, 1-3, we see that ( 1-1 ) = 1-21 < 2, ( 1 - 2 ) 1 = 1-44 < 2, (1-3) = 1.69 < 2 , (I-4)5 = 1-96 < 2. (1-5) = 2-25 > 2. 1*4 < / ? < 1-5. Again taking the numbers 1-41, 1-42, 1-43 -we see that ( i - 4 1 ) 1 = 1-0881 < 2. (1*42)> = 2-0164 > 2 ... ... ... C) (i )
64 : c o l l e g e
algebra 1-41 < J 2 < 1-42. ... iii>
Proceeding in this way w e can find better and the value of V 2 .
better approximations to
In a similar way rational approximate values corresponding to the numbers V3~, v r etc. can be found. E*. 3. W e illustrate below by o n e more example.
F i n d the value of V l 1 correct to three places of decimals. 2 3 < 11 < 3 s ; ( 2 - 2 )3 = 10-64 < 11 < 12-16 = (2-3 ) 3 ; ( 2-22 )3 = 10-94 < 11 < 1 1 - 0 9 = (.2-23 Y ; (2-223 ) s = 10-99 < 11 < 11-01 < (2-224).
B y successive trials we can verify that
W e also have ( 2-2239 ) 8 = 10-9988 and ( 2-2240 )8 = 11-0003 H e n c e the value of v n correct to three places of decimals is 2-224. Ex. 4 . F i n d the value (correct to two places of decimals) of
As Sn Ex. 1 a b o v e V 5 7 = 7-550 approximately. H e n c e "J 9 + V 5 7 = + 7.550 = Vl6-550. If w e extract the square root of 16-550 as in Ex. 1 above we get the required value as 4-068, i. e. 4-07 correct to two places of decimals; or we may work as in Ex. 2 above and have the following figures : 4 = 1 6 ; ( 4 - 1 ) ' = 16-81 ; ( 4 - 0 5 ) J = 16-403 ; ( 4 - 0 6 ) * = 16-483 ; and ( 4 0 7 ) ' = 16 565. H e n c e V 9 + J57 E*. 5 . = 4-07 correct to two places of decimals. VH-
Find two rational numbers between 2 and
As in Ex. 3 above 3 / u = 2-224. H e n c e the numbers 2-10, 2 - 1 5 , 2-20 lie between 2 and v n . T h e y can be written as
aS
210 215 220 100 ' 100 ' 100 r and are therefore rational.
21 43 U_ 10 ' 20 ' 5
9.
Real Numbers. the parairrational called the is either
We have considered the irrational numbers in graph 8 above; we shall denote the set of all the numbers by Q t . The set of all rational and irrational numbers is set of real numbers. In other wards every real number rational or irrational.
real
n u m b e r s X 65>
We shall denote this set of real numbers by R; thus, Q U = R. We can thus write e R, -^TT <= R, n e R, 27/11 e R, 3/4 e R and so on. It may also be observed that Q C R and Qx c R. As N c Q, N c r: similarly J C R. We can define the operations ot addition, subtraction multiplication and division ( except by zero ) in the set R in a suitable manner so as to make them consistent with the operations in N, J and Q. These definitions therefore must be such that in the set of R ( 1 ) there exists a closure property, ( 2 ) addition and multiplication are distributive and ( 3 ) multiplication is distributive over addition. In other words the set of real numbers possesses all the properties enumerated earlier for iV, J and Q. Thus the numbers 0 and 1 are the identity elements for addition and multiplication in the set R of real numbers also. With the exception of zero, every real uumber has its additive and multiplicative inverse. The additive inverse of zero is zero and it has no multiplicative inverse. The set R is closed for addition, subtration, multiplication, involution ( i - e. raising the number to any power), evolution ( i . e. extracting the root of a number ) and division ( except division by zero ). We can consider the order in R by representing them on the number axis.
Fig. 26
Order in R. We can see that every real numberrational or irrationalcan be represented by a point on the number axis X' O X; conversely every point on X'OX corresponds to a real numberrational or irrational. The straight line X'OX is therefore called axis of real numbers. If a and b are any two real numbers and the points corresponding to a and b on X'OX are R and S we say that a > b, C. A5
a = b or a < b according as R is to the right of S, R coincides with S or R is to the left of S. Thus, in the above figure 3 > \(T as the point C representing the number 3 is to the right of P representing the number \ [ 2 ; similarly 1 < 2 as A' is to the left of P. Following this procedure we can show that the properties of order for rational numbers, given in paragraph ( 4 III ) hold also for real numbers. Thus the set of real numbers is an ordered set. We now summarize the fundamental properties of Real Numbers to emphasize their basic importance and to enable the students to remember them. I. Addition. If a and b are real numbers then a + b ( called the addition ) is a unique real number. Addition obeys the following rules : ( 1) ( 2 ) A d d i t i o n ' s commutative : a + b = b + a. Thus, the order of addition is not material. Addition is associative : ( a + Z>) + c = a+ ( b + c ) .
Thus, in the addition of more than two numbers by the repeated use of the first rule, the order in which the numbers are associated is immaterial. ( 3 ) Additive Identity : The number zero belonging to the system of real numbers is such that a + 0 = a, for every real number a. Zero is called the additive identity. ( 4 ) Additive Inverse : For every real number a, there is a real number a such that a + ( - a ) = 0 ; a i s called the additive inverse of a. Subtraction can be defined in terms of addition : a + { - b) = a - b. a It can be seen that subtraction is not commutative, i. e. b b - a.
II. Multiplication. If a and b are any two real numbers then a x b (also written as ab ) is also a unique real number. The Multiplication obeys the following rules : ( 1) (2 ) Multiplication is commutative : ab = ba. Multiplication is associative ( ab ) c = a {be)
real
n u m b e r s X 67>
( 3 ) Multiplicative Identity : The number I, belonging to the system of real numbers is such that a x 1 = a for every real number a . " 1 " called the multiplicative identity. ( 4 ) Multiplicative Inverse : To every real number a (aj* 0 ) , there is a real number 1 ja such that a x 1/a = 1. 1 la is called the multiplicative inverse of a. It should be noted that the number zero has no multiplicative inverse. ( 5 ) Multiplication is distributive with respect to addition: a (b + c) = ab -f ac. Division can be defined in terms of multiplication. a + b = a x lib provided b 0. Thus
III. Order. If a and b are any two real numbers, then either a > b, a --- b or a < b. The system of real numbers, therefore, forms an ordered set of numbers. ( 1 ) The order relation is transitive. If a > b and b > c then a > c. Similar relations hold for the = and < relations. ( 2 ) If a > Z > then ( i ) a + c > b + c if c is + ve or ve; (ii) ac > be, if c is + ve\ but ac < be, if c is ve. It may be noted that the above relations of-order satisfied by the Real Numbers are not obeyed by Imaginary Numbers introduced in the next article. It can also be realized that there is no greatest real number since there is always a number greater than any given real number. Similarly there can not also be any least real number. In fact the real number system is endless on both the sides. IV. Property of Denseness. We may also observe that between any two real numbers there always exists a third real number. For example, f ( 2 +\fs ) is a real number between 2 and Similarly J ( ^ 2 + ) ' s a r e a ' number between act as >sj2 \[T. f > already explained, we can find an unlimited group of real numbers between any two given real numbers. This property is known as the property of denseness of the Real Number System. Due to this property it is not
68
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA
possible to obtain the greatest or the least real number between any two given real numbers. However one can get an unlimited group of real numbers between two given real numbers. It may also be noted that there does not exist a greatest or -a least number in the system of real numbers. AS stated above, between any two real numbers a and b there exists a third real number, say c. Conversely any number c which satisfies all the properties of real numbers stated above and is such that a < c < b, then c is a real number. This property of real numbers is called the axiom of completeness. It should be noted that the system rational numbers although dense does not possess this property of the axiom of completeness. For if a, b are any two rational numbers there exists a third rational number c between a and b; but a number d between a and b may not be rational ( i. e. may be irrational ). V. In addition to the above rules and characteristics, the real number system has the following properties : ( i ) is zero. The product of any real number and the number zero
( ii ) If a and b are real numbers and ab 0 then either a = 0 or b = 0. ( i i i ) The product of two real numbers, one positive and the other negative is a negative real number. ( iv ) The product of two negative real numbers is a positive real number. ( v ) The square of any real number is non-negative.
W e are giving below the proofs in support of the above five properties. First year students however, are n o t expected to go through the proofs ; i ) Let a and b be two real numbers. We have ab + 0 = ab
= a (6 + 0) = ab + a-0 0 = a-0.
(ii ) Let a 4= 0, so that exists.
REAL NUMBERS X 69> Now 6 = 6 X 1
= (ab ) Thus if a i= 0, then 6 = 0 .
0.
Similarly if 6 = 4 = 0 ; then a = 0.
(iii) Let a and 6 be two positive real numbers, so that a and - 6 will be two real numbers, one positive an d the other negative. Assume that a is a positive integer ; then *( - b) = = = = ( - b)-a { - 6) + ( - 6) + a times - b-a a negative real number of magnitude ba. - 6
( i v ) Let a and 6 be two positive real numbers so tuat - a and become two negative real numbers. Now { a) (-&) = = = = ( - ) ( - 6) + 0 ( - a) ( - & ) + <) ( - ) { - b) + a ( - b + b) ( - a) ( - b) + a ( - b) + ab ( - + ) (~b) + ab = 0 ( - b) + ab = ab.
( v ) If a is any real number then a > 0 or a < 0 or a = 0, If a > 0, then a-a > 0. H e n o e a* > 0.
If a < 0, then let b = - a so that b > 0. Now a* = a<a
= (-6) (-6)
= 6-6, = 6* If a = 0, then a ' = a-a = 0-0 due to ( i v ) which is + ve since 6 > 0.
< = 0.
Example. State to which proper subsets N, J, Q or Qi of the set of rea 1 numbers the following numbers belong. (i) -10, (ii) - 3 / 2 , (Hi) 0, ( i v ) 1. ( v ) 13/5, ( v i ) W, (vii) e, (viii) VTT. Auk, ( i ) - 10 e / a s w d l a s t o Q ; {ii ) (vi) - 3/2 e Q ; IT E Q,: (iii) (vii) OeQ;
( i v ) l EN.J.Q;
(viii) / H e Qi.
(v)
" f Q;
efQ.i
Students should also remember that the number zero is considered as an integer. No sign is attached to it. Further 0 x 0 is considered as zero. Again f. js considered as indeterminate and that the division of a real number by zero has no meaning since zero has no multiplicative inverse by the axioms. 10. Imaginary Numbers.
are We have seen that \J'f, V/kT ^Tl examples of irrational numbers. We also know that ^ \ ( 2 5 / 4 , -fylT are rational numbers. It follows that the roots of only positive numbers are either rational or irrational numbers i. e. real numbers. Consider now the square root of a negative number 4. Since the square of any positive or negative real number gives a positive number, therefore _ 4 cannot be a real number. Such numbers which are the roots of negative numbers are called imaginary numbers.
Thus -v/Try; \ f ~ ~ 9 , yf - 25/4 are examples of imaginary numbers. In order to have a meaning for the operation of extracting the square roots in all cases we are further required to introduce imaginary numbers. We shall consider these imaginary numbers in the next Chapter. We now classify in the following chart the several types of numbers considered so far : Numbers
Real I Rational
Imaginary
Irrational L
Integers Zero Fractions Algebraic Transcendental (Irrational)
REAL NUMBERSX71>
11.
Ex. 1. Which is greater + 3 or 7 ? By how much ?
On the number scale + 3 is to the right of - 7. + 3 is greater than - 7. Starting from 7 and then 10 units to the right we get the number + 3. .". E*. 2. + 3 is greater than 7 by 10. moving
Prove that 7 3 is not a rational number. We have 1 < 3 < 4.
1 </5" < 2.
Now 1 and 2 are consecutive integers and *J3 lies in between them. .'. J i cannot be an integer. Let, if possibleV3 = mjn, common factor. .. .'. 3 =- m'/w* ; where m and are integers having no
m* = 3*.
3 must be a factor of m* and hence of m. 9 must be a factor of m* and hence of 3n*. 3 must be a factor of ' and hence of n. 3 is a factor common to both m and ft. This contradicts our supposition that m and have no common factor. J 3 cannot be a fraction of the form tn/n. .'. V3, since it cannot be an integer nor a fraction, cannot be a rational number. Ex. 3 . Is 1-3 (i. e. 1-333 a recurring decimal) a rational nnmber? If so, express it in the form mln where m and are integers. Let, in the limit, * = 1 3 (i) 10* = 13-3 x = 4/3. (ii)
9x = 12, subtracting ( i ) from ( i i ) . 1-3 is a rational number and is 4/3.
[ For alternative method refer to the Chapter on Progressions]. Ex. 4 . Express 0234 in the form mjn. Let, in the limit, x= -234 ( a recurring decimal -2, 34,34, 34 /. .'. " 10* = 2-34 990* 232, _ 232 . * 990 (i ) 116 495' Also 1000* = 234-34 (ii)
subtracting ( i ) from ( i i
7 2 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA Ex. 5. State whether the following statements are true or false giving resons in support of your answer. ( i ) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v ) ( vi) (vii) (viii) The product of two integers is a positive integer. The product of two equal integers is a positive integer. There is a greatest real number less than 2. There is a greatest integer less than 2. There is a least integer greater than 2. There is a least real number greater than 2. Zero is a positive integer. and -325 are both rational numbers
Ans. ( i ) False. The product of two integers, one positive and the other negative, is a negative integer. ( ii ) False. The number zero is considered as an integer. We further have the result 0 x 0 = 0. Here the product of two equal integers is an integer ; but it is not positive since no sign is attached to the number zero. ( i i i ) False. It is not possible to state the greatest real number less than 2, since the system is dense. (iv ) ( v ) (vi) True. True. False. 1 is this integer. 3 is this integer. No such real number exists.
( v i i ) False. Zero is an integer. Numbers greater than zero are positive and those less than zero are negative. No sign is attached to the number zero (viiil False. M is not a rational number, as 7 T is irrational.
However -325 i. e. 325/1000 is rational.
Exercise 2 1. 2. Which is greater + 5 or 7 ? By how much ? What are the following numbers in the number scale ? ( i ) 10th ( u n i t ) number before zero. ( ii ) 8th ( unit ) number after zero. Define a rational number and show that \ [ 7 is not a rational number. Represent it by a point on the number axis. Prove that s f T l is an irrational number and find a point representing it on the number scale. Explain why division by zero is meaningless. Explain why % is indeterminate.
3.
4. 5. 6.
REAL NUMBERS X 73>
7. 8. 9.
Show that V 2 + \f 5 is not a rational number, assuming that sf 10 is not a rational number. Is 1-2 ( i. e. a recurring decimal 1-2222 ) a rational number ? If so, express it in the form mjn. Is 1-6 a rational number? If so, express it in the form mjn.
10. Express the following recurring decimals in the form m/n: (i) 11. 12. 5-23, (ii) -234, (iii ) 1-125.
Express 1/7 in the decimal notation. Calculate to 14 decimal places and show that it is a recurring decimal. Express \[~5~ in decimal notation. Is\j~5 a terminating decimal ? Can you express yf 5 in the form mjn, where m and n are integers ? Hence state whether it is a rational or irrational number. Represent it by a point on the number axis. Is the set of natural numbers closed under subtraction ?
13. 14. 15. 16.
Is the set of real numbers closed under evolution ? Does the associative law hold for subtraction ? Does the commutative law hold for division of rational numbers ? 17. What is the additive inverse of \f 2 ? State also its multiplicative inverse. 18. If a is rational and sf b is irrational, show that a yf b is not a rational number. If a, b, c, d are real numbers, such that a > b and c > d show that ( i ) a + c > b + d, (ii) ac > bd, if a, b, c, d are all positive and ac < bd, if a, b, c, d, are all negative. Show that if a and b are unequal real numbers, then ( i ) ( a + b ) 2 > 4 ab, ( i i ) a2 - 6a + 14 > 0. [ Use the fact that square of a real number is nonnegative. ] State whether the following numbers are rational or not and if they are rational, express them in the usual form plq (i) 3.72,(ii)-?~, (iii)v/T + 5, ( i v ) -3.
19.
20.
21.
\fT
(v) V 12 22. 23.
2 , (vi) 5 r -^27
(vii) $ 243 , (viii)^245.
Give ( i ) three rational and (ii) three irrational numbers which are greater than 3 and less than 5. State giving reasons whether the following statements are true or false : ( i ) Every positive integer is a rational number. ( ii ) Every negative number is a rational number. ( i i i ) Every real number is a rational number. ( iv ) Every integer is a natural number. ( v ) a; is real where x2 + 1 = 0. State how ( i ) 3/5, (ii) - 7/5 and (iii) a rational number pfq can be represented by points on the number axis. ( i ) Between n and ( n + 1 ) there is no natural number. Hence (. n + 1 ) is called the successor of it and n, a predecessor of ( n + 1 ). If n is a natural number does it always have a predecessor ? ( ii ) Show that between any two rational numbers there is at least one rational. Hence show that no rational number has a successor. ( i i i ) Is there a first / last integer ? Does every integer have a successor and a predecessor ? ( iv ) Is there a first natural number / a last natural number ? ( v ) Give examples o f : ( 1 ) two rational numbers between 1 and 3/2, ( 2 ) two irrational numbers between 8 and 3, ( 3 ) two rational numbers between \[ 2 and 7, ( 4 ) two natural numbers m and n such that m n is a natural number but mjn is not a natural number. Rewrite the following statements, duly corrected where required. ( i ) Any fraction is an irrational number. ( i i ) Since ir = 22/7, ir is a rational number.
24. 25.
26.
REAL NUMBERS X 75>
(iii) (iv) ( v) ( i ) ( ii ) (iii) (iv)
The smallest real number greater than 6 is 6-1. , , are consecutive rational numbers.
4-2 is the only rational number between 4-1 and 4-3. State the smallest real number greater than 5. State the greatest real number less than 5. State the smallest integer greater than 5 and the greatest integer greater than 5. If m and n are positive rational numbers, show than m+n is a rational number between
27. Answer the following as required :
( v) ( vi)
5 and 6. If m is any positive real number, show that m + 1/m can never be less than 2. State the property of real numbers from which it follows that the roots of x 2 + 4 = 0 are not real numbers. State three real numbers between 1 and 2.
(vii) 28. ( i )
Obtain two rational numbers and" one irrational number between 2 and 7. lies between
( ii ) (iii)
Show that 2 ( f 37 - 1 ) lies between 2 and 3. Show that the number 3 + 2 - ^ 5 6 and 7.
29. State whether the following statements are true or false. If a statement is true, prove it ; if you consider a statement to be false, give an example in support of your answer. ( i) (ii ) (iii) (iv) (v) The product of two rational numbers is rational. The sum of two irrational numbers is irrational. The product of two odd integers is an odd integer. If x is less than y then .vJ is less than y1. Given any real number x, we can find a real number y sueh that xy = 1 .
30. ( a ) If R, N, N, J, Q, Qu C denote the sets of real, natural, negative integral, integral, rational, irrational and complex numbers state which of the following statements are correct. (i) (v) (b) 9eQ, (ii) 12eJV, ( i i i ) 0 e Q, (iv)ireQ
Q> ( v i ) - - ^ - e j v U j 0 { UJV, (vii; - j e Q i . If A = J 1 , 3 . 5 , 7 , . . . 5 = J 2, 4, 6, f, find whether the sets A and B are closed under the operations of addition and multiplication. Answers. Exercise 2.
2. (
i
1.
5, 12.
) - 10.
(ii)
S.
5. We have the property that there is no multiplicative inverse for the number zero. However, if we assume that the multiplicative inverse of zero exists we come to absurd conclusions as shown below in this and the next example and hence division by zero excluded. a gf Let 6 = 0 in - y Let - y = x so that a bx i. e. a Now R. H. S of ( i ) is equal to zero for every x. equation ( i ) is impossible if a. 0. 0-*. ... ( i )
If, now a = 0, then ( i ) is satisfied by every value of x. Thus, if 6 = 0, then the operation is either impossible or indeterminate, division by zero has no meaning. 6. We have 2 x 0 = 0, 3 x 0 = 0, 4 x 0 = 0.
- "T = 2'
' a
"cr=4,
has no definite meaning and hence is indeterminate

n
8.
11. t3. 17.
11
9.
10. (,) - ,
...518
m) jfi.
...
232
(mi
1124
0142857,142857,14 It is not a terminating decimal, no, irrational. No. 15. No. 16. and No. ( viii) are Ot _ /l7No. JT, V 2 rational. 22. ( i ) 7/2, 4, 9/2 ; 14. 2).
12. V5 = 2-23607
The numbers . ( i i i ) , ( v i )
( H ) / l 0 . V T l and
REAL NUMBERS X 77> 23. (ii) (iii) (iv) l v) 25. (i) False. Sign only does not determine the rational number; Number such as - J 2 , - V 3 are negative but irrational Fîse. Real number may be irrational also ; False. Natural numbers are only + ve integers : False. Square of a real number is never negative. No. The natural number, i has no predecessor since 0 is not a natural number, ( i i ) It a and 6 are two rational numbeis, i s also a rational number. Between any two rational
numbers any number of rational numbers can be inserted and hence the result, (iii) No. Every integer has a successor and a predecessor, (iv) 1 is the first natural number. There is no last natural number, (v) 1 1-1, 1-2; (2) VlO. - A/I3u Any numbers of the form where p is not a perfect suqare and 9 < < 6 4 ; ( 3 ) 1-5, 16; ( 4 ) m = 5, n = 3. 26. ( i ) Any number mjn where m, n are integers and =t= 0 is a rational number. (ii) Since 7r = 22/7, approximately and since its ejâct value can not be expressed as a ratio of two integers, it is not a rational number. (iii) The smallest real number greater than 6 can not be given. (iv ) 1/2, 1/3, 1/4 are not consecutive rational numbers. (v) 4-2 can not be the only rational number between 4-1 and 4-3. (i ) Smallest real number greater than 5 cannot be stated. (ii) The greatest real number less than 5 cannot be stated. (iii) Smallest integer greater than 5 is 6 ; but the greatest integer greater than 5 can not be stated. ' 1 V ) Since m and aTe positive rational, m + and 5m + 6n and hence ( 5m + 6n ) / ( m + n) are rational. 5m + 6n , 5m + 6n , , .. ... , Also 6 ; and ; - 5 are both positive and
27.
m+n
m + n
hence the result. (v) m + > 2 i f m - 2 + > 0 m m i. e. if [ V m - ^ ) which is true since the square of a real Equality sign is possible if
number is always non-negative.
m = 1Jm.
( vi) The square of any real number is non-negative, (vii) - y ( 1 + V"2), +
t{
1+
T[
1+
V2)J.
28.
( i ) W e have 4 < .*.
* T
< 7,
.\
2 < -f- < V 7
2*5, 2-6 are required rational numbers - y ( 2 + V7>. - J - [ 2 + - | - ( 2 + / 7 ) J
are required irrational numbers, (ii) Show that 3 - 2 [ V 3 7 - 1 ] > 0 and 2 ( V 3 7 - 1) - 2 > 0. (iii> Show that 7 - [ 3 + 2 V J ] > 0 and 6 - [3 + 2 V 5 ] > 0. 29 ( i ) True. ; If p. q. r, s e J and q 0,
s
0;
then p , qs, e J and hence - Q. (ii) False (iii) True. (iv) False. ( v ) False. 30. (a + V 6 ) + (a - -Jb I = 2a, a rational number (2m + 1 ) ( 2 + 1) = 4 m n + 2m + 2 + 1 is odd. - 4 < 3 but 16 > 9. O x y ^ l for any y.
br
( a ) ( i ) Correct, since 99/1 and hence is a rational number. ( i i ) False- - 1 2 (jT N since J V contains only positive integers. 6 (iii) Correct, since 0 is a rational number when > = 0and g=0.
P> qc J( i v ) False ( v ) FalSe. ( v i ) False. and T is an irrational number, 7r e 7r/2 is an irrational number and hence Q.
N u \ 0 [ U # = \ . . . - 3 , - 2 , - 1 , 0, 1, 2 , 3 . . . | = / - 3.'2 GL J. In fact y f g .
(vii) False.
-3 = -3333 ... = ~ - e Q .
(b) The set A is not closed for addition but it is closed for multiplication. The set B is closed for addition and multiplication.
Chapter 3
Complex Numbers
1. Complex numbers, 2. The imaginary unit i. 3. Algebraic operations with complex numbers 4. Properties of complex numbers. 5 Geometrical representation of a complex number. 6. Modulus and Amplitude of a complex number. 7. Illustrative Examples. Exercise 3.
1.
Complex Numbers.
We have already referred to imaginary numbers as different from real numbers in Chapter 2. We will again consider them here in this chapter. The students can easily see that the root of a linear equation of the type 3.x + 7 = 0 is a rational number. In general, the root of the equation ax + b = 0 is bja which is a rational number. Again the roots of the equation x2 7 = 0 are + \jl which are irrational. In both the above cases, the roots are real. But the roots of the equation of the type x2 + 4 = 0 cannot be real. For, the equation can be written as x2 = 4, and hence the two roots are + N/ 4. Since squares of all real numbers, whether positive or negative, are positive, it follows that the square root of 4 cannot be a positive or a negative real number. Numbers which satisfy equations of this type, have their squares negative, and are called imaginary numbers. Consider further the quadratic equation x2 - 4x + 13 = 0. We may solve this equation by the method of completing the squares as follows : x2 - 4x + 13 = 0. ( x - 2 ) 2 + 9 = 0. x - 2 = \J~^9.
79
.'.
x2 4x + 4 + 9 = 0 , ( x 2 ) 2 = 9.
X
2yf-^9.
Here, it is seen that the two roots are partly real and partly imaginary. The roots of such quadratic equations are called Complex numbers \ Thus the complex numbers are partly real and partly imaginary. Thus it is seen that the idea of the number system has to be extended in order to enable us to solve completely equations in general It should be noted that the word " Imaginary " is Hot used in the usual sense of the term. We have already seen that real numbers can be taken to measure quantities and can be represented by points or in terms of line segments taken on a straight line. Since the numbers of the type \f 4 or 2 V 9 can not be taken to measure quantities in this sense, they are called imaginary numbers. The term " imaginary n u m b e r " is sometimes used to denote the number of the type \ [ 4 as well as the number of the type 2 V - 9, which we have called above a complex number. 2. The Imaginary Unit " i ".
The roots of the equation x2 + 4 = 0 referred to above are given by x = + \ f ^ 4 = + \/" 4 ( - 1 ) = \j~4 X \ J ~ 1 = 2 \ f ~ l . Similarly the roots of the equation x 2 -}- 7 = 0 are given by * = = + V 7 ( - 1) = >/T,f^T. In a similar way, the square root of any negative number, say a, ( a > 0 ) may be written as \1 - a i. e. \f a 1 ) i. e. \Ja s[ 1, where \fa is a real number. Therefore, any imaginary number can be written as a real number multiplied by \J 1. Thus, every imaginary number can be expressed in terms of \f and hence is taken as the imaginary unit and has the characteristic property that V^l X = - 1. It is customary to use the first letter i of the word " imaginary" to denote this imaginary unit. Thus i = \ and i 2 = - 1.
COMPLEX NUMBERS : 8 1
The number ai, where /, the imaginary unit, is multiplied by a real number a, is called a purely imaginary number. Thus, 7/, 2//3, \[5i are examples of purely imaginary numbers. A number represented by a + ib, where a and b are real is 3 4 r called a complex number; 2 + 3/, / , + 5/', "v/2 + n/3. I, are examples of complex numbers.
If in the complex number a + ib, a = 0 then the complex number reduces to a purely imaginary number. Similarly if b 0, then the complex number reduces to a real number. It can be seen that 7 + 0-/ is a real number written in the form of a complex number. We, therefore, have the following definitions : If a E R, b e R and b 0, then a + bi(or a + ib ) is called a complex number where i =\f - 1. If in the complex number a + ib, a= 0, the number 0 + ib or ib is called an imaginary number. The two complex numbers a + ib and a ib are called conjugate complex numbers. In the complex number a + ib, a is called its real part and b is called its imaginary part; hence conjugate complex numbers differ in the sign of their imaginary parts. 2 + 3/ and 2 - 3 / , ( - \ f f ) + 5i and ( - \ f 3 ) - 5/ are examples of conjugate complex numbers. We will denote the set of complex numbers by the symbol C. 3. Algebraic Operations with Complex Numbers. With the above definitions we can assume that the complex numbers obey the usual rules of algebraic operations. Thus we may have ( 3 + 4 / ) + ( 5 + 7 i ) = ( 3 + 5 ) + ( 4 + 7 ) / = 8 + 11/. Similarly ( 7 + 8 / ) (5 4/') = (7 5 ) + (8 + 4) f = 2 + 12/. We now define the numbers as follows : C. A.6 algebraic operations with complex
Examples.
1. Find the value oi ( 2 + 3) ( 4 - 5 i ) + ^ 2. 3. 4.
*
^.
Ans.
-| 23 - 2/. 3 + .
Find the product of ( 2 - 3i) and ( 4 + 5i ). Ans. Simplify 9 7i _ ^ Ans.
Evaluate ( * + iy ) s when * = 2 and y = - 3. Ana.
- 46 - 9 i ,
5.
Geometrical representation of a complex number.
We have seen in chapter 2, how real numbers can be represented by points taken on a straight line X'OX. In order to consider the representation of a complex number in a similar manner, we shall first take the simple case of the imaginary unit'. Let the points A and A' represent the numbers + 1 and - 1 respectively on the axis X'OX. We know that i2 = 1.
i. e. l X t ' X i = - l ,
.'. the symbol i must represent an operation such that when repeated twice on the number + 1, gives the result as 1.
Y
B -1 i A*
t0
+1
X'
B'-
Fig,
27
the operation by the symbol i can be considered as the revolution through a right angle in the counterclockwise direction by convention.
.*. the number i can be, represented by a point B at a unit distance from O on the jp-axis namely Y'OY. Similarly the number i can be represented by a point B' at a unit distance from O on OY'. Therefore, in the light of the above discussion, it will be convenient to take the points on the *-axis to represent real numbers and the points on the y - axis to represent purely imaginary numbers. We will now consider how a complex number a + ib in general can be geometrically represented ( Refer to Fig. 28 ) Let X'OX and Y'OY be the axes of reference, Let OA represent a units and AB represent b units. In order to represent a complex number a + ib, we have to take a units on OX and operate by the symbol i on b units. The operation will result in the revolution of AB through a right angle in the counterclockwise direction to the position AP. Thus the point P can be taken to represent the complex number a + ib. P (a + ib)
Thus any complex number a + ib can be represented by a point P having co-ordinates (a, b) in the plane of axes of reference. Many times, the line OP as well as the point P are taken to represent the complex number a + ib. Such a diagram representing the complex number by a point in the plane of the axes is known as the Argand's Diagram.
If, in the number a + ib, the real part a = 0, then the purely imaginary number bi will be represented by a point on the j'-axis, hence the j-axis is called the axis of imaginaries. Similarly if b = 0, the number becomes a real number a and is represented by a point on the x-axis and hence x-axis is called the axis of reals.
Example. Diagram. Represent the following complex nambers in Argand's
3 + 5/. - 2 + - * - - . -
-4/. 3 -.
6.
Modulus and amplitude of a complex number. I. Modulus. From the Fig. 28, we have OP = \fa2 + b2.
Definition. If a + bi is a complex number, + \f a2 + b2 is called its modulus and is denoted by | a + ib |.

We, therefore, have ( 1 ) | 3 + 4f [ = + (2 ) | + 16 = + 5.
/3-
5 i | = + V 3 + 25 = + 2 J f .
( 3 ) | 5 | = | 5 + 0/ 1 = V 2 5 + 0 = + 5. ( 4 ) | - 3 | = | - 3 + 0/ | (5) | 2 | = + 2 :
=
A /9 + 0 =
+3.
Also | 2 | = + 2.
In examples 3, 4 and 5, b = 0 and hence the numbers are real. We also have the moduli of the corresponding real numbers obtained in the same way.
n . Amplitude. In Figure 28, if OP makes an angle 9 with the positive direction of -axis, then the angle 9 i called the amplitude of the complex number P = ( a + ib). If OP = r and XOP = 9, then from A OAP, we have OA = a = r cos 9...( i ) and AP = b = r sin 9 ... ( i i ) From ( i ) and ( i i ) , we have r = \ja2 + b2 and 9 = tan~i (:b/a ) ( iii ) We thus have the following definition. Definition. The angle 9 which satisfies the equations
a a . b b cos 9 = , sin n 9 = = r r V a2 + b2 \fa2 + b2 and T < 9 < -n is called the amplitude of the complex number a + ib.
We can also write a + ib = r ( c o s Q + i s i n # ) . Thus by writing a = r cos 9 and b = r sin0, we can find both the modulus and amplitude of the complex number a + ib.
Illustration. Find the modulus and amplitude of the complex numbers (O 1+ (i 1 - VT+
i.
( i ) Let 1 + i = r (cos 9 + i sin 9)

1 = r cos Q and 1 = r sin 9 by squaring and adding, we have t = 2the modulus = -J 2 Now the amplitude 9 is given by 1 = J 2 cos 9 ' cos and d 1 = V 2 sin Q
9 ~ J^ i
aQ
sin
the amplitude is 45 or 7t/4 radians (ii) Let - V 3 + = r (cos
9+i
sin
Q),
V3 = r cos 9 and 1 = r sin Q. by squaring and adding, r8 = 4 and hence r = 2. cos 9 = Vii" 12 and sin 9 = 1/2. the amplitude 9 is 150 or 5 TT/6 radians.
7.
Illustrative examples.
Ex. 1. Express as complex numbers in the form a + ib. im
1
(0 (J)
7=r~.
^
=
(10
.. \
3 + 2.'
rT"
.....
("0
=
3 +
2i
3 - 2
3 + / 2~- t (3 - J z - , 1 (3 ') 11
3 f V2~. t
3-^2-i
= 3 + VT- i = 3_ VT
9 + 2
(II
11
>
3 + 2t _ (3 + 2Q ( 5 + 3i) 5 - 3i~ (5 - 3i) (5 + 3)

9 =
1 5 - 6 ) 4-t (9 + 10) ( 2 5 ) (9i)
+ l9^' = jL I 19.
34
+
25 + 9
(lll)
34
3 + 2; 2 51 -
3 - 2 _ (3 + 2i W 2 + 5 . ) + (3 - 2H ( 2 - 5}M 2 + 5i ( 2 - 5 < ) ( 2 + 5<) [ ( 6 10) + ' (4 + 1 5 ) ] + [ ( 6 10) + ' - 4 - 15 ) ] 1 4 ) - ( 25t*) [ ( ~ 4) + i ( 1 9 ) ] + [ ( - 4) + 4 + 25
i{
- 19) ]
_ 29
88 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA Ex, 2. Find the square root of 6 + 8 -J-1 in the form a + b.
Let-j6 + 8i = a + ib ;. a* - 6 2 = 6
From (in, = ^
(i) (iii) = 6.
6 + 8/ = (oa - b') + 2 ab. and ab = 4 (ii)
a'
Substituting in ( i ) ,
a* - 6a' - 16 = 0.
a1 = 8 or c? 2,
(a' - 8) (a + 2 ) = 0.
The value 2 is inadmissible since a is real and hence its square must be always non-negative. .\ a' = 8 and hence from ( i i i ) , b3 = 2.
/. J 6 + 8; = ( V T + -,/2 ). E*. 3 . Find the cube roots of unity. roots is the square of the other. Show that each of its imaginary
1I? Let * = ( ! ) ' , *s=l. /. (* - 1) (*2 + * + 1) = 0. - l = 0 or ( ' + + l = 0

.. * = 1 or * = - 1 +
2
* 8 - 1 = 0.
- 4
1 e
- 1 V T 2 '
Thus, the three cube roots are
- 1 + VT
2 '
- 1 2
iJJ
If w and w' denote the imaginary cube roots, then w =
- l + i'VI
j-
and w =
- i - J'VF
g
'
e
We observe that w 2 = Similarty tw'a = w>.
( X - 2i'V3 - 3) i. e.
Exercise 3 1. Multiply : ( i ) (ii) (iii) 2\f^~3 + 3 4-3/ by 5 + Ii. by + SsJ'^.
by 4 \ J ^ 3 -
2.
Express with rational denominator : 1 3\[~2 + 2\T5
3.
Simplify and show that , . . ( i ) 3 + 2/ , 3 - 2 / . , , r^ + ~ , is a rational number . 2 5j 2 + 5/
. . . . n/3~ + 1 %/T , i N/2" . , , ! ( n) + ^ is a rational number. n/3 I -S/2 n/3 + /'V2 4. 5. Express in the form a + ( i ) 5 - 1 2 / , ( ii) ... ( D 3 + 5/ .... (n) the square root of - 11 - 60/. (2 + 3i)2
Express in the form a +jb :

;
( i i i ) - i ( 9 + 6 ) ( 2 - )-. Represent these numbers by points in a plane. 6. 7. Prove that ( - 1 + V3 : a positive integer. 2 jy is
Find the values of ( i ) x 4 - 5x 3 + 14*2 - 21x + 25, when x = 1 + 2 V - 1; (ii) x 3 - 3x 2 - 8* + 31, when z = 3 - 4 - 1. |V2 - 3/1, (ii) | 10 |, (iii) | 10 f -
8. 9.
Write the values of : ( i ) Represent the complex numbers 4 + i2, 4 il and 4 + t by points in a plane, referred to co-ordinate axes, and verify that they are collinear. Find the real values of- x and y satisfying the equation ( i ) ( 2 * - 3y ) + i(x' - j 2 ) = 4. (ii ) ( 3 + i ) * + ( 1 - 2i ) y + li = 0. Show that the points representing the numbers 3t, 3 + 3i, 3 and the origin 0 are the veritices of square.
10.
11.
12.
2 i Express -;. in the form * + iy and hence show that 1 + t

2 -
1 + i 2
1 +
Verify this result by representing the three complex numbers ' . ,2 i and 1 + i by points on a plane 1+ i referred to the co-ordinate axes. If x = k + 3t satisfies the equation x2 + 4x + 13 = 0, find the value of k. If 1, a and to' are the roots of x3 1 = 0 , then show that ( i) 1 + < o + a>' = 0, ( i i ) a 2 = <o'. Solve, by the method of completing the squares, x2 2x + 5 = 0 and represent its roots on the Argand's Diagram. Answer the following as required : ( i ) Classify the following into real and complex numbers: 5 + \[~-37 - 5 + V37 1 + i y f ^ T , 3 + i3. ( ii ) State why \f 1 is not a real number. (iii) Correct the following statement, if required, giving reasons in support of your answer. ( Assume that a and b are positive real numbers.) (iv) s ! ^ x s f ^ b = \f ( - a ) ( - b ) Give examples of complex numbers whose sum and product are real numbers. ( v ) Give examples of two complex numbers whose product is of the term ia where a is real. ( vi) State the value of ( - i ) 4 " + 3 , where n is a positive integer. (vii) Express ( x2 + y2 ) as a product of two factors. Answers. 1.
2. (i> (i)
13. 14. 15.
16.
Exercise 3
(iii)
41 + 13/,
~ ( 5 -
(ii!
-13,
(ii)
6 - 2 V<f.
3.(1)-=^. (UJ - - -
- 1 9 - 6 VlO.
COMPLEX NUMBERS : 9 1 A. . 5. 6. 8. (i
) ( 3 - 20,
- 9 , 19 . -13-+-13-'7. (i) 10; (ii)
( ii )
(5 6/ )..... () 21 "5 12 . T''
... (.) 1. (i)
. . . . 2 , 29 ()"3- + -r'(ii) 10; 1. (iii) 4 10.
+Vn;
10. ( i )
x = y = - 4 or x = - y -g-, J- . 2
13. fe=_2.
(ii)
x = - 1, y = 3.
12. i - l i = J L _ 1+ 2
16. ( i) (ii)
- 5 + /3 and 1 + i J - 2 are real, others are complex. Square of every real number is non-negative. However ( V - 1 ) ( V - 1) is i a and is equal to - 1 . Hence V - 1 is not a real number.
(iii) J -a X *J - b= i *J a X.i *J b = i* *Jab = - *fab(iv) (v ) If a: and y are real, then x + iy and x iy are the required numbers. Such numbers are called conjugate complex numbers. If x and y are real, then x iy and y ix are the numbers. required
( vi)
( vii ) (* + ! } ) ( * - iy).
Chapter 4
Indices (Exponents)
1. Index Notation. 2-3. Laws of Indices. 4. Definitions of a " for any rational number m. 5. Exponential Equations. 6- Illustrative Examples. Exercise 4 ( ) 7. Laws of Indices for all rational values. 8. Illustrative Examples. Exercise 4 ( b ) .
1.
Index Notation.
The students already know that the repeated multiplication, of the same number can be expressed as a power. Thus a2 = a X a, a3 = a X a X a, a1 a X a ... multiplied 7 times.
In general, if m is a positive integer, we can write am= a x a X a m times. Thus am is a symbol and is used to represent a power, m is called the index or the exponent, while a is called the base. It can be seen that the symbol am, for the present, ceases to have any meaning if m is not a positive integer. For example, a'5 cannot be defined as a X a X a ... mulitplied ( 5 ) times, a5n cannot be interpreted as a X a X a X ... multiplied ( 5/7 ) times ; nor can a0 be taken to mean a multiplied by itself zero number of times. Hence the usual meaning which we are giving to the symbol am fails if m is not a positive integer. It is, however, found convenient to assign meanings to the symbol am when the index m is not a positive integer. The meanings which we are going to assign to these
92
INDICES ( EXPONENTS ) : 9 3
symbols in this chapter will be found useful in developing the subject further. We shall also study in this chapter the general rules of algebraical operations with such numbers expressed in index notation. 2. Laws of Indices.
The general rules for multiplication, division and involution with numbers expressed in index notation are given below. They are known as the Laws of Indices. I. II. III. IV.
V
am x an a"1* am + aK = am~n, ( a m )" = a m n = ( a " ) " ' , ( ab )"' \b J =am-bm,
(-"X
= ^
b>
. 0 and me Q and ne Q.
Here it is assumed that a # 0, b The students m and ne N. For example, ( i )

(ii) (iii)
are already familiar with these laws when 2 2 x 2* = 2 S .

( 3 B ) 2 = 33 X 33 = 36. ( 4 X 5 ) 2 = 4 2 X 52. -
3. These laws can be easily proved for positive integral values of m and n. I. To prove t h a t am X an = am+n it me N and ne
m
N.
We have, a = aXaXaX Similarly, an = a X a Xa
m times, [ since m is a positive integer. ] n times, [ since n is positive integer. ] m times ) x (a X a ... n times ) ( m + n) times. [ b y definition]
a* x a" = ( a X a x a = a x ax = a .*. a'" X a

H m
+ .
m+
a \
Similarly, am X a X a* = ( am x a" ) x a*
r= Qtn + ii y , a t ) g m + n + ii
and in general, am x a" x a < > x II. To Prove that a

m n
x a'' = 4- a = am'n = 1 a"'"' if m > n, .. if m < n
= 1 if m = n, if m e N and n e N. We have am a X a X a x m times ; an = a X a x a x w times ; _ a X a X m times a" a X a X n times ' ( i ) If m > n, n factors each equal to a can be cancelled from the numerator and denominator; and there will remain m n factors each equal to a in the numerator. am . . a n)> times n = aX ax ... (m ^ = am~. ( b y definition > ( i i ) If m < n, m factors each equal to a can be cancelled fiom the numerator and the denominater and there will remain n m factors each equal to a in the denominator. a"' 1 1 =
= axax...(n^myimef
aX ... m times . . . m times
definition
>
(iii) If m = n, then a> _aX a^ ~ aXaX = 1. a1 . Thus 4 = a 7 ' 4 = a 3 a <

as n = m
'
, ,
( cancelling m factors each =a. > aH 1 1 a n d , a9 2-5 = 1- = - T u 8 = 4 a * a a a
III. To prove that ( a ) " = ainn = ( a )m. We have ( am ) = am X am X am x ... to factors qm + m + t o n terms
INDICES (EXPONENTS ) : 9 5
Anlernatively, it can be proved as follows : (a"1)" = amx am X am X ... to n factors = (axax ...m times) {aXaX ... m times ) ... ... to factors = ax axa x ...mn times = am. Similarly we can prove that (an)m = a'""IV. To prove that ( a b ) m = a'bm
We have ( ab)'" = (ab)-(ab)-(ab) to m factors. = ( a-a-a...to m factors) X ( fox bx ... m factors ? = ambmV. To prove that j , ( b + 0 ).
We have
.^
... to
factors
4.
_ a-a-a m factors ~~ b-b-b m factors m _ a ~ bm Definition of a'", a e R, m e Q.
Tn article 1, we have stated that it is convenient to assign meanings to the symbol am for all rational values of m. It is evident that these meanings should be consistent with the laws of indices given in para 2 and proved in para 3 for positive integral indices. These meanings are now given in the following definitions : Definition 1. Definition 2. If a e R, and m t J V then am = aX aX ax ... m times. If a e R, a 0, then a = 1.
[ If a 0, we consider the symbol 0 as indeterminate.] Definition 3. If a e R, a > 0 and p, q e N, then aô = [ T h e restriction on the value of a > 0 is necessary to restrict the discussion to a set of real numbers only.]
Definition 4.
If a e R, a > 0 and m e Q, then a~'n =
The students are already familiar with definition 1. From definition 2, we have 3 = 1, ( 127 = 1, ( -\JT) = 1 and The definition 3 shows that 5 52 =i/25; ( 7/3 )3/4 = ^ { I f y f = ^343/27. It should be noted here that a is any positive real number and p, q are positive integers. From the definition 4, we see that ( 5 )
~
3
1 1 = j- = J ^ J ;
( 6
>'"2'3 = ( 6 * * = W 1_ _ 1 _
; and ( 2/3
(2/3;-
v t w t * ~ &s]Tf The meanings given in the above definitions are such that the laws of indices proved for positive integral exponents remain true for all rational values of the exponents ; this is being discussed in article 7.
Note. (1) ( 1 6 ) i l 2 = V i 6 = 4. Thus (16 ) 1 / 2 has two values. But
( 1 6 ) " shall be taken to mean + 4 and not - 4. likely to arise.
Otherwise a confusion is
For example, [ ( 4 ) 1 / 2 ] = ( 4 ) m x ( 4 ) V 2 = 2 x 2 = 4 = (4 s ) 1 ' 2 . ... But 4

1/2
(i)
= V4, and 4> = 16, from ( i ) , ( -Jl)* = ( 16)1/2 = Jl6.
:.
( 2 ) ' = 4.
4 = 4. been taken
We have arrived at a contradiction since l e ^ o r v ^ i e has 4. In order to remove the contradiction, we have to tak'16 J/2 = + V l 6 = + 4 only.
9
Thus o*' will bs always taken to mean positive gth root of a * . Again /. /. Thus we have, V tyl6
=
+ 4 or - 4 but (16) 1 ' 4 will be taken to
= V T or
V l 6 = 2 or
has four values 2,
mean only positive V l 6 which is equal to 2,
INDICES ( EXPONENTS ) : 9 7 Note. (2) It should also be noted that index for 2* i.e. is 23 i. e, S. aad
whereas the index for (a 3 ) J is 2 x 3, i. e 6. Thus a 2 S = a 6 and ( a 2 ) i = hence a-* 4= ( a 1 ) . Similarly the index for 2 <s is 4 index for (2l
8
64, whereas the
is 4 X 3 i. e. 12.
Thus 2 1 ' = 264 and ( 2 ' f = 2 13 and hence 2J~ =p ( 24 In g e n e r a l , a m m

n
n However, if a
n = (a'"
n ), it follows,
that = n
= mn ; m, n are not independent but connected by a relation in" Not . (3).
It will be possible to compare the numerical magnitudes
of nu mbers of the type a ^ provided they can be expressed with the same denominator in their fractional indices. The process is explained in the illustrative exa u les 5.
5.
Exponential Equations.
An equation is called an exponential equation if the variable in it occurs in the place of the index (exponent). Thus 2" = 8 is an exponential equation and its solution can be obtained by writing it in the form 2* = 2 3 so that x = 3 is a root of the given equation. In general if a = a , (a # 0 , a 1 ) , then .v = r is a root of the equation. Thus an exponential equation can be solved by expressing both the sides as powers having the same base and then equating the indices If both the sides of the exponential equation cannot be expressed as powers having the same base, then the equation is to be solved by taking the logarithms of both sides; this will be explained in the next chapter. 6. Illustrative Examples.
Fx. 1, Simplify 3 27s 94 3 (81)4
=
We have
3>-273-9' _ 3' ( 3" )*( 3 ' )4 y^fjT 31. (3 4 ) 4
3*-39 3 3'-316
v
oJ+9+3
3 Ex. 2. Simplify
1+16
= = z
'
= 3.
-iii
16*
(8)*
We will express every term in the expression as a power whose base is a prime number. C. A 7
2 3rrr C (22) ] 3 4 <2 )* 1 - 2*(2 3 )' v
expression =
32 2 4 ' ' 24* + 4 _ 24.r+l

Ex. 3.
2* - 21
14
Find the values of ( i ) ( 81 ) "5, ( i i ) (-001) ' . ( 81 )

5
( i )
= (81 )
1/2
=V81 = 9.
r ~
,ii)
Ex.4.
(-ooi )1/3 = V-ooi = ^ - 5 5 5

Express in the form of 1 0 * : ( i ) -0001; (ii)Vl00-
(ii)
Ex. 5.
VlOO = VlO^ = 102/3.
Arrange in order of magnitude : 2 1 ' 3 and 3 1 ' 5 .
We will express the rational indices of both the numbers with the same lowest common denominator namely 15.
ti Thus
and
2 /= 2
1 3
15 r^, = 15V32. = V2"

1
31'5 = 3 3 / 1 5 = 1 V 3 ? = V 32 > 27. Prove that
V27; .'. 21/3 > 31/s.
, 1SV32 > 1 V27,
Ex. 6.
it_3"' + +5 5+ 3" nS . I) a2 m ]T 2 [ 271+m (9

21 ( 81 ) m + 1
= 21.
Let us express every power with the base as a prime number. We shall prove the result for a positive integral value of m. But the students can later on see that the equality is true for any rational value of m. L. H . S.
2 3 -(3*p + 1 0 2 [33+3m. 3m + 5 + 3 .3imj 2 34m+8 + 34m + 5 ~ 2* ' 34m+4 2s . 34m + 4

S.
INDICES ( EXPONENTS ) : 9 9
Exercise 4 ( a ) 1. Find the values of: (iii) g 2 ' 3 , ( i v ) ( 6 4 ) 5,
( i ) 9 ~2,
( i i ) 91'2,
( v ) ( -001 ) 2 ! \ 2.
( vi) ( 3 | ) "1/3.
Express in the form of 10* : ( i) -01, ( i i ) sj loooo.
3.
Express with fractional indices and simplify : (i) (ii) x-s/3 X ty&'x. [ Use the Laws of Indices ]
4.
Simplify : (i) (iii) (/>-* + q-i ) (p-* 1 + xa~b 1+ ). xb-a = 1.
5. 6.
Prove that
Arrange in order of magnitude :
9. 10.
Prove that Show that : (81)" (3)5 - 3 4 "" 1 . ( 2 4 3 ) _ 9 "- ( 2 7 ) ( 27 ) - 1 show that m=n +1.
2
4(3")
= 4.
12. 13.
If X1P + y13 + Z1/3 = 0. show that ( x + y + z ) 3 = 27 xyz. If a is a rational number not equal to 1, show that [ 2 - (a + ) 3 a - 1 11/3 - - 4 - + a _ t I is rational.
14.
If x # 1 and a, b, c are positive integers and, y x \ x V x =1,
show that at least two of a, b, c are equal. 15. 16. If a* X a* x a = 1, find the value of x. C 3/7 If 2x - 5 = a x a find the value of x. 2
x a
-2/21 ,
17. 18. 19. 20.
If p* x pu* = />2, find the value of x2 +
If ( 81 )* = ( 1/27 f = 9, find the values of x and If " I J 3 m ' - ( 3 m ) J = 81, find m.
Solve the equations :

( i )
2* + 2* +1 + 2* +2 + 2* +3 = 30; 6* 3 ( 2 * ) - 4 ( 3 * ) + 12 = 0; 3 2 t + 1 3* _ i, x + 3 9; 4* - 5 ( 2 * ) + 4 = 0;
W W \ 2 ( x + x -1/3 ) = R 5.
3
(ii) (iii) (iv) (v) 21.

/ \
Write down the values of the following numbers arrange them in ascending order of magnitude. d) 2* 3 ,(22) 3 ; (ii)21/5;3,/7;(iii) ( 2 3)2, ( 2
Simplify and show that : 22. 23. 2a112 - 5a12 + 2a = ( 2a 1 ) {a 2 ) ^ .
2 (2a - 3) 5 2 - 3a ( 2a - 3 ) 3/2 + a 2 ( 2a - 3 )1/2 = 3 ( a - 2) (a 3)V2a
INDICES
( EXPONENTS ) : 101
94 ^ '
-v
2 -2 -2 , -1 W "K x'1) ) Q (yy - x - y i (x -- x - y ) _ 2 - x - "y 2-2 x"y xy + x -1 y -1 if J C 1 . | = a.
25.
| 1 - 1 - ( 1 - a2
Answers. Exercise 4 (a)

1. 2. (i) (i)
(i)
( a ) 3. 10" 2 , ( ii) l o \
(iii) 4, 3.
(iv) 8. ( i ) / ,
(v) j i g . ( i i ) 1-
(vi
-f-.
b ( + )
1 - . 3. (ii
'vH)
* ablJ+V)'
(ii)i1'3<29,,6<l0,/4<31/2. 17. 2. 18. * = l/2, (iv)2or0;
3 6
'
8. 2.
6. 15. 19. 21.
(i) 6.
4,/3<10lrt<5''2 20.
>3
- 2 or - 1 . i ) 1;
s
2/3. tv)8orl/8. ( 2> ) < 2*3. ~>>/243-
1,2;
s
(iii) -1,2;
3
( i ) 2
= 2 = 256,
( 2 ) = 2 = 64 ;
( ii ) 2 1 ' 5 < 3 1 ' 7 , since the values respectively are S V l 2 8 i
t < (2* 3 )2. 7. The laws of indices for rational exponents. With the help of the definitions given in article 4, we can show that the laws of indices proved in article 3 only for integral values of exponents remain true for all their ratoinal values. We shall not consider these proofs here in detail, but indicate the method of the proofs by proving the first two laws only. 1. To prove that cT X a = if m, Tie Q and aeR, a > 0.
( i ) If m and n or both are equal to zero the result is trivial; for example a x a = 1 X a = a , , o+n " .. o w n o+w and a = a ; thus a x a = a ( i i ) If m and n are positive integers, the result has already been proved in article 3. ( i i i ) Let m and n be positive fractions, say p/q and rjs respectively so that p, q, r, s e N; further , m n , m+n let x = a X a and y = a
o . n n
We have
x* = ( a " x =
n a
)os cVaTr
B
x c Voo'
= c(V*) r x = [Y x = a = a
QS
t(V^) r
x a Ps + cir
ps + ar
since
p,g,r,seN
.. x
= a
Hence x = Similarly f t + r=(am+'l)os = (a " f P ar as QS = [ a As+tfr r = (
.. y
= a
= as+c'r
m n m+n . . x = J or a x a = a . ( i v ) Let m be a positive fraction pjq and n be a negative fraction - rfs so that />, g, r and se N; let v x = a'n x a" and y = a'+". We have x 9 s = (a"'x =
= ( // *). = ^ ^
a" ) 9 S = ( a ^ 9 x a " r / s ) 9 s [ > T

=
x ^ J
1 x
= Similarly / *
ate
X a - w = a^-or.
( A )
= (am+")"s = a X a m+n
=a
(t+n)qs
= a
> + . x a X (plg-rlsftjs
qs times
( B ) From ( A ) snd ( B ), xs = y^ . Taking (qs )th root ( q and 5 are positive integers ) of both sides, we get x = y; i. e. amx a" = a m + .
INDICES
(EXPONENTS) :
103
If both m and n are negative fractions, say pjq and r/s respectively, so that p, q, r, s e N, we have a" X a
1 n
,i = a'i'1 " x
i a~rls
=
= -L- x -L Qph ar,s and am+n = _ Thus 1 fl^/a+r/s
apla+rls '
= a-<'o+Ws>
am X a" = am+n, for all
m,neQ.
This completes the proof of the first index law for all rational values of m and n and a > 0. It is obvious that the second law of indices is just the first law stated in a different form. For. if m, n e Q, then m, n also e Q; and am -r- an = am X a~ = am'n by the first index law. The remaining laws of indices can be similarly proved. With the help of the meanings of am as given in article 4, we can take the laws of indices of para 2 as valid for all rational numbers m and n and a>0. We are therefore, free to usg zero, fractional and negative indices in all algebraical operations with which the students are familiar in school Algebra. 8. The meaning of the symbol ax : a > 0 a e R and x irrational. (This article should be read after the students get introduced to the idea of a limit of a sequence in Calculus ). The definitions stated earlier give the meanings of the symbol am thus : ( i ) If m is a positive integer, am = axaxax times when a is any real number. ( ii ) If m = 0, am = 1 , a is any non-zero real number. ( i i i ) If m is a positive fraction, say pjq, then am = a^", = "\[a*>, where a is any positive real number. m
( i v ) If m is a negative rational number, alu = a~r =
say /-, then
, where a is any positive real number.
The students have already seen ( and they will see it further in the later chapters) how this extension of the meaning of a from positive integral m to all rational values of m, is useful in the development of the subject. It has been found useful to extend the meaning of the symbol still further to those cases where m is irrational. A detailed discussion regarding the extension of the meaning of a m to cases where m is irrational, consistent with the laws of indices, is beyond the scope of this book. We propose, however, to explain this briefly in the following lines. For any irrational number x, we have already seen how a sequence of rational numbers can be found by finding successive rational approximations to the value of x in decjjnal notation. The table below gives approximations to the irrational number \ f l . The sequence in the first row gives the numbers p to successively increasing number of places of decimals; the sequence in the second row gives the numbers q obtained by increasing the last digit of the corresponding p by 1.
1 1-4 1-5
2 1-41 1-42
3 1-414 1-415
5 1-41424 1-41425
1-4142 1-4143
It is to be noted that the successive differences between it is evident t h a t g >\fl p and q. in the first row p^. p2. Pi,
and p go on decreasing rapidly and tend to zero in the limit; yet > p for any corresponding values of and the sequence of If we. therefore, call the sequence of rational numbers then we
rational numbers in the second row qi , q - i , q $ ,
INDICES ( EXPONENTS ) : 105
see that the sequence of p 's is an increasing sequence and the sequence ofq 's a decreasing sequence; but both these sequences tend to\f 2 in the limit. This can be seen from the diagram below.
Let us now consider a particular example, where .v is irrafional, of a symbol 3 J~2 say 3 : whatever meaning we âssign to
Q
the
p
it must be consistent with the fact that if q>p, 3 > 3 ;
if therefore in the above sequences each qr > \f 2 > corresponding pr we must have 3 > 3 qx, q2, qz 3 ', 1 \ 3 ',
9 q ?
> 3
. That is to say we must and

p! P
assume that as each of the sequences p x , Pi, tend to \[2 in the limit, 3^', 3 , 3 \
and
tend to a definite common limit, which can be . It should be noted here that for each
defined as the number 3
p and q, 3^ or 3" have definite meanings as p and q are rational. The interpretation given here is made further clear from the rough figure drawn without scale where the graph of y = 3* is shown. We can plot the points ( 0 , 3), ( 1, 3 1 ) ( 1 - 2, 3 1 ' 2 ) and
say (1-6, 3 1-6 ). If we draw the ordinate at x = sf 2 it must have VT. the length 3
Fig. 30
Graph of y = 3* The definition of a when a > 0 and x is irrational can now be given. Definition. If xi, x2, x3, ... , x, be a sequence of rational numbers and if this sequence tends to an irrational number x as the limit, then there exists a sequence a1, ax\ a*3, which tends to a as its limit. If the nth number of the sequence x\, x2, xn and the nth term of the sequence n denoted by a " we write a = Lt a*", if Lt n n above for a, xn and x.
x
, ax",..., is denoted by
a* , a*
is
x = x,
with the meanings given
We have assumed here that a sequence of rational numbers Xu x2, x3, ,x ,... can always be found by considering the rational approximations to the irrational number x in decimal notation. It is interesting to note that l'" = 1 for all rational values of m and as such with the above definition 1* = 1 for any irrational jc; for any sequence of the above type namely ( 1 )*', ( 1 )*a, ( 1 ) x \ is just the sequence 1, 1,1, and as such tends to 1. We shall see in the chapter on logarithms, how approximate values of ax, where a > 0 and x is irrational, can be calculated. [ See Illustrative Example 2 ( i i i ) of article 10 and Ex. 5 (v) of Exercise 5 (b). ] 9. Illustrative Examples.
Ex.1. Simplify *a + * 2 + 2 x3 +x 3 + 3 ( * + (*+*~ ) 1 - = ( x + x ^ f x+x-1
1 A
x'1) = *S X
+ 1
. The expression
Ex. 2. Multiply 3X'V3 + X + 2X2'3 by - 2. Arrange i n descending powers of x and multiply.

{X +
2X2I3+3X-113)
2*+3)-2*-4*
(XV3-2)
2/3
= (*4/3 +
-6*-1/3
the product is x
C Q Ex. 3. T U VI Divide
4/3
i/3 -1/3 - 4x~ + 3 - 6 * y

1/2
4/3
+ x
2/3
, +
Vby
y-
1/2
J+
x""
1/3
_I_ +
y-
114
Arranging dividend, divisor and each remainder powers of x, we have, 1/3 -111 , -1/4 , -1/3 \ 4/3 , 2/3 1/2 , / x y +y + x ) x + x y + y \ 4/3 , 1/4 , 2/3 1/2 x + xy -f x y 1/4 , xy + y 1/4 2/3 1/2 - xy x y x
as it occurs in descending 1/2 2/3 3/4 1/3 x y - x y + x y
1/3 3/4 x y
2/3 1/2 , 1/3 3/4 , y +x y + y 2/3 1/2 , 1/3 3/4 , x y + x y +y
.. * . 1/2 2/3 3/4 , 1/3 the quotient is xy x y + x y.

iU
1 0 8 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA Ex 4 . F i n d the square root of 4* -12* +13-6* + *
The expression is already arranged i n descending powers o f * . 44/5-12*2/5 + 4,4/S 4*

2/5
13-6*2/5+*
, 2/5 (2* 3 +
-2/5
- 3
- 12*
2fo
+ 13
- 12* 2 ' 1 + 9 , '2/5 -4/5 . 2/5 -2/5 . 4* - 6+ X 4 6* + * . , -2/5 -4/5 46* + * .'. square root is ( 3 + x
25
' ).
I n many cases fractional indices may be changed by proper substitutions and the operations can be conveniently carried out by applying the wellknown algebraical identities W e will illustrate few cases of such a type. u <r Ex. 5.
r
2 w i /3 , 1/3,1/3 , .2/3 . 1/3 1/3 Multiply a + a b +6 by a b .
Let a
J .1/3 x and b = y
-)/3
so that a " V =
2/3
6 y ' ,
s
a = * and b = y8
product = ( * * + * y + y ) (x - y) = *s ys ~ a b. 3/4 1 '2 1/4 Ex. 6. F i n d the square root of a + 4 a + 10a ' + 12a + 9. r i l^ 4 Let a =*, , 1/2 . so that a = **, a 3/4 . = a8 and a = .
the expression reduces to x' + + 10*' + 12* + 9. B y an inspection of the expression i t can be seen to be eqnal to ( * ' + 2 * + 2 )*. square root = ( * 2 + 2x + 3 ) = { al2+2aL,i Ex. 7 . If m = a11* + " 1 / 3 , ->- 3 ).
then snow that m" 3m = a +
W e will write the given relation i n the form x + y + z use of the i d e n t i t y , x +y' + z3 = 3 x y z . Thus we have m + ( - a 1 ' 3 ) + ( a
1/3
0 and make
=0
ffl' + ( a 1 ' 3 ) 3 + ( - a ' 1 1 3 ) 8 = 3 ( m ) (a*' 3 ) ( - a ~ V 3 > . m5 a a = 3m.
f 8 3m = a + -J
a '
INDICES ( E X P O N E N T S ) : 1 0 9 W e may, otherwise, use the identity ( * + y V = *s + y 5 + 3 x y ( * + y).
in = a
1/3 ,
+ a
-1/3
B , !' 3 \ 3 . / "1/3XS
.".
1/3
" 1 / 3 / l/3 I
-1/3.
t s = a + a " 1 + 3m. m s 3m = a H
[ iJ
EXP
13
1 h' 1 / 2
-b X
I
)
312
r vi r 1/2 n 1/4
-I
\a and find its value when a = b = 81. r (g'6-3/3)
I g - M - b ^ n ^
"
L
1
a^b-V*
1/4
J (fc-^-ft^.d^)]1'4
= [(
= [ 6 " ] I f a = 6 - 81 = 3 4 , =
a ' -*,'1'4
3 4
then the value of the expression = ( 3 ' ) 3 ' 4 - ( 3 4 ) " 1 / 4 = 3 s 3 " 1 = 3a = 9Ex. 9 . I f a * = V = c, and 6 a = c, then prove that x~1+z~1 = 2y"1.
L e t each of the given ratios be equal to ft. so that ( i ) (ii) (i) ax = 6" c* = ft, ft, ft, :. :. a = kVx.
1
b = ft '*.
Substituting these values of a, b, c i n terms of ft, x, y and z i n the second given relation, ft can be eliminated and a relation i n , * , y, z can be obtained. T h u s , we have
(ft1'*)' ^
2
ft1'*
..
.
ft1''.
n
,. k 2 h = J 1 *" 1 *.
= x + z
1 1.
2y
"I
I n problems where two or more quantities or ratios are equal, i t is convenient to assume all of thequantities equal to some unknown quantity, say, ft. T h e required result, then, can be established by eliminating ft. Ex. 1 0 ' Solve 2X + 3" = 17 and 2 * + 3 - 3 y + 1 = 5.
The equations can be w i j t t e n as 2* + 3* = 17 ( i ) 4-2*-3-3Y M u l t i p l y i n g ^ i ) by 3 and adding to ( i i ) , we get 7-2* = 56. /. 2X = 8. i . e. 2. 5. (ii)
:.
x = 3.
110 : COLLEGE
ALGEBRA
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h e value of x in ( i ) , w e g e t 3V = 9 i. e. 3 2 . y = 2.
x = 3 a n d j) = 2 a r e t h e r e q u i r e d r o o t s .
Exercise 4 (b) 1. 2. Express as powers of 8 : ( i ) | , ( i i ) -125, ( M ) t y Y . Express x as a power of : (i)x3, 3. (ii) \[x, (iii) x".
Expand the following : (i)

,... . (ill)
U1/3 +
/ 2
l)(* /
1 / 2
2 / 3
-*
1 / 3 +
i). ). y '
-1/3
5 + 1 / 4
(ii ) ( x
)(x
) ( X
1 / 2
-/
1 / 2
, 1/3 ( X - J
-1/3
2/3 ,
+ X
1
1/3
2
+y
5
-2/3
' ).
(iv) (x1/3 + (v) (,

1 / 2
/ 5
) ( ^ - ,
/ '
) .
-x
1 / 4
+l)(.
1 / 2
+ ,
-l). ( 1 - x 1 / 8 ).
C v i ) ( 1 + x1'2) ( 1 + xVi) 4.
( 1 + x'3)
Express as a product of two factors : ( i ) x + 2, - 3^%1/2; (ii) x + y + z - ^ y ^ z (in)

,
3
* ;
* + j
z + 3xy
2/3
1/3
; (iv)
3/2
x ' + x
3/2 , 3/2
4/3
2/3
+ 1.
5.
Find the values of :

I
1
3/2
1/4
- y
1/4 '
(ii) * ^ ^ 1/2 1/2 T 1/2, 1/2 x - y x + r

1/3 3)2 , 1/2
. > 2/3
4/2
t;;; \ 111
I ^
a8a
2/3 , ^ 1/3
b
~J7T' 0
,173",
. ^x V
)
+ x
1/2
-2y
T/37-^ *
a 6.
+ 2a
- o + 4 6
Find the square rools of :

( 1 ) x - 2 +A; (11) 1 2 + 4 ; ( i i i ) X4 - 6x 5/2 - 30x 1/2 + lOx 2 + 9x + 25;
( i v ) 4a
. . . .
4/5
12a
2/5
+ 13 - 6a
-2/5
-:- a
-4/5
7.
( i ) ( ii )
, ....
If X = 3 2 ' 3 - 3 " 2 / 3 , prove that 9x3 + 27x = 802/3 -2/? If y = 3 + 3 , prove that 9f ~ 27 y = 82.
T
-2/3
.-213
2/3
-2/3
( in) 8.
If x = 3
and y = 3
+ 3 3y ).
prove that 41 ( x 3 + 3x) = 40 ( y 3 Prove that : 112 12 /, c ( a 4.- oA ' +

1/2
, ) (a
1/2
, b j.1'2 - c !' 2 )x X v +
1/2
(a b + c ) ( a + b = 2bc + 2ca + lab - a* - b2 - c2. 9. Evaluate :

- 2
1\2
1/2
+ c
1/2
-1/2
5/6
, .-3
-1/2
+2/3
.-1/4
2 3 a +2 3 a a = 64. Simplify and show that : 10. ( X2 + y2 i

b
10 ( 2 7 a )
where
) X (x2 i_
/ c+a
a b
-y2
/ a+6
) = X2
y2 .
_1_ a;b"c )
( f t + c \a"
JCC" j
x l x
= 1.
if a, Z > , c are unequal quantities. ( V m+ / \ ri+J / , \l+m
-(5) () >-
('+T)"('-T)
*2/3 . + r2/3+ 2
i_
15.
1 1 + X"~m + X^-m
1 1 + xm~n + X*"n
1 + x-*
Xn~t>
=i
16.
\fp
q + r = 0, then prove that

+
I + xr + x-* [ Hint : Multiply every term of 2nd and 3rd fractions by x'o and xt> respectively]. 17. 18. 19. 20 21. 22. 23. If a " , a" = a""1, then show that m (n - 2) + n(m - 2 ) == 0. Jf a = l ( f , b = 10'and ( a * b*f show that xyz = 1. = 100,
= 1.
If a 1 " = ( a V , then show that . v ^ V ' ' " 1 = / . If xy = z, yz = x and 2 V = v, show that xyz = xy y~ z* = 1. If m"x = n'v = {ni prove that xyz = 1. If in = a\ n a and a = (in n' v )\ show that .v v r = 1. If a" = by = c~ d" and ab cd, show that (- - = h . x y : w
24.
If
x z = ,
prove that x +y
in . m
+z
in
+iv
in in
( i ) (iii) (iv)
8-2 2 *- 1 = 16-2*-1; 27* = 9 " 2A = 4 5 = 8= and 8 f and
( ii )
= ( x\fx )
= ( 243)3'; ~~ + j-
and hence find its value if x = y = 8,
and hence find its value if x =
, y
8 '
INDICES (EXPONENTS) : 1 1 3
a . Show that L 4 x ^ 2 " J
cannot be 8 for any value of rt.
29. Simplify
f^",,^
2 Q Q )
l / 3
/ \ 2/3
(
\ 3/2
1 +
= ;1/2 + >'-1/3-
31. If 4* = 8V = 16z, prove that : x H = z y
t Particular case of Illustrative Example 9 ]. 32. If 4* = 3" = 2* = 6W, 1 = f. - x y z w [ Particular case of example 23 in this exercise ]. 33. If 2* = 3* = 12*, prove that xy = z ( x + 2 y ). + + = 0x y z
prove that :
1 1 1 1
34. If 6 * = 3 y = 2, prove that
35. If 2* = 4" = 8* and xyz = 288, , , prove that 1 . 1 . 1 11 - + - + _ = _ . Answers. 1 )l 8 o~1/3 1 . ( /1 ,

2. 3. (i) (i) (v) C. A.8 (^V'3. *+l,
X
Exercise 4 (b). I ... 1 > .W 8 (in)

(iii) (*")1,B. (iv)* + /
/ 5
/ \ 8o",1 (n)
(ii) (ii) + 2xVi (ViT\ x - - 1.
y
( i i i ) * - i (vi) 1 - * .
x - xV2
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA
/ i. )> (* , 1/2 - y 1/2. , 1/2 ~2y . 1/2.), 4. ( )(X (ii)

, , ....
(*
,
.1/3,
+y
1/3,
+2 ) (* +y
1/3.,
1/3. . 2/3 , 2/3
+z
2/3 2/3
-x
1/3 1/3
-y
1/3 1/3
-z
1/3 1/3.
(iii) (x + y (iv) (, 2 ' 3 5. ( i )
2/3
-x
)(*'
. ,
+?
4/3.
-*y
2/3
+y
2/3 1/3,
1/3 .
*).
^3+l)(*2,3-/3+l). ()
13
(*W+,1/4)
3 13
2 (* + y ), /
3
(iii) a ' ( a ' 26 ' ), 6. ( i )

(tv)
< iv ) * + ^ (ii) ( * " - ! ) .

9. 51^3.
/3.
(*1,4-*~lM).
2A2LS - 3 + A~2I\
(Hi) * * - 3 * 1 / 2 + 5
25. ( i ) (tv) * 26.
() X-9(*. 7/16, y - 7/32, * - 7/48. 1. 27. ^ V

3
(Hi) * = ' .
y = 3/2
3)32.
29. 7/4.
Chapter 5
Logarithms
1. Definitions. The identity N = a 2. The restrictions on the base a and the number N . 3. The Laws of Logarithms. 4. Illustrative Examples Exercise 5 ( a ) . 5-7. Common Logarithms. Rules to find characteristics and Mantissae. 8. Four-figure Logarithmic Tables. 9. Anti-Logaritbms. 10. Use of Logarithmic Tables. Illustrative Examples. 11. Problems on Compound Interest. 12. Napierian Logarithms. Exercise 5 ( b ) .
1. We will consider in this chapter an important application of the theory of Indices, namely Logarithms. Logarithms are very useful in simplifying complicated numerical calculations! If N is any positive real number and N = a , (where a > 0, 1) then x is called the logarithm of the number N to the base a, and we briefly write this as x log,, N. Thus, we can define the logarithm of a number as follows . Definition. The logarithm of a number N (> 0 ) to any base a (>0,=1) is the index of the power to which a must be raised to make that power equal to N. It can be seen from the definition that a logarithm is merely an index. It should also be noted that a = N and x = log^ N are only different forms of expressing the same relation between a, x and N. The first equation expresses the relation in the index or exponential form and the second in the logarithmic form. Thus, as 24 = 16, 4 = log2 16. Similarly, as 5
-2
1 = , 2 = log, 'S
115
Thus, the two equations a = N and J C = log,, N are only transformations of each other and should be remembered to change one form of the relation into the other. 11. The Identity : N =aoi"N Consider the two equations N = a* (i) and x = log,, N (ii).
The equation ( i ) expresses the value of N in terms of x and the equation ( i i ) expresses the value of x in terms of N, Substituting the value of x given by ( i i ) in ( i ) , we get the relation. N = a
. log fl N
(111).
...
Similarly, if we substitute the value of N given by ( i ) in ( i i ) , we get the relation x = log a ( a ) The relation ( i i i ) and ( i v ) can be called identities. example, we have 21o^=4, 2. = (iv). For
3 l o i 3 < 5 ) ! = 5* = 25.
Restrictions oo the Base a and the Number N. Let us again consider the two equations N = a ...(i) and x = log Ar (i)
X
...
(ii). 1,
Restrictions on the base a. ( 1 ) We observe that if the base a in it is satisfied for all values of x if N
is taken as
- 1. For 1 == 1 for all x.
However, ( i ) is not satisfied for any value of x if N # 1 ; hence from equation ( i i ) , we see that x i. e. the logarithm of N to the base 1 is not properly defined. Similar arguments hold if the base a is taken as zero. We, therefore, assume that the base ' a ' of a logarithm not to be taken equal to either one or zero. is
( 2 ) If we take the base ' a ' in the equation ( i ) as a negative number, say 2, then,
LOGARITHMS : 1 1 7
( a ) for values of x, such as, 2, 4, 2/5... etc. N is a positive number, namely, 4, 16, ^ 4 , ...etc.; (b) for values of x, such as 3, 5, 1/3, ... etc. N is a negative ... etc. etc. N is an imaginary etc.
number namely, 8 , - 3 2 , number, namely, \ [ 2 , -ty2,
and ( c ) for values of x such as, 1/2, 1/4,
Thus if the base ' a ' is taken as a negative number, certain values of x give imaginary values of N. We are considering real numbers only for the present, and hence we shall assume that the base ' a ' of a logarithm is not to be taken as a negative number. We shall, therefore, choose the base ' a ' as a positive number 1). Restrictions on N. Now if we take the base ' a ' as a positive number 1) in the equation ( i ) , then N is always positive, whatever be the value of x (i. e. positive or negative). Thus N cannot be a negative number for any value of x, if a > 0 and=l. Hence from equation ( i i ) , we conclude that x i. e. log a N does not exist if N is negative and a > 0 , # 1. Hence, we shall assume that logarithms of negative numbers are not to be considered. Two important results. ( 1 ) If log, 0 = x, then 0 = a". This is not possible for any Hence the logarithm of zero to any positive base does not exist. (2) Since a0 = 1, we have 0 = log^ 1. 1 = loga a -
x.
Similarly, since a1 = a, we have
Hence we notice that the logarithm of one to any positive base 1 ) is zero and that the logarithm of any positive number (= 1 ) to the same base is always one. We should therefore, remember the two important relations : logB 1 = 0 and log a a = 1.
3. The Laws of Logarithms. We shall now proceed to prove the laws of logarithms which are valid for any base a ( > 0 b u t # 1). Since the term " logarithm " is merely a substitute for the term " index," the laws of logarithms can be easily deduced from the laws of indices- The laws of logarithms are given in the following theorems. Theorem I. The logarithm of a product of any two numbers is equal to the sum of the logarithms of the two numbers to the same base. i. e. loga (mn) = leia m + loga Let log a m = x and log0 = y. Then by definition, a = m and a = n. m X n = a x a = ax+v
x+y
[by the Index Law ].
..
= mn.
by definition, x + y = log a ( mn). Substituting for x and y, we get log a m + l o g 0 n = log,, (mn). Cor. The logarithm of a product of any ( finite ) number of factors is equal to the sum of the logarithms of these factors to the same base. For, logfl ( mnpq) = log a ( mnp ) + log a q = log a (mn ) + log p + log q = log a m + log,, n + log a p + loga QEx. log^ 110 = log,, ( 2 X 5 X 1 1 ) = loga 2 + loga 5 + log a 11.
Note : It should be noted that log ( m + n)i=\og m + log/i unless m + n = mn. Theorem II. The logarithm of the quotient of any two numbers is equal to the logarithm of the numerator minus the logarithm of the denominator to the same base, i. e. loga =
m
~ y.
Let log a m x and log a n = by definition,
a* = m, and a = n.
LOGARITHMS : 119
.".
= a " [ by the Index Law 1. n av ax~y

=
m n
by definition, x y = log a ^ f j ' Substituting for x and y, we get log a m ~ log a n = log,, Cor. log a = log a 1 - log. = - loga n.
Ex. loga ^ = loga 110 - loga 21, = loga 2 + loga 5 + loga U - logo 3 - log,, 7.
[ V
log a 1 = 0 ]
Theorem III. The logarithm of a power of a number is equal to the product of the index of the power by the logarithm of that number, i. e. Let ;.
n m x
loga ( m* ) = n loga m. loga m = x] by definition, m = a . [ by Index Law] (in).

x x
= ( a f = a" .
a =m.
by definition, n-x = loga
Substituting for x, we get loga (rn") = n-log a m. Cor. Let log C-J )=log a (wi 1,n ) = _Llog a m. n :.
x.lln
log a m = x. .. ' . . m
1/n
m = a. ..
.
= (a )
1 In
= a
xtn
xln
X , , ll . = loga (m ).
. 1 In .. m = a
1 i lOga
li o
Vn x Sa ( m )'
1 2 0 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA Ex.1. Ex.2. l o g a 81 = l o a ( 3 4 ) = 4 log B 3. log a ^ ^ J - loga(5-4) -41oga5.
Ex.3,
loga (
) =
- loga 7.
Change of Base The theorem for the change of base of a logarithm enables us to find the logarithms of numbers to a new base, say b, if logarithms of numbers to some base a are known. Theorem IV. Let To prave that logb m = lia m. loga O log6 m x.
by definition, m b*. Taking logarithms of both sides to the base a, we get loga m = loga *
] =
( b* ) = X log b.
[ Theorem III.J
Sa m . loga b ^ .
Substituting for x, we have log b m =

Ex. tofcai-l^f1. logio 5
Thus, it will be seen that if the logarithms of the numbers 31 and 5 to the base 10 are known, then the logarithm of 31 to the base 5 can be found. Cor. ( 1 ) . If we put m = a in the above theorem, we get . .'. Cor. loâ a 1
logja X loga fc = 1. ( 2 ). log6 m = log a m X !og6 a.
4. Illustrative Examples.
Ex. 1. Evaluate ( 1 ) log 2 32. { i l ) l o g (-04] and (HI) log Let log, 32 = (64). ( i )
x.
2\
2^ 2
by definition, 2 * - 32. i . e. 2 * = * = 5. .*. log2 32 = 5,
LOGARITHMS : 1 2 1 ( i i ) Let logj ( -04 ) =
...
(25)* =
.04
J _ ^
= 2 5
- \
* = - 1. ( i i i ) Let log _(64 ) = * .
logs (-04 ) = - 1. /. ( 2 - J l ) x = 64.
2^2 (2mf .'. * = 6.

2
= 2. .'. x = 4.
5* =
2W2=28. log
(ii)
( 64 ) = 4.
=-4.
Ex.2.
Solve:
(i)
log, ( 8 1 )
(i
>
*= = i r =
5" 4 ;
4 .
()
log,(81)=-4. -4 1 by definition, x = 81 = 3' = 4
3.
Simplify:
log
- log
j + log
(
=
log
225 \ 32~ /
+ l0g
64 \
l0g
/ 25
SI
I 729 / V
( f
* )
f i }
[byTheoremII]
= log
Ex. 4 . Simplify : (i ) (ii) (i)
{S x ^ x S} =log
(2) [ o n s i m
Puficatin]-
log ( l o g a 3 ) - log (log a ) . log a ( 6 2 5 ) - M o g a ( V " 5 ) .
W e have log ( l o g a 3 ) log ( l o g a )
= log
[ b y Theorem
II]
"
Iog
i s j r ]
log3
[ b y Theorem I I I ]
(ii)
We have log a (625) - log,, ( V 5 ) = ' g " j 5 * 1 lOgn ( 5 ) = l j i i - f = 8. 4 log,! 5 [ b y Theorem I I I . ]
Ex. 5.
I f x, y, z are all positive, prove that l o g * ( y ) x l o g y ( z ) x log 2 ( i ) = 1.
Changing the logarithms of all numbers to the base a, we get by the Theorem of the Change of base formula L . H . S. = ^ -^ log,, * log,, y
6
log,, z togj..
q
c
= 1. *. \ '
if
q - r
= JfJL
r
-
p p
ve that
Let
.'.
q -
g a = - g = l o g
r t - p
=. k
log a = k (q - r ) , log b = k (r - p ) and log c = k ( p q ) .
If the common base is, say, e then

a = e a t> hKq-r)
,6 = e
, ,o
kir-i>)
and c = e and
.
k(p-Q> cr
3
bk<Q-r1 => e r
o = e
qk(r-p) a
rUp-q)
..
a b o =e
_
t> .Q
tk(a-r)
X e
Xe
rkib-a)
6
E*. 7 Prove that
1
ik(o-r)'+qk(r-6)+rk(j>-q)
logxy
(xyz)
logyz(xys)
logzxi*y*)
I Making use of the result of the corollary of the change of base formula, namely, ^ = log, = log
UH.S
xyz xyz
( x y ) + log
xyz
{ y z ) + Jog
xyz
(zx).
= log
(x*y'z)
= log
xyz
( xyz )
xyz
= 2 log Ex. 8.
( x y z ) = 2 = R. H . S.
Show that
log,0 ( l i ) + logu ( l i ) + 1 gio ( 1 I ) + ... to 198 terms = 2.
LOGARITHMS : 1 2 3
L. H . S. = log,, ( f ) + log,0 , 10 r 3 4 T 5
+ log,, 200 "1
+ log,.
( f g )
L7'
7 199
= log,o [ 100 ] = log w (10 3 ) = 2 logio ( 1 0 ) = 2 = R. H . S. E. 9. Find Ihe positive integer such that loga 96 lies between and
n + 1.
[
log3 O M < log, (96) < log3 (3 s 4 < logs 96 < 5 ;
We have 3' < 96 < 35 .*. )
.. ft < log3 96 < + 1, if = 4. E* 1 0 . I f log 0 i = * and log rt = f where a , n t , n are positive and a+=1. tnn =j= 1, express log ( a ) in terms of x and y. We have log a =
log0Mn
log a m + log a
* + y
Exercise 5 (a) 1. Write the following equalities in the form x = loga N : ( i ) 254 = 625, ( i i ) 3 " 5 = ^ 3 . ( i i i ) 6 4 " 1 , 3 = - l
Express the following statements in the form a* = N : ( i ) log7 343 = 3, (ii) log.
(ii') 3-
log,
Find the values of :( i ) l o g v _ (125), (ii) log4 ( ^ r ) ,
(s-)'
(iii (iii)
logs (-008).
4.
Find the values of .v which satisfy the following equations: ( i ) log 2 v ,- ( 144 ) = x, ( i i ) log. ( - 0 9 ) = 2, (iii) log 8 x = -y-
5.
Write down the values

, ^ J
o g a 5
of:
">> 2log7 ( 3 )
( i ) 2 , 6 . Assuming the ( i ) log 25 = ( i i i ) log 12-5 7. 8.
, (iii) 7 base as 10 throughout, prove that 2 - 2 log 2, ( i i ) log 800 = 2 + 3 log 2, = 2 - 3 log 2.
(H) p
If log a y + 4 = 2 log a x + 5, express y in terms of x and a. Assuming the base as 10, prove that log (20) + 7 log + 5 1 o g ( i ) + 3 1 o g ( g . ) = 1.
9.
Show that
10. 11.
If a = log (10/9 ), b = log ( 25/24), c = log ( 81/80), prove that log 2 = la 2b + 3c. Prove that to any base ( i ; log
( i i ) log ( 1 + 2 + 3 ) = log 1 + log2 + log 3. 12. If log ( a + b ) = log a + log b, find a in terms of b and hence prove that log b log a = log ( b 1 ) .
log
b = b
log
a
a
13. 14.
Prove that a
Show that log ) V a 2 + 1 +
\ =
- log)\/a 2 + 1 - a { .
16.
if log ( ^ r ^ j
(Iog a + l o g
prove that
a = K
17.
If log { ^ T ^ j = \
(l0S
lo
S b )' Prove
that
a2 + b2 = 11 ab.
L O G A R I T H M S : 125
18.
19.
Simplify the following : ( i ) (log x> log .v5 ) -7- (log x3 log x2 ); ( i i ) log ( x? + 3* 2 + 3x+ 1) log ( JC2 + 2x + 1 ) . Solve : I ; \ K ' (ii) (iii) g * _ lQg C 6 4 ) log 4 ~ log ( 1 6 ) ' log 1 0 x + log 10 ( x + 3 ) = l. logio (7.v 9 ) 2 + logto ( 3 x 4 ) 2 = 2.
lQ
20.
21.
Find the values of : ( i ) l 0 g 3 (4) x log4 (81); ( i i ) log 2 (3) x log 3 (4) x log* (5) x log s (2)( i i i ) log 3 (bed) if a b2 = c3 = di(j= 1") where a, b, c, d are positive real numbers. If p, q, r, s are all positive, prove that ( i ) log pq X log a r X log, s = log^s; ( i i ) l o g r p X log p q = log, 5 X log s q. If ( 3 7 )* = ( 37 )" = 1000, show that -l -l -i x y = 3 If b c = ca . ab , prove that
22.
23.
xyz = x6+= 24. If
z i+6 = xa yb z e = 1. log y _ log z c + a - 2b ~ a + b - 2c '
log x _ b + c - 2a ~
25.
prove that xy: = 1. Show that ( i ) log y (.v 3 ) X log, ( y 3 ) X log x ( z 3 ) = 27; (ii ) logy2 (x) X log, 00 X log.,.. (z) = y
26.
Without using logarithmic tables, show that ( i ) "fij < log102 < - y ; ( i ) .v = ( ii )
1/logvW fl ;
( ii)
- y < logi03 < - L
27.
Show that
x = a
log 1 ( 6-logjc-log (i log^.v
28. O Q 29. 30.
If
a2 = b3 - c* = ds, prove that logj (bed) = 47/30, ,,, , prove that. a5 b3c'2 , = 1. +
1 2
T F I ^ g a = lg b = log If | c , Tf b2 = ac, prove that Answers.
log a x
log,.x
logjX
Exercise 5 ( a )
- 5 =
3 / 2
1.
(i)
4 = logs 625. 7s = 343, 6. 5, (ii) (ii) -3. >.
(ii)
logs(^).(iii) a'2 = -3,
2. 3. 5.
(I) (i) (i)
(ii) (iii) (iii)

18
4" -3. j-
=i,
(iii) 4, (ii)
\ .
4. 7.
(i)
( i i i ) 1/4.
y = ax\
12. 6 = ~ T
19. (i) * = 8, (ii)
- Cfi> 2-
()
is to be rejected as
x = 2, the other root * = - 5
the logarithm of negative numbers are not considered 20. (iii) 2 or 13/21. (i) 4; (ii) 1; (iii) 13/12.
Common
Logarithms
5. Logarithms to the base 10 are known as Common Logarithms. Common Logarithms are useful in simplifying numerical calculations. They were first introduced in 1651 A. D. by Henry Briggs. We now proceed to consider how the common logarithms can be used in practice. When we are referring only to common logarithms, the base 10 is usually omitted to avoid repetition. Hence hereafter whenever the base is not mentioned, it should be assumed as 10, as we are now considering common logarithms only. 6. Consider the following relations -.10 Y 10 = 1 , 0 = log 1. Y 101 = 10, .'. 1 = log 10. Y l O 2102 _ 100, 2 = log 100. Y l 0 3 103 = 1000, 3 = log 1000. Y 10=1, 0 = log 1. ^, /. - l = log (-1). = -01, A - 2 = log (-01) = -001, - 3 = log (-001)
LOGARITHMS : 127
We observe that ( i ) the common logarithm of a number greater than one is positive, and of a number less than one is negative; while the common logarithm of one is zero. ( i i ) the common logarithm of a number which is an exact power of 10 is either a positive or a negative integer; ( i i i ) the common logarithm of a number which is not an exact power of 10 is partly integral and partly fractional; ( i v ) the logarithm of a number, say, between -1 and -01 lies between 1 and 2 and hence can be written as 1 ( a fraction ) or 2 + ( a fraction). It has been found convenient to write the fractional part of the common logarithm of a number with always a positive sign, and hence the above logarithm is always written as 2 + ( a fraction) and not as - 1 - ( a fraction). 7. Definitions. When the logarithm of a number is written so as to have the positive sign for the fractional part, then the fractional part is called the mantissa and the integcral part is called the characteristic. We shall now proceed to see how the characteristics and mantissae of the common logarithms can be obtained. I. Characteristic of a number greater than one.
From the first four relations of the previous article, we observe that ( i ) a number lying between 1 and 10 has one digit in its integral part and its logarithm is = 0 + / j ; ( i i ) a number lying between 10 and 100 has two digits in its integral part and its logarithm is = 1 + / 2 . ( i i i ) a number lying between 100 and 1000 has three digits in its integral part and its logarithm is = 2 + f3 ; and so on. Here the integers 0, 1, 2, denote the characteristics and ]\,fi,fz (the + ve fractions < 1), denote the mentissae. Thus we observe that the characteristic of a number ( > 1 ) is positive and is one less than the number of digits in the integral
1 2 8 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA
part of the number. We, therefore, have the following rule to find the characteristic of a number greater than one : " If a number N is greater than 1, and has p digits in its integral part when expressed in decimal notation, then the characteristic of its logarithm is (p 1 ). II. that ( i ) a number lying between 1 and 1 has no zero between the decimal point and the first significant digit and its logarithm is = - 1 + / ' . ( i i ) a number lying between 1 and -01 has one zero between the decimal point and the first sinificant digit and its logarithm is.= - 2 + / " ; ( i i i ) a number lying between -01 and 001 has two zeros between the decimal point and the first significant digit and its logarithm is = 3 + / " ' ; and so on. Here the integers - 1 , - 2 , 3, are the characteristics and / ' , / ' ' , / ' " ( t h e + ve fractions < 1), denote the mantissae. Thus we observe that the characteristic of a number ( < 1 ) is negative, and is one more than the number of zeroes between the decimal point and the first significant digit of the'number. We, therefore, have the following rule for finding the characteristic of a number which is less than one. " If a number N is less than one and has q zeroes between the decimal point and the first significant digit when expressed in decimal notation, then the characteristic of its logarithm is (q + 1 ). " Thus the characteristics in log -32, log ( -02) and log (-0032) are - 1 , - 2 and 3 respectively. When the characteristic is negative, the negative sign is not prefixed but is written over the integers and is read as ' b a r ' . Thus the above characteristics are written as 1, 2, 3. This method of indicating the negative sign of the characteristic over the integers avoids the association of negative sign with the mantissae. Characteristic of a number less than one.
From the last four relations of the last article, we observe
LOGARITHMS : 129
lit. Mantissae sequence of digits.
in logarithms of numbers having the same
Consider log ( 1234 ), log ( 12 -34 ) and log ( 1234 ). We have 1234 = 103. 1-234 = 3 log ( 1 0 ) = 3. .-. log ( 1234) = 3 + log( 1-234). Similarly, it can be shown that log ( 12-34 ) = 1 -f log (1-234). and log ( 1234 ) = - 1 + log ( 1-234). It follows, therefore, that the mantissae of log (1234), log (12 34 ) and log ( 1234 ) are the same as that of log ( 1 234 ). In general, the logarithms of numbers having the same sequence of digits have the same mantissae. We thus have the following rule : " If the numbers N and N' have the same sequence of digits and differ only in the position of the decimal point, then log ( N ) and log ( N') have the same mantissae. " This can also be seen easily as follows. We have, by data, = 10^, where p is an integer. log ( N / N ' ) = log ( 10* ). = log ( 10 ) = p. log ( N ) l o g ( N ' ) = / > . log N and log N' differ only by an integer p and hence their mantissae are the same. Thus the numbers having the same sequence of digits have the same mantissa, whereas their characteristics vary according to the position of the decimal point in the arrangements of the digits of the numbers. 8. Four Figure Logarithmic Tables. To find the logarithm of a number we have to find the characteristic and the mantissa. The first two rules of the previous article enable us to write down the
log ( 1234) log ( 1 -234) = log ( 1 0 3 )
( Y log 10 = 1)
c.
A.9
characteristic by inspection of the number. The mantissae for numbers with different sequences of digits have been tabulated and are given at the end of this book for reference. In these tables the mantissae for four digit numbers are only tabulated and hence these tables are called four figure logarithmic tables. We shall now show how the logarithm of a number can obtained by the following illustration. be
Suppose we have to find the logarithm of 763-5. The number under consideration is greater than one and has 3 digits in its integral part. Hence by the first rule the characteristic of log ( 7 6 3 - 5 ) is 2. To find the mantissa of the logarithm of the number, we refer to the logarithmic tables given at the end of the book. Following is the required extract of the table for ready reference.
!
75 76 77 8751 8808 8365
1 8756
2 8762 8820 6876
3 8768 8825 8882
4 8774 8831 8887
5 8779 8837 8893
6 8785 8842 8899
7 8791 8843 8904
5 j 1
Mean Difference 1 1 2 3 ( 4 5 6 ( 7 8 9 1 1 2 1 12 1 1 2 2 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 3 4 5 5 4 55 4 4 5
8797 8854 8910
8802 8859 8915
8814 8871
Choose a row from the first column containing the first two digits of the number, namely 76. Proceed along this row until we come to the column headed by the third digit 3 of the number. We get the figure 8825. We next add to this figure the number 3 to be found in the same row in the mean differences column headed by the fourth digit 5 of the number. Thus we get the number 8828. This number with the decimal point prefixed gives the mantissa of log ( 7 6 3 - 5 ) as -8828. Hence we have obtained that log ( 7 6 3 - 5 ) = 2-8828. The students can verify that log ( 7 - 5 2 9 ) = 0-8767; log ( -0077 ) = 3-8865;
log ( -7605 ) = 1-8811 and log ( 7 5 ) = 1-8751. 9. Anti-logarithms. In many cases we are required to number, the logarithm of which is known. find the
If y = logio x, then x is called the atitilogarithm of y to the base 10; and this is shortly written as x = anti-log y.
LOGARITHMS : 131
When we have to find the number whose logarithm is given it is convenient to make use of the table of anti-logarithms given at the end of the book. The method of using this table of antilogarithms, is much the same as in the case of the table of logarithms. From the mantissa of the given logarithm, we first find the sequence of digits in the number. Then the characteristic of the given logarithm determines the position of the decimal point in the number. We illustrate this process by the following example. Example. Find the ( i ) 2-3456, ( i i ) 2-1576. numbers whose logarithms are
( i ) To find the sequence of digits in the required number, we look up the table of antilogarithms given at the end of the book. Since the mantissa is -3456, we look out for the row in the first column containing the first two digits of the mantissa 34, and in this row we select the number 2213 in the column headed by the third digit 5 of the mantissa. We, then, add to this the figure 3 in the same row and of the column of mean differences headed by the fourth digit 6 of the mantissa. We, thus, get the required sequence of digits in the number as 2216. As the characteristic of the given logarithm is 2, there must be 2 + 1 i. e. 3 digits in the integral part of the number. Hence the number whose logarithm 221-6. is 2-3456 must be
( i i ) As in case ( i ) , from the table of anti-logarithms, the sequence of digits in the number, corresponding to the mantissa 1576, is found to be 1437. Now the characteristic is 2. Therefore, there must be one zero between the decimal point and the first significant digit in the number. Hence the number whose logarithm is 01437. 10. 2-1576 must be
Use of Logarithmic Tables. Illustrative Examples.
We now proceed to illustrate the use of logarithmic tables to simplify the numerical calculations.
1 3 2 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA . Ex, 1. , , . , Find the value of 3871 x 4 53 58-9 x 73 01 3871 x 4-53 - 58-9 x 73-01
Let x -
log x = log 3871 + log 4 53 - log 58 -9 - log 73-01 = 3 - 5 8 7 8 + 0-6561 - 1-7701 - 1 8624 = 4 2439 - 3 6335 = 0-6104. log * = 0-6104. .-. * = anti-log (0-6104) = 4 078. (i)
1 7
Ex.2.
(i)
Find the values of
VTl.
(ii)
-7)-'.
(Ul)
Let * = V l T = (11 ) ' .
taking logarithms of both sides, we get l o g * = log ( 1 1 ) 1 / 7 = y l o g (11) = y .". .r = anti-log ( 0-1488 ) = 1-409. (ii) Let * = ( -7) - 7 , /. log * = log ( - 7 ) ' 7 = -7 x I03 ( - 7 . x ( - 1 +0-S451) x 1-0414 = 0 1488.
= ~ X (f-8451) =
To{ ~
7 +
5 9157)
" ^
<~
10
8 915
'
?>
= - 1 + -8916 = 1 8916. * = anti-log ( 1 - 8 9 1 6 ) = -7791. (iii) Let* = 7^5' log x = J5 log 7 = J5

1/2
(0 8451) = y say.
y = 5 '
-(0-8451 ).
l o g y = - i log 5 + log (0-8451 ) = 6990) + T-9270
= 0-3495 + 1 -9270. log y = 0-2765. y = 1-890. * = 77-62; or = 77-62. .-. log * = y = 1-890.
LOGARITHMS : 1 3 3 The student is advised to note carefully the various steps i n multiplication and division i n the case of logarithms of numbers w i t h negative characteristics. Ex. 3 . F i n d the value of (-06235)* x s/ (-7273 ) 6-7 x ( 0726 ) 5 x N Let * given fraction. Then log N = 4 log (-06235 ) + f l o g ( -7273 ) = 4 x 12 7948) + 1 ( 7 - 8 6 1 7 ) = 4 x ( - 2 + -7948 ) + J ( - 1 + 8617 ) = - 8 + 3-1792 + 4 ( - 2 + 1.8617) = - 8 + 3-1792 - 1 + - 9 3 0 8 = - 9 + 4-1100 = 5-1100. Similarly log D = log 6-7 + 3 log ( -0726 ) + H o g ( -95) = 0-8261 + 3 x (2-8609 ) + I X { 1-9777) when N and D denote the numerator and denominator of the V
7
= 0-8261 + 3 x ( - 2 + -8609 + J ( - 1 + -9777) = 0 8261 - 6 + 2 5827 + H - 3 + 2-9777 ) = 0-8261 - 6 + 2 -5827 + ( - 1 ) + -9926 = - 7 + 4-4014 = F-4014. Now log x = log N - log D = 5~1100 - 3 4014 = 3 7086. .-. Ex. 4 . * = anti-log (3"-7086) = -005112. Solve correct to two places of decimals the equation 7*+1 = 24*-6, W e have 7 =2
Taking logarithms of both sides to the base 10, we get
lg(7*+1)=lg(24*-6).
.-. /. " ( * + 1) log 7 = ( 4 * - 6 ) log 2. * ( l o g 7 - 4 log 2 ) = - 6 log 2 - log 7. + 61og2 + log 7 6 x -3010 + -8451 * - 41og 2 - log 7 4 X -3010 - -8451 = 2,6511 * 0-3589' 1-8060 + -8451 1-2040 - -845l"
l o g * = log (2-6511 ) - l o g < 0 - 3 5 8 9 ) - 0-4234 - ( f-5550) = 0'8684
1 3 4 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA * - anti-log ( 0 -8684 ) = 7 -386 E * . 5. F i n d the number of digits i n 3 1 '.
Let * = 3 " . log * = log 315 = 15 log 3 = 15 x 0-4771 = 7-1565. * = anti-log (7 1565 ). As the characteristic is 7, the number of digits in the integral part of * is 7 + 11. e. 8. .*. the number of digits i n 315 is 8. F i n d log71 (731-5).
731 5
Ex.6.
B y the ' change of base formula log-, (731-5 ) = ' g l 1 Let this fraction be denoted by x. :. log * - log ( 2 -8642 ) - log ( 1 -8513) = * = anti-log ( 0 1896 ) = 1 547.
2 S 6 i 2
Iogi 0 71 1-8513' '-4570 - 0-2674 = 0-1896.
l o g n ( 7 3 1 - 5 ) - 1-547. T h i s example illustrates the method of finding the logarithm of a number to any base by using the common logarithms. * ! 1 , Problem on Compound Interest. The common logarithms can be conveniently used to solve problems on compound interest. Let P denote the principal, r the rate of interest per cent per annum, n the period i n years and A the amount of P i n years. f The interest on P for the first year is P - 100 .'. the amount at the end of the first year is P + P - ^ i .
e
. p ( l
^ ) .
Similarly the amount at the end of the second year is

P 1 + x 1 +
i5o)
ioo)i"e'
1 +
100
tne amount at the end of n years is P ^ 1 +
-'
l3o)"-
A = P-R"
whereR-l-f.^.
From this formula, if any three of the four qnantities A , P, r and n are given i t -will be possible to calculate the remaning f o u r t h quantity w i t h the help of logarithmic tables. We will explain the method by the following examples.
LOGARITHMS : 1 3 5 Ex. 1. F i n d the amount of Rs. 150 i n 10 years at 5 p. c. per annum compound interest. Here P = 150, r = 5 and = 10, we have to calculate A , W e have A = P - R n where R = 1 + ^
"
a = p
'(
i5O)
"
p (1 05)1
'
= 1 5 0 { 1 - 0 5 )I0
log A = log 150 + 10 log 1-05 = 2-1761 + 10 (-0212) = 2-1761 + -212 = 2-3881. A = anti-log (2-3881) = 244-4. Therefore, the required amount is Rs. 244 correct to the nearest rupee. E * . 2. F i n d the principal which amounts to Rs. 2000 i n 12 years at 3J p. c. per annum compound interest, 3-5 Here A = 2000, R = 1 + i . e. 1-035 and n = 12, we have to find P.
100
We have A = P R * where R = 1 + ~ 2000 = P - ( 1 - 0 3 5 ) 1 2 .-. .'. .-. log 2000 = log P + 12 log ( 1 035).
log P = log 2000 - 12 log (1-035) = 3-3010 - 12 ( -014940). = 3-3010 -179280 = 3-3010 - -1793 = 3-1217. P = anti-log 3-1217 = 1323. the required principal is Rs. 1323.
[ W e have taken log 1-035 as -014940 correct to six places of decimals to obtain more accurate result ] Ex, 3 . I n how many years will a given sum double itself at 4 p. c, per annum compound interest ? 4 Here, let the principal be P, so that A = 2 P ; R = l + j ^ a n d we have to find n. W e have A = P R " . .-. 2P = P ( 1 - 0 4 ) " . " A 0-0170 2 =(1-04)".
17.7
= 1'04 ;
log 2 = n log 1-04.
M =
"
Ji_ =
log 1-04
.'.
the required period is approximately 18 years.
Examples 1. F i n d the amount of Rs. 1500 i n 8 years at 3% per annum compound interest. [ A n s . Rs. 1900 ]
1 3 6 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA 2 . F i n d the number of years i n which the sum of Rs. 2500 will amount to Ks. 3625 at 4^% p. a. compound interest [ Ans. 8 years. ] 3 . F i n d the sum which will amount to Rs. 1500 in 7 years at 5% per annum compound interest. [ A n s . Rs. 1066. ] 4 . At-what rate per cent p. a. compound interest will Rs. 750 amount to Rs. 912-5 in 5 years ? [ Ans. 4% p. a. ]
12. Napierian Logarithms. For numerical calculations we have seen how the common logarithms are used. The base for the common logarithms is 10. However, it has been found convenient to obtain the values of logarithms of numbers to a base which has been designated by the symbol V . The number e is irrational, and its value is 2-71828...The logarithms of numbers to the base e are called Natural ( o r Napierian) logarithms. The method of calculating these loganthms is beyond the scope of this book. The common logarithms given at the end of this book have been calculated with the help of these natural logarithms. The students must have noticed the advantages of using the common logarithms or logarithms to the base 10. These advantages are ( i ) The characteristic can be found by inspection. ( i i ) The numbers having the same sequence of digits have the same mantissae. The logarithmic tables given at the end of this book give the results correct to four significant figures. If more accuracy is required seven figure logarithmic tables are also available. Exercise 5 (b) 1. 2. 3.
4.
Write down the logarithms of the following numbers. ( i ) 2788, ( i i ) 2-304, ( i i i ) -0089, ( i v ) 707, ( v ) 345700. Write down the anti-logarithms of :
LOGARITHMS : 137
Find as accurately as the tables permit, the values o f : 5. (i) (iii) 6. 7 7. 8. ( i ) 3759 X -057 x -1783; (ii) 83-71 x -0783 102-7
\f 59-8; ( i v ) V-0082 ; (iv) f where c = ( -7592 )3<4; ( i i ) ( 0-053 ( iii ) ( 0-73 )' 7 1/5 fl7-8 X (-5 2 97)0 ^ (2-35) J
/ : < > (23-45) 2 X (5-432) 3 ( i ) ^ ^
Solve, as accurately as the tables permit, the following equations : ( i ) 5* = 23, (ii)92* +72^32x+*.
9. According to the census of 1961, the population of Bombay is 41 lakhs. Estimate of the growth of population is 25 % every ten years. Show that the population of Bombay after 40 years i. e. in 2001 will be approximately one core and ten-thousand. 10. A Saving Certificate of Rs. 100 gives Rs. 150 after 12 years. Show that the interest is earned at 31 % per annum compound interest. 11. 12. 13. Show that : log w (logi 0 x 5 ) - l o g w (log 10 x ) = 1 - log l 0 2. Prove t h a t : logs ( 7 ) lgl6 (
3
= -
2.
Simplify and show that log w 343 1 + i l o g l 0 ( 4 9 / 4 ) + | log, 0 ( 1 / 1 2 5 )

3
14. 15. 16.
Prove that : log 6 7 = Find the number of digits in ( i ) 3 23 , ( i i ) 2 S0 ,
( i i i ) 5 13 x 1 " .
Find the number of zeros between the decimal point and the first significant digit in ( , \15 / \100 A A , ( i i ) (-079 ) 1 8 , ( i i i ) { \ y
17. 18.
Find the number of digits in N if ( i ) log 2 ( l o g 2 N ) = 8, ( i i ) log 2 1 log 3 ( l o g 4 N ) | = 2. When do you say that log, x = m ? State, giving reasons, the restrictions generally put on x and a. State when ( i ) m > 1, ( i i ) m = l, (iii ) m < 1. y),
19.
If log
= - j - ( l o g * + log
s
prove that + 2 y 20. 21. 22. x
47, ' lag, ( / ) log* ( ^ z 2 ) = 1.
Prove that : log (\fx)-
If a+x show that : = x log ( -b / a) = log a. Find the value of x if (1) x

logi a Z
10*.
( i i ) l o g 4 ( j t ) + Io gi 4 = 5/2. 1,
23. If log,.? = log,z = log z x, show that x = y => z. 24. If p = abc and a, b, c are all + ve real numbers prove that 25. loga P 1- T^ + ^gbP = 1. logcp
Answer the following as required : ( i ) Arrange the following in ascending order of magnitude. l o g a ( 1 2 8 ) , l o g v _ ( 2 1 6 ) s l o g 3 4 3 ( 4 9 ) , 3'<>*<7>( i i ) If log 6 x = m and log 6 y = , write, in terms of m and n the values of : l o g 6 ( * / j ) , logs ( X2y), log^(i2). (iii) State the values of the following : 1 5log;,* log37 i o c 81 (iv) If x = log b a, show that log, ( a ) = .v, if c _
b
LOGARITHMS : 1 3 9
( v ) If log,o 2 = -3010, logic 3 = "4771, logi 0 7 = -8451. find the values of : logio 5, logic 9, logio 42. ( vi) If log2 ( xy) = 5 and log2 (x/y) = 1. find the values of x and y. (vii) Express x in terms of y if ( i ) 2 logio x - 3 logio y = 2. (ii) logic x = 2 logio y + 3. (viii) Without using logarithmic tables, prove that 2 , 3 - y < logi 0 5 < - j - ( i x ) In the equation logic ( 1 + y ) = 2 logi 0 x + C, when x = I, y = 4. Find y when x = 2. 26. Without using tables show that : log 3\/"3 + log 2\[2 - l o g 5\/5" log 1-2 27. Solve the following equations : ( i ) log3 x + log 9 x = 6; (ii ) log, 3 + log, 9 + log, 729 = 9. If p log,o 2, q = logio 3, express in terms of p and q ( i ) logio 108, ( i i ) log10 10-8, (iii) \og10sfYjs. _3_ . 2
28.
29. If log ba + logc a 2 logj a log,, a, prove that a2 = be. 30. State, giving reasons, whether the following statements are true or false, ( i ) log ( a + b ) = log a + log b, (ii ) log a log b = log a log b, ( i i i ) logt (1) = 1 , (iv ) logi a = 1, ( v ) loga 1 = 1, ( v i ) loga 0 = 0, (vii ) loga 1 = 0- Also lo&, 1 = 0. Hence loga 1 = logb 1. a b. Answers.
1. 2. 3. (i) (i) 3-4453, 3-723, ( i i ) 0-3624, (ii) 52-71,
Exercise 5 ( b )
( i i i ) 39494, ( i v ) f 8 4 9 4 , ( i i i ) 01043. ( i v ) (v) 5'5387.
007923, (v) 0-6310.
1-5682 and 4-5682,
4 . ( i ) 5" 1 < 2 " < 35, ( i i ) 1 0 " < 2 " < 7*.
5.
6. 7. li. 17. 18.
U) (i) (i) (i)
38-2, 0-S132, 11, 78,
(ii)-06386. ( i i ) 5-826,
( i i i ) 1-272, ( i i i ) 0-7947. 8. 16.
(iv) 0-449,
(v) 8177.
0 02519, U i ) 0-8364. (ii) 16, ( i i i ) 24. (Hi 49.
( i ) 1-948, (i)5,
( i i ) 0-5 or 1-446. ( i i ) 19, (iii) 30.
II a m " x, then we define log,, x = m.

Restrictions a r e : x > 0 and a ~ l and a > 0, I f a > 1. then tn > 1 , = I , < 1 according as * > a , = < a. }{ a < 1, then m > 1 , = 1, < 1 according as * < a, = 0, > a.
22. 25.
(i) (i (ii) (iii) (vii)
* = 100,
(ii)
* = 2 or 16.
3rd number < 1st number < 2nd number < 4th number;
m n, 2m +
*,0,3, * 81, 2/> + 3<?1 = 10y 3/2
2/
(m +n);
-6990.-9542, 1-6232; ( ix) y = 19. (vi)*=8,y=4r
(v)
, * = 1000y'. 3. (ii;
27. 28.
(i) (i)
(ii)
2p + 3 q - l ,
(iii)
(P + q - 1 ) .
3 0 . A l l statements except ( i i i ) are false. However i n ( i i i ) , l i s not the only value of log 1. Reasons are left for the students to give. I n ( v i i ) log 1 = log 1 is only a relation of equality and a , 6 have no relation. I n fact
log 1 to any positive base is always zero.
Hence no relation between the bases,
can exist.
Chapter 6
Surds
1 . 2 . Surd Numbers. 3. Rules for operations with surds 4. Multiplication and division of surds, 5. Definitions. 6. Simplification of monomial sards. 7. Addition and subtraction of surds. 8, Comparison of surds. 9. Simplification of surd expressions. 10. Rationalizing factors. 11. Illustrative examples. Exercise. 6 (a). 12. Properties of quadratic surds. 13. Illustrative examples- Exercise 6 ( 6 ) . 14. The square and square root of a binomial quadratic surd. 15 Method of inspection- 16- The sqnare o f a trinomial quadratic surd. 17- Illustrative examples. Exercise 6 ( c ) .
1.
Surd Numbers.
We have seen that a number, which can be expressed as a ratio of two integers in the form mjrt, is known as a rational number. The numbers which are not rational, such as V3, ^ S , are known as irrational numbers. Irrational numbers are of various types. For example \ [ 3 and + \[3 are both rrational
numbers, but they are of different types. First number is a root of a rational number 3, whereas the second number is a root of an irrational number 2 +\J 3. The number of the first type is called a surd. Definition : If the irrational number x satisfies the equation x" = a, where a is any positive rational number and ne N, then x is called a surd. Y .'. x satisfies x ( otsja x" = a', .'. x = \/a;
) is a root.
A number, therefore, will be a surd if, and only if, ( i ) it is irrational and (ii J it is a root and ( i i i ) a root of a rational number.
141
We notice that if a is any positive prime integer then \/ a surd.

[ y a i s a + ve p r i m e i n t e g e r . 'J a c a n n o t b e a n i n t e g e r . and q have no
is
If possible, let "Ja = p'q, factor.
a fraction where p
common
.-. =
.'. p -
aqn.
a is a factor of p" a n d h e n c e of p. :. :. hypothesis. Va "yfa 4= a" is a f a c t o r of p" a n d h e n c e of aq". a is a f a c t o r of q" a n d h e n c e of q. a is a f a c t o r c o m m o n to b o t h p a n d q which is c o n t r a r y to our
. a rational number.
is irrational a n d h e n c e a surd n u m b e r .
W e h a v e a s s u m e d a b o v e t h a t a is a positive prime i n t e g e r a n d h e n c e w e c o u l d u s e t h e result ( w h i c h t h e s t u d e n t s should only n o t e at this s t a g e ) t h a t " If a i s a f a c t o r of ji", t h e n a is also a factor of p w h e n e v e r a is a p r i m e number."
However, if a is not a prime integer but any positive rational number which is not the perfect nth power of any other rational number, t h e n \ / a is a surd, since in this c a s e \ / a can be expressed in terms of other surds of the type \ / b prime integer. where 6 is a positive
For example : ^ 1 6 = 2 ^ 2 , ^ 6 = ^ 2 J T
=
X \f%
I V 5 X V 3 ]
2. In a surd a, n is called the order of the surd or the surd index and a is called the radicand. In order to see whether a number is a surd number or otherwise, we have to find the nature of its value as well as the form. For instance, has a form of a surd number; but its value 2 is rational and hence -^8 is not a surd. Again " J 2 + \ f 2 is irrational but is the square root of
SURDS : 143
an irrational number (namely 2
and hence is not a surd.
B u t a p p e a r s to be a root of an irrational number; yet it is really equal to ^ 2 and therefore is a surd. It should be noted that every rational number can be expressed in the form of a surd of any required order. A rational number 2 may be written as-v/^, tyl', ^ 2 5 i. e. as a surd of 2nd, 3rd and 5th order respectively. In general, it can be seen from the laws of indices that V a " = ( a n )Vn = a, and hence any rational number a can be put in the form of a surd of order n. However, a surd cannot be expressed in the form of a rational number. The students may be interested to note that the number -nwhich they know as the ratio of the circumference of any circle to its diameter is irrational but not a surd. Examples,
1. State which of the following are surd numbers : (i) 49". ( i i ) V 64, (iii) V 2 5 ; ( i v j V r + T T ( v ) V j f . Ans. (iii), (v).
2. When is a real number said to be ( i ) rational, ( i i ) irrational, ( i i i ; surd ? Rewrite the following statements, duly corrected where required. ( j) -Jib I 25 is an irrational number and also a surd,
( i i ) V 8/25 is both an irrational number and a surd. (iii) Ans. Every irrational number is a surd,
( i ) V16 125 = 4/5 and hence is a rational number ; (ii) Vo/25 =
2 /2
is irrational and is also a root of a rational
number and hence is also a surd. (iii) Every irrational number need not always be a surd. For example >J 3, v etc. are irrational but not surds.
3. Rules for Operations with Surds. Surds can always be expressed as numbers with fractional indices. Therefore, the laws of indices which we have studied in the fourth chapter can be applied to surd quantities for algebraical operations. Thus we have the following rules for operations with surds.
If m, n, are positive integers and a, b are positive rational numbers, then
(i)
(H)
Va~ V r = V a T ,
VT
( iii) (iv) (v) Examples.
J(\fa)
mnJ
^ ( y Z b
= ""K/^S tn (VT) = V"m-
( i ) V I X VI = 31'3 J l f i - ( 3-5 )1/3 - ( 15 J1* = VlS. .... V I 5W / 5 V'*

(iii)
v ^ = p/2],/3-()1/6 = v r . also /V^ = [ a 1 / 3 ] 1 / 1 = t ) , - Va.
= y i r r = Va
V2= ( 2 ) 1 / 3 _ I _2 2 / 3 = 2 4 ' 6 =
3X
(iv)
v ?
VT =
V23X2 = V ? .
Thus the order of the surd can be changed by multiplying the surd index and the index of the radicand by the same integer.
(v) ( W ) 5 = (4 V3 )6 = 4S/3 = W . 4. Multiplication and Division of Surds. By the first rule it can be seen that surds of the same order can be multiplied. Thus, we have ' ' V7 X y T = a ' n - b V H = (abf'^Maf. In general, if the surds have rational coefficients, we have PW X q \l~b = P<1 "\[ab Similarly with the help of the second rule, division of surds of the same order can be simplified as "/~b
=
bvn
^ J "
nJ<L.
SURDS : 1 4 5
In general, if the surds have rational coefficients, we have P \]~a < 7 "/~b = JLnJ.
m
If the surds are not of the same order, we should first reduce them to the same lowest ( possible) order and proceed as before. The surds can be reduced to the same order by the fourth rule viz. ahlm = = " j ^ / ^ ; we have only to multiply the surd index and the index of the radicand by the same convenient integer in order to produce the required order for the surd.
Ex.1. order. Multiply 5 V~2 by 2 V 5~. Thus
T h e first is a s u r d of t h e t h i r d o r d e r , whereas the second is a surd of second T h e lowest o r d e r t o w h i c h b o t h of them can b e r e d u c e d is six. x 2 %/. t h e p r o d u c t = 5 l/~2 x 2 2 V T = 5
= 5X2 V?Ts. 5 \l~2 x 2^/7 = io

Ex. 2 . D i v i d e 3 V l O by 6 \ ! z .
fyioo.
T h e lowest o r d e r to w h i c h b o t h t h e s u r d s c a n b e r e d u c e d is twelve. , 3 VlO required q u o t . e n t - 312Vl03 1 - ^

12/TT3
__
5. Definitions. Here, we will introduce a few terms associated with surd quantities. Surds of second, third and fourth orders are called quadratic, cubic and biquadratic surds respectively. Surds of the same order are called equiradicai surds. Surds are also named according to the number of terms. Surd expressions involving one, two, and three terms are called monomial, binomial and trinomial surds respectively. Expressions containing two and three surds are called, as a matter of convention, binomial and trinomial surds respectively instead of specifically mentioning them as surd expressions. In general expressions containing two or more surds are called compound surds.
C . A. 10
146 : COLLEGE
ALGEBRA
If the coefficient of the surd is 1, the surd is called an entire surd; otherwise it is known as a mixed surd. For example j j are entire surds, whereas - 5-^/4" - ^ / ( T are mixed surds. It is obvious that any mixed surd can be transformed into a surd of entire form. For example, the above mixed surds can be written in entire forms as
Surds which can be expressed as rational multiples of the same surd are called like or similar surds; and those which cannot be so expressed are called unlike or dissimilar. Thus ^27V~18 a n d 5 0 / 4 are similar surds as they can be expressed as 3 \f~2 and whereas &~ tysT, are unlike surds. 6. Simplifications of Monomial Surds.
For purposes of calculating approximate values of expressions containing surds, much tedious work can be saved by first simplifying the surd expression. For example, if it is required to find the numerical value of y[5~ / V~3"we have to find the value (i. e. 2-236 ), and the value of/~3t (i- e. 1-732 ), and then obtain the quotient 0.01/' J732"-' --. Much of this labour can be saved by multiplying the numerator and denominator of yj "5" / \J~3~ by y [JT Thus V5 VJ VJ \l 15" 3-87298 .-Qno , . . -j^ = x -r=. = = ' 3 1-2909... The device of V3 V3 V3 removing the surd quantity from the denominator of the surd fraction is very convenient and is known as the the process of rationalizing the denominator. We shall return again to this process later.
W e say t h a t a m o n o m i a l surd is in its simplest f o r m w h e n t h e n u m b e r under the radical sign is the least possible positive
SURDS : 1 4 7
integer. We illustrate the simplification of monomial surds by the following examples. ( i ) \[300~ = VlOO X 3 = VlO 2 X 3 = 10 V3T
( > vf (iii) vs~=

7,
V27
H =4^
= 2yf2X.
Addition and Subtraction of Surds.
The addition and subtraction of like surds can be simplified by taking out the common surd factor. Thus, 11 n r " r / \a
Ex- 1.
+ q \ a = ( p q ) ' \ l
a.
Simplify 3 V l 6 2 - 7 V + V 5 l 2 -
The expression = 3 V 8 1 7 x 2 - 7 V l 6 x 2 + V 2 5 6 x 2 -
= 3 x 3 - V5" - 7 x 2-V2 + 4-%/J

= ( 9 - 14 + 4 ) V 2 = Ex. 2 Simplify 3 VI47 SV I + V2.
7vT
The expression = 3 V49 x 3
V3~
/~~3
j^-x + 7 y'27 x 3 3 V3 V3 y 7 . 3, = 13x7)73""- V 3 ~+ ~ V
The addition and subtraction of unlike surds cannot be further simplified . Thus _ _ _ _
V l 8 + V l 2 - 2 V 2 = 3 ^ 2 +2V3 - 272 = (3 - 2)J2 + 2V3"

and t h i s cannot be f a r t h e r simplified.
8. Comparison of Surds. Since we cannot find the exact values of surds in rational forms, we can not directly compare their magnitudes. We can, however, compare the magnitudes of surds by expressing them as entire surds of the lowest possible common o r d e r .
148 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA Ex. 1. Arrange in ascending order.
The lowest common order to which all the three surds can be reduced i s 12. W e have and But 343 < 625 < 729. Ex. 2. .'. = =
13
V729,
V? =
12
V73 =
^343,
K/T < V J <-JT.
3 1/S" or 2 . / I ? T h e lowest common order to which both the surds can be reduced is 6.
Thus 3 = 3 VT 2 = V 3 ' 7 T a = V 5 5 = V6561
Which of the following is the greater :
and 2 -J 5 = 2 V
But 8000 > 6561.
=M Z ~~=
.\
VsOOO.
2^5 > 3 i f f .
V8000 > V 6 5 6 1 ,
9.
Simplifications of Surd Expressions.
In order to simplify surd expressions, we first put each surd in its simplest form. For addition or subtraction we group like surds just as we collect like terms in algebraic addition or subtraction. The multiplication of compound surds is performed like the multiplication of compound algebraic expressions. In the case of division we rationalize the denominator by multiplying the numerator and denominator by a suitable factor.
3
Ex. 1.
Simplify
V250 + V l 2 8 + 1 / 2 -
l/i.
Simplifying ear.h term separately, we have X/250 = 2/125 x 2 = V l 2 8 = V64 x 2 =

3
v'5 r 2 = 5 Vi". = 4 1/2=
>/'J^'n/t
.".
7 ~V
l^2'
V2
the given expression = 5 i j t + 4 U2 + ~ VI"
= (5 + 4+ l - i
Ex.2.
J 'V2 = 1 0 V 2 .
by ^3+^2-
Multiply *JT - J F + v T The required product
-J3
+J1)
+V2 (V5 -V3
SURDS : 1 4 9
= Vl5 - 3 +
^10 - *J6 + 1
Vl5 - 3 + VT~X I + JlO - V6 + 1 = Vl5 - 3 + J </ 6 + VlO - V 6 + 1

= Ex. 3.
Vl5
VlO
J V6
- 2. /l2
Divide V98 -
V50 b y
W e have the required quotient :

SS
S8
- -J50 - J12
l4z - j_
3
- 5 V 2
2^3
=
2j/f 2-Js 10
Rationalizing Factors. Definition : When the product of two surd expressions is rational, then each one of them is called the rationalizing factor of the other. We shall use the abbreviation R. F. for " rationalizing factor." We discuss few simple cases. Case 1. Monomieal or simple surds. In this case, the rationalizing factor can be found by inspection. Thus ( i ) v a\[x x \ f x = ax; a\[x.
sjx is R. F. of ( ii) ..... (ill) y /. v 3
x 4/2 = 3 ( 2 3 ) W (2) i / 4 = 3 2*/4 = 3-2 = 6.
</2 i s R . F . o f - ^ 8 . . 3/2,-113 215. w , 1/2 -2/3 3/5, ( a b -c ) x ( a b ~c ) = a2Z>_1 c =

1/2 , - 2 / 3 3/5
cflc
c.
3/2 , - 1 / 3
2/5
.. Case 2. Y
-c
is R. F. of a
Binomial Quadratic Surds. ( a\[x + 6 V y ) ( a\/x b\{y )= a2x b2y. a\fx + b \[y and a'sfx - b \(y are R. F.'s of each other.
These two binomial quardratic surds differ only in sign between their two terms. Two binomial quadratic surds which differ only in the sign connecting their terms are called conjugate or complementary surds. Therefore, the rationalizing factor of a binomial quadratic surd is its conjugate. Thus V ( 3 \[5 +2y[3) 3 \ f 5 + 2\[3 each other. Thus the R. F. of a binomial quadratic surd can be obtained by simply changing the sign connecting the two terms of the given surd. Case 3. Trinomial Quadratic Surds. X ( 3 \[5 2 s f j ) = 45 - 12 = 33, and 3\[~5 - 2 ^ 3 are R F.'s of
The general trinomial surd is of the form a\[x + b\fy + c\J z. The general process to rationalize such a surd is to reduce it to a binomial quadratic surd by grouping any two terms together and then follow the same procedure as is followed in the case of binomial quadratic surds. The process of rationalization is a completed in two steps. We will illustrate the process by working out some examples.
E x . 1. F i n d t h e r a t i o n a l i s i n g f a c t o r of : V 2 + V 3 + J5.
H e r e , t h e t h r e e r a d i c a n d s are 2, 3 a n d 5. If we choose t h e surd whose r a d i c a n d is t h e sum of t h e o t h e r two r a d i c a n d s to be removed first t h e n t h e first step would r e d u c e t h e surd expression to a monomial q u a d r a t i c surd which can b e easily rationalized Otherwise, the first s t e p would r e d u c e t h e expression to a binomial q u a d r a t i c surd which will h a v e to b e rationalized again by multiplying by its c o n j u g a t e binomial q u a d r a t i c s u r d . T h u s in such examples m u c h work can be saved by a j u d i c i o u s choice of t h e surd to b e removed first. Thus [ ( J J + V T ) + V~5] [ ( V ! + V3") Vs]
= (V2~ + V3~)- - (VJ) 3 = 2 + 3 + 2 Vfi" 5 = 2^/(7.

the expression can b e rationalized by factor multiplying f u r t h e r by a J 6 which would give the p r o d u c t , 12, a rational n u m b e r . + + J57
H e n c e J 6 ( ViT + V 3 - -J~5 ) is a R . F . of J 2 Ex. 2 . Express with a rational d e n o m i n a t o r
J 7 + V 3 - V 2
SURDS : 151 We reduce the trinomial quadratic surd to a binomial quadratic surd by grouping the first two terms together and then multiply by its conjugate surd
1 XI,, 1 Thus = = = = -= V X ^ + ^ + J2 p^ = V7 + V3 - V2 V7 + V3 - V2 V7 + 73 + V2 ~Jj + 73~ + -J2 J7 + 72 (V7 + Vf) S ! - (V2)a _ 7 + 3 + 2 V2T-2 77 + y f + 2 _ 1 77 + 7 ^ + 7 2 8 + 2 721~ ~ ~2~ ' 4 + V2l"
Now the denominator is reduced to a binomial quadratic surd and hence can be rationalized by multiplying i t s conjugate surd.
1
Theexp
'
J7 + J3 + 72 4 +V2T
'
4^7 + 4 y r +
4 - 72T
X
1
=
4 y/7 + 4 VJ" + 4 7 2 - J7J2I

16-21
4^2"- 7 V f 3
- V3~ V2l" - ^2 721 J7

V42"
T
1
T '
- 5
= J _ (3 73 - 77 - 4^2 + 742). Case 4. Rationalizing Factors of Higher Order Surds.
Many times standard identities in factorization can be used to obtain the rationalizing factors of higher order surds. We will illustrate a few simple cases. v 3 1/3
E. 1. Find the K. F . of x"
3
+ x
+ 1.
Let a so that x* = a^, and * = a ' , which is rational. The given expression = a% + a + 1. Now we want to find a factor which when multiplied by the given expression will give terms in a x or its powers. By inspection, obviously, I a - 1) is such a factor. Thus ( x ~ 3 + * 1 , 3 + 1 ) n = ( 2 + a + 1 ) ( a - 1) = a 5 - 1 = x 1, which is rational.
x
Ex. 2.
1! i
- 1 is the K.
~3 1 F. ol x + x + 1. t: 1 .'4
Find the ! '. F. cf .r + .T + 1. ~ Let x' = re, so that x' "= a- and * = 4 which is rational. The given expression reduces to a2 + a + 1. We have, therefore, by inspection to find such factors which when multiplied by the given expression would give terms in a' or its higher powers.
1'
1 5 2 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA W e have ( a1 + a + 1 ) ( a 1 - a + 1 ) = ( a 1 + 1 )* - a*
= a' + 2a + 1 - a J = a* + a 2 + 1.
Still the p r o d u c t c o n t a i n s t e r m s in a 2 which are n o t rational. Again by i n s p e c t i o n , we find a factor which w h e n multiplied by a* + a 2 + 1 would r e n d e r t h e result to c o n t a i n t e r m s in a ' or its higher powers o n l y . W e a g a i n h a v e ( a ' + a1 + 1 ) ( a 4 - a2 + 1 ) = ( a* + 1 ( ) = a 3 + 2 a 1 + 1 - a 1 = a* + a 1 + 1, which is rational. T h u s to rationalize the expression we were required to multiply b y (a1 - a + 1 ) a n d (a4 - a 2 + 1 ) . T h e r e f o r e t h e two rationalizing f a c t o r s are ( x ^ - *1/4 + 1 ) and (x - x
m
+ 1). surds
Note. I n o r d e r to obtain t h e rationalizing factors of h i g h e r o r d e r following types of i d e n t i t i e s in factorization will b e f o u n d very u s e f u l .
(i) (ii)
* s + )>3 = (x+y) (*2 -xy + y*) x1 - y% = (x - y ) (x1 + xy + y2) (iii) + * V + y* = U 2 + xy + j>2 ) ( - xy + y>) 6 6 3 ( i v ) x - y = ( x s - y ) (* + y ) = ( * - y ) ( x2 + xy + y1) ( * + y ) ( *2 - xy + y2) 3 {v ) x + y' + a3 - 3 xyz ( i + y + j) ( *a + y% + 2 - xy - yz ).
2
11.
Illustrative E\ampies.
Ex.1. Simplify s y - T l j f - ^ ~ '
L e t u s first rationalize each d e n o m i n a t o r . L e t 3j5 = a so t h a t i/25 = a1 a n d 5 = a1 which is rational. Similarly let = 6 so t h a t \[9 = b2 a n d 1 3 = ft w h i c h is rational. W e shall, t h e r e f o r e , multiply t h e d e n o m i n a t o r s by s u c h factors t h a t t h e p r o d u c t will c o n t a i n a z and 6 3 or t h e i r h i g h e r powers after r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n .
Thus exp. -
a2_
8
jb + &2
a>.ab+
2 7
_ 8 ( a + b) _ 2 ( a - 6 )
a3 + bi ai
_ bi
= {a + 6) - {a - 6),
= 26 = 2
a + S = 8,
a ' - 6 ' = 2.
X/iVn + V 7 or V35-
Ex. 2 .
W i t h o u t finding a p p r o x i m a t e values, find which is greater
V n W ~ 7 > -J 35 a c c o r d i n g as (J 11 + -J~7 V > 35 i. e. a c c o r d i n g as i. e. accordi ng as i. e. a c c o r d i n g as 18 + 2 V77 > 35. 2 V77 > 17,
308 > 289
SURDS : 153 we conclude that 7 l l + Jl > V 35, since 308 > 289. Ex. 3 . If -/To = 3-162277 find the value o[yJ"E- correct to three
places of decimals. W e have first to simplify the surd before finding its value. Now y f l = 1 V40 = - f 7 1 5 = - J - (3-162277) = 1-265 correct to three decimal places. E t 4. Show that 3 V2
'
V6~ 7 2 + 73
3 - 6
4 73 7 6 + 7 2 7 6 (72 - 73)
+
V3 + V 6
3
V~2 ( 7 3 - 7 e )
4 7F( 7 1 ~ 6 - 2
7T)
L. H . s . -
2 - 3
= - 7 l i - 7 6 + 7l~8 ~ 7 l 2 - 718 + V 6 = 0 = R . H, S. Ev. 5. Simplify 7l0 pi
+ 7l4 + V15+ 721

-1^= V2-7 + V3-5+73-7
The exp = , V 2 x 5+
1
( 7 7 + 7 5 ) ( V 3 W~2) = i j j ^ Ex. 6. Simplify 12 __ 4 "7 6
+
- 7 1 ) ( 7 3 - 7 ~ 2 ) = a (V21 -
V14-VT5+V10).
\/24
73 - 75 + 7 2
72 - 73 + 7 5
12 ,i_
7 5 - 7 2 + 73
It will be convenient to rationalize each denominator before simplification. We have
^3 - 75 + 72
47e
,-
( 7 3 + 7 2 ) 3 - ( 7 5 )2 = V e t 7 3 + V2 + 7 5 ) ;
_ W i ( 72 - 71 7 1 )_
12 ( V 3 + 7~2 + 7 3 ) p: 7=
72 - 7 3 + 7 5
= -
(72 - 73
2 ( 7 2 -
- ( 7 3 )73 71) ; 7 2 - 7 1 ) . 7 1 ;2 71
724 71 - 71 + 73 ~
2 7 6 ( 7~3 ( 7 3 - 7 2)2 - 7 2 -
= - 173
exp. = ( 3 - J 2 + 2 V 3 + 7 3 0 ) + 2 ( 7 2 - 7 3
75)
- ( 73 - 73 ~ 73) = 7 3 ( 3 + 2 + 1 ) + -s/3 ( 2 - 2 11
+ 7 5 ( ~ 2 + 1 I + 730= 6 - 7 2 - 7 3 - 7 1 + 730Exercise 6 ( a ) 1. State which of the following are surd quantities : ( i) (iv) 2. m . V32. (ii) J \ ( v ) Tr. +\[3\ (iii) (Vi) ^ 3 .
By placing the surd coefficient under the root sign, express the following as entire surds : ( i ) 5 ^ 2 , (ii) A ( i i i ) (a+b) a-b J \ a+b
3.
Express as surds of the 12th order : (i ) (iii) \''4.v-\ir .'
4.
Express in the simplest form : ( i ) \[l92, ( i i ) -^56, (iii)\/36^, ( i v ) 27720.
5.
Express as surds of the lowest common order : ( i ) 75T Vu, f/13; (a) w , yf3, ascending order of
6.
Arrange the following surds in magnitude : (i) 757 W
V W ( i i ) 7"<T ^ 2 2 5 .
^343.
7.
Which of the following is the greater surd ?
SURDS : 1 5 5
9.
Multiply and simplify : ( i ) ( $2 + 1 )

2 3
( ^ 4 - #2 + 1 )
(ii ) ( a + l ) ( a + V 2 7 a + l ) ( a 2 - 1 ) ( a 2 - N / ^ a + 1). ( i i i ) (\[a + x +\[a (iv) ( V ( v / - x) (\[a + x -\(a T T 2). x).
\[5~+sf2). W -
( v ) (yfa+sfb)
(Va+Vb)(Va
(vi) ( ^ 2 + ^ 4 ) ( 2 ^ 2 + ^ 4 10. Find the values of : ( i ) 4 ^ 6 3 " + 5\/7 8 ^ 2 ^ (ii ) 3^162 ( i i i ) 3^147 5^32+^1250? +
(iv ) V C ^ + T ? - \[x*~+~x*y - \ [ x f T y K 11. Given that 2 449489 find the values of the following to three places of decimals: l ^ J ** - T2 * 12. 7 = ' V600
( i i i )
V-
Without using approximate values, determine which of the expressions is the greater ( i ) 2-v/6~ orV5~ + \fT, ( i i ) s f T ' + y f T ' or V3~ + \[5.
13.
Find the rationalizing factors for each of the following : (ii)^T-l. (iii) \[5 +\f2 - \ f f . ( v ) <^3 + V^2. (iv) i/~5+ 3\f2.
( vi) 2\[T ~
14.
Rationalize the denominators and simplify :

7 + 1 7 ~ . + , > 3 +N/5 3 - N/5
ALGEBRA
1 1-
^ 9 + ^ 3 + 1 ' V9 - ^ 3 + 1
(iii)
1 1 +\/2
A
1 -V3 1 +V2+V3'
+ b Vb 5 -\J~6
Va +
(V)
(vi) 15.
15V3 - 2%/32 + 2^50 7 \[2 + i/2 + 1
8V12
Prove that : ( i )
3 _ _ = ^16+^4+ 1
1;
3
5 (ii) - _ ^16 - ^ 4 + 1
_ ^16 + +
= 2; ^ 4 + 1
(iii) ^16-^12+^9 (iv) __ ^25 L ^15 + ^ 9
L_ ^16+^12 + ^9 =^4a ^15+^9
+ - = ^25 +
Simplify and show that : 16.

( 7
~ 2 ^ 5 ) ( 3 1 _ + 13v/5~) 3+\f5
2g
17.
_ 1 _ 2\f5 - 3\[2 + 3+V6
_ 3\f2 - 2 ^ 7 _
_23 4\/7 =
_=3^3 2 2^5
18.
_6 2^3 + ^ 6
4\[3 _ V2+V6 =
19.
= 17\[3 - 2\f32
^ + 3 ^ 1 8 - 4\/48
SURDS : 157
20.
Show that the following is a surd. 2\f2

7 5 + 7 3
_
\ f 2 + ^ 5
_
\ [ 3 - \ [ 2
21.
Answer the following as required. ( i ) Show that between 4 and 5. ( ii ) State an irrational number which is not a surd. ( i i i ) Write the following numbers in the descending order of magnitude. y - , - V7/2, 2-9,
2\f2, -
"*" ^ ^
is an irrational number
2-1.
(iv) Is "79/169 a surd number ? Answers. Exercise 6 ( a )

1. 2. 3. 4. (i), fi) (i) (i) Ss/3 , (ii ( i i i ) and (iv ). 7250. m J ~ orV-i, v 45 * 13 (ii) 2V7, ^Vz' *8y16. (iii) ("i' ^V^T^yK 24
6 7 , (iv)
5. (i) Vl25, V m . Vl3, ( ii ) VST V

6 7. 8. 9. 10. It 12. 13. ( i) V9, Ml, (ii) - 4 V 5 (")
V&
(ii ) 7(5, V343 V225. (iii) -J-V24,

V
( i ) V3~ (i) (i)
2 (in ) Ja. ( v ) a - 6, ( vi) 6.
2Vt2,
3, ( i i ) < ? s - 1, / i i i ) 2*. ( iv ) 14 -2^55, (ii) (ii) 4 $2. -122, (iii)2l<j3, ( i i i ) 4-899.
(i) 77. (i) (i) (i) (iii) 1-225 , 27<T
( i v ) 0.
/ i ^ 4 /
( i i ) 7 2 + Vt". (ii)
3
V J - V y ,
7 9 + 7 T + l.
( - 7 T + V ~ - 7 7 ) (77 - J T jT) (77 + 7T + 7 f ) or 7 I o (73" + 7 2 + 7 7 ).
1 5 8 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA (iv! (V 5 -
2 )(5
5 +2
V25
+ 4 ). ]
[ Hir.t :First r e m o v e t h e q u a d r a t i c surd ( v) V~9 - V 6 + V7. ( v i ) 2 V T + 3 VT.
i4. (i)
(v) 20. 21.
3. (H) yr,
(iii) We,
(vi)
(iv)
y ^ - i / ^ - v p ,
+ V<$
- i . (7>/2 + V 3 ).
I + 2V2 - 3 Vz
2>/i0. (i) On rationalization t h e n u m b e r is 7 - -J6. b e t w e e n 2 a n d 3 a n d h e n c e t h e result, 7r, e,V1+Jf etc sign. Note that J 6 lies
(ii) (iiil (iv>
Express t h e n u m b e r s in t h e decimal notation u n d e r t h e root 2-9 > 2V2 > 14/5 > - V7/2 > - 2-1. T h e n u m b e r is 3/13 a n d h e n c e n o t a s u r d .
12.
Properties of Quadratic
Surds.
As the quadratic surds are the simplest surds, we consider some of their properties in this article. Theorem I If a + \!b = x + sjy where a and x are
rational and \fb and \ f y are surds, then a x and b = y. If a is not equal to x, then let a x +- m where, since a and are rational, m is a rational ^ 0. Since a + \fb = x + \ f y we have x + m
.'. 44-
\fb
= x + \fy.
\fb = yfy . + b = y . = y b m2.
Squaring,
in1 + 2m \b Or _ sjh
2m\fb
As m--i-0, wc can divide by 2m; we then get v - b in2 fm
, . '
Sincc yjh^y are surds, b and y are rational; also m is rational. Hence the R. H. S. = a ratioaal number.
SURDS : 1 5 9
Therefore the equation ( i ) implies that \[b which is impossible.
rational
Hence our assumption that a x can not be valid. Hence a = x. If a = x we get from the equation a + \fb x + sJy, that \[b Thus, a = x and b = y. Note : It is absolutely necessary in using this theorem, to remember that y[b and \[y are really quadratic surds and do not have only the form of quadratic surds; otherwise by equating the rationals and surds of both sides in the equality of the theorem we may get absurd results. For example, 2 + si 16 3 +\J 9, each being equal to 6. But 2 3 and 16 9 as \ [ 16 and \[9 are rational numbers 4 and 3 put in the form of quadratic surds; and hence the theorem cannot be applied to equate the rationals and irrationals of both sides in the equality. Thus in any equality involving rational and a quadratic surd numbers on both sides, the rational parts on both sides can be equated so also the surds. Cor 1. If \fa =-- b +\[c where b is rational and \fa, are surds, then 6 = 0 and a = c. \fc = \[y or b = y,
VVe may deduce this result from the theorem 1 or may establish it independently as follows : We have \j'a = b 4 Vc. Squaring we get, a = b2 + 2b \Jc + c. On transposition, 2b \[c = a b2 c. Nov/ either b = 0 or b If we suppose b 0. = ^
0, we get
This is impossible since \ f c is a surd and hence can not be equal to a rational number.
Hence b 0 and consequently it follows that a = c. Thus, a quadratic surd can not be equal to the sum or difference of a non-zero rational number and a quadratic surd. Cor 2. If a + \fb = x \ f y , then under the same conditions of theorem 1, we have a \fb x \[y. Theorem II. If ( i ) a, b, x, y are all positive rational numbers, sfb a quadratic surd, and (ii) ^Ja + \[b = \[x
then
^Ja
- ^ b
= + (s/x - \ J y ) .
V J
a + a/6
+\fy, 2sfxy. \fxy. sfy )2-
we have by squaring both sides, a + \fb x -+- y .'. .". ' J by theorem I, a ~ x + y a n d \ f b = 2
a - \[b - (x -f y ) - 2 \ [ x y = ( \ f x a
~ ^
( V * ~ >/">)
It is customary to wirte only the positive square-root; i. e. if x > y, A V C take the square root as (\[x 4y ) \ f x ).
if y > x, we take the square root as {\Jy 13. Illustrative examples.

Ex. 1. If x = 2 find
t h e value of 3z -
14* 2 + 11* - 1.
I t will b e tedious to find t h e value of t h e expression by actually substituti n g t h e value of t h e variable x. It will be f o u n d c o n v e n i e n t to find t h e value of t h e expression as f o l l o w s : We have x = 2 :. J3.
2
x - 2 = -
JT.
by s q u a r i n g b o t h sides, x' 4* + 4 = 3, * - 4 * + l = 0. (i)
SURDS : 161 Now the given expression
= 3*s - 14x2 + 11* = 3x (x' - 4* + I )
- 1 = 3x ( x' ~ 4* + 1) - 2* a 3 - 2(x - 4x + 1 ) + 1 = 3* [ 0 ] - 2 [ 0 ] + 1 = 1. [ b y ( i ) ] Ex. 2. If 2x =

A
+ 8x '
/~r
6
J ,
v a
prove that
2a
-Jx + x%
' - jl
x + J l + x '
+ &.
Exp. =
2a Vl -+ x3 x- -Jl + xa x+JT+x*
2j s/l
x-
VFTi3
x1 ]
+ *2 [* - Jl +
Now
* =
a
2J
ab
4 ab
4ab
2~J ab
Exp. =
2 J ab 4ab ( a + b )
2a
t
=
a
= Tab Ex. 3 If a j z + b J 3 = 0 , show that a = 0, 6 = 0.
a b _ a+b I 2 Jab 2 Jab J , , + 6

' then
where both a and 6 are rational,
On squaring the given relation, we have_
( 2a + 3Z>2) + 2ab Je = 0
This is possible if, and only if, the rational and irrational parts are each equal to zero. /. 2a 2 + 36 2 = 0 and 2ab J6 = 0. Now 2a a , 36 a are both non-neggtive and hence their sum can not be equa to zero unless each is equal to zero Ex. 4H e n c e a = 0 and b 0 The product involving ab, t h e n , automatically reduces to zero If a and 6 are rational and 3 + n/20 7 W320 find a and 6. W e have 3 + ^ 2 0 - V45 3 + 2 J5 - 3 Jl ^r= 7=~ 7 + 320 v 125 7 + 8 '5 - 5V5 _ 3 ~ V45 125
= a+bV
5,
J+ 3V1
C. A 11
1 6 2 : COLLEGE
ALGEBRA
> (7 ~ 3 -J 5)
4 (21 + 15 > - 16 7 5
36 - 16 7 1 4 = .'. .". Ex. 5. 9 - 4 ^ 5 .
by given data, 9 - 4 - V 5 = a + b -J5. a 9 and & = 4.
If x =
v J" + 1 -; V2 - 1
: 1
= , show that * s + xy + r 2 = 35.
1 y
e have u W
x =
+ 1 = f 7 2 > 1 ),!
1
0n
rationalization
V2 -
= 3 + 2
c Similarly
2 =
xy
+ y
. ., ,
.'.
j> = -j.-
72-1 v2 + 1
and
(72-1
=
3 - 2 V 2
x -r y (>
1 _
36
Now
+ ys _ ( ^
y _ ^
_ j _
35
Exercise 6 ( b ) 1. 2. 3. 4. If A - + a 7 y = 0, where ,v and a are rational and \f~y is a surd, show x 0 and a = 0. If a \[ 2 + b\[ 5 = 0 , where a and b are both rational numbers, show that a and b must both be zero. If a \f~2 + 7 3 + c 7 5 = 0 , where a, b, c are rational numbers, show that a b = c - 0. State the conditions under which the statement " If a + \f b = c + 7 d, then a = c and b = d ". is true. Give an illustration to show that the result is not true when the conditions are not satisfied. If a and b are rational numbers and 5+2sfi 7 +4\[ 3 find a and b.
= a
5.
b\l 3,
SURDS : 1 6 3
6.
If a and b are rational numbers and l + s find a and b. f ^ M

a a + b y l x
7 + V192 - V 4 8 7. If a and b are rational numbers and ( v r + l f = a + w 3, find the values of a and b and hence state the value of 8. ( V 3 - 1 )3If a and b are positive rational numbers and (2 + y[3 yZ = find a and b. 9. 10. if " { ^ t ^ / J A = \[5 + \f 3 Prove that : (i) ( ii ) 11. x 3 - 9x - 12 = 0, i f x = ^ T + is a root of the equation x3 6x 6. + 4 + \( \ 5 show that x3 3x + 8. [Hint: 12. Express x = ( 4 + s / l 5 ) 1 / 3 + ( 4 + \ [ l S ) " v ' ' ] . ,
Vi x
a-b\l~,
, find the value of x.
If* = ^ T T 7 B
Find the values of ( i ) a 3 - 6 2 + 7a + 8, when a = 3 - 2 \J~T; ( ii ) 2a 3 - 3a- - 5a + 3, when a =

3 +
13.
Simplify the expression yfl + x - \] I - x and find its value when x = VT
14.
If a = 5 + 2^6
, find the value of a 2 10a + 1.
15. 16.
If a = \[~2 If a =
1
+ \(T, show that ^ J - + a1 a -f-1 and b = -, 2+V? (ii) az~bi. , \f3 ~ yj2
_ 2 - y[3
find the values of ( i ) 3a2 + Sab + 3b2 and 17. I f a ^ l - ^ l and b V3 + V"2 find the value of a 3 + b3. 18. If 3 \[2 _
a +
find
the values of a and *
assuming that a and x are rational. 19. I f a + U T - \Sb-la~ are rational, find a and b. Show that the real number N/3 + \[2 5 and 6. 21. 22. If x = show t h a t * 2 ( x - 1 4 ) 2 = 1. ( b + 4 ) Vl25, where a and b
20.
lies between
7-4\U
Find x and y if ( \ f x + yfy" f = 5 + ^ 2 4 , it being given that J x,-J y are unlike surds. Hence find k if
2
( 5 + \ f 2 4 f 2 + ( 5 - V24 f
23.
= k yjT.
show that
L = 4. x + V1 + * 2
SURDS : 1 6 5
24. If a, b, c are rational numbers and

\[\5
J = = 1 + W3 - \(5 - N/3 + 1
+ b \[S + c -s/TF.
show that a, b, c are all equal to 1. 25. If (x + *Jx2-bc) (y-yly2-ca)'(z-4z2-ab), + \fz*-ab) = ( x - \[x2-bc)-(y+\/y2-ca)-(z prove that each expression = abc. Answers. Exercise 6 ( b )
4. T h e c o n d i t i o n s are : Illustration : and 5. 7. (1 = 1 1 , 6 = 6. <t = 10, <r = 26, (i) (i) 6 = 6. 6 = 15(ii) 17. .
22
a, c
are rational a n d
Jb.-Jd
are surds. B u t 2 =F 3
2 +*Jl6
= 3 + *J9, each b e i n g equal to 6.
16 =f= 9. since 6. and 9.
V l 6 , *J9 a r e n o t real s u r d s as r e q u i r e d . = 33.6 = - 1 9
( V 3 ~ - 1 ) s = - 10 + * = 15. 13. J 3. 14. Zero. y-
8.
12. 16. 19.
26-12*/!, 47, 30J3. 6=
3+V5". 970. 18.
a = y and * =
a = 11.
2 1 . Hint,
Rationalize t h e d e n o m i n a t o r of t h e * = 7 + 4V3-
expression u n d e r t h e radical sign ; we get 2 2 . fc = 18.
14.
The Square and Square-root of a Binomial Quadratic Surd.
Let x and y be both positive rational numbers so that yjx + \ f y is a binomial quadratic surd. Let us assume that \/x and yfy are unlike surds, so that sjxy is not rational. We have ( \ / x + n/}0 2 = x + y + 2\{xy = p + 2 \[q, where x + y=p, and = a + yfb, where a = p, b = 4 q.
q=xy
Thus, we observe that the square of a binomial quadratic surd \[x + Jy may be expressed as another binomial quadratic surd a +\[b. We now consider whether the square
root of a binomial quadratic surd a + \[b can be expressed as another binomial quadratic surd in the form \ f x + \ f y and if so, under what conditions, in the next theorem. Theorem : The square root of a + \[b, where a and b are rational and by 0, can be expressed in the form of a binomial quadratic surd \[x +\[y where x and y are positive rational numbers i f , and only i f , a is positive and a2 b is a perfect square. Let \[cT+Jb=\fx + \fy, ... ... ( i ) ( ii )
squaring both sides, we get a + \fb = x + y + 2\fxy.
Now sfxy is not rational as otherwise \[x and \ f y will be like surds and r. h. s. of ( i ) will not be a binomial surd as given. by equating rational and irrational parts from ( i i ) , by Theorem I of the article 12, we have x+ y = a and 2 Jxy=\[b i. e. 4xy = b. ... ... (iii) (iv)
In order to solve equations (iii ) and ( i v ) simultaneously, we may make use of the identity (x-y)
2
= (x + a2-b.
y)2-4xy.
(x-y)2= .'. x-y=
\ja2 b.
...
(v)
Solving equations ( iii ) and ( v ), we have * = \ -ja V f l F ^ J - ;y = \ |aT-Ja2 ... (vi)
Since x and y are given to be positive rational numbers, therefore by ( i i i ) , a must be a positive rational number. Again since x y is rational, a2 b by ( v ) , perfect square. must be a
SURDS : 1 6 7
Thus, if a is a positive rational number and a2 - b is a perfect square, then by taking either the upper or lower signs in ( vi ), we have J a + \[b = J ajW^HZ5 + j J
a
Thus, the square root of a + \Jb where a and b are rational and b > 0, can be expressed in the form \ f x + \[y where * and y are positive rational numbers if, and only if, (i ) a > 0, and ( ii ) a2 b is a perfect square. Corollary * Ja~\[b = J
a
+ ^c^b
- Ja -
\l'a2-l),
if a > 0 and a2 b is a perfect square. Note : In this chapter as per convention, we will only write the positive square root of a \fb.
Ex. Find the square root of 47 + V2200. Let V47 + V 2 W = 47 +J22Q0 .'. + Jy.
squaring both sides, we get = x + y + 2 Jxy. equating rational a n d irrational parts, we have 2-jxy = V2200 i e. 4xy = 2200, )* 4xy. l iii) (ii )
x + y = 47...(i), (x y :. .'. (x -y)*=
)2 = ( x -f- y
(47 )'2 - 2100 = 2209 - 2200 = 9,
x y = 3.
Solving ( i ) and ( i i i ) , we get x = 25, y = 22 or x = 22 , y ~ 25. .'. the required square root is V23 + V 2 5 i. e. 5 + V22.
15.
Method of Inspection.
In many numerical cases the square root of binomial quadratic surds can be found more conveniently by the method of inspection based on the identity (^Jx\Jy)2 For
2
= (x + y)
2\fxy-
(\fx \ f y ) is of the form p + 2 \[q [ if p = x + y, q = xy ].
(\/3c \[y ) 2 is of the form a \fb [ifa=p,
b=4q].
in order to find the square root of a \fb by inspec" tion, we have first to write it in the form p 2\jq. We, then, have to factorize q into two factors whose sum is p. If x and y are two factors, then the square root of a \fb would be \Jx \[y. We will illustrate the method in the following examples.
Ex. 1. F i n d t h e square root of 7 + 7 4 8 W e have 7 + ^48 = 7 + 2 Vl2 = ( 4 + 3 ) + 2V4 X 3
= (V4 +V3 )2.

V7 + 7 4 ? = V 4 + J F i e 2+V3.
W e have only written t h e positive value of the sq. root. Ex. Fir.d the square root of 2 W e have 2 - V 3
- W i - y / i j
Ji - 1 vi Jg -^V 2 ^
But, by convention, we the
the square root of 2 V 3 is i. e.
/ . V F - 1 V2
Note
- 1 T h e square root really is V3 V2
only write t h e positive square root and h e n c e we have taken
vr -1 V2
as
square root a n d not
1 - VF V2
E. 3 .
F i n d the f o u r t h root of 3 + ~ > / 5 . 2 2 3 ~ + = y ^ 7 + V 4 5 j = ~ ^14 + 2 ^ 4 5 j
W e have
= i
^ 9 + 5 + 2 V 9 ~ 5 j = -i-
+ J~5
SURDS : 1 6 9
t h e square root of 3 + 7 5 is - - ( 3 + J 5 ) the required f o u r t h root will b e the square root of
'
H - ^
B, (,
+
V R )
- / L
( . W I
Note. I n t h e above examples it can b e easily verified t h a t the c o n d i t i o n s I i ) a > 0 and ( i i ) a"- b is a perfect square, a r e satisfied and h e n c e t h e square roots are of t h e f o r m 7 x 7 y If. however, t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s are n o t satisfied then t h e s q u a r e root may take a different f o r m as can be seen f r o m t h e following example Ex 4. F i n d the s q u a r e root of 6 + 4 7 3 . 7"48".
W e have 6 + 4 7 3 = 6 +
In this example a = 6 a n d is positive ; a n d a1 b = 36 - 48 = - 12 and is negative. H e n c e t h e square root c a n n o t b e expressed in t h e form of a binomial surd x + *Jy. W e c a n , however, proceed as follows :
c + 4 7 F = 73~l 2 7 ^ + 4 ) = V3*(4 + 2 73") = J i ( -73 + 1 )a.

'. Ex. 5. t h e square root of 6 + 4 is
(73+1)."
quadratic
F i n d t h e s q u r e root of 9 - 7 6 - 6 V l 2
Sometimes a c o m m o n factor of b o t h the t e r m s of t h e binomial surd can b e taken out before proceeding to find t h e square root. Thus, 9 7 6 - 6 7 1 2 = 7 6 [ 9 - 6 7 2 ] = V 6 [9 - 2 7}8] 73]"
= 7 6 [ (6 + 3 ) - 2 7 < T x 3 ] = 7 6 [ 7 6 square root of 9 7 6 - 6 - 7 l 2 is V Ex. 6.
6 [ 7 6 - -7! ].
13 4 F i n d the square root of -r- +

3
73
^ 13 + 7 4 8 j
W e have j
+ A
= j
( 13 + 4 7 3 " ^ = y
= j
^ 13 + 2 712 ^ - j
^ 712 + 7 F j
.-. / + 3 V3
'.
(vs + i). \ /
t h e required s q u a r e r o o t is 2 +
V3 16. The Square of a trinomial quadratic Surd. We have the identities (VT + /y + J ~ y
= x + y + z + 2-Jxy
vy-W)
(j~x _ vy
+ 2-Jyz + 2 Jzx..
...
(i)
= x + y + z + 2-Jxy - 2-Jyz - 2 Jzx. - -Tz >

2
...
(ii)
= x + J' + z - 2\fxy
+ 2 y f y z - 2\fzx.
...
(iii)
Thus, we observe that the square of any trinomial quadratic surd (\f x \[ y + V 2 ) is one of the forms a + 2 \[~b + 2 + 2 \[~d or a + 2 \f 'b - 2 \f~c - 2 Jd where a, b, c, d are rationals. ( iv ) Conversely it may be possible to express the square root of the expression of the form ( i v ) in one of the forms of ( i ), ( ii ) and (iii). The problem of finding the square root of the expressions consisting of four terms one of which is rational and the three remaining terms, quadratic surds can be best illustrated by the following examples.
Ex. L Express as trinomial surd t h e square root of
10 +
JZA
Jwi
J 60.
T h e expression can b e w r i t t e n as
= 10 + 2 J 6 + 2 JlO + 2jl5.
If t h e square root is x + y + z + Jy + J z then
+ 2 Jxy + 2 Jyz + 2 JZx. = 10 + 2 J~6 -f 2 JlO +

(i ) (iii! yz = 10.
2 JlJ. (ii).
.'.
we have x + y + z 10,
xy = 6.
zx 15. i i v l .
SURDS . 1 7 1 Any t h r e e of t h e f o u r e q u a t i o n s are sufficient to d e t e r m i n e the three unknowns y, z. W e will solve i i i ) , I iii) a n d I iv ) a n d use t h e equation ( i ) to verify t h e values. Multiplying ( i i ) , ( i i i ) a n d (iv ) we h a v e x Y z * = 6-10-15 = 2-3 x 2-5 x 3-5. /. x i * = 2-3-5. ... ... ... ... (v)
D i v i d i n g ( v ) b y ( i i ). we h a v e z = 5. D i v i d i n g ( v ) b y (iii), we h a v e x 3 . D i v i d i n g ( v ) b y ( i v ) , we h a v e y = 2. Since x + y + z = 3 + 2 + 5 = 10, the values of x, y, z satisfy ( i ) . .'. t h e r e q u i r e d s q u a r e root is V3+V2+V5.
Ex. 2.
E x p r e s s as a trinomial surd t h e s q u a r e r o o t of 21 - V l 9 2 - V l 6 8 + V 2 2 4 -
T h e expression c a n b e w r i t t e n as
21 - 2^48 - 2^42 + 2-756.

L e t t h e s q u a r e root b e J x - *Jy +*Jz so t h a t x + y + z 2*J xy 2 s / y z + 2J zx = 21 2/4S - 2>/42 + 2 ^ 5 6 . 21 (i), xy = 48 (ii), y z = 42 (iii)
f
we h a v e x + y + z xe = 56 (iv).
F o r solving t h e s e e q u a t i o n s simultaneously, (iv). W e h a v e * V z 2 = 48-42-56 = [ 2 X 2 X 2 X 2 X 3 ] .*. xyz 2 -3-7 = 16-3-7.

4
we multiply
(ii),
(iii) and
[ 2 x 3 x 7 ] ...
[ 2-2-2-7 ] = 2 8 - 3 s . 7 a . ... ... ... (v)
D i v i d i n g ( v ) b y ( i i ) , we h a v e z = 7. D i v i d i n g ( v ) b y (iii), w e h a v e * = 8. D i v i d i n g ( v ) b y (iv), we h a v e y = 6. Since .'. x + y + z = 8 + 6 + 7 21, t h e values of x, y z satisfy ( i ) . +V7.
t h e r e q u i r e d s q u a r e r o o t is = V 8 - J b
= 2J2 - J6 + 17. Illustrative Examples.

Ex. 1. Simplify (4 + V l 5 )3/2 + ( 4 - V l S ) 1 ' 2 -
W e will first find ( 4 + V B ) 1 ' 2 i. e. V 4 W l 5 4 + V l 5 = I ( 8 + 2 V l 5 ) = -b ( J 5 + S ) ' -
W e have to evaluate a" +
b'.
W e observe that a + b JlO a n d ab = 1. N o w 1 + 6 s = {a + ft)3 - - 3 a 6 (a + 6 )
- (JlO)s - 3-1 (VlO) = xoVio - 3 Vio = 7 JlO

:. E*. 2 . (4+Vl5)3/2+(4-Vl5)3,2=7Vl0Prove that
1 Jl2-Jl40
1 VfT- V60
2 ViO+a/84
- V 5 )a;
W e h a v e 12 - V l 4 0 = 12 - 2 ^ 3 5 = [JJ
8 - J60 = 8 - 2jl5 = (Vs" - V3~)';

10 + V84 = 10 + 2 V 2 I = (V7 + J 3 ~ ) a .
V7 - V 5 VF+Vs
2
V5 - V 3 Vi+Vi
2
vV +V3 2(Vt-V)
4
1
2 = R . H . S. Ex. 3 . Given Js
W5 -Vs -J3
-Ji
+ J3
= 0.
= 2-23607
find
the value of
10V2
V10+V18
Exp. =
10
Ji (J5 + 1 )
Jio + 3J2 2 J2 + ~ (J 5 - 1 ) J2
3 J2 Jz
SURDS : 173
= 6 -
10 x 2 VI - 1
2-J 5 + 6
4 + V5 1
10 x 2 _ 2 ( 3 +
5 J 5
. "zatl0n
J 5) (3+ J~5)
20 ( 5 + J 5 ) . 25~- 5 ~~ ' 0
ratl0na
= 3 + "v/ 5 5-23607, ( correct to 5 places of decimals ).
Answers.
Exercise 6 (c)
Express the square roots of the following as binomial surds: (i) (iii) 11+2^30, (ii) 17 2 \[70, 2 V~2
4 - ^ 7 7 (iv) 16 + 5 \ / T , ( v ) ~
(vi)
5 3 - 1 2 sflO, ( vii) 62 + 20 V~6\ (viii) 3 - i - +
\[T.
Find the square root of : (i) (iii) 5 *J~2 + 2 \{l2. 11 \fT + 28. \JTa2-2ab-b2. \[96 - \ f 7 2 . (ii) (iv) 15 V T x + V* 2 - y2-
( v ) 2a (vi)
a+ Z > + c + 2 V a 6 + Z>c. ( v i i )
Find the fourth root of : ( i ) (iii) 56 - 24 -JT. -^-N/T + 3 - i . (ii)

( i v
124-32\fl5~. l | v T
Express as trinomial surds the square roots of : ( i ) ( ii ) <m> 37 + 1 2 ^ / T + 6 \ T I 4 + 4 x / 2 T 49 + 6-f6

2 2
-4\[l0
2
-12-Jl5.
+ 2
i -
J i r -
J i
J i r '
Show that ( 2 8 - 1 0 ^ 3 ) 1/2 - ( 7 + 4 \[3" )" 1 / 2 = 3.
* 6.
ti .t. Prove that
====== \[2 + V 7 3\[ 5
I = \j5
7.
Find correct to three places of decimals the values of ( i ) 7 - 2 V 5 ( ii ) V17 2\[288 3 + -IT + ^ 3 - \f~5
2
if x / T = 2-236068
if J T = 1-414213
8.
Show that J
Via
Hence or otherwise prove that ( 3 + V5") 3 ' 2 + ( 3 - si5 f 9. Simplify and show that
4\/l0.
VlO - 2 + V 7 - 2 V l 0 10. ^2+^3+^5 n. V11-2V30 12. Show that

( + 1 ^ V2 - V 3 - V 5 2
= V7-2V10 V8 + 4 V 3
*} T
[ 7
19 - 4 VI2
7 7 + 4 VT ]
is a rational number ; () J is a surd. 13. Prove that / 4 - VT ~ j ^ + +VT - ^ 3 0 - 2 ^ 5 6 - VT2
2J~2+y/t-3j~f
SURDS :
14. Prove that _ V4TVT5 \[T V72^2\/35 5\j5 4A/3 - 2\[7 _

2 >
15. Given -J3 = 1-732050 find the value of V 2 ~ V6 3\f3 16. Prove that 6 ^6-^35 ( 3+\fJ __ _ yfj V4-VI5 ) 3/2 ( 3 \ / 5 )312
M +
2yj5 n/T^N/21
17. Find the value of - ( 2 - V 3 )3'2'
(2 + V 3 )
Simplify and show that
19. V2 V4 V 7
t z i L . 6VI4. V 2 + V4 + V 7
20. Find the value of 6 if 10 V 2 21. If a, (; )

5
__ _
yro~+VlT \f%+yf3-\f~5
2 + sft.
-sfTF- n / 3 T N / 5 c are rational and + 3\/3_ 7 + 4\/3

= a + b s
f s h o w that a + 6 = 0.
J __ = a + /> v/2~+ c\T67 show that I -\[2-\j3 a + b + c = 0. 22. Prove that 7 + 3N/T V2 + V7+3VF _
7
(ii)
^ . _ _ = 2N/27
V2 + V7 3\[ 5
176
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA
23. J
Show that _ - / T + + \[5 + "irT^ 4y[l5 is rational.
24. Prove that 2 / 2 + 4 / 2 + >f5 - V 8 - \jW = V T + n/T~
25. Prove that

3
? 1 + ^ 2 - ^ 3 \f5
1 - ^ 2 + ^3
1-V2-N/3 Answers.
Exercise 6 (c) 4(>/i4-a/2).
1. (i) J6+J5.
(iv) (vi) 2. (i) (iii)
(ii) V l O - J T . (iii)
(5*j2+*jl4). 3 J J - 2 J2. V~2[V3"+V2], V 7 [2 + V 7 ]
( v ) - g - [ 3 V 6 - 4 -v/T]. ( vii) 5 V2 -I- 2 V3~7 (ii) (iv) J L (viii) J [2 V 3 + 1 ] .
[ 2 V2 - V7 ] . + J -
(v)
(vii) 3. 4. (i) (i) 6 [V~3 v'l-l,
+ b - V a - b J1],
(vi) 4a~+~c + Jb.
(ii)Js-Vf.
(iii) i ( V l + 1).
(iv) i ( V3~-J).
3 J 1 + 2 V 3 + '1.
( i i ) V j + 3 V3~ 2
7. 20.
l2
(i) () 5.
11-472. 6/5. 21. 3/4.
(ii) (ii)
5-828. J~2. 23. 15 . 1. 3-1732050. 17 . 8/5.
Chapter 7
Quadratic Equations
1. I n t r o d u c t i o n . 2 General method of solution of the quadratic equation. 3. Nature of the roots of t h e quadratic equation. 4. Factors of the quadratic expressions 5-6. T h e factor theorem and its applications. 7. Relations between the roots a n d the coefficients. 8 Symmetrical expressions of the roots. 9. The signsof roots 10 Irrational and Imaginary roots. I I . Cubic and Biquadratic equations 12. Illustrative e x a m p l e s . Exercise 7 ( a ) 13. Common roots. 14. Equations reducible to a quadratic. Exercise 7 ( b ) .
Introduction. The students are already familiar with simple equations of the type 2x + 3 = 0 . This equation is of first degree in x and is generally called a linear equation. The general form of a linear equation, in one variable, is ax + b - 0, [ a = 0 ] Solving this equation we have x = b j a. This equation has, thus, one root viz. b/a. Any equation of the first degree in one variable can be put in the above linear form ax + b = 0 and hence can be easily solved. The students are also similarly acquainted with equations of the type 2x2 5x + 2 = 0. The left hand side of this equation is a second degree expression in x and the right hand side is zero The second degree expression on the left hand side can be facto rized and the equation can be written as ( 2 x - l ) ( x 2 ) = 0. Thus x = 1/2, x = 2 satisfy this equation and hence 1/2, 2 are the two roots of this equation. Any equation of this type, when the highest degree of x is two, is called a quadratic equation. Every quadratic equation must contain a second degree term in x, and may contain a first degree term in x and a term without x. Thus the general form of the quadratic equation can be taken as ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c are constants and a 0. In the above numerical quadratic equation, we have a - 2, b = 5 and c = 2.
C. A.12 177
1.
When the equation is so written that all the terms are on the left hand side and the right side is zero, then the left hand side expression is called the characteristic of the equation. The term c iii ax2 + bx + c = 0 is called the absolute or the constant term of the equation. The students aie already aware of the process of finding the roots of the quadratic equation by factorizing the characteristic of the equation as shown in the above numerical case. We shall now proceed to consider in the next article the solution of the quadrat ; c equations in general. 2. General method of solution of the quadratic equation. by the following numerical
We first illustrate the method example.
Let us solve the equation 5x2 + 2x + 3 = 0. W e c a n n o t easily factorize t h e characteristic. S u c h an equation can b e solved by a process known as completing the square. T r a n s p o s i n g the a b s o l u t e term to t h e right hand side a n d dividing by the coefficient of x a , we get . 2 x + x 5 3 5 side by a d d i n g 1/25 to both 3 14 25 5
W e complete the square on the left h a n d sides. Thus, we have , . 2 1 1 * + x + =
-4V -14; 5
-i
equation
T h s method will now be used to Gad the roots of the q u a d r a t i c in general.
To solve the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + e = 0. U is assumed that a + 0, as otherwise the equation would become a linear equation. Transposing c to the right hand side, we get a.x2 + bx = c. Dividi^g,by a, the coefficient of x 2 , [ a b c 0 ], we get
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS : 1 7 9
Completing the square on the left hand side, we get

X2
b a
.V +
b2 4a
~ r -2 y =
b2 4 az
c a
b2 4 ac 4a2
X+
b V / \[b2-4ac a ) = 2
4- V 4ac
x2
-|. JL2a
~~
2a
b , Jb2 - 4ac x = -X + r 2a 2a *= - h \Jb2-4ac nZ ... (1)
By giving suitable values to a, b, c in the formula ( i ) , we can write down at once the solution of any quadratic equation ; and hence ( i ) is known as the general solution of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, where a, b, c are any real constant numbers { a 0 ). We illustrate the use of the formula ( i ) by the following examples.
Ex. 1. Solve Here 10* a - 13* - 77 = 0. a = 10, x = 6 = - 13 and c = - 77. - 6 v V - 4 ac
We have _ *
2a
- ( - 13) V ( - 1 3 ) ' - 4 ~ 1 0 ) ( - 77 ) 2 x 10 13 57
20
_ 13 J 1 6 9 + 3080 _ 13 ^ 3 2 4 9
-0 20
*=
70 ^ r 20
or
44 ^r 20
'
7 and 11
t h e r e q u i r e d roots are
188 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA Ex. 2. Solve Here ^ 10* 5 - 13* + 2 = 0, a = 10, 6 = - O a n d c = 2. 2)
- 13) +_V ( - 1 3 ) ' - 4 ( 1 0 ) 2x10 13 J & 9

20
13 t V i f r T - ' s o
20
..
. J t h e required roots are
13 + N / ~ ^
and
13-^87
Ex, 3.
Solve
10* a - 13* + 4 - 9 ~ = 0. 40 a = 10, b = - 13 13 ) 2 X 10

J
Here
and
c = 4 -4r = - - 40 40
" ( - 13)
4 ( 10 )/ M j
13 f V l 6 9 - 169 _ 13 f 0
20
_
20
13
t h e r e q u ir e d roots are E x . 4. Solve Here * -
and
13
10* a - 13 c + J = 0. = 10, 6 = - 13 a n d 2 x 10 V^ll

20
c = 5.
_ - ( - 13 ) V ( - 13 ) - 4 (10 ) ( 5 ) _ 13 V 1 6 9 200 _ 13
~ 20
_
the required roots are Examples. (i) (iiU (v)
13 + V ^ T T ^
and
13 -
V ^TF jo '
Solve t h e following q u a d r a t i c e q u a t i o n s : 3 * ' + 2 * - 4 = 0. *

2
(ii) (iv)
x%
- 2 * + 10 = 0 .
- 2 * + 3 = 0.
48* a = 104* - 51.
4* 2 + 2a a =
(vi) abx3 -(a

Ans. (i) (
3ax. b,'x-(a" )
1
6)J = 0.
3. (iii) l-JT-j.
(.v)
. .
3
r
j j -
17
(v)
, . 3 aaj^23
g
a- b
b-a
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS : 181
3.
Nature of the roots of the quadratic equation.
The roots of the quadratic equation ax2 -f bx + c = 0 are given by b\fb2 -4ac 2a
The nature of the roots depend on the value of b2 4ac 2 2 i. e. on the numerical value of b 4ac. Since b 4ac discriminates the nature of the roots, it is called the Discriminant of the quadratic equation. The discriminant is usually denoted by the symbol A , which is a greek letter pronounced as delta. In all the quadratic equations that we deal with, in this book, a, b, c will be rational. Assuming that a, b, c are rational, we obtain the following results about the nature of the roots. ( i ) If A > 0 and is a perfect square, then \ [ a and both the roots are rational and unequal. is rationa is
(ii ) If A > 0, but not a perfect square, then V A irrational and both the roots are irrational and unequal. Thus from ( i ) and ( ii ) the roots are real and unequal. we see that if A > 0
then
( i i i ) If A =s 0, then = 0 and both the roots are rational and equal, each being equal to b{7a. Thus if A > 0, the roots are real. (iv ) If A < 0, then \J A is imaginary and both the roots are complex. The roots will be purely imaginary if 6 = 0 and b2 - 4ac < 0 i . e . if ft = 0 and a, c have the same signs. Remark. If the coefficients a, b, c are assumed to be real then we have the following results. ( i ) If A > 0 and is a perfect square, the two roots are real and distinct. The roots will be rational or irrational according as b \[ A b^QjQg r a tional or irrational. 2a ( ii ) If A > 0, but not a perfect square, the two roots are irrational and unequal.
1 8 2 '. COLLEGE ALGEBRA
( i i i ) If A = 0, the two roots are real and equal, each being equal to b'la. They will be rational or irrational according as b[a is rational or irrational. ( iv ) If A < 0, both the two roots are imaginary. Obviously the two roots wiil be purely imaginary if a and c have the same sign and b = 0. In general, the roots of the quadratic equation are real and unequal, real and equal or imaginary according as A > 0, A = 0 or A < 0.
W e may now consider the nature of the roots of numerical equations given in the four illustrative examples of the last article, ( i ) 10*' - 13* - 77 = 0. Here, the discriminant A , ft1- 4 ac = 169 + 3080 = 3 249. H e n c e A is a perfect square of 57. 7 -11 the roots, - , are rational and unequalthe roots, - , (ii ) 10* 2 - 13* + 2 = 0. Here, the discriminant A , 6 a - 4 ac = 169 - 80 = 89. H e n c e A is a positive number, but not a perfect square. 13 + V89 13 - V89 .' the roots ô" 20 " are irrational a nd unequal. (iii) 10* J - 13* + 4 ~ = 0. quadratic
Here, the discriminant A = 169 - 169 = 0. 13 13 T h e roots are found to be and which are real and equal, (iv) 10*' - 13* + 5 = 0. Here, the discriminant A. 6 a - 4ac = 169 - 200 = - 31 H e n c e A is a negative number The oots are found to be imaginary ( or complex). Note. Sometimes the standard quadratic equation ax' + 2hx + 6 = 0. Proceeding on similar lines as 2, the found as is taken as roots can be 13 + \ f ~ T l -q
anc
13 '
V - 31 20
which
are
- h i J h" - ab
These roots, further as in 5 3 can be shown to
be real and distinct, real and equal, or imaginary according as h2 - ab > 0, K1 ab = 0 or h1 = ab < 0 In this form of the equation h1 ab becomes the discriminant of the equation. Student should obtain these results from first principles as in articles 2 and 3, when the standard equation of the quadratic is taken as ax1 + 2hx + b = 0
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS : l B 3 Examples. 1. Ascertain with the help o f the disciiminant the nature of the rccts of the following equations. (i) 2. 3 * - 4* - 1 7 = 0, Ans. (i) (ii) +
2x +
10 = 0. (ii) Imaginary.
Real and unequal,
Answer the following questions for the quadratic equation
x* + 3ht
(i) (ii)
+ 3 6 = 0. so that the roots of the
State the c o n d i t i o n s satisfied by h' equation become r e a l ;
State the possible values of h which satisfy the conditions In ( i ) .
Ans.
3.
<\) h1
>
16,
(ii)
>
or
<
- 4.
Find the c o n d i t i o n s to b e satisfied by k, to that the roofs of
+ *+k = 0
become ( i ) complex, ( i i ) equal.
Ans.
4. Find the value of k in x> - 6x + k = 0 (i) both roots are e q u a l ; (ii)
(i) if
>1/4,
(ii)
* = 1/4.
both roots are real.
Ans
(i)
k = 9,
(ii)
<
9.
5 . Find the conditions to b e satisfied by h* and hence by h so that the r o o t s of + 2/i.v + 4 = 0 become (i) real and unequal, ( i i ) real and equal, ( i i i ) complex. ( i ) (ii) (iii) 6.
Ans.
h1
> 4 = 4
i. e. i. e. i.e.
h > 2 or h < - 2,
A" 2, or
h* < 4
\h \ <2
- 2 < h < 2.
Find the possible values of h for which the roots of the equation x% + hx + i = 0 are real.
Ans. h
7. 8. If the equation value of k is 9/8.
>
or
- 2-
3 * + k = 0 has equal roots, show that the by k so that the roots (iii) imaginary. =
Find the conditions satisfied by k 1 and hence of the equation 3*' + 2k c + 3 = 0 become (i) real and unequal, (i) (iii) k' <9 i . e . , (ii) real and equal, - 3,
Ans.
9.
k* >9 1. e. k > 3 or k <
iii)
k*
9 i.
e.
k=
i 3,
< 3 o r - 3 < f t < 3 .
10.
Solve the equation - 6x + 13 = 0 and represent the roots by points on a plane referred to co-ordinate axes, Ans. R o o t s are 3 <2, Required points are ( 3 , 2 ) , ( 3 , - 2 > . If one root of kx' + 2x + 6 = 0 is 1. find the value of k and deduce the other root. Ans. k - - 8, other root = - 3/4.
184 '. COLLEGE ALGEBRA
4.
Factors of the quadratic expression.
An algebraical expression, where the highest degree of the variable is one, is called a first degree or a linear expression in that variable. The general linear expression in x is taken as ax + b. Similarly an algebraic expression, where the highest degree of the variable is two, is called a second degree or a quadratic expression in that variable. The general quadratic expression in x is taken as ax2 + bx + c. Here a, b, c are constants and x is a variable. The students are familiar with the factorization of such an expression in certain simple cases. The general method of factorizing the quadratric expression ax2 + bx + c will now be considered. We have ax2 + bx + c = a a + L
2
a x +
~ J
rx2+ i. a
+ i i l - 1)2 2 + - . 1 4a 4a a J ( completing the square. )
where A = b* 4ac.
11 L R b+ si -A .max>+bx +c = a [ x + s r
r ,b-
\TAI J-
...II
As in the case of a quadratic equation the discriminant A ( i . e. b2 4 ac ) determines the nature of the factors of the quadratic expression. Thus ( i ) If A is positive, the factors are real and different, ( i i ) If A is zero, the .factors are real and equal and the expression is a perfect square.
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS :
lB3
( iii )
If A is negative, the factors are imaginary.
( i v ) If A is a positive perfect square, the factors are rational and different, assuming that a, b, c are rational. Since the quadratic expression when equated to zero gives the general quadratic equation, we can deduce the general solution of quadratic equation from the factors given in I. Note : In obtaining the factors of any quadratic expression it is convenient to proceed ab initio instead of using the formula I.
Examples (i) ( ii ) Resolve into two linear factors : Ans. Ans. 3 t * - 4 + T * + J i ) (* - 4T VT). - 1 - V34"l 3 I x% 8x + 11. 2x - 11.
- 1 + ^341 ^
* +
(iii)
2* + 3 * + 5.
Ans.
* +
* +
5.
The Factor Theorem.
Theorem I f is a root of the equation ax7 + bx + c = 0, then x - is a factor of ax2 + bx + c, and conversely, if x * is a factor of ax2 + bx -f- c then is a root of the equation ax2 + bx 4- c = 0, ( i ) Since * is given to be the root of the equation, it satisfies the equation ; and hence we have, a* 2 + b + c = 0. ax1 + bx + c = ax2 + bx + c ( aJ + b + c) = a(x2 - 2) + b(x - ) = ( * - ) I > ( * + ) +*>] Hence x * is a factor of ax2 + bx + c. ( ii) Conversely if x < x is a factor of ax2 + bx + c, then < * 2 is a root of the equation ax + bx -+ c = 0. We have ax2 + bx 4- c = ( * < * ) ( px + q) where p and q are some constants. x = o < satisfies the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. * is a root of the equation. 6. Following applications of the factor theorem should noted. I. To form the quadratic equation whose roots are given. be
Let and 0 be the given roots. Hence x - and x 0 are the factors of the characteristic. the equation is (.r <*) (x 0) = 0. i. e. x1 - ( + 0 ) x + = 0. 2 i. e. x (sum of roots ) x -f product of roots = 0. Thus the equation whose roots are 3, 5 is i. e i. e. ( * - 3 ) ( * + 5)=0. x2 + 2x - 15 = 0. x2 ( sum of roots) x + product of roots = 0.
Example. F ind the equation whose roots are 3 + -Js, W e h a v e the sum of the roots = 6 ; also the product of the roots = ( 3 + -JI) the equation ! s i. e. v * ' - 6 * 4 4 = 0. Thus if the sum and the product of the roots are known, the equation c a n be found. - (6) * + (4) = 0 . ( 3 - VJ) = 9 - 5 4 3 - J57
II. roots.
A quadratic
equation
cannot
have more than
two
Let the given quadratic equation have two roots and 0. By the factor theorem, the equation can be written as (x-)(x-/3)=0. If this equation has a third root y, distinct from x and 0, then it must satisfy the equation i. e. ( 7 ) ( 7 /3) = 0. But this is impossible since, 7 J= and y 0. Hence there cannot be a third distinct root for the quadratic equation. Similarly it can be shown that a cubic (i. e. third degree) equation ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0. has three roots and cannot have more than three roots and that a biquadratic fourth degree ) equation ax4 + bx3+ cx2 + dx + e = 0 has four roots and cannot have more than four roots. See para 11. In general, it can be shown that an equation of the nth degree cannot have more than n roots.
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS : Exa nple. ( i ) Form the quadratic equations w h o s e roots are : Iii ) 2 + 7. 2 + VT 2 - 7i \ 2
lB3
13 + V s 7 13 - </5~; 3 + V - 111
(...)
Ans
3 - s/ - 111
(iv)
(ii) (iv)
VT
f
( i ) (iii)
x' - 26* + 164 = 0, 2*' - 3 * + 15 = 0.
* ' - 4 * + 5 3 = 0. ** + 18* + 1 = 0.
7.
Relations betweeen the roots and the coefficients.
If and /3 are the roots of ax2 + bx + c 0, then <* + /3 = a and S = a b \jb 2a 4ac -4ac
The roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 are , * -b + yjb2 ~4ac Let < *= sr 2a
, -b - \fb2 and /3 = ^ 2a
Hence, writing A for b2 4 ac, we have
_ ~ Similarly
~b+\fX -2b _ 2a = = &~A 4 a2

_ 4ac _
2a -b a
- b - \ ( X
( i>
^ b2~
< r a
b
(b2-4ac) 4a2 (U) _ ~

coefficient of x
~~ 4 a 2
( i ) and ( ii )
the sum of the roots = ~ the product of the root =
a c a
coefficient of x 2 ' absolute term coefficient of x 2
188 '. COLLEGE ALGEBRA Example, Write down the sum and product of the roots of the equation 2* a - 3x + 7 = 0 and hence deduce the sum of the squares of its roots. .Aus. The sum of the squares of roots = 19/4.
8 Symmetrical Equation.
expressions
in the
roots of the
quadratic
An expression in and 0 is said to be symmetrical if it remains unchanged by the interchage of < * and 0. Thus 2 + 02 becomes 02 + 2 by the interchange of < * and 0. Therefore *2 + 02 ; s symmetric in and 0. of symmetrical expressions can be given as + /3, cc/3, + - 1 + . 1 , -L + Other examples
i..
The students will note that the expressions like o < 3 + 02 a r e n o t symmetrical in * and 0, as they are altered by the interchange of * and 0. If , 0 are the roots of the quadratic b a equation
ax2 + bx + c - 0. then we have + 0 =
c and < * Q= a
Any symmetric expression in , 0 can be expressed in terms of + 0 and 0 and hence can be evaluated in terms of the constants a, b, c of the equation. Thus ( v i ) a + j 8 s ( * + j 8 ) - 2 0 = 4 2- 2 ' a a ( i i ) 3 + 03 = (* + 0)3-30 ( + ) = a2
_ - b% + ~~ a3
(U1)
3bc
-3abc-b* _ a a3
2
-t- J L 1? 0* ~
+
2 2
~
cl
b!a)2-2cla {c!a)2 ' a2 _ ~ ~ c2
b2 ~ ~ a2
lB3
Tn a similar way any other symmetric expression be expressed in terms of the constants a, b, c.
can
It should be noted that the symmetric expression can be evaluated without actually finding the roots of the equation.
Ex. 1. <x, /3 are the roots of 2x- - 3* + 5 = 0 ; find the values of
( i > <*"
Since (!)
()
+ Y '
. -Z-" = -y- .
P are the roots of 2 * 2 - 3* + 5 = 0, * + 0 = y (' + We have ( + / 3 l = ( + - f - 5 =
/ 8 ) - 2 * 0
, , ( u ) v
'
We u have o<S +
1 ,+ 1 r-
fj,
= -
8 4 & ' . */3 + 3*).

11
= ( + ) (
= i r *
[
I +
s
- 21
I "1
63 63
L 4
ft /8
1
J J
=
JL
J ft
- 63 8
~ 63 _ 125
125
The method of constructing the quadratic equation whose roots are symmetric functions of the roots of the given equation is illustrated in the following examples. E x . 2. If 3 are the roots of 3 c' + 4* + 7 = 0. find the equation whose and * roots are pr
(j
P
<*
Since *, 3 are the roots of 3*' + 4* + 7 = 0,
The sum of the roots of the required equation

=
JL P
A ~
+ <*/3
_ ( + ) ' - 2P /3
16
y
14
3
16
~ 9 r
7
x
3
1 4
- 2 6
21
The product of the roots -
= 1. ( by 6 ) =
0
0
Now the required equation is '
e
x2 - ( sum ) * + product = 0.
e
'
** ~ (
) *
1 =
"
21
*" +
26
21
Ex. 3 .
If <x, 0 are the roots of 2* J + 5x + 7 = 0, find the equation 20 0 are the roots of 2* s + 5x + 7 = 0.
whose roots are 2* + 30 and 3 x + V
The sum of the roots of the required equation = {2* + 30)
+ {3* +
20)
Similarly, the product of the roots = ( +
3 3)
( 3 x + 2 3)
= 6 (<. + fi') + l3*/3 = 6( + 0,* + <x0
Now the: required equation equati is x ' - ( sum] * + product = 0. i. e. x' [ ) * + 41 = 0 i e. 2x> + 25* + 82 = 0.
( by 6 )
Ex. 4 . Let <*,
Find the equation whose roots are the reciprocals of the roots of ax2 + bx + e = 0. be roots of the given equation a . * + 6k + c = 0.
+ 0 = rJ,
/3=
a x JL
c
The sum of the roots of the required equation
= _L +
<x 0
The product of 1 the roots =
1
n.'b
c
0
1 e
1 -a = . 0(0 C by 6 )
Now the required equation is x1 - ( s u m ) x + product = 0 i. e + ~

=
'
cS + bx + a = 0.
lB3
If should he observed that the coefficients in t h i s e q u a t i o n a r e reversed. Two such equations are called reciprocal Ex, 5 . equations.
F i n d the condition that the roots of the equation ax J + may differ by 3.
bx+c -
Let and + 3 be the two roots. sum of the roots = 2x + 3 = a and the p r o d i x t of the roots = a + 3 * = ; 0 ... .. (ii ) ... ... ... C I J
The condition can be obtained by eliminating * in ^ i ) and ( i i ) . W e shall obtain the value of from ( i ) and will substitute it in ( i i ) . /. v From ( i ) , * = b + 3a
2a
6+3 a \ \ , f 1+31 6+3\ c 1= .
, . . , ( substituting in ( i i ) , we have I 6a + 6a6 + 9a"1 - 6ab .'.

a a
18aa =
4 ao.
6 - 9a = 4ac is the required c o n d i t i o n .
9.
The signs of the roots of the quadratic equation. If /3 be the roots of ax1 + bx + c = 0, then * + B= b and /3 = a ' ft c a
( i) positive.
When
are both positive, -f ft and- /3 are both
a, b have opposite signs and a, c have same signs i. e. cr, c have a sign opposite to that of b. ( i i ) When < x is positive and ft negative, being numerically greater than ft, then + ft is positive and ft is negative. a, b have opposite signs and a, c also have opposite signs. i. e. b and c have a sign opposite to that of a. ( i i i ) When is positive and ft negative, c being numerically less than ft, then + ft is negative and /3 also is negative. a, b have same signs, and a, c have opposite signs, i. e. a, b have a sign opposite to that of c. (iv) When * and ft are both negative then * + ft is negative and <*ft is positive. .'. a, b have same signs, and a, c have also same signs, i. e. a, b, c have all the same signs.
10.
Irrational and imaginary roots of a quadratic equation. Theorem. If one root of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is
P + V<7. the other root is p \[q (where a, b, c, p, q are rational and W a surd ). \[q) is a root of ax2 4 bx + c = 0, we have Since ( p
a
(P + \A7) 2 + b (p + \[q ) + c = 0 ; a (p2 + 2p\fq + q) + b(p + V? ) + c = 0.

+ b) = 0.
2
i. e.
( ap
+ aq + bp + c ) + \(q (lap
This is possible if, and only if, ap2 + aq + bp + c = 0 and 2 a p + b = 0. Now ( p - \[q ) will be a root of ax if a (p 2 2
...
( i)
+ bx + c = 0
yfq )2 + b(p
- \Jq ) + c = 0,
i . e . if a (p - 2p\fq + q) + b(p -\Jq ) + c = 0, l. e. if ( ap2 + aq + bp + c) - \[q ( 2 ap + b ) = 0 which is true because of ( i ) p sfq is a root of ax2 + bx + c = 0. Similarly, the following theorem can be proved. Theorem. If one root of ax2 + bx + c = 0 is p + iq, the o ther root is p iq where a,b,c,p, q are real and i is the imaginary unit.
Examples. 1 2. If 3 + i 2 is a root of ** - 6* + * = 0, find k if k is a real number. Ans. k = 13. If - 1 - i J 3 is a root of the equation other root and the value of A. Ans. 3. 4. Find a quadratic equation, roots is 2 + ^3. roots is ( i ) 7 + 4 V f ; Ans. 5 6 ( i i ) 3 - ' 4. ( i ) * 1 - 1 4 * + 1 = 0, (i>) - 6r + 25 = 0. Ans. k = 13. + 2 hx + 4 = 0, state the
Other root is - 1 + i */3, h = 1. Ans. x' - 4* + 1 = 0
with rational coefficients, one of whose
Find a quadratic equation with rational coefficients, one of whose
If one of the roots of x" - 4 * + k = 0 is 2 + <3, find k.
Find the values of b and c if one of the roots of the equation * ' + &; + c = 0 i s ( i ) 2 + ^ 3 , (ii)5-3<. Ans. ( I ) b = - 4, c = 1 ; ( i i ) 6 = - 10, c = 34
lB3
11.
Cubic and Biquadratic (quartic ) Equations.
We have seen that if and ft are the roots of the quadratic quation ax2 + bx + c = 0, then < x + ft = and oc/3 = a a ...
v(
i )
Similar relations between the roots and the coefficients hold for equations of higher degree. In this paragraph we shall consider such relations for cubic i. e. equations of third degree and biquadratic or quartic i. e. equations of fourth degree. Cubic equation. Every cubic equation when so written that the right side is zero and all the terms are on the left side must contain a term of third degree in x and may contain terras of second and first degree and a term without x (i. e. a constant term). Thus the general form of the cubic equation can be taken as ax3 + bx2 +- cx + d = 0 where a, b, c and d are real number constants and a 0. Thus 2x3 + 3x2 4 = 0 is a cubic equation ; here a = 2, b = 3, c = 0 and d = 4. A quadratic equation has two roots; we can generalise and say that a cubic equation must have three roots. Let us therefore assume that the cubic equation ax3 + bx2 + cx + d = 0 ... ( ii ) has the roots , ft and y. On dividing by a ( a j= 0 ), the equation ( ii ) can always be written as J;3 + a ~ x + = 0. a a ... (iii)
The equation whose roots are , ft, y can be written as U - ) ( * - ft) (x - y) = 0. v i. e. - ( + ft + y ) x2 + ( ft + fty + y<* ) x - fty = ... ( i v ) Equations (iii) and (iv) have 1 as a coefficient of x I f the equation ( i i ) has the roots ft, y then equations ( iii) and ( i v ) must be identical. Hence by comparing coefficients of equations (iii) and ( i v ), we have ^
C.
A. 13
/3 +
c + 7 = _ ,
and
a.By = a
These relations between the coefficients a, b, c, d, of the cubic equation and the roots , /3, 7 of it are similar to the relations ( i ) for the quadratic equation. Let us write 2 < x (read as sigma alpha) for < * + /3 + 7 and 2 0 for <x/3 + fiy + 7 * so that the relations between the constant coefficients and the roots of 'the cubic equation ( ii ) can be expressed as 2 = , 2 /3 = , and /3 7 = - a a a ... (v)
Illustration 1. If c, 7 are the roots of the equation 2x - llx3 - * + 30 = 0, find 2o<> 2 x / i , /3y and verify their values by actually solving the cubic equation. Find also the value of 2 * a . __. _ ^ We have 2. * b a 5
( 11)
= - - . 2
11
2 xH p =
and equation
= -1
2 = 15. where *, 8, y are the roots of the given
'xfi~Y =
We can however factorize the left side of the given equation since x 2 is one of its factors ; we have, then, ( * - 2 ) (2* a - 7* - 15) = 0 ; or .'. Hence (x - 2") [2x + 3 ) ( * - 5) = 0. the roots are 2, - 3/2 and 5
2 = 2 + (-3/2)+5 = ^-,
(5) + (5) (2)
2/3 = (2) ( - ' - { - ) + (
T )
lB3
and
/3y= (2)
( ~ - f ~ ) ( 5 ) = - 15.
The relations are thus verified. Now 2<v> = < * . + yS" + > a = (<x + ft + y )a - 2 ( + fry + y * )
A1SO2 = ( 2 ) 2 + ( - " I " ) Illustration 2. If
/3 ( y are the roots of the equation x3 + x 2 = 0, = c = 1, <xfiy. d = - 2. 6 = 0,
show that Here a = 1,
2* = _
Hence
= 0. 2/3 = -L = 1, /3y = -
_ 2.
= ( 2<x )a - 2 2 * / 3 = 0 - 2 = - 2 and /3y = 2. 2a = fty.
It may be noted here that two roots of the equation are imaginary ; this can be verified by the students by factorizing the left side. ( * 1 ) is o n e factor of the left side.
Biquadratic or Quartic Equation. It is evident that the procedure followed above for obtaining the relations between coefficients of a cubic equation and its roots can be generalized to quartic equations, i. e. equations of fourth degree. If the right side of a quartic equation is zero, the left side must contain a term in fourth degree in x and may contain terms in third, second, first degree in x and a constant term. Thus the biquadratic or quartic equation can be written as ax* + bx3 + cx2 + dx + < ? = 0 ... ( v i ) where a 0. This equation, since a 0, can always be written as ... ( vii)
x* + x3 + * 2 + * + = 0. a a a a
If the roots of the equationfour in numberbe taken as <x,fi,y, S we can write the equation ( vii ) as
0 - ) 0 - / 3 ) 0 - y ) ( * 5 ) = 0 ;
i.e. where
as + 0y8 = O 2 = < + /3 + y + o,
... (viii)
2/3 = oc/3 + y + s + Py + PS + yS, and 2/3y = Py + + yS + pyS. Since the coefficient of x* is equal to 1 in equations ( vii) and (viii), equations (vii) and (viii) must be identical. by comparing coefficients of the equations (vii) and (viii), we get
2 = ,
2;/3 =
, 2/Sy =
and where
/3y5 = ~ -
...
( ix )
2 = sum of the roots taken one at a time, 2/3 = the sum of the products of two roots taken at a time 2oc/Sy = the sum of the products of three roots taken at a time.
Verify the relations ( i x ) for the equation 2x' - 3** - 27*' + 62* - 24 - 0. ... (1)
Illustration 3 .
If
P> y , & are the roots, we have
a ~
( - 3) = = _3_
2 '
20,fl
__
_27_
2'
2 = - 12.
2*/3y = - - c - = a
= - 31 and /3yS = ' a
= -
The students can check and find that ( x - 2 ) and ( * - 3 ) are factors of the left side of ( 1 ). T h u s the equation is ( * - 2 ) ( * - 3 ) ( 2 * ' + 7* - 4 ) = 0 ; or (2x - 1) { * - 2 ) (x - 3) <* + 4 ) = 0.
H e n c e the roots are - ^ - , 2 , 3 , and - 4 ; and 2<x = - i - + 2 + 3 - 4 = 3/2. The other results can b e similarly verified. Illustrat on 4 . For the equation
2A
2x' + 3* a +
+ 5 = 0,
...
(1)
show that = 3 ~2<xdy. where , P, y, d are its roots. Show also that the sum of the reciprocals of the roots is two-fifteenth times the sum of the squares of the roots.
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS : W e have 2<x = 0 as 6 = 0 ; 2<x$ = c / a - 3/2, 2<x/3y :. 2

d
lB3
at
J
- = -
'
1 and
= 5/2.
t ( 2 ) * - 2 2 / 3 = 0 - 2 (3/2) = - 3. 2oc = - 3 = 3 2/Qy.
Also the sum of the reciprocals of the roots
_ fty$ + yS + <x/3S + <xfiy
_
-
_ n1
~ 5/2 = =
L
5 (- 3 ) = 2 * .
Hence Examples. 1.
-f- =
For the equation 2*"' + 3* a + 4* + 5
find the values of 2 - , 2
and 2
o cp
2 . For the equation 3** - 6* + 4 = 0 show that the product of the roots is one-third of the sum of the squares of the roots. 3. For the equation 3x* + 6* 1 - 9* + 5 = 0 find the values of 2 2 - and 4. For the equation 2xl + 3x s + 4*- + 5 * + 6 = 0 find the values of Hint. 2a and 2 - and 2 J 2
For the latter part, find 2
5.
Find the equation with roots
, -jg- .
and - y -
if <x, Q, y, S
are the roots of the equation in Ex. 4.
Answers. 1. ( - 7/4), ( - 4/5 ) and (3/5).

3. 5. ( - 4 ) , 9/5, 4/5. 4. ( - 7 / 4 } , ( - 23/36). 6x' + 5x* + 4* + 3x + 2 = 0.
12.
Ex. 1. If the roots of the equation J . x
+
_ _L x + a m
m + a
are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign, show that a 3 = 2m 1 , . .. + a The given equation i s 2 jx * x {x + a) [2m (x + a ) a) 2m + a = -. m (m + a) -
(Zx + a) m (m
a) = 0.
(2m + a ) x3 + [ a (2m + a) - 2m (m + a ) ] * - am (m+a) = 0. The root of this equation will be equal in magnitude but opposite in sign if the snm of the roots isazero. ( 2m + a) 2m ( m + a ) = 0.
a3 = 2m'.
Ex. 2 . Show that if x* + px + q = 0 has two distinct real roots, the equation + px + q + k (2x + p ) = 0 has also two distinct real roots for any non-zero real value of k. V + px + q = 0 has two distinct real roots. its discriminant p3 - Aq > 0. Now the second equation i s (p + 2k)3 - 4 ( q + 1. e. 1. e. if p + 4 p k + 4feJ - 4 q 3
(i) = 0.
+ * ( p + 2k) + ( q + pk) pk)>0 4 p k > 0,
This equation will have two distinct real roots if its discriminant
if p' 4q + 4fea > 0 which is true, since p3 - 4 q is positive due to ( i ) and 4&a is positive, being a square of a non-zero real number. Ex. 3 . If o n e root of the equation ax3 + bx + o = 0
Is the square of the other, prove that 6 3 + a'o + ao3 = 3 aba. If one root is <*, the other root will be " W e have the sum of the roots x + a = and the product of the roots i.e., *3
=
x ( i)
(H)
In order to obtain the required condition, we have to eliminate from ( I ) and , i i ) It may be found mors convenient to eliminate x as follows: From ( i ) , we have <xa + < x+ :. () + ( ) a +
= 0. = 3a-<x
^ -j- j
QUADRATIC
EQUATIONS :
lB3
o<e - p - * ' + ~
= 3
ar ~r +
c'
+ r = 3
a
d1
c
a
from ()
1
J
ffc2 + a'c + f >

Ex. 4 .
= 3abc.
If the roots of the equation ax* + ax + c = 0 be in the ratio of p : q, prove that
Ji+JT-tJT-*
the ratio of the two roots is j> : q, they can be taken as !>"*, g x . We, then, have the sum of the roots, (p + q) = and the product of the roots, pq <xJ = = 1 ... ( 1) (ii )
We have to eliminate < x in ( i ) and ( i i ) to get the required condition. In order to eliminate we find the value of <** from ( i ) and ( i i ) and equate the two. From ( i ) , < *=
P+q
and from ( i i ) , a = r ap q
(P + q?
"Pq '
IP
( A + , ) =
"
P + q=
a japq^ ! a
Vi+Vf-W-f+/F */?-<
Ex. 5 . If the two values Of y obtained from the equations ax1 + by3 = 1 and ax + by = 1 are equal show that a + b = 1. We have, ax + by = 1. ... (i). ax' + by3 = 1. ... ( i i ) W e will eliminate * from ( i ) and ( i i ) and get a quadratic in y whose discriminant will be equated to zero to obtain the required condition. From ( , i ) * 1 by a (1 - by)
3
tituting in ( i i ) , a ^ ' substitutin + a by' - a = 0. a - 1) = 0.
+ by* = 1.
b i a + b ) y> - Zby -
2 0 0 '. COLLEGE ALGEBRA The discriminant of this equation in j>, is zero if

4 6 ' + 4 6 ( a + b) (a 1) = 0 ;
i. e. if i, e. if i. e. if
6 + {a +
b ) (a - 1) = 0 ; b + a(a + b)~a 6 = 0 ; a + b = 1. Exercise 7 ( a )
1.
Solve, by using the formula or otherwise, the following equations: (i) ( x - 1 ) ( x - 3 ) = 9800. ( ii ) x + x" 1 = a. ..... 1 . 1 2 ( i n ) r 1 x+ a xa a ( i v ) (a - b)x2+ (b - c)x + ( c - a) = 0. ( 1
v ;
-J x+ l
4. _ L _ _ L x +2 ~ x +3 '
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
(vi) fc ( x 2 10 ) = x ( 2 5k2 ) Prove that the roots of the following equations are real, (j) ( x - a ) ( x - b) = <2 ( ii ) x 2 - 2ax + a2 - b2 - c2 = 0. (iii) ( a - f c + c ) x 2 + 3(fl-Z>)x + { a - 6 - c ) = 0 . ( i v ) a ( l - x - x 2 ) = 6 ( 1 + x), Show that the roots of the following equations are rational. ( i ) (b + c)x2-(a+b + c)x + a= 0. ( i i ) ( a 2 b2~) ( x 2 + 1) = 2 ( a 2 + b2) x. Find the values of k, if the following equations have equal roots. ( i ) x 2 - 2 ( 1 + 3k ) x + 7 ( 3 + 2k ) = 0. ( ii ) ( 2k - 1 ) ( x 2 + 1 ) = ( 2k + 3 ) x. Prove that (_x-a)(x-b) + ( x - b ) ( x - c ) + (x-c)(x-a) = 0 will have equal roots if, and only if, a = b = c. Prove that the roots of (a-fc)2x2 + 2(a + fc-2c)x+l=0 are real or imaginary according as c deos not or does lie between a and b.
lB3
7.
Prove that the roots of (a2 + ft2)*2 - 26 ( a + c ) x + (fc2 + c*) = 0 will be equal if, and only if, a, b, c are in continued proportion. Prove that the roots of 9x2 + 4 ax + 4 = 0 will be imaginary if, and only if, a lies between 3 and 3. The sum of the roots of the equation J H j-r- = x+a x+b c is zero. Prove that the product of the roots + Z>2). is
8.
9.
i-02
10. 11.
Find k, if the roots =*, ft of 3x 2 - (2Jc+1) x + (fe + 1 1 ) = 0 are such that ft = 1. Find h, if one of the roots of the equation k ( x - 1 )2 = 5x - 7 is .double the other.
12.
Guess one root of the equation, and find the other root. ( i) (ii) ( 2x - 49 ) ( 2x - 51 ) = 123 X 125. ( b + c-2a')x2 + (c + a-2b)x + (a + b-2c') = 0.
13.
14. 15.
If , ft are the roots of 2x2 + 3x + 7 = 0, find the values of ( i ) 2 + /S2, ( i i ) 3 + )ff$, ( i i i ) (iv) (v)(2-/3 y + (P>-y, 2 ( v i ) ( 2 - f 3 ) - + (2/3+3)-2, (vii)*-/33. If the sum of the roots of a quadratic equation is 5, and the sum of their cubes is 20, find the equation. Form the quadratic equations whose roots are s~S>fa+\lb \[a - J~b (n)y-~ , V a V b V a +\] b If , ft are the roots of x2 - 2x + 3 = 0, form the quadratic equations whose roots are (1) ( i ) * + 2, /3 + 2; ( i i ) 2 1, 2$ 1; (iii) ~ P , -2-; * J_ rz a + \j b, a \Jb;
16.
(iv ) 2 + 3ft, 3 + 2/3;
17.
18.
If < * and < 3 are the roots of the equation 3x2 + 6x +10 = 0, find the equation with roots + 1 and /3 + 1. Hence find and /3. Find k, if ( i ) the roots of 2x2 + 3x + k = 0 are equal; ( ii ) one of the roots of the equation x2 - 4x k = 0 is2(l+V"3); (iii ) one of the roots of the equation x2 6x + k = 0 is 3 + i \ j 2 . ( i v ) one root of the equation x2 6x + k = 0 is double the other. If /} be the roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0, prove that the equation whose roots are a + bS, b<* + a/3 is ( a x + i J ) ( x + i ) + c ( a - 6 ) ^ = 0. If 2X2+kx + 3 = 0 has distinct real roots, show that the equation Sx2 ( k 2 24) x + 7 = 0 has no negative root. If the roots of the equation ax 2 + 6x + c = 0 are in the ratio p : q, then show that ac ( p + q)2= b2 pq. If the two values of x obtained from the equations kx2 + 4y 2 = 1, kx + 4y = 1 are equal, find k. Find the values of the expressions ( i ) 2x* 12x3 + 3x2 + 9x + 8 if x = H 1 + V3 ). ( i i ) 2x* 10x3 + 37x2 37x + 40 if X = 2+3J". Examine the signs of the roots of the equation (A:-2)x2-3x+(fc-5) = 0 when ( i ) k < 2, (ii ) 2 < k < 5 and ( i i i ) k > 5. For the quadratic equation x 2 + 3 hx + 36 = 0, find ( i ) the condition satisfied by h2, so that the roots are real; ( i i ) the values of h, which satisfy the condition in (i) ; ( i i i ) the other root if one of the roots is 3 (1 + i y [ 3 ) ; (iv ) the value of h when the roots are as in (iii ). If be a root of the equation 4x 2 + 2x 1 = 0 , prove that 4 3 3 is the other root. If the ratio of the roots of the equation x 2 +px + q = 0 be equal to the ratio of the roots of x 2 + P\X + qt = 0, show that p2qi e= pt2q.
19.
20. 21. 22. 23.
24.
25.
26. 27.
lB3
28.
29.
If the difference of the roots of the equation x2-px+q =0 is the same as the difference of the roots of the equation x2 qx + p 0, then show that p + q + 4 = 0. Two candidates attempt to solve a quadratic equation of the form x2 +px +q = 0 . One starts with a wrong value of p and finds the roots to be 2 and 6. The other starts with a wrong value of q and finds the roots to be 2 and 9. Find the correct roots. If <x, ft, y are the roots of the equation 2x3 + 3X + 4 = 0 find the values of ( i ) 2 and (iv) ( v ii) 2 , ' < x (iii) v ' 2 -io<p
30.
. K2 31. Solve the equation 2x3 - l l x 2 + 17x 6 = 0, it being given that the product of two of its roots is equal to 1. 32. Solve the equation x 1 + x 3 7x 2 ~ x 6 = 0, it being given the sum of two of its roots is equal to zero. 33. Solve the equation 2x 3 + 7x 2 + 2x 3 = 0, it being given that the sum of two of its roots is 34. Solve the equation
9 x 3 36X2 + 23x + 12 = 0,
it being given that one of its roots is half the sum of the other two, [ Hint: Let the roots be a d, a, a + d ]. 35. If ft, y are the roots of the equation x 3 + 2x + 3 = 0 find the values of ( i ) (ii) ( + fi) C/3 + Y) (Y + ) , 3 + ft3 + y\
1
4-_i_4.
36.
, /3, y, < 5 are the roots of the equation *4-10x2 + 9 * - 2 = 0 < * y % = q and 2 P = r.
and
2 J = n,
Show that ( i ) p+l0q = 0; ( ii ) p=4r.
and
Answers.Exercise 7 (a)
I. (i) * = 101 or (ii ) * = - 97. * = Hint:
9800 = 98 x 100 ( )
and hence
dednce one root.
'
< x = (1 -J5 ).
(iv )
* = 1,
x = 7" ab
H i n t : By inspection * = 1 satisfies the equation. c ct _ ^ ,
.*.,
1 is a root
The product of the two roots is
hence dednce the
other root, (v) * = - 3 V 2 .

4. (i) k = (ii)
2 (vi) * =-7-; * = - 5k.

k 10. ft = 7, 5,
9 12
6 (ii)
I I . ft = 2, - 2 5 .
( i ) * = 8 7 . - 37,
1." + 6 ~-|Cb + a ?a
13.
(,)
()
(in)
f.v)
(v)
(vi)
ir--
(vii)
14. 15.
- 5* + 7 = 0. ( i ) (ii) * a - 2a* + a2 - b = 0. (a
6) *a 2 ( + &)* + (a b)
(ii) (iv)
=0.
16.
(!) (iii)
** - 6 * + 1 1 = 0 . 3*" + 2 * + 3 = 0.
* ' - 2* + 9 = 0. ** - 10* + 27 = 0.
( v ) 3*' - 2* + 1 = 0. 17. *' + j 0; x = - 1 +
18
(i)
k = ~ .
( i i ) ft = 8 .
(iii) ft = 13 .
( i v ) ft ^ 8.
QUADRATIC EQUATIONS : 22. 24. 25. 29. 30. 31. k (i ) (iii) (i) 3 23 (i) (ii) 4 4->/3. (ii) 3 ( l + ).
lB3
B o t h negative. Both positive. > 16. (ii)
One positive and one negative. or < - 4 . (iii) 3(1 - V?) .
( i v ) ft = - 2. Roots are - 4 and - 3, (i) 2, -3. 3. (ii) -3/4. 32. 1 , (iii) 1, 0. (iv)
- 3 2.
35. (i)
H^-'3. (ii) -9.
3 , - 4 (iii)
^.3.
-J-'
13.
Common Roots.
If the two linear equations, say,
ax + b = 0 and a'x + b' = 0 are satisfied by the same value of x, then there must be a relation between the constants of the two equations. The common value of x = a = a
the relation between the constants is. - a'b = - ab' i. e. ab' - a'b = 0. Similarly, we may expect that the constants of two quadratic equations will satisfy a condition when the equations are satisfied by the same value of x. We proceed to obtain such conditions. I. To find the condition that + b'x + c' = 0 ax2 + bx + c - 0 and a'x2 may have a common root. If o e be the common root, we have a*2 + b* + c = 0 and a'2 + b' + c' - 0.
( 1) (2 )
These two equations can be considered as two simultaneous equations in two unknowns 2 and .
Multiply ( 1 ) by a' and ( 2 ) by a and subtract ( 1 ) from ( 2 ) ; we get a'a<*2 + a'b + a'c = 0, aa'2 + ab'<x + ac' = 0 .*. ( ab' a'b) <* + ac' a'c = 0. = ab ab
v(
3) '
Similarly multiply ( 1 ) by b' and ( 2 ) by b and subtract ( 2 ) from ( 1 ) ; we get b'a2 + b'b* + b'c = 0, ba'ofl + bb' + be' = 0. ( ab' - a'b)*2+ ( b'c - be ) = 0. ab' - a'b
By eliminating < x between ( 3 ) and ( 4 ) , we get the required condition; thus O ' ~ fe'c> _ - M2 - ( ca - c q) 2 . (ab' - a'b) ~ ~ l ) ~ (ab' - a'b)2 Cancel the factor ab' a'b from the denominators and cross multiply. We get the condition as ( ca' - c'a )? = (ab' - a'b ) (be - b'c ). ... ( 5 ) When this condition is satisfied the common root of the
CC ~ C (\ or which is the two given equations is j, a'b -y, ( ab'
c a c a
same as
be - - b'c \ ca - c'a j ' In solving examples it will be found simpler to proceed ab initio without quoting the above result. If <x, (8, and /3' be the roots of the two given quadratic equations, then _ c ___ _ _c_ ca c'a _ c ( ab' ab ) a ' ~ a ab' a'b ~ a {ca' c'a) , a, c' c ca c'a c (ab' a'b) and p = r - v - = r -T- - n rr = ~ r - , a a ab ab a {ca c a)
lB3
If.
To find the conditions that a x2 + b' x + c = 0
ax2 + bx + c = 0 and may have both the roots common.
Let <x, /3 be the common roots, so that
, -u ft =
a
b'
A O
= j and /3 = - = , - a a a
and
'
Therefore, ~ A a a .".
- = a
= = are the required conditions. a b c
When these conditions are satisfied, we have a = ka, b' = kb and c' = kc where k is a constant. Hence the second equation can be written as k ( ax2 + bx + c ) = 0 . Therefore, the two given equations becon.e identical.
Ex. 1. Solve the equations 48* 3 - 82* + 35 = 0, 66* a - 67* + 10 = 0,
it being given that they have a common root. Let x be the common root of the two given equations. 48 2 - 82x + 35 - 0 ; 66 x s - 67* + 10 = 0. Solve these two relations as simultaneous equations in x a and x ; we have on multiplying first by 11 and second by 8, 528 a - 902 x + 385 = 0, 528 a - 536 x + 80 = 0. .-. subtracting " - 366 x + 305 = 0. *
=
366 ~ 6
The product of the two roots of first equation = 5
48
Since the common root is
7 the other root = -5-
Similarly the product of the two roots of the second equation 10 = i. e. 5
66
33
2 ; and hence its other root is ----
11
Ex. 2 . Determine the value k for which the equation 2* a 5* + k = 0 and 4 * ! 8* + k = 0 have a common root.
2 0 8 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA Let be the common root of the two given equations Then, 2x a - 5* + k = 0 ;
4x* - g o t +
... ...
... ...
... ...
(i) { ii )
k = 0.
Solve equations (i ) and ( i i ) multiply (i ) by 2 ; we have 4x2 - 10x + 27: = 0 Subtract ( i i i )
as simultaneous equations in _
and x ; )
(iii
from ( i i ) and we get or x = &/2. Then k 5 + k = 0; or k' - 3k = 0.
2x - k = 0 Substitute in ( i ) . 7-1 2 /. Ex. 3.
k (k - 3) = 0 Prove that if the equations x1 + bx + ca - 0, a2 + ax + be 0.
k = 0 or 3. x* + cx + ab * 0
have a common root, their other roots will satisfy the equation Let x be the common root. + 6x + ca = 0 and 2 + c< + 6 = 0. ... ... ... ... ... ... ( i ) ( ii )
Subtracting ( ii ) from ( i ) , we have x ( 6 - c ) + a ( c - 6 ) = 0. [b c) ( x a ) = 0 <x, the common root, must be a. [ 6 cannot be equal to c ; otherwise the two equations become identical. ] a satisfies the first equation. .. .'. a (a + b + c ) = 0. we have the relation a + b + c = 0. the product of the roots is ca, the other root of the first equation is c. Similarly, the other root of the second equation is b. the other two roots satisfy the equation {x b ) \x c) = 0 x"1 + ax + be 0. i. e [v x* - (t + c) x + be - 0. 6 + c = - a from ^ iii ) ]. ... ... (iii) .'. a 2 + ab + ac = 0.
14.
Equations Reducible to a Quadratic.
Wc propose f b consider, here, some types of equations, the solutions of whicli can be made to depend upon the solutions of quadratic equations, by suitable devices. The few types, which are given be'ow, should be carefully noted by the students.
lB3
I.
Equations reducible by inspection.

Ex. 1. Solve ( * + 1 ) ( x + 2) "Rearranging the factors } (* 1) U + 4 ) $ ) (x + 2) (x + 31 \ = 120. ( x1 + 5X + 4 ) ( x 2 + 5x + 6 ) = 120. Putting y for x1 + 5x + 4, the equation becomes y ( y + 2 ) = 120. y' + 2y .. ( * + 3 ) ( * + 4 ) = 120.
120 =-0.
(y
+ 12)
(y - 10) = 0,
y = - 12 or y = 10. x3 + 5x + 4 = - 12 or x2 + 5x + 4 = 10. x1 + 5x + 16 = 0, or x1 + 5 * - 6 = 0.
Using the formula for the first equation, w e have _ ~ 5 "J 25 - 64 _ -^5 J-7^39
*-
'
2
" * = - 6 or +1,
Factorising the left hand side, the second equation is (* + 6 ) ( * - l ) = 0 ; the solution is given by x = 1 or - 6 or t = - 5 VXij ^
In general, an equation of the form ( * + a ) ( x + b) ( * + c ) (x+d) = k where the sum of any two of the four quantities a, b, c, d is equal to the sum of the remaining two, can always be solved in this manner.
II. Equations reducible by suitable substitutidb.
Substituting y for
*2 + 4
, the equation becomes y2 - 3y - 40 = 0.
< y - s ) ( y + 5) = o.
y = 8 .. *2 + 4 0 = = 8 * x* - 8x + 4 = 0 * = or or or 16 or or j = -5, x3 + 4 - = - 5. J x x2 + 5x + 4 0. ( * + 4) (*+l)=0.
J 64
^
x = 4 Jl2 the solution is given by x = 4 2 C . A.14
* = - 4 or * = - 1,
- 4 or - 1.
2 1 0 '. COLLEGE ALGEBRA Solve 4 1 + * + 4 1 " * = 10. 4-4 2 * - 10-4* + 4 = 0.
Ex. 3 .
W e have 4-4* + 4 - 4 ~ * = 10. Let
4 x = y : the equation reduces to 4-y' - lOy + 4 = 0 . 2y'
- 5y
+ 2 = 0,
( 4
2y X l => y
1) ( y - 2) = 0. X or 4 = 2-
' y
1 = y or
y = 2.
2 2 * = 2 " 1 or 2 2 * = 2.
2x = - 1 or 2* = 1.
..
-1 a; = -r2
or
x = 2
III.
Simultaneous equations.
The solution of simultaneous equations, one of which is linear, and the other of the second degree, can be obtained by solving a quadratic equation in one of the two unknowns.
Ex. 4 . Solve * + y - 2 = 0 ... 7 = 0. ... ... ... ... ... ( i ) (ii )
+ y"- +
2*
+ 3y -
T h e general method of solving such equations is two unknowns x or y. Frou ( i ) , w e h a v e y = 2 x Substituting this value in equation ( i i ) , we get x* + ( 2 - * ) + 2x x + (4 .'. ..
1 2
to eliminate one of the
+3(
2 -
) -7=0.
+ ^ e ) + 2x + 6 - 3* - 7 = 0. (x - 1 ( 2x - 3 ) = 0.
7x* - 5x + 3 = 0. 3 x = 1, or x = 2 i. e.
If * = 1, then y = 2 x and
y = 1; i. e. y =
if x = ~ ; then y = 2 x
ttie required solution is
= 1.
y = 1
or * = -
y = J '
Students who are familiar with Co-ordinate Geometry know that the pairs' of values of (*, y satisfiyir.g the equations i ) and ii) give the co-ordinates of the points of intersection in which the line ( i ) intersects the curve ( i i i.
lB3
Exercise 7 ( b ) 1. Solve the equations 28x 2 + 71x + 4 5 = 0 , 32x2 + 20x 25 = 0,
it being given that they have a common root. Solve the equations 104.x2 115x + 21 = 0, 7 2 x 2 - 103x + 35 = 0, it being given that they have a common root. Find k, if the equations 8x 2 18* + 3fc = 0 and 6x2 - llx + 4k = 0 have a common root; and obtain the common root for this value of k. 4. Find k, if the equations 9** 36x + 5k = 0, and 9x2 - 30x + 4k = 0 have a common root; and obtain the common root for this value of k. 5. If x2 + ax + b = 0 and x2 + bx + a = 0 have a common root, show that either a b or a + b +1=0. 6. Show that the equations 2x 7x + 3 = 0, 2 ( 2 + A:)x2 + ( 4 + 3A:) x-(3 + 2k) = 0 have a common root for any value of k. Find the value of k for which the two equations have both roots common.
2
2.
3.
7. If x2 + ax + be = 0 and x2 4- bx + ac = 0 have a common root, show that their other roots satisfy x2 + cx+ab = 0. Solve the following equations : 8. 9. 10. 11. 0 - 5 ) (jc-7) 0 + 4 ) ( x + 6 ) = 504. 0 + l ) ( 2 x + 3 ) ( x - l ) ( 2 x - l ) = 63. 0 + 2 ) ( * + 4 ) ( x + 5 ) ( x + 7 ) = 55. ( 3 * 2 5JT + 4 ) 2 5 ( 3 x 2 5x~) 26.
13. 14.
4 * - 3 3 - 2 * " 2 + 2 = 0. 9* 4-3* +2 + 243 = 0.
2 1 2 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA /
15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20.
x+ ^= *2-2j>J = l. x = 2>> + 5, x2 + 4y2 3* + 14>' + 1 4 = 0 . 3x - 2y = 7, xy = 20. x1 + 4 j 2 1 30y + 80 = 0, xy - 6. jc + j? = 4, xy = - 45. x* - 7x* + 4x2 + 32x - 24 = 0, it being given 3 + yf~5 is a root of the equation. AnswersExercise 7 ( b ) that
_ 5 _9 5 5 1. I-y- and . j .
7 2. -
and
3 3. ft = 0 or 3 and corresponding common roots are 0, "

2
4. ft = 0 or 4 and corresponding common roots are 0, 6. ft = - y 9. * = 2. ~25 . i ( - l /V4"7). - 9 V - 19 - 9 3-/5~ 10. ,^

11 O 11. *-2 .-y,
1
8. * = 3, ~ 2, 8. - 7.
fi
12.
* =
- 4 VlO
2 '
7
8
13. * = - 2. 3.
14. * = 2, 3. 16 * = 1, 2 ; y = - 2, ~ 3
15, je = 3, 17; y = 2, - 12 17. * = 5, ~ 8 ; y = 4,
18. * = 6, 2, 4, 3 ; y = 1, 3 3/2, 2. 20. * = 3, - 2, 3 >/J.
19. * = 9, - 5 ; y = - 5, 9
Chapter 8
Method of Induction
1. Introduction. 2 Principle of Mathematical Induction. 3. T h e sum of natural numbers. 4. The sum of squares. 5. The sum of cubes. 6. Illustrative examples. Exercise 8.
1. Introduction.
Many important propositions or formulae depending on the positive integer n can be established by a method known as the Method of Induction. We denote the formula or the proposition to be established by P ( n ). 2. Principle of Mathematical Induction. If a given proposition P ( n ) involving n is true for n = 1 and if its truth for n = k implies its truth for n = k + 1, then P ( n ) is true for every natural number n. Thus, proof by Mathematical Induction is completed in two steps : ( a ) The proposition P ( n ) to be proved is verified in the first step, for n = 1. ( b ) The assumption of the proposition P ( n ) for n = k is sufficient to show that P ( n ) is true for n = k 4- 1. We now use this method to prove some important formulae in the following articles.
3. The sum of natural numbers.

We prove that the sum of the first n natural numbers is n(n + l ) 2 Here, P ( n ) is
1 + 2 +
3 + . . .. + =
213
...
( i )
( a ) We must first verify that the formula is true tor n = 1. Put n = 1 in ( i ) ; the L. H. S. = I ; the R. H. S. =
1 ( 1+ 1 }
= 1.
L. H. S = R. H. S. and P ( 1 ) is true. ( b ) We must now show that the truth of P ( n ) for n = k* the truth of P ( n ) for n = k + 1 : i. e. we have to show that the truth of P ( k ) , namely, 1+2 + 3+ = ... (U)
implies the truth of P ( k + 1 ) , namely, ! + 2 + 3 + . + k + < * + 1 ) = i i m i i t i j . . . (iii) L,. H. S. of ( i i i ) = [ 1 + 2 + + * ] + (ifc + 1) = k(k+l) - ^ - + ( ^ + 1 ) , due to the assumption ( i i )
= U + l) I ^
+ 1
- (k + l ) [ k + 2]
~ 2
_ ( * + i)[(A;+i) + i ]
2 = R. H . S. of ( iii). By the step (. a ), P ( ) is true for n = 1. Therefore, by step (b), P (n ) is true for n = 2, and hence for = 3, and hence for = 4 and so on for every natural number n.
4. The sum of squares.

We prove that the sum of squares of first n natural numbers is
n(n + l ) ( 2 n + l )
6 Here P ( n ) is 12 + 22 + y + . . . r ( n n 2 n .
+ n 2 =
METHOD OF INDUCTION :
215
(a)
We first verify the formula ( i ) for n = 1.

i. e. 1 ;
Put = 1 in ( i ) ; L. H. S. = I 2
L. H. S = R. H. S. and P ( 1 ) is verified to be true. ( b) p + ^ We now show that the truth of P ( k ), namely, + .-.+ ^ W l l ^ , ... (ii)
implies the truth of P ( k + 1 ), namely, 12 + 22 + 32 k2 + ( k + 1 V

=
(k + \) (k+
1 + 1 ) (2k + 1 + 1 ) 6
(iU)
L. H. S. of (iii) = ( l 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 + k?) + (k + 1 )2
=
A - (fc+1) (2fe+l)
6
+ (k +
J y
( ii )
due to assumption _
~
k + X
[k{2k
+ \) + 6 ( * + l ) ]
k + l 12k? +
+ 6]
__ {k+D
-
(k + \ + l ) ( 2 f c + I + 1)
^
= R. H. S. of ( iii).
From the two steps ( a ) and ( b ), P ( n ) is true for every natural number .
5. The sum of cubes.

We prove that the sum of cubes of first n aatural numbers is n2 ( n + 1 ) 2
Here P ( n ) is
!3 +
23 + 33
+ ...
! ! ! W ! .
m>
( i )
(a)
We first verify the formula ( i ) for n = 1. L. H. S. = l 3 i. e. 1 ;

1 2
Put n = 1 in ( i ) ; R.H.S. =
11+U2=1. 4
L. H. S. = R. H. S. and P (1) is verified to be true for n = 1. ( b) We now show that the truth of P ( k ), namely, l 3 + 2 3 + 33 + + A . . . (ii)
implies the truth of P ( k + 1 ), namely, l 3 + 2 3 + 3 3 + + &3 + (A: + 1 ) 3 =

1
. . . (m)
L. H. S. o f ( i i i ) = ( l 3 + 2 3 + . . . + ^ ) + (it + l)3 =
+
(k+ l)2 A '[t<?
l)3, by assumption (ii)
+ 4(k+
1)]
- ( & + l ) 2 ( f r + 21 2 4 (fc + i ) 2 ( + T + T" l)2
= R. H. S. of ( i i i ) . From the steps (a) and (b), P ( n ) is true for every natural number n. 6. Illustrative examples.
The results which are known before hand intuitionally or ;,iven otherwise and depend only on positive integers can only be proved by Induction. It might happen that a particular proposition holds for all positive integral values of ^ m ; in this case in the first step ( a ) we verify the result for w = m and
METHOD OF INDUCTION : then proceed with the second step ( 6 ) as before. in the illustrative example 4. Ex. 1. Prove by the method of induction that P():3 + 7+ll + + ( 4 - 1 ) = n (2n + 1 ) . ...
217
This point is illustrated
(i>
The first, second, third etc. terms on the L. H . S . of ( i ) are obtained by putting K = 1, 2, 3 etc. in ( ^n 1 ) ; this shows that the last term on the L. H. S. of ( i ) is the ntb term of the series. ( ) We verify the result for n = 1. Put /.
= 1 in ( i ) . L. H. S. = 3 ; R H . S. = 1 (2-1 + 1)
=3.
L. H. S. = R. H. S.; P ( 1 ) i s verified to be true. 3 + 7 + 11 + + (4ft - 1) = ft (2ft + 1 ) . ... (ii) (iii)
( ) We now show that the assumption of the truth of P ( f t ) , namely, implies the truth P ('ft + 1 ) , namely, [ 3 + 7 + 11 + + (4ft - 1 ) ] + (4ft + 3 ) ft ( 2ft + 1 ) + (4ft + 3 ), by assumption ( i i ) 2fe* + 5ft + 3 (ft + 1) (2ft + 3 )
3 + 7 + 11 + + (4ft1) + ( 4 f t + 3 ) = ( f t + 1 ) [ 2 (ft + l) + l ] . L. H. S. of (iii) = = = =
= (ft + 1) [2 (ft + 1) + 1]
= R. H. S. of ( i i i ) . We have thus proved that if the result ( i ) is true for n = k, it remains true for the next integral value of n namely ft+1. Since the result i s verified for n = 1 in step ( a ) , it follows that it is true by step ( b ) for n = 1 + 1 = 2 and hence for n = 2 + 1 = 3 and so on for all positive integral values of . Ex. 2 . Prove by the method of induction that
_L + JL + L + . . . . +
1-2 2*3 3-4 Let P (n be : 1-2
( + !)
(n + 1 )
.
(
+ ~ + i - + - + . 1 , --; = r ~ X - P i 2-3 3-4 ( + 1) (n + 1)
( a ) We verify the result ( i ) fdr = 1 Put = 1 in ( i ) , L. H . S . = L. H. S. = R. H. S

l T r
V r
= - T
'
S>
I T
P ( 1 ) is verified to be true.
/ ( b ) We now show that the assumption of the truth of P (ft), namely.
I
12
l
2 *3
l
3*4 ft(fc
1
+ l)
ft_
ft + 1 '
1
"'
implies the truth of P (ft + 1 ) , namely, 1-2
J- + J _ +
2-3
'
ft(fc + 1)
(ft + 1) ( f t + 2 ) ft +
-fe +
2 " "
' "
2 1 8 : COLLEGEALGEBRA/
L. H. S. of (iii) -
+ - 3+ + j
+ [(~k+
l )
k + 2 )
(IhTT W)'
1
b y assumption (!i
>
fc' + 2ft +
(ft+1)ii+2)
(fe + i y (ft+l) (ft + 2 t

= tr-4 = H- H. S k + 2 of (iii '.
We have thus proved that if the result ( i ) is true for n = ft, it remains true for the next integral value of n namely k + 1. Since the result is verified to be true for = 1 in step ( a ) , it follows by step ( b ) that it is true for * = 2, and hence for n = 3, and so on for all positive integral values of , Ex 3. Prove by the method of induction that 3 1 is divisible by 8 for all positive integral values of n. Let P ( ) be : 3 " " - 1 is divisible by 8. ( a ) We verify the result ( i ) for n = 1. Put = 1 in ( i ) . L. H . S. = 3 2 - 1 = 8 which is divisible by s. ... - (. i )
2n
The result ( i ) , thus, is verified to be true for = 1. (b) We now show that the assumption of the truth of Pik e. namely,
3 2 f t - 1 is divisible by 8. i
32'1 1 = 8m, when m is a positive integer, implies the truth of P (K + 1 ) , namely, 3-'i + 2 _ l W e have is divisible by 8. 3 l = 3 - 3 - 1
... ...
... ...
{ii ) (iii)
...
2
by assumption (ii I
= ( 8f + 1) 3 - 1,
= (
+ 1)9 1
= 72 m + 8 = 8 ( 9m + 1 ), which is divisible by 8. We true for for = for n = have thus proved that if the result ( i ) is true for n k, it remains the next integral value of n namely k + 1. Since the result is verified 1 in step (a), it follows by step (6) that it is true for = 2 and hence 3 and so on for all positive integral values of n. Prove by induction the ' inequality I 1 + * ) " > ! + * for = 2, 3, 4, and * > - 1 , * =fc 0.
Ex. 4 .
METHOD OF INDUCTION : 2 1 9 Let P ( n ) be : ( X + * )" > 1 + nx. (a ) W e verify the result ( i 1 for = 2. L. H. S. = ( 1 + * ) 2 = 1 + 2* + x7.. ... ... ( i)
Put = 2 in ( i ) , R. H . S = 1 + 2 *
W e obviously have 1 + 2x + x2 > 1 + Zx, since * 2 > 0 The result ( i ) is thus verified to be true for n = 2. < 6) W e now show that the assumption of the truth of P (k), namely,
(1 + * ) f e > 1 +
ft*.
...
...
...
(")
. (i)
implies the truth of P ( ft + 1 ) , namely, ( 1 + * ) f t + 1 > 1 + (fe + 1 ) * . W e have ( 1+*
= ( 1 + * )* ( 1 + * ) > ( 1 + ft*) ( 1 + * ) , doe to assumption (ii) and * > - 1.
(1 + *
:. ( 1 + * ),i+1
> 1 + (fe+ 1) * +
kx2.
> 1 + ( k + 1 ) * , since fe*2 > 0.
W e have thus proved that if the result ( i ) is true for n - k, it remains true for the next integral value of n namely k + 1. Since the result is verified to be true for n = 2 in step ( a ) , it follows by step ( b ) that it is true for tt = 3, and hence for = 4 , and so on for all positive integral values of ^ 2. Ex. 5 . Prove by induction that 2 n > n Let P ( n ) be : 2** > ( a) ... for every natural number . ... . ()
W e first verify that P ( 1 ) is true. L. H. S. = 2 1 = 2 ; R H . S. = 1.
Put n - 1 in ( i ) . V ( 6)
L. H. S > R H. S., the result { i ) is verified to be true for = 1. W e now show that the assumption of the truth of P ( fe ), namely, 2& > fe. ... ... ... (i)
implies the truth of P ( fe + 1 ) , namely, 2* + 1 > fe + 1 L . H . S. of ( i i i ) = 2/i+1, (iii)
= 2-2
> 2 fe, due to the assumption ( i i ) W e notice that, for each natural number fe, it is true that 2fe > fe + 1, because 2fe = fe + fe and fe + ft > fe + 1 for every fe > 1 ft+1, L H. S of ( i i i ) which is greater than 2ft is obviously greater than which is R. H . S. of ( i i i ) .
2 2 0 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA / We have thus proved that if the result ( i ) is true for n = k, it remains true for the next integral value of n , namely, fe + 1 Since the result is verified to be true for n = 1 in step (a), it follows by step ( b ) that it is true for n = 2 and hence for n = 3 and so on for all positive integral values of n.
Exercise 8 Use the method of induction to prove the following results. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 1 + 3 + 5 + + ( 2 n - l ) = n . 2 + 4 + 6+ + 2/7 = n ( n + 1 ).
1 + 4 + 7 + -... + ( 3 - 2 ) 2 + 6 + 10+ .... + ( 4 - 2 ) = 2 + 22 + 2 3 + 2n.
f 2* = 2 n + 1 2.
I 3 + 3 3 + 5 3 + + ( 2n - 1 )3 = n (2n - 1 ). 1-2 + 2-3 + 3-4 + + ( n + l ) = | n ( n + l ) ( + 2).
1-2-3+ 2-3-4+ 3-4-5+ - - - + (w + l ) ( B + 2 ) = T

(
"
1 )
( " + 2 > ( " + 3 >( + 1 ) (2 + 7). n 3n+l'
9.
1 - 3 + 2 - 4 + 3-5 + . . . + ( + 2 ) = ~ J_ , J_ , _J_ , 1.4 4-7 7-10

1
in 1U
1 _ (3 2) (3 + 1) ~
1
11 ""
3-5
5-7
-IT
1 I 7-9 ^
(2/1 + 1) ( 2 n + 3) n ~ 3^2n + 3) '
12 A
3-8
+ T
8-13
+ T
1 l 13-18 ^
TI
(5n-2)(5n+3) n ~ 3 (5rt + 3)
METHOD OF INDUCTION : 2 2 1
13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
2 4 " - 1 is divisible by 15. 5*" 1 is divisible by 24. 3 2 " + 7 is divisible by 8. 2 2 b + 1 + l i s divisible by 3. a" bn is divisible by a b. [Hint: a f e + 1 - b = a ( a - b ) + b(a
2n
- b* )].
18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25
is divisible by a + b.
10" + 3 ( 4" + 2 ) + 5 is divisible by 9. n ( n + 1 ) ( 2 + 1 ) is a multiple of 6. n + In is divisible by 3. 2"~1<! where n\ = n (n 1 ) ( 2 ) - " 2 - l . log x" = n log x. ( c o s 9 + i sin 9 )" = cos n 9 + i sin n 9. f x " ) = rix"1. ax [This example should be attempted
by students knowing calculus ].
Chapter 9
Progressions
1. Sequences and Series 2. Definition of Arithmetic Progression. 3. th term of A. P. 4. Sum of terms of A. P. 5. Sum of first n natural numbers. 6. Sum of first tt odd natural numbers. 7 Convenient representation of terms in A. P. 8. Illustrative examples. Exercise 9 (a). 9. Definition of Geometric Progression. 10. nth term of G. P. 11. Sum of terms of G. P. 12. Convenient representation of terms in G. P. 13. Illustrative examples. Exercise 9 (b). 14. Definition of Harmonic Progression 15. th term of H. P. whose first two terms are and fi 16. Important property of three consecutive terms in H. P. 17. Illustrative examples. 18 Definitions of Means. 19 Values of A. M., G. M. and H. M. 20. Theorems on Means. 21. Insertion of n means between two numbers. 22. Illustrative examples. Exercise 9 (c).
1. Sequences and Series : Definition. If to every positive integer n, there corresponds a number an given by some law then the terms au a2, a3..an... form a sequence. A sequence is sometimes denoted by bracketing its nth term. Thus (an) means the terms au a3 a, ... The suffix of a denotes the rank of the term. If ( i ) aH = n , ( a ) is
(")
l 2 , 22, 3 2 . . . ,
-1,1,
2 n
, .
= ( - 1 ) " , ( ) is
-1,1,-1,..-
Generally the rule for forming the terms in the sequence is given by expressing an in terms of n. From strictly analytical point of view, a sequence is defined as a correspondence from a set of positive integers to a set of numbers a3, Hence a sequence can be defined as a function whose domain is a set of positive integers. In fact the numbers a i, a2> a 3. foTm the Tange of the sequence. However, by convention we say that the terms a t , a2,... an form a sequence.
222
PROGRESSIONS : 2 2 3
Illustrations. ( i ) (ii)
Consider the following sequences. 1 , 4 , 9 , 1 6 , 2 5,
5,9,13,17,
1 1 2, y >
(iv) /
v
1,
8 i r
3, - 9 , 27, - 8 1 , 1 2' 2. 1 3' 4' 5'
'
It will be observed that the relations between n and an in the above sequences are given as follows : In ( i ) a is the square of n. In ( ii ) a is obtained by adding 4 to a-1 and at = 5. In ( i i i ) the numerator of a is 1 and denominator is obtained by adding 3 to" the preceding-dehominator; and a t = In ( i v ) a is obtained by multiplying the preceding term <z-i by 3; and a x = 3 . In ( v ) the numerator of a n is n and the denominator is obtained by adding 1 to the numerator. The above relations can also be briefly stated^thus : In ( i ) o = n* ; in ( i i ) an ~ 4n +1; in ( i i i ) a =
1
>'
in (iv ) a = ( - 1 )
3* and in ( v ) a = j f - q p f Thus
the
various terms at, c 2 , d 3 a in the above sequences are obtained by giving to n the positive integral values, 1, 2, 3,- Series. When the sum of the terms of a sequence is under consideration, it is called a series. Definition. A series is an expression consisting of the of terms of a sequence. Thus if a n is the nth term of a sequence then
FLI + A7 +
sum
CJ3 H
AN
is a series of n terms.
Arithmetic Progression. 2. Definition of Arithmetic Progression.
A sequence ( an) defined by al = a and an = an_x 4- d where a and d are given numbers is called Arithmetic Progression. The number d is called the common difference. arithmetic progression is usually referred to as A. P. Thus ( i ) 3, 7, 11, 15, 19 An
( i i ) 8, 5, 2, - 1 , - 4 are examples of arithmetic progressions. In ( i ), the first term is 3, and the common difference is 4. In ( i i ) , the first term is 8, and the common difference is 3. Thus if the first term and the common difference are known, the A. P. is completely known. If a is the first term and d the common difference of A. P., then the progression can be written as a, (a + d), 3. (a + 2d), (a + 3d) an
To find the nth term of the Arithmetic Progression a , ( a + d), We observe that 1st 2nd 3rd 4th term term term term ( o f ax a2 a3 at = = = =
2d),
a a a a + + + +
( a + 3d), ... (0) (1) (2) (3) d, d, d, d,
It is noticed that the coefficient of d is one less than the suffix of a, which denotes the rank of the term in the sequence. nth term, a,, = a + ( n 1 ) d. We can prove the formula for the nth term of an A. P. by mathematical induction. Let P (n) be : nth term, a = a + ( n ~ l ) d . ( a ) Put n = 1 in ( i ), L. H. S. of ( i ) = a,. R. H. S. of ( i ) = a + ( I 1 ) d = a. ... ( i )
We have at = a. ( b)
Hence P ( l ) is true,
We now show that the assumption of P(k), namely, ak = a + (k - 1 )d ... (ii) implies the truth of P ( k + 1 ), namely, = a + {k + l \)d i . t . a + kd ... L. H. S. of (iii ), ak+1 = = = = = (iii)
ak + d, by definition [a + (-1 )d] + d, by ( i i ) a + kd - d + d. a + kd R. H. S. of ( i i i ) .
Thus, from steps ( a ) and ( b ) the formula ( i ) is proved by mathematical induction for all positive integral values of n.
Illustration. The t b term of the A P. 15,'8, 1, - 6, - 13
is 151+ ( - l ) ( - 7 ) i. e. 15 - 7n + 7 i e. 22 - In. We can, therefore,

write the general i. e. the nth term of this sequence as a n = 22 - 7. By giving to n , the values 1, 2, 3, of the given A, P. Ex. 1. 5, we can get the various terms
Find the t h terms of the following progressions. _ _

( i ) (ii ) 3, 8, 13, IS, 11,7,3,1 , - 5,
2 4 4> "
Ans. Ans. Ans.
a = 5n - 2. a = 15 4 28 - 5 4
<*>
,.
(lv
4 15
4 2- 7
an = *
8n Ans
23
> ~T" T ' T - T '
'
a , ! =
Ex. 2 ,
Find the 10th term in each of the progressions given in example 1. Ans. ( i ) 43, ( i i ) 25, (iii) (iv) 7-|-
4.
To find the ium of the first n terms of the A. P. . ( + d ), ( a + 2 c f ) , ( a +
Let S denote the sum of n terms ; and / denote the last (i. e. nth) term. Then S = a + ( a + d ) + (a + 2d) + ... + (I-2d) + (1-d) + / ... ( i )
C A.15
226
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA /
Writing the series in the reverse order, we have S = / + ( / - / ) + ( I - 2 d } + ... + (a + 2d) + ( a + d) + a. . . . ( i i ) Adding ( i ) and ( ii ), 2 S . = ( a + / ) + C + 0 + ( + 0 + + ( a + /) + (o + /) + ( a + / ) . There are n terms on the r, h. s. each equal to a + /. 2S = ( + / ) . / S = - ( + O , (i)
I is the nth term, we have [ = a + (n I ) d.
S = - [^2 + ( n - l ) r f ] Formulae remembered. (iii) and (iv) are useful and
(iv) be
should
4-1 Alternative Method The method of mathematical induction can be used to prove this result. Let P (w ) denote the formula for the sum of n terms, so that P ( n ) : a + ( a + d ) + (a + 2d) = ~ () Put n = 1 in ( i ). [2a + + - + (a + n-ld) ... (i)
L. H. S. of ( i ) = a. [ 2a + ( 1 - 1) d] = a.
R. H. S. of ( i ) = \
L. H. S. = R . H. S., P ( 1 ) is true. () We now show that the assumption of the truth of P { k ) , namely, a + (a + d)+ + (a+ k - Id) = ~ [2a + d] ... (ii)
implies the truth of P ( k + 1 ) , namely, a + (a + d) +

+
(a + k - l d ) + (a + kd) [2fl + (fc + l - l ) </]. ... (iii)
k+ 1
L. H. S. of ( iii ) = - y [ 2a + k - 1 d] + (a +
kd),
by assumption (ii ) = ka + ~ (k
2
- k ) d + a + kd (k2 + k)d
= (k + 1 )a + = k-[2a + kd]
= R. H. S. of ( i i i ) . From the steps (a) and ( b ) we see that P ( n ) is true for all positive integral values of n.
Ex. 1. (i) (ii ) Ex. 2. Find the sum of 8 + 13 + Is! + 23 + ... to 25 terms. 21 + 15 + 9 + 3 + ... to 20 terms. ~ Find the sum of Ans. n ( n + 1 ). Ans. Ans. 1620 1300. 21 + 22 + 23 + 24 + ... + 60. 4 + 8 + 12 4- 16 + ... + 100. Ans. 1700. Ans. - 720.
( i 1 2 + 4 + 6 V 8 + ... to terms. ( ii ) (iii)
S.
The sum of the first n natural numbers. 1, 2, 3 a r e the first n natural
The positive integers numbers.
Let S denote the required sum. Then Sn = 1 + 2 + 3 + + ( n 1) + The right hand side is an arithmetical series where a = 1 I = n and there are n terms in the sum. S= - y U +) [ by (iii ) of para 4. ]
Sn= ~
n(n+l).
U)
( i ) by mathematical induction in
Note. W e have proved the formula Chapter 8.
6.
The sum of the first n odd natural numbers. The first odd natural numbers are 1 . 3 , 5 , 7, 9,
They form an A. P. with the first term a = J, and the common difference d = 2. Let SM denote the required sum. S = + ("-!)X2], Then [ by ( iv ) of para 4 ].
S= -y[2n] = Therefore,
n\
the sum of the first n odd natural numbers in n2.
Note. The proposition that " the sum of first n odd natural numbers is c n also be proved by mathematical induction.
7.
Convenient representation of terms in A. P
When 3, 4, 5...terms in A. P are under consideration in any problem, it will be found more convenient to represent the terms in the following form ( i ) 3 numbers in A P. : a d, a, a + d. ( ii ) 4 numbers in A. P. : a - 3d, a - d, a 4- d, a + 3d ( iii) 5 numbers in A, P. : a 2d, a d, a, a + d, a + 2d. The advantage of assuming the terms in the above form can bs seen in the following illustrative example 1 of the next article. 8. Illustrative examples
Ex. 1. The sum of 4 numbers in A. P. is 22, and the sum of their squares is 166. Find the numbers. Let the fonr numbers in A. P. be a 3d, a d, a + d, a + 3d.
the sum of 4 numbers is 22, the sum of the squares is 166, (a - 3d)' + (a - d)1 + (a + d)'
4a 22,
.'.
'
+ (a + 3d)'
= 166. ... (ii )
4a J + 20ds = 166. Substituting the value of a from ( i ) in ( i i ) , we get

4
( T
20D1> =
'
20A 2 =
'
45
'
Thus, we have a= '.
11 3 and d =
taking positive value of d, the four numbers will be 1, 4, 7, 10.
The other value of d will give the numbers in reverse order. Note. If some terms of A. P. are given and we have to obtain some result involving such terms, then it will b e found c o n v e n i e n t to express the given terms in terms of the first term and the common difference of the A. P The following examples will illustrate the c o n v e n i e n c e of the process. Ex. '2. If a, b, c, are in A. P prove that a 2 + Aac + c a = 2 ( a b + be +
ca).
Let d be the common difference of the given A. P. so that b a + d and c = a + 2d. L. H S. = a 2 + 4a ( a + 2d ) + ( a + 2 d = a3 + 4a 2 + Sad + a" + 4 ad + = 6a' + \2ad + W1. .. + 2d2 + a 2 + 2ad ] .. ... (J)
R. H. S. = 2 [ a{ a + d ) + I a + d ) ( a + 2d ) + ( a + '~2d ) a ] = 2 [ a 2 + ad + a1 + lad = 2 [3a

2 %
+ 6 ad + 2d ] ... (H)
= 6a + I2ad + 4dr'. L H. S. = R H. S. and hence the result. Ex. 3. If a, b, c, d are in A. P , then show that
6 + c + d, c + d + a, d + a + b, a + b + c are in A. P. Let the common difference oi the given A. P . be x, so that b = a + x, c = a + 2x, and d = a + 3x. Now the given numbers will be in A. P. if between any two terms are the same. W e have the successive differences
( 6 + c + <i) - ( c + d + a) = b - a = x, (c + d + a ) - ( d + a + (d + a+ b ) = c - b = x , b ) - ( a + b + c ) = d - c = x,
Since the difference between any two consecutive terms is the same, namely the given terms are in A. P .
2 3 0 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA / Ex. 4 . Find the nth term and sum to terms of the A. P. 7, 3 , - 1 , - 5. ... Here a = 7, d =" - 4,
4.
nth term, an = a + ( n - I ) r f = 7-H(* 1 ) ( - 4 ) = u _ The sum of terms, S = [ 2a + ( n - X ) d ]
S = - [ 2 x 7 + ( - " 5 - CIS - 4 J . S = [9-2].
1 ) ( - 4 ) ] = JL. [ h - 1 + 4 ]
Thus the 10th term of this A P. a, 0 = 11 - 4 x 10 = 11 - 40 = - 29 and the sum of 10 terms, S,*, = 10 [ 9 - 2 x 1 0 ] = - 110. Ex. 5. nth term. [ If any two terms of an A. P. be given the progression can be completely determined ; for from the given data, we can obtain two simultaneous equations In a and d and solving these equations we can find a and d. ] 19 W e have and a, = a + 3d - as = a + 8d = 17. ... ... ... ... ... ... (i) (ii) If the 4th term of an A P is 9 ~ and the 9th term is 17, find the
Solving these two equations, we get a 5, and d = .-. the nth term a = + ( > - l ) < * = 5 + ( - l ) | - = ~ Find the sum of integers from 11 to 50.
Ex, 6 .
Find also the sum of integers from 11 to 50, excluding those which are exactly divisible by 3. Let the required sum be denoted by S, so that S = 11 + 12 + 13 + + 50-. = [1 + 2 + 3 + + 5 0 ] - [ l + 2 + 3 + -- -- + 10]
= 5 [5-51 - 11 J = 5 [255 - 11 J = 5 [244]
= 1220.
Now the integers between 11 and 50 which are exactly divisible by 3 are 12, 15, 18, 48.
PROGRESSIONS :
231
These numbers are in A. P., where a 12, d = 3 and n = 13 since 48 = 12 + ( n - 1 ) 3. Hence their sum, say, S' is given by S ' - ? [2-12 + ( 1 3 - 1) 3 ] = ^ [ 24 + 3 6 ] = ^ [ 6 0 ] = 390.
the sum of integers from 11 to 50 excluding divisible by 3 is given by S - S' = 1220 - 390 = 830. Ex. 7,
those which are exactly
Find the first four terms of the series the sum of which to n terms is (3 + 5). If the sum of terms is given in terms of n, then the terms of the
[ Note.
progression can be determined. For S n = a, + th + a 3 + a 4 + +

and S
+ a
a
-l=
+ ai +
-l,
:.
S - S . 2= a .
This example will illustrate the use of this formula. ] Hare, we have S j t = ~ ( 3 + 5 ).
-l
- 1 2~ [
n 4. , 1 _ ( n - 1) ~ 1) + 51 j
(3*t + 2)
the /ith term a n = S B S n _ i , the th term a n of the given series
- " (3n
2
+ 5 ]
_ ( ~ l)(3w +2)
2
6n +2
2 "
a n = 3 + 1 By putting n = 1, 2, 3, 4 we get first four terms as 4, 7, 10, 13. The students should note the formula a S S ,
This formula determines the th term of a series if the sum of terms is known. By giving particular values to , particular terms can be obtained. Ex. 8, The sums of the first n terms of two A. P.'s are as 3n + 5 : 5 - 9. Prove that their 4th terms are equal.
2 3 2 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA / Let the two A. P.'s be a, a + d, a + 2d a', a' + d', a' + 2d' We are given that a + (n - X ) d, a + ( - 1) d'.
s _ a
+<"-'>']
3jljL5
[ by data ]
la + (w - 1 ) d 2a' + (n-l)d'
3 + 5 5n - 9 '
a +
(i)
3ei
W e wan+ *o find the ratio of 4th terms ; that is, we want to find
a' + 3d'
which can be obtained from ( i ) above, by writing it a s putting = 7 in ( i ) above,
a +
2a + 6d
j. e . by
d =
"
a' + 3d
~ 2a' + 6d'
4th terms of the two series are equal. Students may use this method to solve examples 13 and 14 in the next Exercise. Ex. 9 . The sum of the first 1! terms of an A:. P. is 19 and the sum of first 19 terms is 11. Find the sum of the first 30 terms. Let the first term and the common difference of the given A. P be a and d respectively. From the given conditions of the problem, we have [2a + 104] = 1 > ; ... ( i )
and we have to obtain the value of
[2a + 2d].
30
...
(iii)
Equations ( i ) and ( i i ) can be solved for a and d and their values, if substituted in (iii) would give the required result. But it may be found more convenient to proceed in examples of this type as follows : Subtract equation ( i ) from ( i i ) as [2a (19 . follows:
- 11) + d (19-18 - II 10) ] = ( H - 19 ),
[2a (8) + d- ( 2 3 2 ) ] = - 8.
Cancelling common factor 8 from every term, we get ~
[2a-h29d]
= J.
.'. the required result can be simply obtained by multiplying both the sides by 30, .'. [ 7a + 29rf ] = - 30.
Students may use this method in examples of such type, such as examples 16 and 17. in the next Exercise. Ex. 10. The sum of the first p terms of an A. P. is the same as the sum of the first q terms. Show that the sum of the first (p + q) terms is zero. Let a and d be the first term and th- common difference of the given A.P. We have, sum of p terms, say, St> =
P [2a + (p - I ) d ] .
[ 2a + ( q - 1 ) d ],
Similarly, the sum of q terms, say, S , =
from the given condition of the problem, we get
---[ta
+ (q-l)d].
...
(i)
Now we have to obtain the sum of (p + q) terms, say, S,i+g. We have Sf,+, = [ 2a + ( p 4- q - 1 ) d ] . ... (ii >
From ( i ) , we get
2a (p - q) + d [P(P
2a {p - q) + d ip
1
1) - q{q - 1)] = 0+ = 0.
- q*-p
2a (P - q) + d (p - g) {P + q - 1) = 0. 2a f d (P + q - 1) = 0. Substituting the value given by iii in ( i i ) , we have ... (iii)
Exercise 9 ( a ) 1. Find the nth terra and also the 10th term of each of the following sequences
(iii)
1-3, 3-5, 5.7,7-9, ( i v ) 31,24,17, 10,
(v)
2, 5, 10, 1 7 , . . .
(vi;
(vii)
I**'
( v i U ) 243
' 28'
173
'
138
'' '
2.
Find the nth term and the sum to n terms, if ( i ) the 7th term of the A.P. is 30 and the 10th term is 21. (ii ) the 4th term of the A.P. is 64, and the 54th term is - 61. If p, q, r, s are any four consecutive terms of an A. P., show that p2 - 3q2 + 3 r 2 - s2 = 0. If the j?th, gth, rth terms of an A. P. are a, b, c respectively, show that a (q r )+b(r~p)+c(p q) = 0. I f p , qr r, s, t are in A. P. show that p + t = q + s =2r. If the pth term of an A. P. is q, and the qth term is p, find the rth term. Find three numbers in A. P. such that ( i ) ( ii ) their sum is 15 and the product is 105; their sum is 27 and the sum of their squares is 341-
3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Find four numbers in A. P. such that ( i ) their sum is 44 and the sum of their squares is 564; ( i i ) the sum of 2nd and 3rd is 22 and the product of 1st and 4th is 85.
9.
Find five numbers in A. P. such that ( i ) ( ii ) their sum is 20 and the product of the first and the last is 15; their sum is 25, and the sum of their squares is 135. 4 - 7 + 10 - 13 + 16 - 19 + . . . to 21 terms ; 2 + 3 + 5 + 6 + 8 + 9 + 1 1 + 1 2 + 14 + 15 + ' ...to 2n terms; 2 + 3 - 4 + 6 + 7 - 8 + 1 0 + 1 1 - 12 + ... to 3n terms.
10.
Find the sum of the series ( i ) (ii) (iii)
Deduce also the sum of ( I n + 1 ) and ( 3 + 1 ) terms in series ( i i ) and ( i i i ) respectively.
PROGRESSIONS
: 235
11. 12.
Find the sum of all natural numbers between 200 and 400 which are exactly divisible by 6. Find the sum of all natural numbers from 1 to 150, ( i ) (ii ) excluding those which are exactly divisible by 7 ; excluding those which are exactly divisible by 3 or 7.
13.
The sum of n terms of two arithmetic series are in the ratio of In + 1 : 4n + 27; find the ratio of their 11th terms. The sum of n terms of two arithmetic series are in the ratio of In - 5 : 5n + 17 ; show that the 6th terms of two series are equal. The first and the third terms of an A. P. of 40 terms are 29 and - 22. Find the sum of all its positive terms. The sum of the first 13 terms of an A. P. is 21, and the sum of the first 21 terms is 13. Find the sum of the first 34 terms. The sum of the first m terms of an A. P. is n, and the sum of the first n terms is m Find the sum of the first ( m + n ) terms. The first and last terms of an A. P. a r e a and / respectively. If s be the sum of all the terms of the A. P., show that the common difference is P-a2 2s-(/+o) '
14.
15. 16.
17.
18.
19.
If j j , s2, s3 be the sums of p, q, r terms respectively of an A. P., show that

S
- j ( q - r ) + f ( r ~ p ) + ^ C p - q ) = 0.
20.
( i ) (ii ) (iii)
If the 6th term of an A. P. is 121, find the sum of its first 11 terms. If the 35th term of an A. P, is 30, show sum of its first 69 terms is 2070. that the
Show that the sum of 11 terms of an A. P. of which the middle term is 121 is 1331.
21.
If the first, second and the th terms of an A. P. are a, b and x respectively, then show that the sum of its n terms is x + a + x2 a2 2 2 (b-a)
22.
If a, b, c are in A. P. then prove that ( i ) ( ii) a 3 + c 3 + 6abc = 8 b 3 ; a2 + 4ac + c2 = 2 ( ab + be + ca ). (a+b+c)
23.
If a, b, c, d are in A. P., then show that (b + c+d), (c + d+a), (d+a+b) and are in A. P.
24. 25.
Show that the sum of the terms in thsf nth bracket of (1) + (3 + 5) + (7 + 9 + 1 1 ) + is n 3 . Prove that the sum of an odd number of terms of an A. P. is equal to the middle term multiplied by the number of terms. Find the th term of the series of which the sum of n terms is (i) 3/j2 + 5n, ( ii ) n ( n + 1 ), ( iii) 3" 1.
26.
In each case write the 4th term. 27. If s2, s3 sp are the sums, each to n terms, of p arithmetic progressions whose first terms are 1, 2, 3, .... and common differences are 1,3, 5, 7, respectivelv, then show that + 28. +sp=nJLOv1).
Show that the sum of all odd numbers between 2 and 1000 which are divisible by 3 is 83,667 and of those not divisible by 3 is 1,66,332. AnswersExercise 9 (a)
, . . (iii) n + 1 11 .... (iv) 2 + 3 23
(2 - 1 ) (2 + 1 ), 19-21 ;
(38 - 7 ) , - 32 ;
(v)
' + 1, 101;
,vi)
(vii)
' b"
b1(l
(viii)
(278 - 35n),
- 72.
2. 6. 8. 9. 10.
(i)
l - 3 ) . ^ ( 3 3 - ) ; 7. (ii) (ii)
(ii)1-!8-^, (i) 3,5, 7; (ii)
(291 2.9,16.
5).
p + q-r. (i) 5,9,13,17;
5,9,13,17. 3,4,5,6,7. S 2 n + 1 ( + 1) ( 3 + 2 ) ;
a
3,3y,4, 4-|,5; (i) (iii) 34; (ii)
n ( 3 n + 2).
( 2 - 1 ) . S 3 n + 1 = 2n + 3 + 2. 12. 17. (i) 9708 ; (ii) 6471. 13. 20. (ii) 4 ; 3. (i) 15. 1331 1705.
11. 16. 26.
9900. -34. (i) (iii)
(tn + tt)= 26 ; , a 4 = 54.
a n = 6n + 2 ; a n = 3" "
a(( = , a4 = 4 ;
Geometric Progression 9. Definition of Geometric Progression.

A sequence ( an ) which is such that an = r and = a, r and a being given numbers, is called Geometric Progression. The number r is called the common ratio of the geometric progression. A geometric progression is usually referred to as G. P. Thus ( i ) (ii) (iii) 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 9, 3, I, 1/3, 1/9, 1,-2,4,-8,16,
are examples of geometric progressions. In ( i ), the first term is 3, and the common ratio is 2. In ( ii ), In (iii ), the first term is 9, and the common ratio is 1/3. the first term is 1, and the common ratio is - 2 .
Thus, if the first term and the common ratio are known, the G. P. is completely determined,
<
If a is the first term and r the common:ratio of a G. P. then the progression can be written as a, ar, ar2 ar3, ar 4 , 10. The nth term of the Geometric Progression
a, ar, ar2, ar3,

We observe that 1st 2nd 3rd 4th term term term term at a2 a3 a4 = = = = ar, ar1, ar2, ar 3 .
It is noticed that the index of r is one less than the suffix of a which denotes the rank of the term in the sequence.
nth term a ar"'1.

We can prove the formula for the th term of a G. P. by mathematical induction. Let P ( n ) be : nth term, an = ar"-1. (a) Y Put n = 1 in ( i ) . L. H. S. = axR. H. S. = L. H. S. = R. H. S. since at = a. ( i ) ar=a.
P ( 1 ) is true. ( b ) We now show that the assumption of the truth of P ( k ) , namely, ak = ar'1'1 (ii) implies the truth of P (k + 1 ), namely, aft+1 = i . e . ark L. H S. of ( iii), a
k+1
(iii)
.
ak- r
h-\
by definition
= ar r, by assumption (n ) = ark. by index law. = R. H. S. of ( i i i ) . From steps ( a ) and ( b ) , P ( n ) is true for all positive integral values of n, by mathematical induction.
The nth terms of the geometric progressions referred to in the last article are ( i ) 3 - 2 " " 1 , (ii) 9-( 1/3 and (iii l - ( - 2 ) " " 1 - By giving to n, the values 1, 2, 3 we get the various terms of the G. P.'s.
PROGRESSIONS Ex. 1. Find the nth terms of the following G- P.'s. 1/4, 1/2, 1, 2, 27,9,3,1, Ans. Ans. 2"" 3 .
239
( i ) (ii)
1 n-i
(-1)""1 3-<1/2) 9
(iii)
72,-18,9/2,-9/8 6 27 27>/3
Ans.
,2n-5 2
Ex. 2. example 1. Ans.
Find
the Sth
terms in
each
of
the
progressions given in
(i)
32,
(ii)
(iii) -
(iv)
'
11.
To find the sum of the first n terms of the G. P.
a, ar, ar2, arz,

Let S,t denote the sum of n terms ; so that tt-3 S = a + ar + ar2 + ar'6 + + ar + ar-2 Let r 4= I. Multiplying every term by r, the common ratio, we get r-S = + ar + ar2 + ar3 + ...... + an"'1 + ar". Subtracting, S rS = a (1 - r)S = = 0(1 arn. rn). ( i )
Changing the signs of the numerator and denominator, we may also write S = < L ( Z l l I > . r 1 (ii)
It will be found convenient to remember both the forms ( i ) and ( ii ) for S. The form ( i ) may be used when r < 1. and the form ( i i ) may be used when r > 1. If r = 1, the G. P. reduces to a, a, a, a /. S = na. ... ... ... ... (iii)
11-1 Alternative method. We now prove the formula the sum of n terms of the G. P. by mathematical induction. Let P (n) be :a + ar + . + a r " ~ 1 = (a) Put n - 1 in ( i ).
r
for
_ ~
1. ... ( i )
L. H. S. of ( i ) == a.
a
R. H. S. of ( i ) = _ < > i z i ) _ r1 V L. H. S. = R. H. S
/>(1) is true,
(b) We now show that the assumption of the truth of P ( k ) , namely, a ( rk 1 1 a + ar+ + = ^ . . . (v ii ) y r1 implies the truth of P ( k + 1 ), namely, a +ar + + ar^ + ar" ~ r1 L. H. S. of ( i i i ) = [ a + ar +
ft 1 )+ = a (r r ~ i
ar
(iii >
v
'
+ ar*-' 1 ] + ar*
"'
b
. y
.x C, i i, )
+ r H r - \ ) \
- ~r \ r k \ r 1
= a
r*] =
R
( r ;.+i _ i ) -
- s - of ( hi )
From steps ( a) and ( b ), we prove by mathematical induction that P ( n ) is true for all positive integral values of n.
In respect of the G. P.'s U ) , ( i i ) , ( i i i ) , given in article 9, we have the beginning of
PROGRESSIONS
241
a n d in ( i i i ) , a = l , r=
2,:.
S#. = 1 ^
1 - (
2)
Ex.
Find the sum of
/ . v 1 . 1 (' > X T
(ii) (iii)
"9
, +
terms
.
Ans. Ans
59 uH'
- 682.
2 - 4 + 8 - 16 + 3 1 + 1 - + 3 +
to 10 terms. to terms.
3 h ( 2 - 1 )
(iv)
16 3 - 4 +
64 +
to 2m terms
12. Convenient representation of terms in G. P.

When 3, 4, 5 ... terms in G. P. are under consideration in any problem, it will be found more conveninent to represent the terms in the following form ( i ) ( ii /) v (iii ) 3 numbers in G. P . : ~ 4 numbers in G. P. 5 numbers in G. P. : , a, ar ; , , ar a/3 ; r , , a, ar, ar2 etc. r
rs
rl
The advantage of assuming the terms in G. P. in the above form can be seen in the example 1 below. 15. Illustrative examples.
26. Ex. 1. The product of three numbers in a G. P. is 216, and their sum is Find the numbers. Let : V r , a, ar be the three number in G. P. a = 216. r = 26. '. a = 6. ... (i)
the product is 216. the sum is 26. (1 + r + r1)
+ a + ar = 26.
:.
C . A. 16.
242
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA 5 + 6 r + 6ra = 26 r, .-. - 20r + 6 = 0. (3r - 1 ) (r 3 ) = 0. .'. ( V a = 6 )
lr% - lOr + 3 = 0. r = -yor 3
Thus, we have a = 6 and r - i .'.
or
3.
taking r = 3, the three numbers will be 2, 6, 18. * , we will get the same numbers in the reverse order.
Taking r =
Note If some terms in G. P. are given and we have to obtain some result involving such terms, then it will be found convenient to express the given terms, in terms of the first term and common ratio of the G. P. The following two examples will illustrate the process. Ex. 2. If a, b,c d are in G. P. then show that d)1. (a d)* = (6 o)' + (c - a)* + {b Let r be the common ratio of the given G. P., so that b = ar. c = ar* and d = at L. H. S = [a - ar*)* = a3 ( 1 - r 5 ) a = a 2 ( 1 - 2r* + r6 ). R. H . S. = = = (i ) ( a r - a.')1 + (ar2 - a)1 + (ar - a r ' ) a a" (r3 2 + r*) + a 3 ( r* - 2r a + 1 ) + a1 ( r* - 2r' + r6 > 6 2 a' [ r - 2"' + r* + r4 - 2r' + 1 + r> - 2r* + r ] a a [ i - 2 r s + r ].
L. H. S. = R. H. S. and hence the result Ex. 3 If a, b, c. d are in G. P. then show that ( a - b ) 2 , t b - c ),a ( c d y are also in G. P. Let r be the common ratio of the given G. P . . so that b = ar d ar3. Now (a - b)2. f ( ~ )' (a - b y
b c =
c =
artt
(b - cy,
2
( c - </)' will be in G. P. b - c a - b .
=
(c - d)
.
'
e
(6 - c y
'
c - d b - c
i . e. if
, ar - ar2 a - ar
ar1 - ar3 i ar ar'
i. e. if
.,
ar ( 1 - r ) ar1, ( I - r ) r = ^ ' a ( 1 - r) ar (1 - r)
i. e if r = r which is true and hence the result. Ex. 4 . If a, b, c are in A. P . and x, y, z are in G. P., then show that x y
b c
= X
>
Let d be the common difference and r the common ratio of the given A. P. and G. P. respectively We, thus, have b=-a + d,c=a + 2d and y = xr, z = xr3.
PROGRESSIONS : _ L. rT H. S . =x
T h
243
-y
= x
afrf
. ,a+2 d , s (xr) (xr )
=*
3a+3d
3a+2 d
( 1 )
T D IT o c a b R . H . S. = * -j> .'.
a + 2d , ,a . 3 . . o + d 3a+3rf 3a + 2</ = * (xr, (xr ) =x r .
. ... (it)
L. H . S. = R. H . S. and hence the result find ... the (i ) (ii ) 27 r3 = - r - 3 r =
E x . 5 . If the 5th term of a G. P. is 2 and the 8th term is 61, sum cf first six terms. Here, w e have, f 5 = ar* = 2. 27 as = ar7 = , ...
Dividing ( i i ) by ( i ), w e have
Substituting this value of r in (i), a ^
= 2 ( r6 _ j ) r - 1
32
ST
The sum S 6 of the first six terms of the series is
S e
81
36
=
_ 2 _ 729
- 64 _ 665 81 81
T l
Ex. 6 .
Find the sum to 2 terms.

2 1 L + A + . L + ... 7 ++ 3* 3s + X 3' + 3* 3" t0 tern
( i )
S2 = =
[ - - + | r + jr
>s J
+ ^-^r + yr + IT +
t 0 M terms
2 4 4 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA / Ex. 7. Sum the following series 3 + 33 + 333 + 3333 W e have S = 3 + 33 + 333 + 3333 + = 3 [ 1 + 11 + 111 + 1111 + = ~ ~ [ 9 + 99 + 999 + 9999 + to n terms. to n terms to n terms ] to n terms ]
[ ( 10 - 1) + ( 10* - 1 ) + ( lC - 1 )
+ ( 104 1) + to n brackets ]
[ (10 + 10 + 10s +
- ( 1 + 1
+ 10")
to terms ) ]
+ 1 + 1+
= ^[10n,1-9-10].
Exercise 9 ( b )
1. Find the nth term and also the 10th term of each of the following sequences. ( i ) 5^-, 3^-, 1^( i i ) 162, 270, 450, 750, 1250
W 2.
(iV
>
243
'
324
'
432
<"
Find the nth term and the sum to n terms of the G. P. if (i) 1 3 the 2nd term is 4 , and the 5th term is 15,
2 16
(ii) 3.
the 5th term is 1 ^ - and the 9th term is

oU
If x, y, z are the nth, ( 2 n )th and ( 3n )th terms of any G. P., show that y2 = xz.
4. If x, y, z be the pth, gth and rth terms of any G. P., show that x"'r y-fi' zi>~<> = 1.
5.
Find three numbers in G. P., such that ( i ) their sum is 21, and the sum of their squares is 189; ( i i ) their sum is 38, and their product is 1728.
6.
Find five numbers in G. P., such that ( i ) their product is 32, and the product of the last two is 108; 3 ( i i ) their sum is 7 - j - and their product is unity.
7. 8.
How many terms of the G. P. 1, 4, 16, to have their sum equal to 341 ? Sum the following series : ( i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) 9 + 99 + 999 + 1 + 11 + 111 + 7 + 77 + 777 + 1 + 11 + 101 + 1001 + -5 + -55 + -555 + 1-4 + 3-04 + 5-004 + 7-0004 +
must be taken
to n to n to n to n to n ton
terms. terms. terms. terms. terms. terms.
[Hint : Split the series into two series one in A. P. and the other in G. P. ] 9. Sum the following series to n terms ( i ) l + ( l + x ) + ( l + x + x 2 ) + ( l + x + jc2 + x 3 ) + . . . ( i i ) 1 + * ( 1 + x ) + x 2 ( 1 + X + X2) + x 3 ( 1 + x + x2 + x 3 ) + 10. Sum the following series :
(i)
-|- +
_4_ _
7
4 - + J - + ! - + J - + ~
5
+ ...to2 terms;
,
v11)
72
-L
4
73
_ A
74
"^75
76
11.
Show
a, b,
that
to ( 2 + 1 ) terms. the sum of the geometric progression , . Zfr-a 2 / is t b a
246
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA /
12. 13.
If a, b, c are in A. P. and a, b, ( c +1) show that a = ( a b ) .
are in G. P.,
The th terms of two progressions are denoted by an and bn. It is given that i?rsL _ -! and Z>n+1 - bn = bn+2 - 6 + 1 a a n n+X State which terms are in A. P. and which are in G. P. Further if at = 2 and -3sL = -i L find 2 a n r=l ar. -p-
14
yTJ
sbow that
*y'2
are i n G
15.
If a, b, c, d are in G. P., prove that ( i ) (ii) ab cd a+ c b*-c2 ~ b ' ( a b + bc + cdy = ( a 2 + 6 2 + c 2 ) (b^ + c^+d2).
16.
If a, b, c be the pth, qth and rth terms both of an A. P . and of a G. P., then show that
6-c
c-a
a~b
17.
18.
a b C =1. If a, b, c, d are in G. P. show that ( i ) ( a - b y , ( b - c y , (c d y are in G. P. ( i i ) (at + b2), (ab+bc), ( b 2 + <?) are in G. P. If S represents the sum of n terms of a G. P. whose first terms and common ratio are a and r respectively, then prove that o Ic i c i ,c na S! + S 2 + S 3 + - - . + S B = J ar ( 1 r " > (1 - r)
19.
If tr is the rth term of a G. P. and tt = a and f j = b, prove that

b a r =1 ~ If p is the product of n terms in G. P., s their sum, and s
20.
the sum of their reciprocals, then prove that p2 =
PROGRESSIONS
: 247
21.
If a, b, c, d are in G. P. and a > 0, r + 1 0, then prove that ( i ) a + d > b + c; (ii ) a2 + d2 > b2 + c 2 .

x y z
22.
If a is any positive number and a , a , a are then show that (x - y)2 + (y - z)2= y (z x)2
in G. P.
23.
The sum of the first three terms of a G. P. is to the sum of the first six terms as 125: 152. Find the common ratio of the G. P. Prove that
24.
25.
Answer the following as required : ( i ) (ii ) Determine k if 2, k, 5 are in (1) A. P. (2) G. P The sum of the first n terms is 2n2 n. Find the nth term. Write down the first three terms and state whether the terms are in A. P. or G. P. The third term of a G. P. is 0-08 and the 7th term is 0-000128. Find the first term and the common ratio. If the pth, qt h, and rth terms of a G. P. are themselves in G. P., show that p, q, r are in A. P. If three positive numbers are in G. P., show that their logarithms are in A. P.
(iii)
(iv) ( v)
Answers. Exercise 9 (b)
(iii) - b , ; 0r-+l a r-9
248
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA
according as r = H 5--U) 68. (i) (i) 3,6,12: f.f.2.6,18;
2 3
or
2 3 (ii) (U) (ii) 8,12,18. 1 1 , i,

2|
4.
7.
5.
-i- ( 1 0 n + 1 9 10) ;
'
ol
(10"+1-9-10);
(iii) ~ (lo" + 1 - 9n - 10) ;

81
(iv) n +
(lo" - 10) ;
q '
_ ' 1-*
*(!-*") (1 - * ) '
( i i )' 1 2 Ul)
(1 - * " ) (1 - *" + 1 ) U - * ) (1
T +
- * * )
'
io. (i) 2 8 f i _ J _ V V 9" /

13. a,,
48
2 _ 12 i . _ 2+l J_
7
48
i.._ L. 2
7
. are in G. P. ;
are in A. P . ; 2 a , = 3
1 3"
23.
( ii) (iii)
25. ( i ) ft = 7/2 ; k = VlO.

= 4 - 3 ; a, = 1, a , = 5, a = 2, r- = 1/5. = 9 Terms are in A. P.
Harmonic Progression 14. Definition of Harmonic Progression :
If the reciprocals of the terms of any sequence form an arithmetic progression, then the sequence is said to be an Harmonic Progression. An Harmonic 1 Progression briefly 1 1 is 1 1 referred to as H . P.
T k r T
Thus ( i )
, _
>
(_L _ L_ L
( 11 ;
7 ' 11 ' 15 ' 19
are examples of harmonic progression. Since the a, general of a an as a + d, form a + 2d, + A. 3d,P. is taken ... the general form of an H . P. can be taken as J_ 1 1_ 1 a ' a + d ' a + 2d' a + 3d
15. The nth term of an H P. whose first two terms are and ft.
Let a, a + d, a + 2d, that the given H. P. must be _L 1 a 'a+d be the corresponding A. P. so
1 *a + 2d'
Now, we are given that = . . . ( i ) and i - j = a a+d :. a= and a+d = 1

'
.... ( i i )
1 the common difference d = -5/3
nth term of the corresponding A. P. = a + (n \ ) d
- + ( -
n(-)
the required nth term of the given H . P.
y8 + ( n - l )
(-/8)'
250 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA /
Note No formula can be obtained to give the sum of an number of terms jn an H. P. as we have obtained in the case of the two progressions A. P. and G. P. 16. To show that if a,b,c H. P. then be three consecutive terms of an
a b __ a_ b c ~~ c v a, b, c are H. P. I l a b l A are in A. P. c . a b bc 1 b a 1 1 1 - c b
a b _ b c ab ~~ be
ab . _a_ be ' ' c
This property is sometimes taken as the definition of an H. P. and accordingly a, b, c are said to be in H. P. if a_ _ c ~ ab bc from this
AT,
Starting
1
definition
we,
now,
prove
that
, - r - , are m A. P. a b e We have by definition. ' c = bc
ab ac = ca cb. Dividing by abc throughout, we get 1 c 1 1 1 = b b a . .. I l l _ are in A. P. a b c
17. Illustrative examples.

Ex. 1. Find the nth term and 9th term of the H . P .
PROGRESSIONS :
251
..
AL P V . is ^ . ^ & ^ the corresponding A.

1 5 1 1 7 3
the t h term of this
( - 1)
15
^ ^ ^
4n + 4
29
= 19 ~
29
29 the th term of the given H P. = ^ __ ^ 29
12 - 1
the 9th term of the given H. P = Ex. 2 .
i. e
The 7th term of an Harmonical Progression is and the 12th term is ~ 10 25 Find the 20th term.
Let a be the first term and 4 the common difference of the corresponding A. P Hence the 7th and 12th terms of this corresponding A. P. are 10 and 25 respectively. a + dd ~ 10... /. (i) and a + \ld = 25 (ii). 49.
Solving these two equations for a and d, we get, a = - 8 and d = 3. the 20th term of the corresponding A. P. = - 8 + 19 ( 3 ) i. e . the 20th term of the given H . P. = ~ Thus, it can be seen that the H . P . can b e completely determined if any two terms are known. Ex. 3 . If the mth term of an H . P . be n , and the n t h term be m, mn that the Zth term s Let a be the first term and d be the common difference of the correspond, i n g A. P . o + ( m - l ) d =
tt
prove
...
...
...
(i)
and
a + ( - l ) i
tn
...
(ii)
Subtracting ( i i ) from ( i ) , / , . ( 1 m n ) d 1 tt
we get 1 m = tn - n mn
a = mn
. 1
Substituting this value of d in ( i ) , we have a + ( m - 1) ~ ~ =
252
: COLLEGEALGEBRA/
, 1 1 1 a -i 5 n mn
- a
mn
/th term of cor esponding A, P. + ( / - 1) - i e. mn mn mn mn :. Ex. 4 . required Jth term of H . P. = -6 y
Find the 9th ter n of the progression 6,4,3 Find the nth term of ;
Ans
Ex. 5 .
1
21 ' Ex.6.
41 ' 20 ' "'
Ans. " 43 - n and the 17 th term is Show
The 6th term of an H P. is that the 10th term is ^ r 87
Ex. 7
1 If the 5th term of an H . P. is l-r- and the 8th term is 3 the nth and the 20th term of the H. P. Ans
, find
4 5
12 4 ; 2n 1 13
Means 18. Definitions :

If a, A, b are in A. P., A is called the Arithmetic Mean between a and b. If a, G, b are in G. P., G is called the Geometric Mean between a and b. If a, H, b are in H. P., H is called the Harmonic Mean between a and b.
19. To find the values of A, G and Hthe arithmetic, geometric and harmonic means-between two numbers a and b.
( i ) v a, A, b are in A. P. A - a ~ b - A, .\ 2A = a + b,
* = A
a s+ b'
PROGRESSIONS
253
( ii )
a, G, b, are in G . P. G b ; G* = ab; G = Jab.
It is customary to take the positive value of the square-root for the Geometric Mean and a > 0, b > 0. (iii) v a, H, b are in H. P. 1 1 T ' h j H 2 _ H ~
'T
a r e i n A
A D
i_ _ J a b 1 a
2 a b
i_ H ' . " 2_ _ a+ b . H ab '
J_ . b '
H -
We notice t h a t : H =
L
1 l
p
+
t [ - 7
T )
20.
Theorems on Means. M,
Theorem I. If A, G, H be the A. M., G. M. and H. between two positive numbers a and b, then A H = G2. We have A = ... A.H= :.
q
~ - ,
G =^fab
and
H =
a + b
A H = G2.
Theorem II. If A, G, H be the A. M., the G. M. and the H. M. between two unequal positive numbers a and b, then A > G > H.
We have A G =
-\fat> + b _ (\[a
~
_ a 2sfab
~ 2
- \ f b y
2
y
since a and b are unequal positive quantities. .'. Since A > G. A_ G > 1. A
=
(i) G H G > H.
A H = G2,
But as A > G, .. Definition :
^ > 1, and rl
A > G > H. If a,, a2,..., an are n quantities, then / Vtfi a2 - a
NoteWe may, now, define the means of n quantities.
a, + aj + + a 1 , and
1
( - L + J L + . . + ) n \ a\ a2 a j are called the Arithmetic, Geometric, and Harmonic respectively of the given n quantities. Means
21. To insert n Means between two numbers. ( i ) To insert n A. M.'s between a and b.
If a, A t , A 2 , A 3 , . . . A, b are in A, P., then Ai, A 2 , A3 ... A,, are called n A. M.'s inserted between a and b. Let d denote the common difference of this A. P. Including the given terms a and b, there are ( n + 2 ) terms in this A. P. b = ( n + 2 )th term of this A. P. = a + 0+ 1 ) d.
/.
Ai = a + d = a +
b-a + l '
2 +
A7 = a + 2d =
^ ^ > ,
Ar = a + rd = a +
r(b - a) + 1 '
a i j , n(b a) A , = a + nd = a + JT+~1 ' ( i i ) To insert n G. M.'s between a and 6 ( a > 0 , 6>0).
If a, G G 2 , G j , ... G N , 6 are in G. P., then G T , G 2( G 3 , .. G are called n G. M.'s inserted between a and b. Let r denote the common ratio of this G. P. Including the given terms a and b, there are ( n + 2 ) terms in this G. P.
b = ( n + 2 )th term of the G. P. =
Gi, G , G , G , are equal to ( ^ ' ( ^ ( t ) * - (T f' respectively,

2 3 n
( iii )
To insert n H. M.'s between a and b.
If a, Hj, H 2 , H 3 H, b are in H. P., then H t , H 2 H 3 H are called n H. M.'s inserted between a and b. a, Ht, H 2 , H 3 ... H, b are in H. P.
including the terms and - j - , there are ( n + 2 ) terms a b in this A. P. 1 , = ( n + 2 )th term in this A. P. b = + ( n + 1 ) d where d denotes the common a ' difference of this A. P. -b ( n + l ) ab (n + \)ab' '
/.
n + l 1_ b
1
a J +
Ha
= J- + d = ~ a a
+
H2 ~
(n + l)ab
J J_ H~ a + , 1 In general, ^ = 1
,_
fl
n ( a - b ) + ( + l ) ab' ( n + l ) b + r ( a - b ) = ^ (n + Tfab
, r(a~b) + ^ y ^ b+ra
- ( + l - r ) (n+\)ab :.
rth harmonic mean, H , =
7 -r-.
( n + 1 ) ab , , (n + l r ) b + ra
Putting r = 1, 2, 3,...n, H l f H 2 , H 3 ...H are
the required n harmonic means
( n + 1 ) ab ( n + l )ab (n+l) ab (n + l)ab nb + a ' ( n - l ) 6 + 2cj''"'26 + ( n - l ) ' b + na The formulae for inserting n means between two given numbers need not be remembered. In any particular problem, it is convenient to obtain the required number of means between two numbers ab initio.
PROGRESSIONS
257
22. Illustrative examples.

Fx. 1. Insert ( i ) 7 A. M ' s . (ii) 7 G. M.'s, (iii) 7 H. M.'s between 4 andl6. ( i ) Let 4, A., Aj, A 3 , ... A ; , 16 be in A, P. There are in all 9 terms in Ibis A. P, 3 9th term. 16 = 4 + ( 9 - l ) r t ; the required seven arithmetic means are
4 +
d =
l,
4 + 2 . 1 . 4 + 4 . 1 , 11 ,
7
4 + 4 - 1 29
4 +
7 - f
1 e
17
- i '
In 1 0
y
G,, 16 be in G. P .
( i i ) Let 4, Gi, G 3 , G, There are in all 9 terms in this G. P. .*. .". 9th term. 16 = 4 > "
^ = 4 ;
r = (4
= 21'4.
the required seven geometric means are
, 1/4 1/2 3/1 4-2 4-2 4-2

fiii) Let 4, H ; , H 2 , H s , ... H;, 16 be in H. P. There are In all 9 terms in this H . P . The corresponding A P. is
...
. ji* 4'2 .
"
_L 1
4 ' H,' Hi' II.'
"'H,' 16'
+ 8d.
= gth term of the A. P. = 1
-3
12S = ( r + 1) th term of the corresponding A. P.
Hr
1
128
( -3 \
1 3r 32-3r - - - - - - -lag- "
Hr =
32 3r 7 we get the required harmonic means 128 U
Putting r = 1, 2, 3, 128 128 128 29 ' 26 ' 23 C. A . 17
258 : (,oi 11 (ii. AIA.I BRA

Ex 2 Prove that the sum of the n arithmetic means inserted between any two numbers is n times the single A M. between the two numbers. Let a, b be any two given numbers. Let the n arithmetic means between ft and b be
a + d, a -r Zrf, a + id
a + nd.
The value of d is given from the fact that b is the ( n + 2 ) th term of the A. P. a, a + d, a + 2d, , a + nd, b. .". .'. b = a + ( n + 1 ) d. the sum of these n A. M.'s = (a + d) -r (a + nd ) J , [ formula (iii 1 of article 4. ] /. d =
+ 1
f
~
[ 2 f l + (
jâ -r b J
+ 1
w ] =f
+ 2 b
- u
J = n
( single A. M. ).
Ex. 3. The arithmetic mean of two numbers exceeds their geometric mean by3/2, and the geometric mean exceeds the harmonic mean by 6 5 . Find the numbers. Let a and 6 denote the two numbers. Let A, G and H be their arithmetic, geometric, and harmonic means respectively. .'. from the given conditions of the problem, we have A = G + -i(i) and H = G - y ...( ii )
Now, we know that AH = G 2 .
fo
4 )
(c-
--)-*;
.-. .. -= 6 + G = 6. ab = ie. 6 a + b = 15 ... (iii) (iv )
G2 + ~ G -
| - G';
We also know that G 2 = ab, (i) reduces to
To solve equations ( i i i ) and ( i v ) for a and b, we use the identity
( a - b y i = ( + &y*-4<6.
(a - b)' = 225 - 144 ; a - b = 9. (a-6)s=81; ( v )
Solving ( i v ) aod ( v ) , we bave a = } 2 or 3 and ft = 3 or 12. Hence the required numbers are 12 and 3.
PROGRESSIONS : 2 5 9 Ex. 4 . If a, b, c.d.e be five quantities such that a, b, c are in A, P , b, c, d are in G. P., and c, d. eare in H. P., then prove that a, c, e axe in G.P. a + c
V V
, . \ ... . ... ... ... (

1
a, b, c are in A. P . , 6, c, d are in G. P . .
b = c' = bd d =
(ii )
c, d, e are in H. P . , .'. Now a, c, e will b j in G. P , if c' = ae.
c + e
... (iii) ... ( i v )
Obviously, in order to obtain relation ( i v ) , we have to eliminate b, d from ( i ), ( i i ) and (iii ). Thus.
M
J L . 2 c + e ,, , c 1 + ce = ae + ce ; c
m
..
(a + c )a c - c + e
ae.
Hence a, c, e are in G. P. Ex.5, if a. b, c are in H . P., b,c, d are in G P. and c, d,e, are in A.P., (2a ab' - b)1 .". b = tac a + c bd show that e =
a, b, c are in H. P.
( i )
(ii) . (m)
V V
b, c, d are in G P. c, d e are in A. P.
cs
2d = c
+ c.
We have to obtain a relation between a, b and e which is" therefore, to be obtained by eliminating c and d from ( i ), ( i i ) and ( i i i ) From ( i ) we have 6 ( a + c ) = 2ac.
c ( Ii
- 2a) = - nb
.'. c =
ia b
Substituting this value of c in ( i i ) , we get

d
_ _L
' b
(2it b)1
(2a-b)!
W e ha"", tuns, found the values of c and d in substituted in v iii) for their elimination. , . . . . . . a" b Thus, ( HI ) reduces to 2 ^ ^ _ a*b - (2a - b) ab (2a-b)3
=
terms
of a, b which can be
"
ab _
+ < " _ ab1 [2a b)1
'
ab [2a - 2a + b J (2 a - b p
ab'
260
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA /
Ex. 6. ]f a* = 6 V = o" = dv = ... and <r, 6, c. d,... show that x, y, z, w ... are in H. P.
are in G. P. then
r i Let
*= 6 i?
= c
*= d j"'
=
11
= k. so that
1/z
= - k i, a
V _&_ a
e
Vx
3.=- fe b ,' c = fe >. , , 6
d,) ~ k .i/w
i , c, rf, ... are in G. P. c_ __ 6 = a
_ i - A_ J . J_ ' * =* 3 v = L = J x z
1 1 1
i - JL * i y
=
j y
1
i w
..
z
are in A P .
..
x , y x,y,z,w.
..
. ^
..
.. are in H. P.
1.
Exercies 9 ( c ) Find the nth term and also the 10th term of each of the following sequences. . .
( 1 }
10 10 10 10 67 60' 53' 46 *
'
1 4 1 (1 1 ) 3, 2 , 1 - y , 1 - y ,
J L _L_ 1 __L_ 1
1-4' 3-7' 5-10' 7-13'

. . . 1 1 ( iv ) 3-3 ' 6 5 '
12-7 ' 24-9
Find the /ith term of the H. P. *s if the 12 ( i ) first and second terms are 2 and yy 1 3
( ii ) 6th and 12th terms are 3 y j and 1 (iii ) 7th and 12th terms are 7 and 12.
3.
If the /th term of an H. P. is /, and mth term is m, find the nth term. Deduce that the ( / + m - 1 ) th term is Im. If the /th term of an H. P. is m and the mth term is I. show that the (/ + m )th term is
l+ m
4.
5.
Three numbers form of an H. P. The product of the first two numbers is equal to the third, and the sum of the three numbers is 23. Find the numbers. If the pth, tfth, rth terms of an H. P. be a, b, c, respectively, prove that
ab ( p q) + be ( g - r ) + c a ( r />) = 0.
6.
7. 8.
Find the values of x for which the three numbers 2+x, 3 + *, 9+jrare ( i ) in G. P. ( i i ) in H. P. Find the two numbers, if ( i ) their G. M. and H. M. are 5 and 3 ; ( ii ) their A. M. and H. M. are 2 and 7/8. If the H. M. between two numbers is to their G. M. as 12:13, prove that the numbers are in the ratio 4 :9. The A. M. of two numbers exceeds their G. M. by 15 and their H. M. by 27. Find the numbers. If a, b, c are in A. P. then show that ( i ) a2 (b + c), 6 3 ( c + a ) , c2(a + b) are in A. P. ( i i ) ( 6 + c ) J - a * , ( c + a ) 2 62, ( a + f t ^ - c 2 are in A. P. (iii)
1
9. 10. 11.
rV a+V b
are in A.P.
\}b+\c
V c+v a
12. If a, b, c are in H. P., then show that ( v i ) TT-. ( ii )

v
b + c' c + a a
a
T " A are in H. P.
a+b
. .. >
b+c
b c t t r -. r are m H. P. c + a b a+ 6 c
262
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA /
13.
Prove that J - + + - - L . js e q nu a l to or o r b ba bc b b b according to as a. b, c are in A. P. or G. P. or H. P.
14.
If a, b, c are in A, P., b, c, d are in G. P., and r, d, c are
in H. P., show that e = 15. 16. 17.
If a, b, c are in A. P., b, c, d in G. P., and c, d, e in H. P., show that c2 = ae. If a, b, c are in A. P., b, c, din H. P., and c, d, e in G. P., show that a2e = b2 ( 2b a ). If a, b, c, d are in G. P., prove that
( i ) a2-b2,b2c2, c2-<P are in G. P., 2 2 2 a + b + c = (a + b + c) (a-b + c),
(ii) (iii) ( 6 + c ) ( 6 + rf) = ( c + a ) ( c + rf). 18. Insert means as given below : ( i ) 10 A. M.'s between 7 and - 15 :
( ii ) 17
-41 28
2 '
(iii) (iv) ( v ) ( vi) 19. 20.
6 G. M.'s 5
_7_ 32 ' "40-1-;
34 11 2 2
1
5 H. M.'s 5
' - 3 ; "T " 1 1

4
TT'
Prove that the product of n geometric means inserted between a and b is ( ab )*'2. Two arithmetic means A t , A2, two geometric means Gi, G2) and two harmonic means Hj, H2 are inserted between any two numbers. Prove that Hi + H 2 =^ Hi H 2 2
21.
22.
If Ai, A2, Ar A be n arithmetic means between b and a, and Hi, H2, Hr, H be n harmonic means between a and b, then show that A, Hr = ab. If a, b, c are in H. P., show that
... 2 1 . 1 ( r- r + r v l ) ' b ba bc
b+a h+c ( ii ) + y =2. ba bc
23. 24. 25.
If a, b, c, d are in H. P., show that ab f be 4- cd = 3 ad. If a, b, c are in H. P., show that be, ca, ab are in A. P. If a is the A. M. between b and c, and b is the G. M. between c and a, then show that c is the H. M. between a and b. If ( b + c ), ( c + a ), ( a + b N are in H. P., then show that a2, b2, c2 are in A. P. If a, b, c are in H. P., show that ( i ) a ( b + c ), b ( c + a ), c ( a + b ) are in A. P. ( " ) be I. ( /a + 1 I) \ ! +I 1 I } ca /( b ui L IN areinH.P. ab (c+1)
26. 27.
28.
If a, b, c are in A. P., p, q, r are in H. P., ap, bq, cr are in G. P., then show that + =- + .
c a r ^p
29.
30.
The arithmetic mean between two numbers exceeds their geometric mean by 10 and harmonic mean by 16; find the numbers. A. M. between two numbers is to their G. M. as 5 :4 and the difference of their G. M. and H. M. is 16/5. Find the numbers. Answers. Exercise 9 ( c )
, . ,
10 5 74 - 7 ' 2
....
Q * n + 2 ' 4
(Hi)
(iv)
i
( 2 # 1 ) ( 3 + 1) ' 19-31 '
1
3-2-1(2n + l) '
1
63
1
29
264
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA /
2.
5.
"n \
"
<,
-L
5n-4
(iii)
' 19-n 19 n
(ij -
3.
* 1+ m -n
M i ) - - | -
3, 5, 15 or - 4. - 9 . 3 6 . 2 I .15.
7.
818.
(i> ( i ) ("J
(ii)
7 1 _,___. 10] ,17);
1 0
120,30
7 - 2r, O = l , 2 42 - ( 7 - 5 r ) , (r=l. 2,3 2S 32 /
(iii)
T )
3
= 1,2
6];
(iv)
j l y )
1.2
5];
(v ) j ^ r .
( v |
O = 1,2,-..,6];
i> = i.2,....,5]; 30. 32,8.
15 )
29.
45,5.
Chapter 10
Summation of Series
1. 2 r, 5. Introduction. 2. Sigma notation. 3 The three sums i cr+d.
l l
and 2 c \ 4. The sum of the series whose rth term is ar1+br'' +
Some miscellaneous m e t h o d s : 7.
The method of differences, the method of geometric series Exercise 10. 6. The Infinite
partial fractions and Geometric Series.
the arithmetico
Recurring Decimals.
1. Introduction.
In the last chapter we have already considered the sum of Arithmetic and Geometric series. In the chapter 8 we have proved by mathematical induction that ( i ) the sum of the first n natural numbers is \ ( i i ) the sum of n ( + 1), the
squares of the first n natural numbers is - j - n ( n + 1 ) ( 2n + 1 ) o and ( i i i ) the sum of the cubes of the first n natural numbers is ~ n
J
( + I.)2-
In this chapter, we shall consider methods for finding t h e sum of some other simple types of series. In the next paragraph we shall explain how the " sigma " notation can be conveniently used in examples on the summation of series. In the following paragraphs we will explain how t h e above sums ( i ), ( i i ) and (iii ) can be obtained by the method of differences.
265
266 : COLLEGE A.LGERKA
2.
Sigma notation.
The letter " 2 " of the greek alphabet (pronounced as " sigma " ) is used to denote the sum of a given series. The letter 2 is placed before the > th term, say, ar. We, thus, wr te 2 a,, to denote the sum of terms of the type ar. If we want to sum up terms ar for values of r corresponding to r = 1,2, 3, n, we denote the sum by r=n 2 ar. or by 2 ar.
r=l 1
Thus, we write
a t + a2 + a3 + + ar + m
+ + < ? =2
I
ar.
The results for the sums of the series mentioned inparagraph 1 above can be conveniently written as " n (n + l1J ^ l 1 + 2 + 3 + .. + r + = 2 r = . (i) l 2 1 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 + + J"2 + + n 2 = 2 r 2 = - g - n ( n + 1 ) (2n + 1 ) 1 3 + 2 3 + 3 3 + + r 3 + + rf = 2 r3 l = -J-n2(n + l)2 ... (3) ... (2)
The sum of the Arithmetic series whose first term is a and the common difference is d can be written thus : a +(a + d) + {a + 2d) + + ( + V^l d)
= 2 ( a + ^~ld)= -%-[2a + ( n - 1 )d]. ... (4) L l Similarly the sum of the Geometric series whose first term is a and the common ratio is x ( # 1 ) can be written thus : a + ax + ax2 + +
= <5>
SUMMATION OF SERIES :
267
3.
The three sums.
In this paragraph we shall prove the formulae CI J, ( 2 ) and ( 3 ) of the article 2 by means of identities based on differences of squares, cubes and fourth powers of consecutive integers ( x + 1 ) and x. ( i ) To prove that It
S, = 1 + 2 + 3 + - . . . + = 2 r =
n(n + 1) 2
We have the indentify ( x + 1 ) 2 - x2 = 2x + 1 . Put identity. x = 1, 2, 3, , ( n 1 ), n, successively in this 2 2 - I 2 = 2-1 + 1, 3 2 - 2 2 = 2-2 + 1, 4 2 3 2 = 2-3 + 1,
We, then, get
n 2 - O - l ) 2 = 2 - ( - 1 ) + 1, (n + 1 )2 - 2 = 2-n + 1.
Adding these n equalities columnwise, we have ( + l ) 2 2
l 2 = 2 ( 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + ) + (1 + 1 + 1 +
times). + .
.*.
n + In = 2Si + n, where S t = 1 + 2 + 3 + n 1 + n = 2Si ; Si i. e. 5 r = 1 + 2 + 5
n( n + 1 )
2
n (n + 1 )
+ n =
( ii )
To prove that n ( + 1 ) ( In + 1 ) . 6
S2 = I2 + 22 + ' + n2 = 2 r2
268
COLLEGE ALGEBRA /
In the last case we used an identity based on the difference of squares of two consecutive numbers x + 1 and x. We will use here, similarly, an identity formed by taking the difference of the cubes of consecutive numbers x + 1 and x. We have ( * + 1 )3 Put identity. x3 = 3x 2 + 3x + 1. x = 1, 2, 3, , ( n 1 ), it successively in this 2 3 - l 3 = 3-12 -t- 3-1 + 1, 3 3 - 2 3 = 3-22 + 3-2 + 1, 4 3 3 3 = 3-32 + 3-3 + 1,
We, then, get
n3 - (n - l ) 3 = 3 - ( n - l ) 2 + 3 . ( n - 1) + 1 3 2 ( n + 1 ) - n3 = 3-n + 3-n + 1.
Adding these n equalities columnwise, we have ( n + l ) 3 13 = 3 ( l 2 + 2 2 + 32 + + 2 ) + 3 ( l + 2 + 3+--- + n) + (l + l + l + - . . n
times).
( n + l J ' - P s s S S a + aSt + fl, where S 2 = l 2 + 2 2 + 3 2 + . . + n 2 a n d Si = 1 + 2 + 3 + . . + n . n3 + 3n + 3n = 3S2 + 3

2
+ .
3S2 = n3 + 3n2 + 3n - -J- n (n + 1 ) - n
n = ~ { 2 n 2 + 3n + 1] = - y (n + 1 ) ( 2 n + 1 ).
n(n+l)(2n + 6 l)
SUMMATION OF SERIES
269
Thus, we have C,1 , ,1 , . 2 - n ( n + 1 ) ( 2n + 1 ) S2 1. e. 2 r2 = l 2 + 22 + + nJ = ^

1
( iii )
To prove that
n2(n + 1 ) 2 S3 = 2 r 3 = l 3 + 2 3 + + h 3 = 4 1 As in the two previous cases we will now use here, the identity based on the difference of the fourth powers of the consecutive numbers x + 1 and x. We have ( x + 1 ) 4 - * 4 = 4x 3 + 6;c2 + 4;t + 1 . Put x = 1, 2, 3, , ( n - 1 ), n successively in this identity. We, then get 2 1 - 1 4 = 4 . l 3 + 6-l 2 + 4.1 + l , 34 24 = 4-23 + 6-22 + 4-2 + 1, 44 3 4 = 4-33 + 6-32 + 4-3 + 1,
u4 - ( n - 1 )4 = 4 ( n - 1 ) 3 -(- 6 ( n - 1 )2 + 4 ( n - 1) + 1, ( n + 1 y - n* = 4n 3 + 6n2 4- 4 + 1. Adding these equalities columnwise, we have ( n + 1 ) 4 - l 4 = 4 [ 1 3 + 2 3 + 33 + - + h 3 ] + 6 [ l 2 + 2 2 + - + 2 ] + 4 [1 + 2 + 3 + + ] + [ 1 + 1 + 1 + times]. .'. ( + l ) 4 - l = 4 S J + 6 S 2 + 4 S 1 + , where S 3 = l 3 + 23 + 3 3 I- 3 and S a and S 2 have the meanings as in the last two cases. /. 4S3 = ( + l ) 4 - l - 6 S 2 - 4 S 1 - 4-1 . M) - 6 2 , 1 + 1) = t( + 1V ) 4 - ,( T-1 O ( " + 0 ( g = = = = = 4, , ( + ! )
( + 1 ) [ ( + I ) 3 ~ I - ( 2 + 1 ) ~2n ] + l) [ ( + l ) 3 - ( 2 n + l ) - n ( 2 + 1)] ( + l ) [ ( + ! ) 3 - ( 2 + l )( + 1 )] ( + 1 / 2 [ ( ; + I ) 2 ( 2; + 1 ) ] 2 ( + l )2. . <j n\n+ I)2 *3 = A
270
: COLLEGE
ALGEBRA /
Thus, we have S 3 i. e. 2 4.
3 r
= l 3 + 23 + + n 3 =
car3 + br2 + cr +
"4+ '
...
The sum of series whose r th terms is

d.
The method to find the sum of any series, the rth term of which can be expressed in the form ar3 + br2 + cr + d, where a, b, c, d are some constants is given below. Let the rth term of a series, a, = ar3 + br2 + cr + d. Puting r = 1, 2, 3, , successively, we have a , = a - l 3 + M 2 + c - l +d, a2=a-23 + b-22+c-2 + d, a3 = a-23 + b-32 + c-3+d,
q = q-n3 + b-n2 + c-ra + d. Adding columnwise, we get 2 o r = a ( 2 r 3 ) + b( 2 r 2 ) + c ( 2 r ) + ^ d i i I i i Substituting the values of 2r 3 , 2r 2 , 2 r and observing that
i n I I n n it n n
2d=d
+ d + d+
--ton
terms i. e nd, the required sum can
be obtained. This method is illustrated below by solving the following examples Ex. 1. Find the sum
1-2 + 2 - 3 + 3 - 4 +
+ ( n + 1).
Here ar = r (r + 1 ). - 2 , = f r( r+1) = 2 ( r + r) = 2 + 2 r t l t 1 \ ( + 1) (2n + 1) n (n + 1)

6
+
^>Ll^Lij[2o
+ 1 +
3]
n(n + l ) ( + 2 ) .
SUMMATION Ew 2 . F i n d the sum l a + 3 2 + 5a + 29'2. It can be easily seen that the general term is a, =
OF SERIES :
271
[1
+ (r
- 1) -2 ] 2 -= (2c - 1
= 4r" - 4r + 1.
Thus, a r is expressed in the required form. To find the number of terms in the given series, we put 2r 1 = 29 r = 15, and hence there are 15 terms in the yiven series. V a,- = 4r- - 4r + 1 IS
1at i
[?-]-4 Pf'][?]
= 4 15 ( 15 + 1 ) ( 2 '5 + 1 ) J _
4
15(15 + 1) j
= 160 X 31 - 30 X 16 + 15 = 4495. the required sum = 4495. Ex. 3. Find the sum
1 1 - 3 + 2 3 5 + 3 5-7 + 4-7-9 + to t e r m s . The first factors of the terms form the sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, w h e r e r t h term is r. Similarly, the second factors of the terms form the s e q u e n c e 1 . 3 , 5 , 7 , where rth term is ( 2r - 1 . Similarly, the third factors of the terms form the sequence 3, 5, 7, 9, where rth term is ( 2r + 1 .'. the rth term of the given series, ar - r (2r - 1 ) ( 2r + 1 ) = 4r'i - r.
4 . .. , n (n + 1) the required sum =
2 (2'
2 + 2n - 1 ) -
Ex. 4 .
F i n d the sum (2* - l 3 ) + ( 4 - 3) + ( 6 3 - 5 : i ) + to brackets. Thus, a-t = ( 2 r ) 5 - ( 2r - 1 ) 3 = Sr1 - (?r' - 1 2 ^ + 6r - 1 ). a r = 12r* 6r + 1.
W e can write the bracket as [ ( 2 r ) 3 - (2r - 1 )3 ]
2 a , = 12 2 1
r> - 6
2 l
+ 21 l
w
, < + ! )
2n + l ) _ 6 . n . ( . n _ + l ) + 6 2 = [ 2 ( n + l ) ( 2 n + l ) - 3 ( + 1) + 1 ]
= [ 4 n s + 6n + 2 - 3 - 3 + 1 ] = n* [ 4 + 3 ] . the required SU E D = h"1 ( 4 + 3 ).
, 2 1 2 : COLLEGE
ALGEBRA
5.
Some miscellaneous methods.

W e , n o w , p r o c e e d to i l l u s t r a t e few o t h e r m e t h o d s f o r s u m m i n g u p some
t y p e s of simple seHes. 1, T h e Method of differences. terms
I n t h e case of some seris in w h i c h t h e d i f f e r e n c e s of successive term. T h e sum of euch a series to n t e r m s may t h e n be o b t a i n e d . F i n d t h e t h t e r m a n d t h e sum to n t e r m s of t h e series 1 + 7 + 17 + 31 + 49 +
f o r m a n A. P . or G . P . . t h e f o l l o w i n g m e t h o d c a n be employed to find the n t h
Ex. 1.
We have a % a\ = 6 . 3 - a-i = 10. a, - a., = 14.
- a
= (n - 1 )th t e r m of t h e s e q u e n c e 6, 10. 14
A d d i n g c o l u m n w i s e , w e get a n - a i = 6 + 10 + 14 + 18 + to ( - 1 ) t e r m s .
,, - a, = =
1
[ 2-6 + ( 2 ) 4 ]. [ 12 + 4 - 8 ] [4m+ 4] = (n 1) ( 2 + 2 ) .
an = 1 + 2 (n - 1) (n -f 1). a n = 2mj - 1.
[ V , = l],
a , 2r1 - 1,
6
l
1
= " (" +
) <2n + 1) - 3 3
= -
n ( + 2 ) ( 2 - 1 ) 3
SUMMATION Ex. 2 .
OF SERIES : 2 7 3
F i n d t h e n t h t e r m a n d t h e s u m to t e r m s of t h e series 3 + 5 + 9 + 17 + 3 1 + a t = 2.
W e have
s _ > = = 8.
a * - a - l = ( n - 1 ) t h t e r m of t h e s e q u e n c e 2, 4, 8, which is a G, P . A d d i n g c o l u m n w i s e , w e get aa> = 2 + 4 + 8 + 2 ( 2 1
t o ( n - l )
2 2
terms
- l )
- air[
.'. =2" 2 + 3.
ai =3.]
[ V
a = 2 + 1. |,=
=
' a,= 2r + 1. + 2" J + 2 1

2.
2 + 2a + 23 + 2 < + n f = l l 2-1
+
= 2 +1 + -
.'. II.
t h e r e q u i r e d s u m = 2 " + 1 + 2.
Method of P a r t i a l fractions,
If t h e general t e r m of a series c o n s i s t s of t h e p r o d u c t s of t h e reciprocals of t w o c o n s e c u t i v e t e r m s of a n A P . , t h e n t h e term c a n b e split u p i n t o partial f r a c t i o n s a n d t h e series c a n b e s u m m e d . T h e m e t h o d is illustrated in t h e f o l l o w i n g example Ex. 3 . S u m t h e series
ihr + T r y+ w h s +""10 M termssuccessive
H e r e , t h e f a c t o r s i n t h e d e n o m i n a t o r s a r e t h e p r o d u c t s of t w o t e r m s of a n A. P 3 , 7, 11, >5, 19, .'. rth t e r m of t h e given series, ar
(4
r-l)(ir+3)
E x p r e s s i n g a w a s t h e d i f f e r e n c e of i t s partial f r a c t i o n s , w e h a v e
=
i
4
r_i
|_4r 1
i_n.
Ar + 3
a r
C. A.18
,274
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA B y p u t t i n g r = 1, 2, 3 ( n 1 ) , n in s u c c e s s i o n , we get
* - t
=
[T "
n]
T [iT " B ]
j. r _ i
"n
1 =
L_1
4 1J
|_4 - 5
=
""
a r_j
4 |_4 "
i_l +3J
=
A d d i n g c o l u m n w i s e , we get
^
' ^
7 [ T " W'Vs]
3 (4+3 )
the required sum = r - r - " 3 (4+3)
N o t e . If t h e g e n e r a l t e r m of a series c o n s i s t s of t h e p r o d u c t s of t h e r e c i p r o c a l s of two c o n s e c u t i v e t e r m s of a n A P . t h e f o r m u l a f o r t h e s u m of t h e series c a n b e established b y t h e m e t h o d of i n d u c t i o n also. III. Arithmetico-Geometric Serie .
A series w h i c h is f o r m e d b y multiplying t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t e r m s of a n A. P . a n d a G. P . is called a n a r i t h m e t i c o - g e o m e t r i c series. T h u s in t h e series a + (a+d)r + ( a + 2d) r3 + ( a+3d ) r 1 + f " 1 ... (i) t h e t e r m s a r e f o r m e d by t a k i n g t h e p r o d u c t s of c o r r e s p o n d i n g t e r m s of t h e A. P . G. P, a+ (a + d ) + (a + 2d) + r> + ++ + r ' . t h e following
n i
(a + n - id),
and the
1 + r +
H e n c e t h e series ( i ) is a n a r i t h m e t i c o - g e o m e t r i c series T h e m e t h o d of s u m m i n g u p such series is explained in example. Ex. 4. S u m t h e series 2-1 + 4-3 + 6-9 + 8-27 + 10-81 + Let S = 2 1 + 4-3 + 6-9 + + ( 2n 2 ) 3" to n t e r m s . + 2-3" (i)
M u l t i p l y i n g by 3, t h e c o m m o n r a t i o of t h e G e o m e t r i c series, we get 3 - S = 2 - 3 + 4-9 + 6 - 2 7 + + ( 2 - 2 1 a " " 1 + 2 n - 3 " . ... (ii)
SUMMATION OF SERIES : S u b t r a c t i n g ( i i ) f r o m ( i ) , w e get ( 1 - 3 ) S = 2 - 1 + $3 ( 4 - 2 ) + 9 ( 6 - 4 ) + 2 7 { 8 - 6 ) + ... + 3 " " 1 ( - 2 M -3". -Zn-l".
275
( 2 )S = 2-1 + \2 ( 3 + 9 + 2 7 + ... to ( n - 1 ) t e r m s ) \ = 2+2 3

iU
2n-3n
= 2 + 3 n - 3 - 2 - 3 m = - 1 - 3 " ( 2 - l ). S= j [ 1 + 3" (2 1 >]
6. AD infinite geometric series.

A series in w h i c h every t e r m is followed by a n o t h e r is called an infinite series. If, in an i n f i n i t e series, t h e t e r m s a r e i n G- P . , t h e series is called an infinite geometric series. If t h e s u m S of t e r m s of a n i n f i n i t e series a p p r o a c h e s a d e f i n i t e n u m b e r S . a s n is m a d e l a r g e r a n d larger, t h e n S i s defined as t h e s u m of t h e infinite series. C o n s i d e r t h e i n f i n i t e g e o m e t r i c series
i +
+ T
T h e s u m S n of n t e r m s of this series is
i e 2
An >t is m a d e l a r g e r a n d larger H i " b e c o m e s smaller a n d smaller a n d ultimately would a p p r o a c h t h e n u m b e r zero. H e n c e S a p p r o a c h e s t h e n u m b e r 2 as n t e n d s t o i n f i n i t y . T h e r e f o r e , t h e s u m of t h e a b o v e i n f i n i t e g e o m e t r i c series is 2, L e t u s n o w c o n s i d e r t h e i n f i n i t e g e o m e t r i c series a + ar + at* + ar" + a l l - r") T h e s u m Su of n t e r m s of t h i s G. P . 1 - r
, 2 7 6 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA W h e n r < 1 [ a proper fraction positive or n e g a t i v e ] , the numerical
v a l u e of r d e c r e a s e s a s i n c r e a s e s . zexo a s n i s m a d e l a r g e r a n d l a r g e r . - rn 1 r SH tends to ^ definition,

a
n
Therefore, r approaches the a a m b e r
t e n d s t o z e r o a s n t e n d s to i n f i n i t y ,
a s n
tenQS t0
infinity.
i s t h e s u m of t h e
given i n f i n i t e g e o m e t r i c
series by
t h e sura S of t h e i n f i n i t e g e o m e t r i c series is ^ - ^ - ^ i f 1 < r < + l . If r i s n o t a positive o r n e g a t i v e p r o p e r f r a c t i o n i. e . r 1 numerically, hence
t h e n u m e r i c a l v a l u e of r" w o u l d n o t d e c r e a s e a s n i n c r e a s e s ; a n d t h e i n f i n i t e g e o m e t r i c series h a s no sum f o r s u c h v a l u e s of r.
7.
Recurring Decimal.
R e c u r r i n g d e c i m a l s f u r n i s h a g o o d i l l u s t r a t i o n of t h e i n f i n i t e g e o m e t r i c series. C o n s i d e r 3333 T h i s i s briefly w r i t t e n a s -3*, a n d is called a re-
curring decimal. T o evaluate 3, w e have 3 = -3333 = 3 + 03 + -003 + -0003 +
10 ^ 10"
10'
10<
3 = _ JL = 1 = _ A i -1,10 9 r
3 since in this infinite geometric series a "
1 r = and
the
s u m of
the
infinite geometric series is -
1 f"( r
< 1),
Exercise
2 2 3 2 3
10
1
Find the sum of the following series : 1. 2. 3. 4. 1 + 2 + 3 + 1 + 2 +3 + 2 1 2 + 222 + 233 + 1 1 3 + 12 3 + 132 +

3
- - + 30 +20 , +502 +25 3 .

3
SUMMATION OF SERIES : 2 7 7
5. 6. 7.
502 - 49 2 + 482 - 47 2 + 483-463+443-423 + l 2 - 52 + 92 - 1 3 2 +
+22-l2. + 4 3 - 23. - 9 3 2 + 97 2
Write down the r t h terra, and find the sum to n terms of each of the following series : 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
17.
l 3 + 33 + 5 3 + l 2 + 52 + 9 2 + 1-2 + 2 - 3 + 3 - 4 + 1-2-3 +2-3-4 + 3-4-5+ l-2 2 + 2-32 + 3 - 4 2 + 2-5 + 5-8 + 8 - 1 1 + 1-2-4+ 2-3-5+ 3-4-6+ 3-1+5-8+7-15+9-22+ l + ( l + 2 ) + ( l + 2 + 3 ) + ( l + 2 + 3 + 4 ) + +L2_3 I ' a+
i2 +
3 l
. . .
J
i, 19. 20. 21.
l 2 + 2 2 + 32 ,
l W + 4
( 53 - 3 3 ) + ( 9 3 - 7 3 ) + ( 1 3 3 - l l 3 ) + l- + 2 ( - l ) + 3 ( n - 2 ) + l .+2 -(-l) +3 -(n-2) + of the

2 2 2
22. 3 2 + 7 2 + l l 2 + 1 5 2 + Find the nth term and the sum to n terms of each following series : 23 . 4 + 13 + 28 + 49 + 7 6 + 24. 4 + 1 4 + 30 + 52 + 80 + 1 1 4 + 25. 4 + 10 + 1 8 + 2 8 + 4 0 + 26. 3 + 5 + 11 + 2 9 + 83 + 2 4 5 + 27. 3 + 9 + 2 1 + 4 5 + 93 + 1 8 9 + 28. 28 + 32 + 52 + 152 + 6 5 2 +
29,
T5
2-3
3-4
4-5
, 2 7 8 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA
30
'
2T
5T
8Tl
i m
31.
- J - T + -JL +_L_ + + _ ! _ ++ 4-13 13-22 ^ 22-31 31-40

3 7 4. 5 , , ~2 2~ + 2 2 + " T T + 1-2 2-3 3-4
,2 33. 34. 35. 36.
3 + 7 - 2 + ll-2 2 + 15-23 + 19-2* + 3+3-9+5-27 + 7-81+ 5 + 1 2 * + \9x + 26* 3 + Express as fractions ( i ) 1-6, ( i i ) S23, ( i i i ) -234, ( i v ) -2103. AnswersExercise 10
4. 1,02,600.
1. 5. 8.
9,455. 1,274.
2. 6.
44,100. 58,752. 1).
3. 7. 9.
40,055. 4,897. (4r-3)2;
( 2 r - l)s; s(2a-
(16a-l2-1)
10.
- y - ( + l) (
+2).
11. r(r + 1) (r + 2 ) : 12. 13.

14.
( + 1 ) { + 2) ( + 3 > i ) ( + 2) (3 + 5).
n
r t
t t +
(3r-1 ) (3r+ r ( r + l )
2J;
(3a +
6n + 1 ) .
(r + 3);
( + l ) ( + 2) (3 + l3).
15.
(2r + l ) (
6 ) ; - g - (28m + 27 3 7 ) .
16.
17. -|-(r + l);
- i - n ( + l ) { + 2).
- i - ( n + 3).
SUMMATION
OF SERIES : 2 7 9
18.
~ ( 2 r + l);
- ( + i ) ( 4 * + 3).
19. (4r + l ) - ( - 1 ) ;
2(16h+ 24 + 9 ) .
20. r ( - f + l ) ; ( + 1 ) ( + 2). 21. + + 16s + 12 - 1). {2n s + 3n + 3). 24. 3s + n ; ( + l) a . { 3" - 1) + 2n 1 ^ + i7. " , 2 (3+2)
22. (4r - 1) : 23. 3a + 1:
25. ' + 3 ; - y - - U + l ) U+5). 26. 3 B _ 1 +2; 27. 3 ( 2* 1); 3 ( 2m+1 n 2). 28. e " " ^ ; O O
3l
1 _ . (+1)'
n+1
on
I ( 3 - l ) (3 + 2 ) '
'
1 (9 - 5 ) (9n + 4 ) ' 4 {9rt+2)
2n+l , w(n+2) n^ft + l ) 1 ' ( + V
33. (41) 2* -1 ; 2* ( 4n 5 ) + 5. 34. (2 1) 3 n ; 3* +1 35. (7n 2}x .

l
(tt 1)
+3. (i-*) . -3950-. 2101 (iv) 1-*
, , (i . . .) - 5 ,.. ,...,232 36. J- , ( ), 518 gg (i) ^j,
Chapter 11
Permutations and Combinations

1. I n t r o d u c t i o n . 2. D e f i n i t i o n s . 3. N o t a t i o n . 4. F u n d a m e n t a l P r i n c i p l e . 5. N u m b e r of P e r m u l a t i o n s of d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s t a k e n r a t a t i m e . 6 . F a c t o r i a l n o t a t i o n . 7 P e r m u t a t i o n s with restrictions. I l l u s t r a t i v e examples* E x e r c i s e 11 ( a ) . 8. C o m b i n a t i o n s of n d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s t a k e n r a t a t i m e . 9. C o m p l e m e n t a r y c o m b i n a t i o n s . 10, C o m b i n a t i o n s w i t h restrictions. 11. I m p o r t a n t i d e n t i t y : n + 1 C , = " C , + "cr-i. 12. I l l u s t r a t i v e examples. E x e r c i s e 11 ( b ) . 13 P e m u t a t i o n s of t h i n g s n o t all d i f f e r e n t 14. P e r m u t a tions with repetitions 15. C o m b i n a t i o n s of ti d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s t a k e n a n y n u m b e r a t a t i m e . 16. K e m a r k s r e g a r d i n g solution of p r o b l e m s . E x e r c i s e 11 (c).
1.
Introduction.
In this chapter we shall study the number of different possible ways of grouping or arranging some things taken at a time out of a given number of things. Let, for instance, a, b, c, d denote four different given things Consider the different groups which can be formed out of these four things when we take two, three or four things at a time. ( i ) Groups of these 4 different things, two at a time, are ab, ac, ad, be, bd, cd i. e. 6 in number. ( i i ) Groups of these 4 different things, three at a time, are abc, abd, acd, bed i. e. 4 in number. ( i i i ) Group of these 4 different things, four at a time is abed i. e. only one. If, however, the order of things in any group is considered, we get different arrangements from one and the same group.. For instance, from a group of two things, ab, we' get two different arrangements ab and ba.
280
PERMUTATIONS AN]D COMBINATIONS
281
The different arrangements of t h e above groups ( i ) , ( iii ), therefore, can be given as follows : ( i ) time, are
(ii),
Arrangements of the four different things, two at a ab ac ad be bd cd ba ca da cb db dc and are 12 in number. (ii) Arrangements of the four different things, three at a acd abd abc bed acb adb ode bde bac bad cad cbd bca cdb bda cda cab dac dbc dab dca deb cba dba
and are 24 in number. (iii) Arrangements of the four different things, four at a cabd dabc bacd abed abdc acbd aedb adbc adeb and are 24 in number. Counting and writing the groups or the arrangements in cases when there are more given things will, obviously, b e a tedious job. Many a time, however, we require only the number of the groups or the number of arrangements. Hence, in the following articles, methods for finding the number of of groups and the number of arrangements shall be considered, 2. Definitions. bade bead beda bdac bdea cadb dacb
Combinations. The different groups C o r selections ) that can be formed out of a given set of things by taking some or all at a time, without any considerations for the order of things, are called the combinations.
Thus, we have 4 different combinations abc, abd, acd, bed taken three at a time out of four given things, a, b, c, d. Permutations. The different arrangements in a line of the things in a group, taken out of a given set of things, are called permutations. Thu , we have 12 different permutations of two things taken at a time out of four given things. 3. Notation. ( i ) The total number of combinations of n different given things, taken r at a time, is denoted by the symbol Cr or n C, or C (n, r ) or ( C
)'
Thus, C2 i. e. the number of combinations of 4 things taken 2 at a time = 6. Similarly 4 C 3 = 4 and iCi = 1. ( i i ) Similarly, the total number of permutations of n different given things taken r at a time is denoted by the symbol "P, or Pr or P ( n, r). Thus, 4 P j i. e. the number of permutations of 4 things taken 2 at a time = 12. Similarly, 4 P 3 = 24 and 4 P 4 = 24. 4. Fundamental Principle.
Before considering the general formulae for the nu mber of permutations and the number of combinations of n things taken r at a time, we wilt explain, here, by an example, the general principle which is of great use in this theory. Example. There are four different routes for going from the place P to the place Q. Find the number of ways in which a man can go from P to Q and return back by a different route. Let A, B, C, D denote the four different routes between P and Q, A man can go by any one of the four routes from P to Q and having gone there, he can return by any one of the three remaining routes. Thus, for each one of the four ways of going, theree are three ways of coming back. Hence the total number of ways of going and coming back is 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 i. e. 4 x 3 or 12.
283
The 12 different ways of going and coming back can be indicated in terms of the routes as follows : A A A B C D, B B B A C D, C A C C B D,
The method, used in the above example, leads us to the following Theorem. Fundamental Theorem If a certain thing can be done in m ways, and after having done it in any one of these m ways, a second thing can be done in n ways, then both the [things can be done together in mx n different ways. Let au fl2. 3, am be m different ways of doing the first thing, and bu b2, b3> - bn be n different ways of doing the second thing. Suppose the first thing is done in the way a,. Now the second thing can be done in any one of the n ways bt, ba, 63, bn. Thus, corresponding to the way a\, the two things can be done in the n ways, namely, Similarly for a2: aj a2 bu feJt axb2, a2 b2, atb3, a2 fa, at bn. a2 bn.
And for am : n+n+n-h
ambu
amb2,
a,b3
aj>.
Thus, the total number of different ways is to in terms i. e. mn.
5. To find the number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time. The number of permutations of n different things, taken r at a time, is the same as the number of ways, in which the following r blank spaces, arranged in a line, can be filled with
r things taken out of n given things, each filled with one thing only. 1 2 3 4 r-1
blank space being
Now, the first blank space can be filled with any one of the n things. Hence, there are n ways of filling it. Now, there remain ( n 1 ) things and the second space can be filled with any one of these ( n 1 ) things. Thus, for each one of the n ways of filling the first space, there are ( n 1 ) ways of filling the second. Therefore, by the Fundamental Theorem, the first two spaces can be filled in n ( n 1) ways. After having filled the first two spaces in any one of the ( tt 1) ways, the third space can be filled with any one of the remaining ( 2 ) things. Hence, by the Fundamental Theorem, the first three spaces can be filled inn (n 1 ) ( n 2 ) different ways. Proceeding in this way, it can be seen that r blank spaces can be filled in [n(n 1 ) ( 2 ) ( 3 ) t o r factors ] ways, i.e. n ( n l ) ( n 2) ( w 3 ) (n-r-1) . . - ( n - r + 1) ( n - r + 1) ways, ways. I i.e. ( n 1 ) ( n 2) ( 3) Hence, we have J>r = n ( n - 1 ) ( n - 2 ) 6. Factorial Notation.
In order to express the product of consecutive integers, it is convenient to use the following notation. The product 1.2.3-- is expressed ( pronounced as n factorial or factorial n ). as n! or j_n 25, it can
If there be a product of the type 11-12-13 be expressed as ( 1.2-3-10) 11-12-1325 ( 1-2-3-10) .

1-e<
25J 10!*
The advantage of the factorial notation can be seen, in particular, in the case of the formula for "P r of the last article.
PERMUTATIONS AN]D COMBINATIONS : 2 8 5
For,
Pr = n(n
l)(n
- 2) - - - ( - r + 1 )
_ n(-l )(-2)---(n-r + l)x(w-r)(n-r-l)---3-2-l (n-r)(n-r1> - - -3-2-1 !

=
!' Thus, we have V , = ^ " ^ Corollary. The II
number of permutations of different can be obtained by ( - 21. + !) HI
n things, taken all at a time, i . e . p substituting r = i n I. Thus, "P = n ( - 1 ) ( n - 2 ) = n O - 1) (n - 2) np n = n ! .
Definition of 0 ! ni If we substitute r = n in II, we get "Pn = -^-j Now, from the definition of n !, we can not interpret 0 ! and hence the symbol 0 ! has no meaning until and unless we assign a meaning for it. In order to have the same value for MP as obtained from I and by substituting r = n, in II we shall have to define j 0_as 1. Definition.
Examples. ( i) (ii) (iii) F i n d t h e v a l u e s of 5 !. S P 6 , S h o w t h a t 9 ! = 72. Show that ( 1 ) [7.
10
0 3=1.
P5 a n d
S
IV
P8.
Ans. 120,720,30243,40320.
!=#( - 1) I
(2)
(3) (iv)
*! = ( - 1 ) < n - 2) !
! = ( - ! )
1
( 2 ) . . ( r + l )( n r ) I
Prove that " p r = x "
Pr-i.
7. Permutations with restrictions. The number of permutations will also depend upon the different conditions given in the problem. The following
illustrative examples will show how the restrictions may change the number of arrangements. Illustrative examples.
Ex. 1. H o w m a n y p e r m u t a t i o n s can b e f o r m e d o u t of t h e letters of t h e ' ? H o w m a n y of t h e s e will begin w i t h t a n d e n d w i t h e ? w o r d ' triangle
T h e r e a r e 8 l e t t e r s in t h e w o r d ' triangle ' P e r m u t i n g t h e s e 8 l e t t e r s i n all possible ways, t h e n u m b e r of p e r m u t a t i o n s is 8 P 8 i. e. 8 !. I f , h o w e v e r , t o c c u p i e s t h e f i r s t place a n d e t h e last place, t h e r e remain 6 letters. If t h e s e 6 l e t t e r s a r e p e r m u t e d in t h e r e m a i n i n g 6 places in all possib l e w a y s , t h e r e q u i r e d n u m b e r of p e r m u t a t i o n s will b e 6 P 6 i. e. 720. Ex. 2 . H o w m a n y n u m b e r s of 4 digits can be f o r m e d w i t h t h e digits 3 , 5 , 7, 8, 9, n o digit b e i n g r e p e a t e d ? H o w m a n y of t h e s e will be greater than '000? T h e r e are 5 given d i g i t s 3, 5, 7, 8 a n d 9. Of t h e s e a n y f o u r will f o r m a f o u r digit n u m b e r . H e n c e t h e total n u m b e r of f o u r d i g i t - n u m b e r s will b e ' P i. e. 123. If t h e n u m b e r is to b e g r e a t e r t h a n 7 M t \ t h e left h a n d digit c a n either b e 7, 8 or 9 b u t n o t 3 OT 5. T h e r e f o r e , t h e first left h a n d d i g i t c a n b e chosen in 3 ways. T h e r e m a i n i n g t h r e e d i g i t s c a n b e a n y t h r e e o u t of t h e r e m a i n i n g f o u r d i g i t s a n d h e n c e t h e n u m b e r of their a r r a n g e m e n t s is ' P . . H e n c e b y t h e F u n d a m e n t a l T h e o r e m , a f o u r digit n u m b e r g r e a t e r t h a n 7000 c a n b e f o r m e d w i t h t h e h e l p of t h e given f i v e d i g i t s 3 x 'P., d i f f e r e n t w a y s i. e. 72 ways. Ex. 3 . In h o w m a n y w a y s c a n 5 E n g l i s h books. 3 M a r a t h i books a n d 3 G u j a r a t h i books b e a r r a n g e d on a shelf, if all t h e b o o k s in t b e same language a r e t o b e together ? T h e five E n g l i s h b o o k s c a n b e a r r a n g e d a m o n g s t t h e m s e l v e s i n ' P 5 i . e. 5 ! ways. Similarly, t h e t h r e e M a r a t h i a n d t h r e e G u j a r a t h i b o o k s c a n b e a r r a n g e d a m o n g s t themselves in S P 3 a n d S P 3 i. e. 3 ! a n d 3 ! w a y s r e s p e c t i v e l y . A r r a n g e m e n t s of t h e s e g r o u p s c a n b e m a d e in 3 P 3 i e- 3 ! ways. H e n c e , by t h e F u n d a m e n t a l T h e o r e m , t h e r e q u i r e d n u m b e r of m e n t s is 5 1 x 3 1 x 3 1 x 3 ! i. e. 25, 920 E x . 4. arrange-
Six s t u d e n t s i n c l u d i n g two b r o t h e r s a r e to b e seated o n six c h a i r s t h e b r o t h e r s d o n o t o c c u p y t h e e n d sets, t h e b r o t h e r s o c c u p y seats a d j a c e n t to each o t h e r .
in a l i n e f o r a p h o t o g r a p h F i n d t h e n u m b e r of dift r e n t a r r a n g e m e n t in which ( i ) (ii )
( i ) E x c l u d i n g t h e e n d seats t h e two b r o t h e r s c a n o c c u p y a n y two o u t of t b e 4 m i d d l e seats. T h i s c a n b e d o n e in *P 3 ways. N o w , t h e r e m a i n i n g f o u r s t u d e n t s can o c c u p y t h e r e m a i n i n g f o u r seats in a n y o n e of t h e 4 P , ways.
PERMUTATIONS AN]D COMBINATIONS : 2 8 7 H e n c e by the F u n d a m e n t a l Theorem, the required m e n t s for t h e p h o t o g r a p h i s ' P i X P4 i . e . 12 x 4 ! i, e, 288. { i i ) Imagine t h e two a d j a c e n t seats to be occupied by t h e two brothers f o r m i n g o n e c o m b i n e d seat. T h u s , t h e r e a r e S d i f f e r e n t s e a t s to b e o c c u p i e d b y t h e s t u d e n t s . T h i s c a n b e d o n e in S P 5 ways. T h e two a d j a c e n t s e a t s f o r m i n g t h e c o m b i n e d seat c a n b e o c c u p i e d by t h e t w o b r o t h e r s in ' P j ways. H e n c e , b y t b e F u n d a m e n t a l T h e o r e m , the r e q u i r e d n u m b e r of a r r a n g e ' m e a t s is 6 P S X "P., i , e. 5 ! x 2 i. e 240. Ex 5 . F i n d t h e n u m b e r of a r r a n g e m e n t s in w h i c h 7 b o y s a n d 4 girls c a n b e a r r a n g e d in a row so t h a t n o two girls may b e t o g e t h e r , C o r r e s p o n d i n g to a n y o n e a r r a n g e m e n t of 7 b o y s , w e h a v e 8 possible p o s i t i o n s for t h e girls, n a m e l y t h e two p o s i t i o n s a t t h e t w o e n d s a n d si* i n b e t w e e n t h e b o y s . F o u r girls c a n occupy any f o u r o u t of t h e s e eight p o s i t i o n s in e P 4 ways. B u t t h e seven b o y s c a n b e a r r a n g e d a m o n g s t t h e m s e l v e s in 7 P 7 d i f f e r e n t ways. H e n c e b y t h e F u n d a m e n t a l T h e o r e m , t h e r e q u i r e d n u m b e r of m e n t s is P4 X v P f i. e. 16b0 X 71 i. e. 84,67,200. t x . 6. a t i m e in which p given t h i n g s shall always c o m e t o g e t h e r is arrangen u m b e r of arrange-
Show t h a t t h e n u m b e r of p e r m u t a t i o n s of n d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s all a t
"ZLP
+J 1 *
]JL
S i n c e p given t h i n g s a r e always to come t o g e t h e r , w e m a y c o n s i d e r t h e m as f o r m i n g o n e e l e m e n t . T h u s , t h e given t h i n g s {at, at ... a / , ) , + i aji+2, an will f o r m 1 + ( p ) i. e. n - p + 1, d i f f e r e n t e l e m e n t s , w h i c h c a n b e p e r m u t e d a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s in ) n - p + 1 w a y s . B u t i n e a c h of t h e s e ways, t h e p t h i n g s c a n b e p e r m u t e d a m o n g t h e m s e l v e s w i t h o u t t o u c h i n g t h e o t h e r s i n ) p w a y s . H e n c e , t h e r e q u i r e d n u m b e r of p e r m u t a t i o n s i s |w - P + 1 X | pj_
Note. If we s u b t r a c t t h i s n u m b e r f r o m t h e t h e total n u m b e r of p e r m u t a t i o n s of n t h i n g s , w e get t h e n u m b e r of p e r m u t a t i o n s in w h i c h p p a r t i c u l a r t h i n g s are n e v e r f o u n d all t o g e t h e r as | n \ n - p + I x ( P .
Exercisc 11 (a) 1. There are five different routes to go from Dadar to Churchgate. Find the number of ways in which a traveller can go from Dadar to Churcheate and come back. Find also the number of ways in which be can go and come back by a different route. 2. There are five candidates for the office of the president, 7 candidates for that of the secretary and 8 candidates for that of
the treasurer. Find the number of different ways in which the election of 3 Officers caa take place. 3. In how many ways can a consonant and a vowel be chosen out of the letters of each of the words ( i ) Logarithm, ( i i ) Equation ? 4. In how many ways can, three different prizes be given to 10 boys, (i) if a boy is eligible to get only one prize, and (ii) if a boy is eligible to get any number of the 3 prizes ? 5. How many numbers of three digits can be formed by using the figures 1,2, 3 9, and nnmber ? ( i ) if n o digit is to be repreated in any number (ii) if a digit can be repented any number of times in a
6. How many of the numbers in example 5 ( i ) and 5 ( i i ) will be greater than 400 ? 7. Find n, if ( I ) " P 7 = 2 l O . "P 5 , ( i i ) 2 " P 3 =100. m P 2 , ( i i i ^ P a =2- "P 4 . 8 Show that ( i ) (2)! ==l-3-5...(2 l)-2". (ii) (n + 1 ) ( + 2)... (In -1) In = 2-6-10-14... to n factors; ... 1 2 3 n (m) 2-f + 3 1 + 4 ~ j + ... + - J j r + l j r
= 1,
1 - (F+l)l
9. How many different arrangements can be made by using all the letters of the word ( i ) Monday ?, (ii) Oriental ? How many of these arrangements begin with a and end with n ? 10. How many different arrangements can be made jvjth all the letters of the word " Equation " ? How many of these begin and end with a vowel ? 11. A number of four different digits is formed by using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 in all possible ways. Find (i) how many such numbers can be formed, and ( ii ) how many of them are greater than 3400. 12. A numbers of five different digits is formed by using the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 in all possible ways. Find how many of these numbers are exactly divisible by (i) 2, ( i i ) 25 and (iii) 4.
13. Eight boys including two brothers are to be seated on chairs in a row for a photograph. Find the number of different arrangements in which the photograph can be taken ( i ) if the two brothers are to occupy the chairs at the end; (ii) if none of the two brothers are to occupy tbe chairs at the ends. 14. In how many different ways can the books, 6 on Physics, 7 on Chemistry and 8 on Mathematics be arranged on a shelf so as to keep all the books on the same subject together ? 15. How many different arrangements can be made by using all the letters of the word courage if all the vowels are to be together and all the consonants are to be together ? 16. Eight papers are to be set at an examination, two of which are on Mathematics. In how many different ways can the examination be arranged so that the two papers on Mathematics are not consecutive ? 17. If all the permutations of the letters of the word " chalk" be written down as in a dictionary, what is the rank of this word ? 18. In how many different ways can a party of 4 girls and 8 boys seat themselves in a railway compartment with two benches of six seats each, so that the girls occupy the end "seats ? 19. Eight men and four women are to be seated on chairs in a row for a photograph. Find the number of different ways in which the group can be arranged so that n o two women occupy the chairs adjacent to each other. 20. In how many ways can 5 women, 5 girls and 5 boys be seated in a row so that all the women are together and so are all the girls and all the boys ? 21. A number is formed by using the digits 0, 1, 2, 3,4,5,6,7, no digit being repeated. How many of such numbers are greater than 100 and less than 1,00,000 ? 22. Show that the number of different permutations of n things in a line, so that two particular things are not together, is (m 2 ) | < i - l . 23. There are 6 students of whom 2 are Indians, 2 Americans and the remaining 2 are Russians. They have to stand in a line
C . A. 1 9
so that the two Indians are together, the two Americans are together and so also the two Russians. Show that there are 48 different ways of arranging the students. 24. Without using the formula for "P prove that "Pr = nX Hence deduce the formula for "Pr. 25. The number of permutations of n things taken r at a time in which k particular things always occur is
Pr-j
""Vi-
X rPA.
AnswersExercise 11 (a)
1. 3. 5. 7 25, 20. 2. ( i ) 18, ( i i ) 15. 4. ( i ) 504, ( i i ) 729. 6. ( i ) 20, ( i i ) 13, ( i i i ) 8. (i) 720, ( i i ) 40, 320 a n d ( i ) 24, (i 40,320. ii) 14,400. 11. (i) 1080 ( i i ) 120, ( i i i ) 600. (i) 1440, ( i i ) 21, 600. 14. 2 ! X 3 ! X 4 ! i. e. 288. 16. ( 4 ! + 3 ! + 1 ! + 1 ) t h i. e. 3 2 n d . 4 ! X 8 !. 193!(5!)821. 280. ( i ) 720, ( i ) 336, ( i) (ii) 1000. 486.
9.
10.
( i i ) 720. < i ) 840, ( i i ) 560. 3 ! x 6 ! x 7 ! x 8 ! . 7 ! x o i. e. 30, 240. 8 ! x 9-3-76. 7 x 7! x + L J .
12.
13.
15.
17. 18. 20.
8.
Combinations of n different things taken r at a time. We now proceed to illustrate, by a numerical example, how
the formula for "C r can be derived from that of "P r . Let us consider the number of combinations of 5 different things taken 3 at a time. Let the number of such combinations be x. We have to find the value of x. Each combination will consist of three things taken out of five. If the three things in any such group are arranged in a line and permuted in all possible ways, we get 3 ! arrangements ( permutations ). Thus, each combination gives rise to 3 ! permutations and there are x such combinations. Hence, the total number of such permutations is x x 3!. But these per-
mutations will be exactly the same as the permutations of 5 different things, taken 3 at a time i. e. they are S P 3 in number,
sp, x X 3 ! = sp 3 . ... X =
x 2 4 x * = 5 - T T3 - = 10' But x denotes, in this case, the number of combinations of 5 different things taken 3 at time i. e. S C 3 . 5 Pa S C 3 = y 3 , = 10. We will, now, make use of this method to find the formula for "Cr. To find the number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time. Let the n given different things be denoted by
a2,a3 a-u a .
Let us consider the combination of r things taken out of these n things, say, ( a-y, a2, a3, - ar ). If the r things in this group are arranged in a line and permuted in all possible ways, we will get r ! different arrangements ( i . e. permutations ) . Every such combination of r things, taken out of n given things, will give rise to r ! permutations. But there are "Cr such combinations. Therefore, the total number of such permutations will be "C r X r!. But these permutations will be exactly the same as the permutations of n different things taken r at a time i, e. they are "P, in number.
n P
Cr X r ! =
Pr,
_ n(n-l) U - 2 ) - - - ( n - r + l )
or
C. = Corollary.
T~, r-. r!(n-r)! "C = "C0 = 1.
Putting r =n in I, we have "C = " O L - J J L ^ l H . - 1. Substituting r = n in If, and remembering the definition t h a t O ! = 1, we have the same result, namely, "C e 1. The result is also, otherwise, obvious since "C denotes the number of combinations of n things taken all at a time which must be equal to 1. Again, putting r = 0 in II, we get "C0 = -Q-7^-7 = 1 The symbol "C 0 has no meaning as we cannot select zero things out of n. 9. Complementary Combinations. But owing to the result just
obtained, we assign the meaning of unity to the symbol "C0.
To prove that nCr = "Cn.r. Let the n given things be denoted by ax, a 2 , a 3 an a-1, a. Consider a group of r things, namely, a\, a2, a3, ar.\, ar. When we select this group, we leave behind another group of ( n r) things, namely, ar+1, ar^2, a-i, a. In general, whenever we select a group o f c things we automatically leave behind another corresponding group of [n r) things. Thus, corresponding to every group of r things, there is a group of remaining (n r ) things. 1 V "r ^r ^n-f Alternatively, we may arrive at this result by using the formula of "Cr which is valid for values of r < n. . . n 'r-r r! (nr ) ! Changing r to n r, we get We have "Crr =
r
~
w!
! [ n - ( . n - r ) ] !
~ r which is the same as n C r . ( n - r ) !r !
Hence, the number of different selections of r things out of n is equal to the number of selections of ( n r ) things out of n. This is called the Principle of complementary combinations.
Note 1 . T h i s P r i n c i p l e o f t e n h e l p s u s to s i m p l i f y n u m e r i c a l calculations = 455.
particularly in c a s e s w h e r e r >
Thus,
13
C I 2 = ' 'C 3 =
I 'A 'J X 'A
... . . , x , i x i.i. which is m u c h m o r e s i m p l e to c a l c u l a t e t h a n Note 2 . If i n f o r m u l a " C , = "Cn-r, W e know that

n
Ci 2 =
15 14-13....to 12 f a c t o r s "C0.
w e p u t r - n. w e get " c =
C = 1.
H e n c e , f o r t h e a b o v e f o r m u l a to b e t r u e f o r r = n consistent with t h e a b o v e result and
we h a v e t o give to " C 0 a m e a n i n g
h e n c e " c 0 is to b e t a k e n a s equal t o 1. Note. 3 . If "Cx = " C y , t h e n e i t h e r t h e t w o c o m b i n a t i o n s c o n t a i n t h e s a m e n u m b e r of t h i n g s in w h i c h case x y or t h e y a r e c o m p l i m e n t a r y , i n w h i c h c a s e , n x = y. Examples. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. F i n d t h e v a l u e s of C 8 ,

SS
C 24 ,
80
C28.
A n s . 20, 25, 435. A n s . 28. A n s . 84. An%. 70. A n s . 123. A n s . 5.
F i n d n, if " C 3 = 30 X " c If "cr= If

,0
C , + 2 ' find
Ce.
I X
Cr=
1 8
C r + 2 find C 4 .
W
F i n d n , if " C , - 5 x If
10
P3.
If 3 P S + 5 x ' P i = " P , , find r. P r = 6.04,800 a n d wCr
= 120, s h o w t h a t r = 7.
10.
Combinations with restrictions.
In permutations the nature of the restriction is with regard to the order or position of certain things; whereas in combinations it involves the inclusion or exclusion of certain things in a given selection. I. The number of combinations of n different things taken r at a tim e when p particular things out of n given things are always to be included is n i 'C r ^ i) . As every combination is to include p particular things, we have only to select ( r - p ) things out of ( n - p ) remaining
things to form a group of r things taken out of done in " 'C r .p ways. binations is "
P t
n.
This can be
Therefore, the required number of com-
Cr.p.
II. The number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time, when p particular things are to be excluded from every selection is " ^C,. As every combination is to exclude p particular things we have only ( n p ) things remaining from which r things are to be selected. This can be done in " pCr ways. Therefore, the required number of combinations i s " ~*Cr. 11. Important identity. To prove that
n+1
C r = "Cr+
Cr-i.
Let a1% a3,...an, b be ( + l ) different things. The number of combinations of these ( n + 1 ) things taken r at a time is Cr. Now, these combinations can be divided into two classes. One class will consist of all those combinations in which a particular thing, say, b is always to be excluded. The number of these combinations is the same as the number of combinations of the n things a\, a2, a3,...an taken r at a time which is
n
Cr. The second class will consist of all those combinations in which the same particular thing, say, b is always to be included. As every combination has to include b, we have only to select ( r 1 ) things out of the n things au a2,...,a. This can be done in "C r -i ways. Hence, there are "C r _i such combinations.
Alternatively the identity can also be obtained formula for C r . Thus, we have Cr =
yi 1
n
by using the
)f ,
Changing r o x r - l , "c r _ a = ^ r _
1}
r +
l )
: 295
n! , n\ ! ( n r ) ! ( r - 1 ) ! ( n - r + 1 )!
=
n ! , ! - + r-'(r I)! (n r)\ + ( r - 1 ) ! ( - r + l > (n-r) r_L Lr

+
~(r-l)!(-r))! n ! ~ (r-1)! (n-r)! _ ("+!)'
Li J
n+ 1 r( - r + 1) _ *+V
r
" r ! ( - r + 1)!"" /. 12.

Ex. 1 .
"
we have
n+1
C r = "C, + "C r _ t .
Illustrative examples.3
3
F i n d , if " C 6 : " * C a = 9 1 : 4. I I = l T T ^ 6
a n d
,,. , _ W e have C "

tt 3
- isf , , " Cs =
'I n 3 |j'[ - 6
n - c. "Illîs*
~ 3 .
[3 | - 6 ! - 3
1 _ w ( w 1 ) ( n - _ H _
* o-5-4
=
6-5-4
(w - 1) ( n - 2) 6-5-4
91_ 4
( n - 1 ) ( n - 2 ) = 6 - 5 - 9 1 = 5 6 - 7 - 1 3 = 15-14-13, expressing t h e p r o d u c t o n R . H . S . a s a p r o d u c t of t h r e e c o n s e c u t i v e i n t e g e r s in d e s c e n d i n g order as on L. H . S. n = 15. Ex. 2 . T h e r e a r e 24 d i f f e r e n t books, i n c l u d i n g 9 novels, 8 d r a m a s a n d 7 essay-books- F i n d t h e n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t w a y s i n w h i c h ( i ) a selection of six b o o k s c a n b e m a d e so a s to h a v e 2 b o o k s f r o m e a c h g r o u p ; ( i i ) a selection of / b o o k s c a n b e m a d e so as to h a v e at least two b o o k s f r o m e a c h group. (i) 2 novels, 2 d r a m a s a n d 2 e s s a y - b o o k s c a n b e selected f r o m 9 n o v e l s , 8 dramas and essay-books i n 9 C 3 , 8 C j a n d r C 3 d i f f e r e n t w a y s . b y t h e F u n d a m e n t a l T h e o r e m , t h e r e q u i r e d n u m b e r of selections of six b o c k s c o n t a n i n g t w o b o o k s of e a c h g r o u p
= 'C, x . C . x ' C - ^ f x ^ x ^ ! - * ! , 168
, 2 9 6 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA ( i i ) A selection of 7 b o o k s c o n t a i n i n g at least 2 b o o k s f r o m e a c h g r o u p c a n b e m a d e either b y s e l e c t i n g 3 b o o k s f r o m t h e novels, o r f r o m t h e d r a m a s , o r f r o m t h e essay-books a n d t h e r e m a i n i n g f o u r books b e i n g selected two f r o m each of t h e r e m a i n i n g two g r o u p s . T h e d i S e r e n t s e l e c t i o n s c a n , t h e r e f o r e , b e m a d e in
8
(1)
and .'. =
Cj x 6C2
9
x 'C2.
8
(2 )
C,
x SC3 x
'C,
(3 )
C,. x
Qs x "'C3
ways.
t h e r e q u i r e d t o t a l n u m b e r of selections. "CVCr'Q + 9 8*7 3-2-1 8-7 2-1 7-6
C1-8CJ-7CJ + 'Ca-'Ca-'C, 7 6 { 9 - 8 ^ 8 - 7 - 6 J7_-6

2-1 I 7 2-1 3-2-i 6 5 2-1 |
9-8 21 ,
8-7
2-1 18
7-6-5 3-2-1
__ =
9-8
8-7
21,168 x 6 =
1,27.008.
E x . 3 . There are 7 male s t u d e n t s and 3 lady students. In how m a n y w a y s c a n a c o m m i t t e e of six b e f o r m e d ( i ) if t h e r e is n o r e s t r i c t i o n , i i ) if t h e t h r e e lady s t u d e n t s a r e always to be i n c l u d e d a n d ( i i i ) if a t least two l a d y s t u d e n t s are to b e i n c l u d e d ? ( i ) I n this case, w e h a v e to f o r m a c o m m i t t e e of 6 o u t of 10 p e r s o n s . T h i s c a n be d o n e in J<, C 6 i . e. 210 d i f f e r e n t ways( i i ) If in t h e c o m m i t t e e of six, t h r e e l a d y s t u d e n t s a r e always to b e i n c l u d e d , t h e n we h a v e really only to select 3 male s t u d e n t s o u t of 7 w h i c h c a n b e d o n e in "Cn i. e. 35 ways. ( i i i ) If at least two lady s t u d e n t s are to be i n c l u d e d , t h e n t h e r e m a y b e e i t h e r 2 l a d i e s or 3 l a d i e s i n t h e c o m m i t t e e . W e h a v e , t h e r e f o r e , to c o n s i d e r two cases. If two ladies a r e to b e i n c l u d e d , t h e n t h e y c a n b e selected f r o m t h e given 3 ladies in ;| C 2 w a y s a n d t h e r e m a i n i n g 4 m e m b e r s of t h e c o m m i t t e e c a n be selected f r o m 7 male s t u d e n t s i n 7 C ( ways. T h u s , t h e n u m b e r of w a y s of f o r m i n g t h e c o m m i t t e e w h e r e only two ladies are i n c l u d e d is 3 C a x 7 C 4 ways. As in case ( i i ) a b o v e , t h e c o m m i t t e e w h i c h i n c l u d e s all t h e t h r e e l a d i e s c a n b e f o r m e d i n ' C 3 x 7 C S w a y s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e t o t a l n u m b e r of ways r e q u i r e d is s Ca 'Ci + 3C., 'C3 i. e. 3 X 35 + 1 x 35 o r 140 ways. Ex. f r o m 15 also t h e include 4 I n how m a n y d i f f e r e n t ways c a n a cricket t e a m of eleven be c h o s e n players ? If o u t of t h e 15 p l a y e r s 9 are b a t s m e n a n d 6 a r e b o w l e r s , find n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t w a y s in w h i c h the team c a n b e f o r m e d so as to exactly 7 b a t s m e n a n d 4 bowlers. the
O u t of 15 players a t e a m of 11 c a n be selected i n I _ , Cu w a y s . B u t , by useful i d e n t i t y a b o u t t h e c o m p l e m e n t a r y c o m b i n a t i o n s , w e h a v e
'CM1 = Ci =
is,lo
15 X 14 X 13 X 12 ; ; R = 1365 4 x 3 x 2 x 1
ways. J
PERMUTATIONS AN]D COMBINATIONS :
297
I n t h e second case 7 b a t s m e n c a n b e selected o u t of 9 b a t s m e n C: w a y s , a n d 4 bowlers c a n b e selected o u t of 6 bowlers in 8 C , w a y s Hence, by t h e F u n d a m e n t a l T h e o r e m , t h e t e a m c o n s i s t i n g of 7 b a t s m e n a n d 4 b o w l e r s c a n b e selected in 6 C 7 x 6 C ( . i e. i. e.

9
Cj x 9 x 8
C2
"Cr = . >
"Cn-rJ
2 x 1 2 1
6-5 x ~ r
540 ways.
Ex. 5 . A g a m e of mixed d o u b l e s t e n n i s is to b e a r r a n g e d f r o m a g r o u p of 12 players i n c l u d i n g 4 ladies a n d 8 g e n t l e m e n , so t h a t e a c h s i d e of t h e g a m e consists of o n e l a d y a n d o n e g e n t l e m a n . F i n d t h e n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t w a y s in which t h e g a m e c a n b e a r r a n g e d . F o r a r r a n g i n g a g a m e of mixed d o u b l e s t e n n i s t w o l a d i e s a n d two g e n t l e m e n m u s t be selected first. T h e two l a d i e s c a n b e selected o u t of 4 l a d i e s i n "Ci i. e. 6 ways. T h e 2 g e n t l e m e n c a n b e c h o s e n o u t of 8 g e n t l e m e n in *C 4 i. e. 2f ways. H e n c e , t h e f o u r playerstwo ladies, say L< a n d L*, a n d t w o g e n t l e m e n , say Gi a n d G 2 , c a n b e selected in 6 x 28 = 168 ways. A f t e r selecting t h e f o u r p l a y e r s i n c l u d i n g two ladies a n d t w o g e n t l e m e n , t h e g a m e can be a r r a n g e d in 2 w a y s a c c o r d i n g a s t h e lady L i h a s a p a r t n e r Gi o r G a . T h u s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to e a c h of t h e 168 w a y s of s e l e c t i n g f o u r players, i n c l u d i n g two ladies a n d two g e n t l e m e n , t h e r e a r e t w o w a y s of a r r a n g i n g t h e g a m e . H e n c e , t h e g a m e c a n b e a r r a n g e d in 168 x 2 i. e 336 ways. Ex. 6 . T h e r e a r e 10 p o i n t s in a p l a n e of w h i c h 4 a r e collinear. F i n d ( i ) t h e n u m b e r of t r a i n g l e s t h a t c a n b e f o r m e d w i t h v e r t i c e s a t t h e s e p o i n t s a n d ( i i ) t h e n u m b e r of s t r a i g h t l i n e s o b t a i n e d b y j o i n i n g t h e s e p o i n t s in pairs. W e c a n select 3 p o i n t s o u t of 10 in , 0 C 3 ways. B u t if t h e s e 3 p o i n t s a r e selected o u t of 4 c o l l i n e a r p o i n t s , a triangle c a n n o t b e f o r m e d . T h e n u m b e r of such selections will b e 4 C , a n d they do n o t g i v e u s a n y triangle. H e n c e t h e required n u m b e r of t r i a n g l e s t h a t c a n b e f o r m e d is 1 0 C 3 *C 3 i. e. 120 4 which is 116. T o f o r m s t r a i g h t l i n e s w e h a v e to select 2 p o i n t s o u t of 10. T h i s c a n b e d o n e in I 0 C a w a y s . Of t h e s e , ' C 3 are t h e s e l e c t i o n s in w h i c h b o t h t h e p o i n t s lie on t h e given iine c o n t a i n i n g t h e 4 collinear p o i n t s . H e n c e , we g e t only o n e straight line a n d n o t *C 2 , H e n c e , t h e n u m b e r of s t r a i g h t lines w h i c h c a n b e f o r m e d is 10 C a - 4 C 2 + 1, i. e. 45 - 6 + 1 w h i c h is 40.
Exercise 1 1 ( b ) 1. If "C* = "C y , show that x = y or x + y = n. 2. Find n, if ( i ) ( ii ) (v) "C* = 495;

ls
(ii ) n C 5 = " C 6 ; (iv ) 2 "C 3 : "C, = 4 4 : 3 ;

1
Cn =
1S
Cn+2 ;
3 x " Q = 5 x " CS.
20
3. 4.
If
C=20C6,find(i)"C3and(ii)
"c,0.
Find r, if
( i ) " c , , : 2 2 C 2 r _ 2 = 138 : 95; (ii) Cjr:

24
C2r-i =225
:11.
5. A committee of four is to be formed from 16 members. Find the number of different ways in which the committee can be formed. If 16 members include three particular members A, B and C, find further, in how many different ways can the committee be formed ( i ) if A is to be excluded from the committee; (ii) if A is t o be included b u t B and C are to be excluded. 6. In how many ways can a committee of 4 gents and 3 ladies b e formed out of a club consisting of 10 gents and 6 ladies ? In how many of these selections of the committee will a particular lady be included but two particular gents be excluded ? 7. There are 12 points in a plane of which 5 are collinear. can be formed with Find ( i ) the number of triangles that vertices at these points, and
( i i ) the number of straight lines obtained by joining these points in pairs. 8. How many ( i ) triangles ( i i ) diagonals can be formed by joining the angular points of a ten sided plane polygon ? 9. If 15 parallel straight lines are intersected by 13 other parallel straight lines, find total number of different parallelograms thus formed. 10. There are 4 Professors and 16 students. Find in how many different ways can a committee of 5 be formed so as to include ( i ) exactly 3 Professors and ( i i ) at least 3 Professors. 11. From 8 gentlemen and 4 ladies a committee of 5 is to be f o r m e d . In how many ways can the committee be formed so as t o include at least 1 lady ? 12. There are 5 English, 7 Marathi and 9 Gujarathi recommended books. In how many different ways can a selection of 9 prize-books including 2 English, 3 Marathi and 4 Gujarathi books be m a d e ?
299
13. From a class of 15 students, how many different parties can be formed so as to include at least 3 and not more than 5 students in any party ? 14. A cricket team of 11 players is to be formed from 16 players including 4 bowlers and 2 wicket-keepers. In how many different ways can a team be formed so that the team contains ( i ) exactly 3 bowlers and 1 wicket-keeper: ( i i ) at least 3 bowlers and at least 1 wicket-keeper ? 15. In how many ways can 9 different prizes be awarded to A, B, C so that A gets 2, B gets 3, and C gets 4 prizes ? Find also the number of ways, if in the above distribution, B is not eligible for a particular prize. 16. For an examination a candidate has to select 7 subjects from three different groups A, B and C. The three groups A, B, C contain 4, 5, 6 subjects respectively, In how many different ways can a candidate make his selection if he has to select al least 2 subjects from each group ? 17. In how many ways can a committee of 5 be chosen from 10 candidates ( i ) so as to include both the youngest and oldest, ( i i ) so as to exclude the youngest if it includes the oldest ? 18. In how many different ways can a committee of 5 be formed from 6 Congressmen and 4 Socialists so as to include at least two Socialists ? 19. A person has 10 acquaintances of whom 3 are relatives. In how many different ways can he invite 7 of his acquaintances so as to include at least 2 of his relatives ? 20. A party of 6 is to be formed from 10 boys and 7 girls so as to include 3 boys and 3 girls. In how many different ways can the party be formed if two particular girls refuse to join the same party ? 21. If p parallel straight lines are intersected by q other parallel straight lines, find the total number of different parallelograms which are formed. 22. There are p points in a plane no three of which are in a straight line except q which are all collinear. Find ( i ) the number of different triangles with their vertices at these points and
( i i ) the number of different straight lines formed by joining these points. 23. Find the number of diagonals that can be drawn by joining the vertices of a plane polygon of n sides. 24. Without using the formula for "C r prove that r X C, = n X Cr.i.
Hence, deduce the formula for "C r . 25. Show that the number of different ways of distributing {p + q + r ) different things to three persons A, B, C so that A gets p, B gets q, and C gets r things respectively, is ( p + q + rVp ! q !r!
e
26. A game of tennis doubles is to be arranged from a group of 10 players including 6 men and 4 women, so that each side of the game consists of one man and one woman. Find the number of different ways in which the game can be arranged. 27. In how many ways can a mixed doubles tennis game be arranged from 7 married couples, if no husband and wife play in the same game ? 28. Show that 10 men, of whom 4 are brothers can be arranged in a row, so that no two brothers are together in 120 x 71 different ways. 29. In how many ways can a number of 5 digits be formed by using the digits from 1 to 9 so that even digits occupy even places, odd digits occupy odd places and no digit is repeated ? 30. Twelve persons get into a railway compartment with 6 seats on either side. Two of the persons refuse to face the engine and one of them dislikes travelling backwards. In how many ways can they be seated ? AnswersExercise 11 ( b )
2. 3. .5. 7. 0. (i) ( i ) 1820. (i) (i) 12. 20 ( i i ) 11. ( i i i ) or 364. 1365. (ii) (ii) (ii ) ii ) 57. 196. 8. (iv) 6. 4. (v) ( i ) 10. 10. (ii) 7.
1001 o n l y . 286. 8. 11. 6. ( i ) 736.
( i ) 210. 480.
4200, 700. 120. 12 . (ii) 35. 9. 13. 8190. 4823. 44,100.
PERMUTATIONS AN]D COMBINATIONS : 3 0 1 14. 17. (i) (i) 960. 56. (ii) (ii) 2472. 196. 15. 18. 1260 ; 840. 186. 19. 98. 16 . 20 . 2700. 3600.
21- -~tg{p22. 26. 30. (i) 2-6C2-4C2
I) ( q - D
(ii) i.e. 180. 27. + 2-,Ca-sCa 23. ^ J ^
1
720.
i. e. 420.
29.
' P ^ ' P i - g ! i. e. 180 x 9 !.
13. Permutations of things not all different. We have considered upto this time permutations of things which were all different. We will now consider in this article permutations of things, some of which are similar, taken all at a time. We will illustrate the method, first by the following example. Example. Find the number of permutations of the letters of the word " Infinity ", taken all at time. We have, here 8 letters of which 3 are i, 2 are n, and the three others, namely / , t, y, are different. If all the 8 letters would have been different, the number of permutations (taken all at a time ) would be 8 !. Let x denote the number of permutations required in the example. Take any such permutation, say, Infinity". If we replace the three latters i by the different letters z"i, i2, z'3 then this permutation w J1 give rise to j_3_ permutations by permuting 3 letters amongst themselves in all possible ways, and without altering the positions of other letters. Hence, if this change is made in each of the x-permutations we would obtain i x [ 3 permutations. Similarly, if in each of x X |3 permutations, the two letters n were replaced by two different letters t and n2, we would get a; x | 3 x |_2_ permutations But now all the things have become different, and therefore, the total number of permutations must be the same as the number of permutations of eight different letters taken all at a time i. e. 8 ! . 8 xx 13 x 12 = 18. . ' . x = ,
We shall now use this method to prove the following Theorem. Theorem. The number of permutations of n things taken all at a time, when p of them are similar and of one type, q of them are similar and of another type, r of them are similar and of a third type, and the rest all different is n! p \ q\ r\ If all the n things had been different, the number of permutations, all at a time, would have been n !. Let x be the required number of permutations in the proposition. Take any one of these permutations and replace in it, the p similar things by p things different from each other and also different from the rest. This change will give rise to p ! permutations by permuting these p different things amongst themselves in all possible ways and without altering the positions of other things. If this change is effected in each of the ^-permutations, we shall get x-p ! permutations. Similarly, replace the q similar things of the second type by q things, different from each other and different from the rest. Then, by permuting these q different things, amongst themselves in all possible ways, in the above x-p ! permutations we shall obtain x-p I q I permutatations. Repeating the process with the r similar things of the third type, we shall obtain x-p ! -q ! -r1 ! permutations. But, now, all the n things have become different and hence the total number of their permutations must be n ! as already observed in the beginning. n! x-p ! q ! r ! = n !; .'. x = ^ p !; q ! r r ! the required number of permutations is
Ex. 1 . F i n d t h e n u m b e r of p e r m u t a t i o n s t h a t c a n : fitters of t h e w o r d s ( i ) Mathematics ; ( i i ) Inedpendetice ;
p ! - q I -r !
b e m a d e o u t of t h e (iii ) Allahabad
, , 11! Ans. ( i ) - 2 , , 2 ! , 2 ! '
, .. .
12! TTTiTT '
,. (m
..,9! ' 4T2T'
PERMUTATIONS
AN]D COMBINATIONS
303
Ex. 2 . T h e r e a r e f o u r copies of a book on Algebra, t h r e e c o p i e s of a n o t h e r book on T r i g o n o m e t r y a n d t h r e e copies of a t h i r d book o n G e o m e t r y . F i n d t h e different n u m b e r of w a y s in w h i c h t h e y c a n b e a r r a n g e d in a l i n e o n a shelf. H o w m a n y of t h e s e a r r a n g e m e n t s will h a v e two b o o k s o n G e o m e t r y at t h e two e n d s ? r
A n s
. 4 !3 !4 !
- J - i - . i 4 !3 ! J
14.
Permutations with repetitions.
To find the number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time when each thing may be repeated any number of times in any arrangement. The required number of permutations of n different things taken at a time is the same as the number of ways in which r blank spaces arranged in a line ( as in article 5 ) can be filled with r things out of n given things, each blank place being filled with any one of the n things. Here, any one blank space can be filled by any one of the n things i. e. in n ways. .". all the r blank spaces can be filled in [ n Xn Xn X to r factors ] i. e. n different ways.
In how E x . 1 . A b o y h a s five pockets a n d t h r e e pieces of t e n P a i s e . m a n y ways c a n h e p u t t h e m i n t o his p o c k e t s ?
T h e first piece of t e n P . c a n b e p u t in 5 w a y s a s it may b e " p u t in a n y of t h e 5 pockets. T h e s e c o n d piece of ten P may also b e p u t in 5 w a y s f o r t h e boy is n o t p r e v e n t e d f r o m u s i n g t h e same pocket a g a i n . Similarly, t h e t h i r d piece of ten P . c a n b e p u t in 5 ways. H e n c e , t h e r e q u i r e d n u m b e r of w a y s = 5 x 5 X 5 = 5 ' i. e. 125. Ex. 2. 1 to 9 ? H o w m a n y n u m b e r s of 4 digits c a n b e f o r m e d w i t h t h e d i g i t s [ A n s . 9* ]
Ex 3 . I n how m a n y w a y s c a n five p r i z e s b e given away to f o u r b o y s w h e n each boy is eligible f o r all t h e prizes ? [ A n s , 4* ]
15. Combinations of n different things taken any number at a time. To find the number of combinations of n different things taken any number at a time. In making a selection of n different things any number at a time, each thing may be dealt with in 2 ways, viz. it may either be selected or rejected. Since either Way of dealing with any one thing may be associated with each way of dealing
with any one of the n others, the number of selections is 2 X 2 X 2 X to n factors i e. 2" ways. But this includes the case where all the n things are rejected, which is inadmissible since no selection is formed. required number of combinations of n different things, taken any number at a time, is 2" 1. Corollary. The total number of combinations of n different things taken any number at a time is clearly made up of the combinations of the n things taken one at a time, two at a time, up to all at a time. we have " Q + "C 2 + or
n
C3 ++
"C = 2" - 1.
"C0 + " Q + "C2 + "C 3 + + "C = 2".
[ " c 0 = 1, may be taken to represent the case where all the n things are rejected. ]
E * . 1. A salesman places three d i f f e r e n t ties b e f o r e a c u s t o m e r . I n how m a n y w a y s c a n t h e c u s t o m e r m a k e a p u r c h a s e cf o n e or m o r e of t h e m ? T h e c u s t o m e r h a s 2 w a y s of disposing t h e first tie ( e i t h e r to p u r c h a s e it or n o t t o p u r c h a s e i t ) . Similarly, h e r e a r e two w a y s of d e a l i n g w i t h second a n d two again of d e a l i n g with t h e t h i r d . 3 ties may b e dealt with in 2-2 2 i. e. 8 ways. B u t t h i s i n c l u d e s t h e c a s e w h e r e n o tie is p u r c h a s e d . excluding t h e i n a d m i s s i b l e case, t h e c u s t o m e r h a s 7 ways = J C i + Ex. 2 . chairs?
3
( 2s - 1 )
i.e.
C a + 3 C 3 = 3 + 3 + 1 = 7.
I n h o w m a n y w a y s c a n a m a n c h o o s e o n e o r m o r e c h a i r s o u t of 6 [ A n s i 6 1 i. e. 63 ]
E x . 3 , T h e r e a r e 3 Socialists, 4 C o n g r e s s m e n a n d 2 C o m m u n i s t s . I n how m a n y w a y s can a selection b e m a d e so as to i n c l u d e at least o n e of each p a r t y ? [Ans. ( 2 3 - 1 ) (2 - 1 ) ( 2 s 1 ) i. e. 315 ]
16.
Remarks regarding solution of problems.
In solving problems on permutations and combinations the students are advised to pay attention to the following points. ( i ) Whether the problem relates to the arrangements or the selections of the given things. In a selection or a group, we pay no attention to the order of the things taken. When the order of the things is relevant in the problem, it becomes a problem in permutations.
PERMUTATIONS
AN]D COMBINATIONS
305
( ii ) Whether any conditions are imposed on the manner of arranging or grouping of things. ( iii ) not. ( i v ) Whether the given things are all different or not. If some of the things are alike, the effect on the problem of arrangements or of selections should be carefully considered. ( v ) Whether the repetitions of the things in the problem are admissible or not. Exercise 11 ( c ) 1. Find the number of permutations that can be made out of the letters of the words ( i ) Calcutta, ( ii) Institutions. 2. How many of the permutations in Example 1, begin and end with t ? 3. How many different numbers can be formed by permuting the digits, 2, 2, 2, 3, 3, 4 in all possible ways ? How many of these numbers are greater than 3,00,000 ? 4. Find Ihe number of arrangements that can be made from the letters of the word Algebra, without altering the relative positions of the vowels and consonants. 5. In how many ways can the letters of the word College be arranged so that ( i ) the two /'s are never together, ( i i ) the two s are together but not two e's, ( iii ) neither the I's nor the two e's are together ? 6. In how many ways can a man distribute his 3 votes among 5 candidates, it being permissible to give more than one vote to the same candidate? 7. In how many ways can 5 scholarships be awarded to 4 boys, when each boy is eligible for all the scholarships ? 8. How many different numbers, each consisting of 4 digits, can be formed with the figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 if repetitions are allowed ? 9. At a certain examination a candidate has to secure a certain minimum percentage of marks in each of the six different subjects. In how many different ways can he fail ? C. A.20 Whether the Fundamental Theorem is applicable or
10. In how many ways can n things be given to p persons, when there is no restriction as to the number of things one may receive ? 11. A candidate has to answer one or more questions out of the 8 questions in a paper, each question being given an alternative. The candidate may answer a question, or its alternative or may not answer it at-all. In how many different ways can the candidate attempt the paper ? 12. In how many ways can a selection be made from four black, three white and five red balls so as to have at least one of each colour ? 13. There are 4 different books on Physics, 5 different books on Mathematics and 3 different books on Chemistry. In how many ways can a selection of books be made so as to include at least one book of each ? AnswersExercise 11 ( c )
(2!) _
3 ( l )
( 3 1 , - 21)
(u)
(21)' 51
4
(31).(2!)
4!
. . .
61
,...
5 1 ,
3-T2T-
rr
. . 3 !
-nT2r-
TT1-72-
5. (i)
(iii) 6. 9. 11. 13.
(21)
I f *. (") V r - 51 1 e- 2421
" r 2 X 240 5 1 i e. 660. (21) 7. 4 5 i. e . 1024. 10. 12. (2

3
5 s i . e . 125. 2* 1 i. e . 63. 3 - 1 i . e . 6560. ( 2 - l ) - ( 2 - 1)
8.
5 4 i . e. 625.
p".
4
( 2
- l ) ( 2
- l )
(2
-l)i. e
3255.
- X) i . e . 3255.
Chapter 12
Binomial Theorem
1. I n t r o d u c t i o n . 2. C o n t i n u e d P r o d u c t of B i n o m i a l F a c t o r s . 3 . B i n o mial t h e o r e m f o r a p o s i t i v e i n t e g r a l i n d e x . 4. P r o o f of t h e B i n o m i a l T h e o r e m b y I n d u c t i o . 5. P a r t i c u l a r c a s e s . 6 . T h e g e n e r a l t e r m . 7. M i d d l e t e r m s . E x e r c i s e 12 ( a ) . 8. B i n o m i a l coefficients. 9 . R e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n B i n o m i a l coefficients. 10. I l l u s t r a t i v e e x a m p l e s . E x e r c i s e 12 ( b ) .
1. Introduction. Any algebraic expression consisting of two terms is called a Binomial Expression. Thus x -f- a, 3x 5, 2a + 2b.... etc. are examples of binomial expressions, (x + a)" is the nth power of the binomial expression ( x + a ) The Binomial Theorem deals with the expansion of a power of a binomal expression. We will discuss in this chapter, a particular case of the binomial theorem giving the expansion of a power of a binomial expression, when the index is a positive integer. To "begin with, we may infer the result from some of the known few powers of the binomial. By actual multiplication, we have ( x + a)2 = x2 + 2xa + a2 ; ( x + a y = x* + 3x2a + 3xa2 + a3; ( x + a y = x4 + 4x3a + 6 x2a2 + 4*a3 + a4 ; and so on. Thus, if n is considered as the positive integral index, in the expression of C x + a )", we should have, ( i ) the first teim as xn, ( i i ) the second term as n x" 1 a, (iii ) the indices of x steadily decreasing by one and those of a steadily increasing by one from term to term.
307
( i v ) We also obsreve thai the coefficients in expansions given above, are the values of 2 C 0 , 2 Ci, 2 C 2 , in the first, 3 Co , 2Ct, 3 C 2 , 3 C 3 in the second and 4 C 0 , 4Clt *C2, *C3, 4 C 4 in the third. Hence, in the expansion of ( x + a ) " the various coefficients in order, can be expected a s : "n "n "n r ' " ' nC ' ' ' "W These observations lead us to infer the general result / i \n n n n-1 . k_ "'22 i ( x + a ) = C0x + Q x a + C2 x a +
, n n-r r , n
+ Crx
a ++
c a .
It may be noted that ( i ) the number of terms in the expansion is ( n + 1 ) i. e. one more than the index n of the binomial, ( ii ) the suffix of C is the same as the index of a, (iii) the sum of indices of x and a, in any term in the expansion, is n, i. e. the index of the binomial.
Example Expand (x + a)
6
*
6 t 1 6 5
W e have ( * + a)
8 6
= "Co* + Ci x*a + "C zx'a* + C ; , * V + Clx a* + C,,*a + C 6 a. = x' + 6 x ' a + 15* V + 20 x*a' + 1 5 * V + 6 xa 5 + a".
2.
Continued product of binomial factors.
In obtaining the expansion of ( x + a )", we have to multiply the binomal expression ( x + a ) by itself n times. The formation of the product of such factors can be considered as follows. We have ( x + ^ i ) ( x + o 2 ) = x2 + xat + xa2 + a2. It is convenient to group the terms in the product having the same index o f ' x ' together. Thus, ( x + fli) ( x + a2 ) = x 2 + x ( ai + a2 ) + a\ a2. Similarly, ( x + a i ) ( x + a 2 ) ( x + 3 ) = x 3 + x 2 (tfi + a2 + a3) + x ( ata2 + + o2a3 ) + ata2a3. Similarly ( x + a 1 ) ( x + a 2 ) ( x + a 3 ) ( x + ai) = x4 + x3(at-{-a2-ha3+a4) 2 + x { ata2 + a\a3 + aâ^ + a2a3 + a2ak + a3a.) + x ( aia2a3 + aia2cn + a\a3a + a2a3<n ) + axa2a3ai.
BINOMIAL THEOREM : 3 0 9
It will be seen that each term in the product is obtained by choosing one term from each factor, x or a, and multiplying them together. All the terms in the product are obtained by doing this in all possible ways. The expansion, thus, is the sum of all such partial products. It may be convenient to write ( X + flj ) 0 where + <J2) 0 + fl3) 0 + fl4> = the sum of the terms
=X
4
JiX3
+ J2X2 +
a2, a3,
s2 = the sum of their products, two at a time, 5 3 = the sum of their products three at a time, 54 = t h e product, four at a time. This process of writing the product of continued binomial factors can be generalized to any number of factors. Thus, (* +
h = X +SlX n-1 + S2X
0
n-2
+ a2) (* + <*$)
n-3 + S3X + . . . + S,X n-r
(x + an)
. . + ... + S
where si contains "C t terms, (a-i+a2
+ az +
+a), ),
s2 contains "Cj terms, ( ata2 + flifl3 +
and in general, sr contains "Cr terms because it consists of terms of selections of n things taken r at a time. If in this result, we put at = a2 = a3 = ... = an = a, we get Si = "Ci-a, s2 = "C2-a2, s3 ="C3-a3,..., sr "Crar,
... and sn = nCn-a" i. e. a". Also the L. H. S. becomes (x + a ) " Hence, we have
1 i "/-> n ~ 2 1 i C t x" - a + C2 x a2 + . _ n-r r + C,x a which is the Binomial Theorem,
rx +a i ( )
i = x" +
n + a .
By following the procedure of continued multiplication of n binomial factors, explained in this article we give in the next article a shorter proof of the Binomial Theorem by the use of combinations.
3.
Binomial Theorem for a positive integral index. If x and a are any two numbers and n a positive integer, then / + i a ) \n (*
n
=s x
i nnC i x
n 2 2 T "/-i ' a i+ a + C2x
+ C,x a + +a . We have ( x + a ) " = ( x + a ) ( x + a") ( x + a ) - to n factors. We shall get a term in the expansion by selecting a term from each of the n factors and multiplying these terms together. All the terms in the expansion will be obtained by doing this in all possible ways. Select x from each of the n factors and multiply. a term in the expansion, namely, x . in one way and hence the term x* expansion.
n
We get
This can be done only once in the
occurs only
Select a from any one of the n factors and x from the remaining ( n 1 ) factors and multiply. We get a term x a. The selection of the factor for a f r o m the n factors can a occurs "Cj times in the
1
be done in " Q ways. Hence x product. Therefore, " Q X"
a is the term in the expansion.
Similarly, select a from any two of the n factors and x from the remaining ( n 2 ) factors and multiply. We get a term x"
2
a.
The selection of the two factors for a from the

2
n factors can be done in "C 2 ways. Hence x"

2
occurs " Q
times in the product. Therefore, "Qj x" a is the term in the expansion. In general, select a from any r of the n factors and x from the remaining ( n r ) factors and multiply. We get a term x"" a. The selection of the r factors for a from the n factors Hence, x" ' a occurs "C r times in
r
can be done in "C r ways. the product.
Therefore, "Cr x"
a is the term in the expansion. and
Finally, select a from each of the n factors and multiply. We get a term a". This can be done only in one way hence the term a occurs only once in the expansion.
BINOMIAL
THEOREM : 3 1 1
Adding all the terms, we have the expansion (x + a) =x 4. + Cxx

4- _ , T
a+
r .
C2
a +
n
Cr*
n-r
a + . .. a .
Proof of the Binomial Theorem by Induction.
We will prove in this article the binomial theorem by the method of mathematical induction. We have to prove that ( x + a )" = x" + "Cix^ ...+
n 1
a + "C 2 x"~ 2 a + ... + ... ++ a (i)
Crx'-ra
where n is any positive integer, and x and a are any two numbers. Assume that the theorem is true for a particular value of n, say n = k. Therefore, by the assumption, we have , .ft fe . fc fc-1 . k-2 2 (x a + C2 x a + a ) = x + Cj x k-r+1 r-1 k_ k-r r , ft / + cr-! x a + cr x a + + a . ... ( n ) Multiply both sides by x + a. ;, = x
fe+1
(x + a ) ( x + a ) * +
fc
C1xfe.a+
C j xft
a +.... + *Crx*"41 *'+....+** +
+ xka + kC1xk-1a2+ , h . fe+i
(* + fl)
=
+ ( *Cl + 1 ) x a + ( *C, + *Ca ) x"" 1 a 2 + + ( *Cr+*Cr-i)

k k
<'+... + ...
ft+1
+ ( I + Ck~! ) x-a + a . Jj+l , ft . fi+V fc-l 2 , =x + Q x a + C 2 x -a + + * + 1 Cr x +

ft+1 h fe
a + (iii)
C,.xa
+ afe+1
&
and
Ci + h C 0 i. e. ^C^ + 1 = ' i + 1 Ci and so on. )
The expansion ( iii ) is of the same form as the expansion ( i ) and can be obtained from it by putting n = k + 1 just in the same way as ( ii ) has been obtained by putting n = k in (i). Thus, if the theorem is assumed to be true for n = k, it is also true for n = the next integral value k + 1. Now if n = 2, we have ( x + a )2 = x2 + 2 C t xa + a2 = x2 + 2 xa + a2 3 and if n = 3, we have ( x + a ) = x 3 + 3 C t x 2 a + 3 C 2 xa 2 + a3, = x3 + 3 x2a + 3 xa2 + a3. Therefore, the theorem is verified for n 2 and n 3 ; and hence it must be true for n = 4 and hence for n 5; and so on. Thus the theorem is true for all positive integral values of n. Ex. \ . Find the expansion of (2c + 1 ) ' . Here, we have 2x and J for x and a in the above standard expansion. (2* + -!-) - ( a * ) ' + Ci(ar) ( 4 " ) +'C2(2*) + 'C3(2*)'( \
+
y + 'C,(2*)
(4-)'
6 +
'C5(2*)>(-L)VC3(2*) ( - L ) + X * 2x* J_ J_ 1 ' 25 * + 2' x* + x1 +
(}j
= 2'-*' +
+
25-*3 +~62-2ix
1 f
7-6-5-4 "1-2-3-4" ' 2
7J5 12
= 128s7 + 224*' + 168*5 + 70*4 + Ei. 2 Expand A X 34-A x 2 2 Ex, 3. Expand (

+
*+ ^
J L j . A 1 4.A J 4 " * + 16 " x3- 32 ' * s 6X' + 4 ~ + ~
+ ~ j Ans. x3 + 4
The following points about the above standard expansion in the Binomial Theorem should be noted. ( i ) The number of terms in the expansion is ( n + 1 ) i. e. one more than the index of the binomial. ( i i ) The sum of the indices of powers of x and a in any term is always n. (iii ) The index of the power of a, in any term, is the same as the suffix of C. ( iv) Since, nCr = "C.r, the coefficients of the terms from
the two ends are equal, and the coefficients of x"and a" are both equal to 1. ( v ) The rank of the term in the expansion is one more than the suffix of C. ( r + 1). 5. Particular cases. We have (x-ra) =x + Qx
n-r
Thus the rank of the term "Crx"
*a is
a +
r , ,
C2x
n
a + ... ...
/ \ ( i )
... + Cr x
i "/-i
a +... + a.
This is an identity which is true for any value of x and a, rt being a positive integer. Following convenient expansions can be obtained as particular cases by giving suitable values to x and a. In ( i ) , writing a for a, we get , t t n _ -l , n-2 . -2 N . ( x - a ) x + Qi ( - f l ) + C2x ( - a ) + ...+ Cf x ( -a) +... n n-1 , _ n-2 2 ( x - a ) x Qx a+ C-x a + ...+ ( - 1 ) . C,x a +... + ( - 1 ) a .
, n-r . .
+ ( - a) .
x"
..
...
(11 )
In this case, the terms are alternately positive and negative and the last term is positive or negative according as n is even or odd. Again in ( i ) . writing 1 for x and x for a, we get ( 1 + x ) " = 1 + " C t x + "C2x2 + "C 3 * 3 + ... + ...+ "Cr*r+ . . . +x". ... (iii)
314
: COLLEGE
ALGEBRA
This result gives the Theorem.
simplest
form
of
the
Binomial
Again in ( i ) , writing 1 for x and - x for a, we get ( 1 - *)" = 1 + " Q ( - x) + "C 2 ( - J C ) 2 + . . . +"Cr( - *)'+... + ( - * ) " . ( 1 x ) " = l "Cj x + "C2 x2 "C^x3 + + ( - l ) ' V + . " + ... ( i v ) Here, as in ( i ), the terms are alternately positive and negative, and the last term is positive or negative according as n is even or odd.
E * . 1. Ex.2. Expand ^ x Expand ( 1 Ans. E * . 3. ^ -2x)'. Ans. * 5 - 5 * 3 + 1 0 * - I 0 -
1 - 12* + 60* a - 160*s + 240* 4 - 192* + 64* e . { 1 + ^2) - ( 1 - ^2)"Ans. 5^2.
F i n d the value of
<S. The General term. In the expansion {x + a)n, the ( r + 1 )th term is given by
T j. r + l
n U
U-l)Q-2). , (-+ 1)An-r*u

r!
All the terms in the expansion can be obtained by giving to r, positive integral values from 0 to n ; and hence this term is called the general term in the expansion. It should be noted that the rank of this term is ( r -M )th in the expansion. This is an important result and is used to find any particular term of the given expansio n.
/ Ex. 1.
2
F i n d the 10 th t e r m i n the expansion of ( 3x 1 T r + l = nC, xn ' a,
We have
_2
is the second term of
Here, i n this example, 3x is the first term, and the given Also, binomial. - 12 and r + 1 = 10 i . e. r = 9.
T,+i = C
( 3 * )
3
1 2
"
^ y
= C 8
1 2 1 0
( 3
( - I ,
( 1 )
= - "C3 3
- 2
' = -
1 Z J
'"'
- y ^
x-i-
required JOtb term - 2 u - 3 3 - 5 5 x - . Ex. 2 . F i n d the coefficient of Xs i n the expansion of ^ 2x r
W e have, w i t h the usual notation, T r + i = "Cr
a".
Here, i n the given example, first and second terms of the binomial are 2 * and - y Also n = 7. We have to find r such that T r + 1 contains
Tr+1 -
Cr ( 2 x f
( - }
) ' = Cr ( 2 ) 7 - ' ( - D
( a
T h e value of is given by 7 r = 3 i . e, r = 4. X 4 + 1 = 'C 4 ( - 1 >.* ( { ) ' * > = + C. ( I ) 35 = { I f \
.*.
the required coefficient of * s is
Ex. 3.
F i n d the term independent of x i n expansion i o n of ^ x - ~
W i t h the usual notation, we h a v c T r + i = * C r x"
a".
Here, i n the given example, first and second terms of the binomial are x and >
Also = 8.
W e have to find r such that T r + i is independent of x and thus w i l l not involve a power i n x. T r + l = "Cr ( * ) * " ' = C (-l)
r
-(2)
-*
"
.~
= (-l)'C,(2)'-*8"4r-
the value of r is given by 8 - 4r 0 i . e. r = 2. T2 + 1 = ( 1 ) ' eCa (2)2 *. x => = U ,
the required term independent of %, is 112,
316
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA
Ex. 4 .
Find the coefficient of
in the expansion of I * -
1 V
J
Find also the rank of this term in the expansion. With the usual notation, w e have T r + i = nCr x" ' a . Here, in the given example, the first and second terms of the binomial are x and respectively. Also = 10.
W e have to find r such that T r + i contains -^r xm
- 1 - 1)' i - b - I - ' > "A~ r c,- 3 ' A " C , . " - X

' T r + t c o n t a i n s - ^ j - i . e. *
5
if 10 3r = 5,
.'.
r = 5.
T s + i =s ( 1 ) 5 2 " S r 1 32
10
C6x~S X -s .. T 8 63 1 .-5 8 *
10-9-8-7-6 1-2-3-4-5
.'.
the required coefficient of
jc5
is -
8~
It can be seen that the rank of this term 6 . Ex. 5 . F i n d { i ) the 7th term, ( i i ) the coefficient of ( } * - 2 )
9
in the expansion of ; (ii)
Ans
(i)
7.
Middle terms.
To find the middle term or the middle terms
in the expansion of ( x + a )". Case ( i ) : Let n be even and be put in the form 2p. The number of terms in the expansion is ( n + 1 ) i. e. 2p + 1 . Therefore, Ti+1 is such that there are p terms preceding it and p terms following it, and hence it is the middle term. T r + 1 will be the required middle term if r = p i. g. n/2 where n is even.
Case ( i i ) : Let ti be odd and be put in the form 2 p + 1. The number of terms in the expansion is n -f 1 i. e. 2p + 2. Here, it can be easily seen that there is no one term equidistant from the two ends in the expansion. However, the term Ip+i is preceded by p terms and the next term Ty,+2 is followed by p terms in the expansion; and hence both the terms and T M 2 are called the middle terms in the expansion. Since n = 2p + 1 we have p =
n
--
1
/. and r =
Ex. 1 .
T r + 1 will give the two middle terms if we put r = where n is odd.

F i n d the middle term in the expansion
Here, the total number of terms in the expansion is 7. Hence, 4th term is the middle term. W e have, with the usual notation. Tr+i "Cr x" )6
3 r
a. ^
Here, in this case, w e have T ? + i 6 C S (
T, 1 = H 4 12 3
.'.
( ~ 1 )s.X-s s = ~ 20A;3.
the required middle term is - 20*. Find the middle terms in the expansion of f 2x
Fx. 2 .
1 V I
Here, the total number of terms in the expansion is 10. and 6th terms n the expansion are the middle terms. W e have, with this usual notation, T r + i = " C x"
r
H e n c e , the 5th
a .
Here, in this case w e g e t the middle terms by putting r = 4 and 5.
"
987
63
the required middle terms are x and 4 32
Ex 3.
F i n d t h e middle term
in t h e e x p a n s i o n of
Ans. * + -
10 \ J .
/ Ex. 4 . F i n d t h e m i d d l e t e r m s in t h e e x p a n s i o n of
u
252. \ "
Ans.
i, e . 924 x
1
x
and
ii C
*
2
i. e. 231 * .
Exercise 12 ( a ) i . Expand the following: ( i ) (2x-fl)';(ii) ^ - A j

;
(iii)
10
( l + y )
(iv) 2.
( ^ - ^ ( v )
( * + t ) '
Write down the expansions o f : ( i ) (x + V2)4 ( ii) (iii) (x (x +yfa)6 + (x \J2)*:
+ (x - \ f a ) 6 ; + 3)(x + 4).
+ 1 ) (x + 2)(x
3.
Find the values o f : ( i ) ( H) (Hi j (\[2 + 1)5 - ( V I I)5; \{3y1 )6.
(2 + \/3)7 + (2 -
( yfs + 1 )6 + ( \fS -
10
Find :
( i )
7th term in ( l
( ii)
5th term in / v
n 1
;
10
( iv)
4th term
Find the coefficient of : ( i ) x 5 in 0 - 2 ) 9 ;
(ii)
in ^ x -
(iii)
x 1 8 in ( a x - bx f ; ( iv ) -i?
in
^ ** ~ ~T j
Find the term independent of x in : / 2 \ 9 / i \ (i) ( $ - ) ; < > ( > R - 4 )
10
ou,
Show that the term independent of x in the expansion of :
Find the middle term or middle terms in the expansions o f :
(iii) Simplify : ( i )
Uv)
( > - 4 - )
( x - l f + 5 ( x - l )VlO
(x-1)
+ 10 ( x - 1 ) 2 + 5 ( x - l ) + l.
(ii )
( x - 1 ) 4 + 4(x 1 ) 3 ( x + 1) + 6(x - l ) 2 ( x + l ) 2 + 4 ( x - l ) (x + l f + Cx + l f .
10.
Use the Binomial Theorem to find ( i ) 954 ; ( ii ) l i s . AnswersExercise 1 2 ( a )
1.
{ i )
128x7 - 448x<> a + 672xs a3 - 560x* a8 + 280* 3 a4

8 3 _ 3* _ +
(ii)
* 64
15 _ _
~ 4x> a + 14 xa* - a\ + 20 96 I 11 > + x" " Xs x'

+
(Ui)
1 +
7x , T
21* 4
, 35* 3 8
35x4 16 15 4x'
,
+
21a;5 32
+ -rr + 128 64 T
64 a;6
7* 8
xi
(iv) ( v )
64* - 96*' + 60*' - 20 +
' 8x4
a 1 0 + 10x* + 45* 8 + 120** + 210* 2 + 252 210
a:1
120
**
xf
45
*8
10
'
2.
( i ) I iii)
2x + 24x* + 8.
3
(ii )
2x + 30x'a + 30 x'a> + 2a 3 .
x* + 10x + 35* + 50A; + 24. 82. 105

32
3. ^ 45. 6.
{ i ) , . , ( i ) (i) ( i )
(ii ) , *6, .. . (u ) (ii) (U)
10084. 1120 . . gj x* a4. -56. 405.
(iii) , . (iii) (iii) (iii)
1152. x1 - 120-^j- 84a 8 6. ( i v ) . -1365.
2016. X .
8.
(i)
-252. -429
(ii)
~ 2n!
(m)
9. 10, ( i ) (i)
16
Xs.
*14'. v (iv) '

iii)
( v
- 1' ) < m I
(ii) 1,61,051.
I6x4.
9,60.59.601,
8.
Binomial coefficients. The binomial expansion is given by n n n-\ . n n-2 ! ( x + a ) = x + Cix a + C2x a + +
.
C-x
n-r
a -f + a .
r .
Here, the coefficients of x* and a"

M
are
both
equal to
1.
Since, C0 = "Cn = 1, we may for the sake of uniformity write "C0 as the coefficient of x" and "CB as the coefficient of a . Then, the binomial expansion may be written as , . . . n-1 . n -2 2 ( x + a) = C 0 x + C i * a + C^x a n n r r i r~i ~ i i "/-< " ... + Crx a + + Cna ,
The ( n + 1 ) coefficients in the expansion of (x + a)",

VIZ., L-2 ...
are called the Binomial coefficients of the nth order. When we are concerned with the binomial coefficients of the same order n, we may drop the prefix n for the sake of brevity and write these coefficients simply as COJ CJ, C 2 , Cf, Cn. 9. Relations between Binomial coefficients: I. is 2*. We have the binomial expansion, ( l + x ) " = C 0 + C 1 x + C 2 ^ + ... +Crxr + ...Cnx", ... ( i ) In the expansion of (1 -fx)" the sum of the coefficients
where C, i. e. "c, denotes the binomial coefficient ctf order n. In the above identity, put x = 1, we, then, get 2" = C 0 + C 1 + C 2 + . . . + C, + . . . + C n . the sum of the binomial coefficients of order n is 2". Note W e have C, + C 2 + C 3 + + C = 2 " - 1 ; that is the total number of selections from n different things, taking any number of things, at a time is 2" 1. II. In the expansion of (I +x )" the sum of the coefficients of the odd terms is equal to the sum of the coefficients of the even terms, each being equal to 2" \ In the above identity ( i ) , putting x = 1, we get (l-l)
n
= C0 + C 1 ( - l ) + C 2 ( - l )
+ ... + C r ( - l ) r +
C. A 21
+ c(- n".
0 = C0-C1 + C2-C3 +
+ ( - l ) " C r + ...(-l)"C.
C 0 + C 2 + C4 + C 6 + . . . = C 1 + C 3 + C 5 + C 7 + and each of them = + C 1 + C2 + C3 + . . . + C j ( by I ) odd
= -|-f2"]=2-1
the sum of even coefficients = the sum of coefficients = 2" . 10. Illustrative examples :
We shall now work out a few miscellaneous examples to illustrate some applications of the Binomial Theorem.
Ex. 1. Simplify 6 ( * 1)* + 4 ( * 1 ) + 1.
( * l ) * + 4 ( * . 1)" +
The coefficients 1, 4, 6, 4 , 1 can be easily recognized as the binomial coefficients of the fourth order. H e n c e the substitution x - 1 = y, will reduce the given expression to a simple binomial expansion in y. Thus, the given expression - y4 + 'Ci y3 + 'Ciy
a
+ lCsy
+ 1
= (y + I)'
= (* - 1 + 1 ) = x*. Ex. 2 . / Show that ( V 3 + 1 )
8 s
(V 3 1 )
is an integer and
hence
find the integral part of ( V 3 Let V 3 = * . W e have and
+ 1)
( * + 1 ) e = * s + i C i * 4 + >C2x3 +>* C 3 ,* J + (x - i y = x6 (x + 1)" - (x e e 4 s
C4* + 1 ; - 1.
C,* 4 + Cj* - "Cj** + lC,x 1 )' = 2 [ C , * + Cf*+ 1 ] .
Substituting the value of x, we get
( V T + 1 ) 5 - ( J T - i) 5 = 2 [ 5 - ( V l V + io (J3 )' + 1]
= 2 [ 4 5 + 30 + 1 ] = 152, which is an integer. .*. ( V f + 1 ) 5 = 152 + ( V f - 1 ) 5 . 1 </3 <2. ( 1
Now. we have 1 < 3 < 4,
BINOMIAL THEOREM : 3 2 3 0 < >/ 3 - 1 < 1, subtracting 1 from each side. .'. ( . J 3 - 1 ) i s a positive proper fraction i less than 1 ) ,
( \ f 3 1 j5 is also a proper fraction, say/, so that 0 < / < 1. from ( i ) , the integral part of ( V 3 + l ) 5 i s 152.
7
Ex. 3 ,
Evaluate ( 1 * 0 2 )
7
correct to 4 decimal places.
W e have' ( 1 -02 )
= ( 1 + -02 ) 7
= 1 + ' Q ( -02 ) + 7Ca (-02)2 + 'Cs (-02 )8 + 7C, (. 02 )' + ... + = 1 + 7 ( -02) + 21 (-0004) + 35 ( -000008) + = 1 + -14 + -0084 + -000280 + = 1-14868
= 1-1487, correct to 4 decimal places. NoteWe have considered only the first four terms of the expansion s i n c e the remaining terms do not affect the digits in the first four decimal places. Ex. 4 . F i n d the coefficient of xl in the expansion of
(1 - * + *a - Xs
)"
,
W e have l - * + *
>
-*
==(l-*) + *
19
U - * ) = ( l - * ) > < ( l + * a )
19
(1 - * + * - *3) = ( 1 - * )
19
(1+*')
= [ 1 - MCi * + Cj *> - llC3 + C4 *...] x [1 +C, (*') + l, C 2 ( x l ) + ... + ...].

As we want the coefficient of ing higher powers of x. Multiplying efficient of A4 = l."Ca + Ca-lsCi + "C1-l we have not written down' t e r m s c o n t a i n -
together, suitable terms from the two brackets, the c o -
= 66 + 66-12 + 495 = 1353. Exercise 12 (b) 1. Expand and simplify ( x + a )" (x a)". What will be the last term in the above simplification if n is ( i ) even, ( ii ) odd ? 2. 3. If ( y/5 ) 5 = A\f5 + B-v/3, show that A - B = 504. Find the coefficient of x 4 in the expansion of ( i ) ( 1 - x ) 2 ( 1 + JC)5; ( i i ) ( 1 - x ) 5 ( l + 2 x ) 4 .
4.
Find the coefficient of : ( i ) ( ii ) xMn ( l + x + x^ + x 3 ) 1 1 ;

7
x in ( 1 x x + x )
7 5 6
5.
( i i i ) z in ( l + x + ^ + x ) . Evaluate, using the Binomial expansion, ( i ) ( ii ) ( -99) 5 to 4 decimal places ; ( 1-0025 ) 1 0 to 4 decimal places ; (iv) (49)4. + 3b2(a + b) b3\
6.
( i i i ) ( 102) 4 ; Simplify: ( i ) (ii ) (2x+1)44
( a + 6) 3 - 3b(a + bf (2x+lf
+ 6 (2x+l)24
(2x+l)+1.
7.
By considering the values of ( \ [ 5 + 2 ) ( \ / 5 - 2 ) 5 , show that the integral part of ( V 5 + 2 ) 5 is 1364.
8. 9.
Show that ( ^ 2 + 1 ) 6 + ( V ? -
1 ) ' = 198.
Hence show that the integral part of ( \ f 2 + 1 ) 6 is 197. Prove that "P "Pi+2T
+
"P, 3!! + Use "Cr =
"P = j ' 2-l.
j^Hint:
10.
Co
^ m
y-2
3+
[ Hint :
1 (+!).
z
Use the formula for "C r . ]
AnswersExercise 12 (b)
1. 4. 5. (i) (i) (I)
2a\
6. ( i ) a 3 .
990, 9510,
(ii) (ii) (ii)
3. ( i ) -344, (iii) 10253, (iii)

0.
- 5 , (iii) 21. 120. 10, 82, 43, 216. (iv) 57, 64, 801.
(ii)
16*'.
Chapter 13
Determinants
1. Determinant of second order. 2. Consistency of two linear equations in one unknown. 3 Two linear simultaneous equations in two unknowns. 4. Determinant of third order. 5. Consistency of three simultaneous linear equations in two unknowns. 6 Three linear equations in three u n k n o w n s . Exercise 13 ( a ) . 7. Properties of determinants. 8. Illustrative examples. Exercise 13 ( 6 ).
1.
Determinant of second order:
Definition 1A square array ( or arrangement ) of 4 i. e. 2 numbers in two horizontal rows and two vertical columns enclosed between two vertical bars is called a determinant of the second order. For example, if we have 4 numbers alt bu a2, b2 we can arrange them as at bi a2 b2
The four number s ax, b\, a2, b2 are called the elements of the determinant. The elements of a horizontal line form a row ; those of a vertical line, a column. The determinant is said to be of the second order, since there are two rows and two columns. The diagonal, from upper left to lower right, is called the ' Principal Diagonal \ The value of the symbol of a second order determinant is defined as the product of the elements of the principal diagonal minus the product of the elements of the other diagonal. Thus, we have the notation ax bt = a1 b2 a2 a2 b2 a \ t>2 ~~ a 2 is called the expansion of the determinant. In every term in the expansion, there is one and only one element from
325
each row and one and only one element from each column crt b 3 is called the leading term in the expansion. The determinant is sometimes denoted by bracketing the leading term as ( a\ b2 ) We illustrate the evaluation of second order determinants by the following examples.
Illustrations: 4 (i ) 4 x 7 - 5 x 3 5 7 = 23 15 = 13.
1 (ID
5/7
0
e I X (- 3 ) - { -3 X (0) = 3 0 = 3,
ax + b (Hi) ay + b = abx + 6" - aby 6* = ab (* tan (iv) sec y). = (a* + 6) x 6
(ay
+ 6 ) x b
9 6
sec tan
0 9
tan 0 x tan Q sec 1. = tan* Q - sec* 9 = -
x sec Q
E*ampV Evaluate the following d e t e r m i n a n t s : 3 a ) 2 9 cos A sin A ( H ) 5. 7 . (II) 5 0 * + y x - y x -17 -1 . (iii) h b 2/3 .(vi) y -1/5 ( v ) Axy. 4/5 (vi)l. 7/3 a h
sin A (Iv) cos A Ans.( i ) 13.
.(v)
X - y (iii)
(iv)l.
2.
Consistency of two linear equations in one unknown: ( ii)
Let the two linear equations in the unknown viz. x be a\X + bi = 0 ( i ) and a2x + b2 = 0. ...
These two equations are said to be consistent if they are satisfied simultaneously by the same value of the unknown x. Thus, the equations ( i ) and ( i i ) are consistent
if
_ h. a\
02
i.e. if aib 2 a 2 b x = 0 . ...
(iii)
DETERMINANTS
327
If the condition (iii) is statified by the constant numbers in equations ( i ) and ( ii ), the equations ( i ) and ( ii ) will be consistent. Two equations, in general, may not always be consistent. For example, we can not find a value of x satisfying both the equations 3x + 5 = 0 and 2x 4- 7 = 0 simultaneously. The condition ( i i i ) of consistency of equations ( i ) and ( ii ) can be very conveniently put in the form of the determinant notation as h a2 Result (iii) or (iv) is also called the eliminant of equations ( i ) and ( i i ) . The eliminant can be conveniently written in the determinant form by suppressing the variable and enclosing the constant coefficients and the constant terms with their proper signs on the 1. h. s. ( r. h. s. being zero ) by two vertical bars. For example, the eliminant or the condition of consistency of the two equations px q 0 and rx + 5 = 0 is -1 = 0 i. e. ps + qr = 0. = 0. (iv)
s
Remark 1. S t u d e n t s who are familiar with Co-ordinate Geometry can e a s i l y see that when the condition of consistency ( j v > is satisfied, the equat i o n s ( i ) and { i i i represent o n e and the same straight line. Remark 2 , If the equations are a^x + 6iy = 0 and a2x + bty = 0, then dividing by y and treating xjy as one unknown the condition of consistency for these equations can be written as
a-i
a2
bt
b2
0.
3. Use of second order determinants to solve two linear simulianeous equations in two unknowns : 1. Cramer's Rule : We shall, now, show in this article how the second order determinants can be used to give the solution of two simultaneous linear equations in a convenient form. Students are
328
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA
already familiar with the method of solving two linear equations in two unknowns. Let the given equations be written in the form aix + by = cx a2 x -f b2y = c2.
simultaneous
... ...
( i ) ( ii ) been of x then (iii)
Note that the constant terms in both the equations have arranged to be on the right hand side. To find the value we eliminate y by multiplying ( i ) by b2 and ( ii ) by b\, and subtract the latter from the former; we then get (axb2 ~ a2bx~) x = cxb2 - c2bx. ...
Similarly to find the value of y we eliminate x by multiplying ( i ) by a2 and ( ii ) by ax and then subtract the latter from the former ; we then get ( & i a 2 - axb2) y = cxa2 - c2ax. ... ( i v ) The values of x and y as given by (iii ) and ( i v ) can be written as jc _ y cx b2 - f2 bx ~ a^c2-a2cx ~ 1 axb2~a2bx
This solution can be conveniently written in the determinant form as follows : x C\ h C2 b2

c
y 1 Cl a2 a2
_
a
1 \
b
t 1
a2
b2
bx D
Cl b2 a\ bi 2 b2
DETERMINANTS : 3 2 9
We observe that the denominator for each unknown is the determinant in which the elements are the coefficients of x and y arranged as in the two given equations. This determinant, we shall call, as the determinant of coefficients and will denote it by D. Observe further that the numerator for any unknown is the same as D except that the column of coefficients of that unknown is replaced by the column of constant terms. Let us call for convenience the determinant in the numerator for x by D t and the determinant in the numerator for y by D 2 . The rule embodied in the solution given in terms of determinants as described above is known as Cramers Rule.
N o t e S t u d e n t s w h o are familiar with Co-ordinate Geomatry know that equations ( i ) and { i i ) being linear in x y represent two straight lines. T h e values of x. y given in solution ( v ) give the co-ordinates of the point of intersection of lines ( i ) and ( i i ) . If i b t - 3 &i = 0, the equations (i ) and ( i i ) are not satisfied by finite values of x and y and the lines b e c o m e parallel. H o w e v e r , if <ix b% a,i b, 4 = 0 , the l i n e s ( i ) and ( i i ) intersect in a finite point w h o s e co-ordinates are given by ( v ). W e , n o w , illustrate the use of Cramer's R u l e for the solution of s i m u l t a n e o u s linear equations in two u n k n o w n s . Illustrations ( i ) Solve : 3 * - 3y - 4 = 0, * + 4y - 2 = 0. the
Arrange t h e constant terms on the right h a n d side. T h e equations t h e n become Sx - 3y = 4 ... ( i ) and x + 4y = 2. ... ( H ) W e have by Cramer's R u l e
4 -3 Z>i
D ~
2 4 3 - 3 1 4 3
D
16-(-6) 12 - ( - 3 )
22 15
and
y = "o
1 3 1
2 -3 4
= 1. J
6-4 ~ 12 - ( - 3 ) "
2
15
(li)
Solve
X V
+ f
X V
+ f
1.
3 3 0 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA L e t us rewrite the equations as 3 * + 4 y = 12, 4x + 5y = 2C. W e have by Cramer's Rule 12 4 I 5 1 6 tO 0~8 80 0 15 - 16 -20
20
-1
= 20
12 and y =
D
>
20
60 - 48 15 - 16
+ 12
-1
12.
II Rule of cross-multiplication : Let the equations be in the form a{x + bty + C\ 0, a2x + b2y + c2 = 0. (i) (ii )
By taking the constant terms on the r. h. s. we can apply the Cramer's rule to solve them. However we give here an alternative process to solve the equations as they stand. The values of x and y on elimination can be found as
x
& C
1 2 - b2CX
a C
l 2-
axb2 a2b\'
a2bt axb2
These values of x and y can be expressed as x -v _ 1 b\c2 b2cx ~ atc2 a2Ci ~ atb2 a2bx This solution can be put in the determinant form as x bx b2 Cl C2 x bx b2 Cx C2 Cx C2 ^2 y ax a2 ax a2 - y Cl a2 _ 1 bx b2 1 bx b2 ... (iv)
or as
'' e" biC2 b2Ci
cta2 c20j
a%b2 <22^1
Note 1. In the determinant form of the solution ( i i i ) , we observe that the numerators have alternately positive and negative signs and the denominators of x, y and 1 are obtained by forming second order determinants with coefficients in equations ( i ) and ( i i ) by, omitting the coefficients of x, by omitting the coefficients of y and by omitting the absolute terms respectively. Note 2. In the solution ( i v ) , the numerators have the same positive sign and the denominators are obtained by taking the values of the determinants formed by the coefficients in the same cyclic order beginning with the second coefficients. The method of writing the solution as given by ( i v ) is called the Rule of Cross-Mnltiplication.
ExamplesSolve the following equations; ( i ) (U) 3 * + 7y - 27 = 0: 5 * - y - 7 = 0. 11* - 4y-2 => 0 ; 35* - 75y + 31 = 0.
2 3
Ans. * = 2, y = 3. 2 3 Ans. * = ; y = _ .
(iii)
5 * + 2y = 45 ;
y j
= 5.
Ans. * =J;
y = 5.
(iv)
JL
= 10;
-*- -
Z f - + 5 = 0.
Ans. * = 25; y = 35.
(v)
x + y = 1; a * + 6 y = l.
Ans.
^=
4.
Determinant of third order :
Definition Any nine numbers, ar, b cr, [ r = 1, 2, 3 ] arranged in a square form of three horizontal rows and three vertical columns enclosed between two vertical bars in the form ax 2 3 h b2 b3 Cl C2 C3
are said to form a determinant of the third order. The terms element, row, column and principal diagonal are defined as in the case of the second order determinants. The determinant is said to be of the third order as there are three rows and three columns. Since we have many occasions to refer to this determinant, we will use hereafter the letter D to denote this determinant, unless otherwise mentioned, The value of this determinant D is defined as b2 t) III h C2
-
C2 h
+ C! 3
b2 b3
C3
a3
c3
The expression corresponding to the determinant D is obtained by taking the sum of products of each element of its first row and a determinant obtained by suppressing the row and column in which it occurs, positive or negative sign being placed before each product according as the element in the first row occupies an odd or even rank. We now illustrate the evaluation of the third order determinant by the following examples.
Illustrations
( i )
The determinant
1 = 1 4
4 - 2 1
2 3
+3 1
2 3
1 4
= 1 [1-1 - 4-4] - 2 [2-1 - 3 - 4 ] + 3 [2-4 - 3-1] = 1 [ 1 16] 2 [ 2 12] + 3 [ 8 3 ] = - 15 + 20 + 15 20.
1
i i ) The determinant
- 2
3
3 = 3
-2 3 -2
4 5
-2 3 +1
4 5
3
-4
-4
DETERMINANTS : 3 3 3 = 3 ( 9 - 8 ) - 2 ( 1 2 + 10) + 1 ( - 1 6 = 3 - 44 - 31 = - 72. Examples. 1 (i ) 2 4 1 (iv)

*
15)
Evaluate the following determinants: 1 3 5 1 4 6 (H) 0 1 2 1 0 1 7 (v) 2 -3 2 2 0 3 7 -5 -5 3 1 ( iii )
a b o o
b a a
o b
X -y
I
z 1 S f c
(ii)
y z a
(vi)
h b f
( i
h 8
Ans. + z + 1,
5
) o.
6.
8 ( i i i ) 3 abo - a
- b*
( v ) 66.
( v i ) abc + 2 \fgh - af* - bg1 - ch*.
5. Consistency of three simultaneous linear equations in two unknowns : Let the equations be at x + bty + Cj = 0, a2 x + b2 y + c2 = 0, a3x + b3y + c 3 = 0. ... ... ... ( i ) ( ii ) (iii)
Equations ( i ) , ( i i ) and ( i - i ) are said to be consistent if the same values of x and y satisfy all the three equations simultaneously. We may solve any two of the three equations for x and y and substitute these values in the remaining equation in order to get the condition for consistency r f the three given equations, Solving equations ( ii ) and (iii), we get x c2 h C3 _ y 2 C2 c3 1 a2 a3 h b3
Substituting these values in equation ( i ) and simplifying, we get a 2 b2 bi C2 C2 bx + Cx = 0, b3 c 3 1 h 3 f 3 bx 1. e. a2 3 b2 h cx C2 3 = 0.
(iv)
Thus, equations ( i ), ( i i ) and ( iii ) are consistent if condition ( iv ) is satisfied. We have, here assumed that a2 b3 - 0362 =0. We can easily see that the result ( i v ) is the eliminant of equations ( i ) , ( i i ) and ( i i i ) and can be written by suppressing x and y in the given equations and writing in a determinant form the coefficients and the constant terms arranged as in the given equations. Students who are familiar with Co-ordinate Geometry know that equations ( i ), ( ii ) and ( i i i ) being of the first degree represent three straight lines and ( iv ) is the condition for these straight lines to be concurrent.
Illustrations ( i ) S h o w that the following three equations are consistent.
x+
y -
3 = 0,
2* + y 4 = 0,
* - y + 1 = 0.
T h e given equations are consistent 1 2 1 1 -3 4
=0
1
i.e. i. e. if if
-1
1 (1 - 4 ) - J (2 + 4 ) - 3 ( - 2 - 1) - 0 - 3 - 6 + 9 0, which is true.
H e n c e the given equations are consistent. (ii) F i n d a if the following three equations are consistent, ( a - 2 ) x + (a - ) )y - 17 = 0. ( o - l ) * + ( a - I ) y - 18 = 0, x + y - 5 = 0.
DETERMINANTS : 3 3 5 The three equations will be consistent if a-2 a I 1 a-1 a 2 1 -17
-18
-5
=0,
1, e. if ( a - 2 ) [ - 5a + 10 + 1 8 ] - ( a - 1 ) [ - 5a + 5 + 1 8 ] - 17 [a - 1 - a+ 2 ] = 0 , i. e. if [ a - 2 ) ( - 5a + 2 8 ) - (a - 1) ( - 5a + 23 ) - 17 ( 1 ) = 0. i. e. if ( - 5a5 + 38a - 5 6 ) - ( - 5a + 28a - 23) - 17 = 0. i. e. if 10a - 50 = 0, a = 5 (iii) consistent. OiX + b,y + Ciz = 0, a*x + b2y + c.2z = 0, a<,x + b y + c^z = 0. Assuming s * 0 , and dividing by z and treating */z and ylz as u n k n o w n s , the condition of consistency can be written as Find f- e. if <7 = 5. following three equations to b e
the condition for the
i
O.i
bi
ci CS c8 0.
6. Three Linear equations in three unknowns: Cramer's rule or the rule of cross multiplication stated for the solution of two linear simultaneous equation can be extended to the solution of three linear equations involving three unknowns. We extend the Cramer's rule. Let the equations be written in the form arx + bry + crz = dr, r = 1, 2, 3. The determinant of the coefficient will be fli D = 2 a3 h b2 b3 cx c2 c3
The solution is given by Cramer's rule as

D x
= ^
'y ~
Ds 5 D z ~ D
whcre
Dl
'
Dz
are obtained from D by replacing the columns of coefficients of .v, y, z respectively by the constant terms dlt d2 and d3.
336
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA
Exercise 13 (a)
1. Evaluate the following determinants:2 ( i ) 3 4 1 (iii) a b 2. -c 3 2 1 a 1 4 1 2 -b c ; (iv) 1 (ii) 5 -3 -4 a c -1 3 5
- 2
4 2 5 1 -b a
b 1 c
Solve the following equations: 2 ( i ) -1 -1 X (iii) x+ l 1 X 2 1 3 2 2 3 3 4 6

=
X = 0; 2 -3 x-1 x-2 x-3
-1 1 1 1 3 5
2 2 X 3 4 6 = 0;
X 1 5 3.
If a, b, c, d are real, prove that a ib c id c id = 0 a-h ib if, and only if, o, b, c and d are all zero.
4.
Find the missing terms shown by dots in the following: 8 5 1 ( i ) 5 3 a* + 2a (ii) 2a + 1 3 3 ... 3 1 1 2a + 1 1 1 1 = (fl-1)3. = 1:
DETERMINANTS
337
5.
Show that x y y y x y y y x = (x + 2 y ) ( x - y y .
Hence or otherwise show that a+x ax ax Show that bc(b + c) be 1 ,7. c a ( c + a) ca 1 ab (a + b) ab 1 = 0. a-x a+ x ax ax ax a+x = 4x2(3 a-x).
If p + q + r = 0, show that pa qc rb qb ra pc rc pb qa PQr a c b b a c
8.
Find the value of A such that the determinant a2 a 1 3 2 -I 5 1 (X-l)
is exactly by ( a + 3 ). -9. Find the value of x if the determinant 1 5 3 a

C. A. 22
5x 2 1
4 1 1 is exactly divisible by ( a 1).
10.
Solve the following equations using determinants: ( i ) (ii) (iii) (iv) 3 x - 7 j > = 2 3 ; 2x + 5^ + 4 = 0. T
+
1 ;
ax + hy + g=0; x+2y
hx + by +
f==0. = 4.
+ z = 4, 2 x - y + z = - 1 , x+y-z
11. Find the value of fc if y = 1 satisfies the simultaneous equations 2x + ky = k + 2, 3 x - ( k - l ) y = k-2.

/
Find also the value of x which satisfies the above equations. 12. Find the value of A if the three straight lines represented by the equations 4x + 7y 9 = 0 , 5.*+X}> + 1 5 = 0 , 9 x - y + 6=0 are concurrent. 13. Show that the following sets of three equations are consistent ( i . e., simultaneously true for the same values of x and y ) and find, in eadh case, their common solution: ( i ) (ii) x + y = 3, 2x + 3y = %, 5x + 6y = \7 ; ( i + c ) x + (c + a)y ax + by = c, x+y = 1. 14. Find the value of k if the following equations consistent ( i ) (ii) 15. \4x 3j> 7 = 0, foe + 1 l j 81 = 0, lx=2y 2x-y + 3=0,kx-y+l=0,5x-y-3=0. are ; = (a + 6),
Show that the equations x + 2y z =0, 3x-y + 4z = 0,4x + y + 3z = 0 have a common solution other than x = y = z = 0. x [ Hint. Since z # 0, divide by z and regard and v as
unknowns ].
-16.
1 L \ x ,b = , c = x y, x y show that a + b + c+abc= 0. If a =

y
[ Hint. 17.
Eliminate x and y in the given equations ].
If atx + bx = a2x + b2 = a3x + b3, at show that a2 03 bt b2 1 1 1 = 0.
[ Hint. Put each expression = X and eliminate x and X], 18. If ax + by = bx + cy = cx + ay, prove that ab + be + ca = a2 -(- b2 + c2. If ( J i ) , ( x2, y2 ), ( *3> y 3 ) ax + by + c = 0, y\ show that y*x
y%
>19.
satisfy the equation
1
= 0.
20. If the equations ax2 + bx + c= 0 and Ix + m = 0 have a common root, then show that c a b I 0 m I o m = 0.
AnswersExercise 13 ( a ) 1. 2. 4. 10. ( i ) - 20, (ii ) 270. (iii) and ( i ) * = 3, (ii) * = 4 i. ( i ) 4, (ii) a + 2. ( i ) * = 3, y = - 2, I Iv) (iii) 8 (ii ) each = 1 + a' + 6' + c\ * = 5/2. X = 10/27. 9. * = 1/2. * = - 12, y = 20,
II.
k=3,x
= l.
12. A = - 8.
c - 6
13. ( i ) * = 1. y = 2, 14. ( I ) k = 2,
a b
a - c a-b'
(U) fe = 3.
7. Properties of Determinants : Elementary Transformations. We prove in this article some properties of determinants. These properties are found very useful in finding the values of determinants. It will be seen that the actual expansions of determinants can be avoided in many cases with the help of these properties. Although the proofs given below are in respect of determinants of the third order, they are valid in respect of determinants of any order. The students can very easily verify these properties in case of determinants of second order.
Property I. The value of a determinant remains unaltered if the rows and columns are interchanged. Oi h b2 b3 C2 C3
Let the given determinant D
a2 a3
Interchange the rows and columns in D. Let the resulting determinant be denoted by D\ so that
ax D' = bx
2
b2 C2
3
h
We have to prove that D' = D. By definition

D' = - <*i (b2 c3 a1ib2c3-cj>i)-a2(bici-c1h^+az(b1c2-c1b3>) b3 c2) - br (oj c3 - a3 c2) + ct (a 2 b3 a3 b2) = D.
[This theorem is extremely useful and proves that any property which is true in respect of rows is also true in respect of columns and vice versa. As in article 4, the determinant, therefore, can also be expressed in terms of the elements of the first column].
Property n . If two rows (or columns) of a determinant be interchanged, the determinant is unaltered in numerical value but is changed in sign only.
Let, with the usual notation, the given determinant be D. Interchange the first two rows. Let the resulting determinant be denoted by D', so that
a2 D' b2 h b3 D. c2 Cl
i
a3
We have to prove that D' = By definition D = a2(bic3-b3c1)-b2(a1e3-a3

=S [
c t ) + c2 ( fli 63 - a3&i)
) + ci (
at ( b2c3 - hc2 ) - h i a2<- 3 ~ a3c2 at h h Cl

c2
a2b3 -
<J3bj)]
<h
c h 3 % For example, we have
1 4 2 3 5 6
17 18 19 =s
4 5 6
1 2 3
17 18 19
=
18 17 19
4~ 1 6 3
(interchanging the first two columns in the first step and interchanging the first two rows in the second step).
Property III. If a determinant identical, its value is zero. has two rows (or columns )
Let D' denote a determinant having first two rows identical, so that
h D =
a
Cl
h
C3
03
We have to prove that D' = 0.
Interchanging the first two rows D' changes into D' by Property II. But here, in the case of this determinant, the actual interchange of the first two rows keeps D' unaltered. .*. we have D' = - D'. .\ 2D' = 0, D' = 0 . This can also be verified by actually expanding the determinant D . For example, we have 1 (i) 1 x =0, (ii) 13 a 13 17 b 17 19 19 = 0.
2
3
2
3
Property IV. If all the elements of any row (or column) be multiplied by the same factor, then the determinant will be multiplied by that factor. Let, with the usual notation, Z> be the given determinant. Multiply all elements of the first row by a factor k. Let the resulting determinant be denoted by D \ so that ka-i D' = 2 kb-i key c-t
<h We have to prove that D' = kD. By definition, Z>' =kax (b2 c 3 - b3 c2) - kbx (a2 c3 - a3 c 2 ) + kct (a2 b3 - a3 b2) = k [at(b2c3 - b3c2) - bt (a 2 e 3 - a 3 c 2 ) + ca (a2 b3 - a3 b2% = kD. It can be seen from this property that if all the elements of any row ( or column ) have a common factor k, then the factor k can be taken outside, as a common factor of the determinant. For example, we have 9 6 15 (i) 23 a 29 b 31 c = 3 2 23 a 3 29 b 5 31 c
1 (ii) IfD= 7 17 1 also D = 21 17
2 11
3 13 then 5D =
5 7 17
10 11 19
15 13 23
19 23 2 33 19 3 39 23
Property V. If each element of any row ( or column ) can be expressed as a sum of two terms, then the determinant can be expressed as the sum of two determinants. Let D' be a determinant in which each element of the first row is expressed as a sum of two terms, so that + xi D' = a2 a3 We have by definition, D' = (at + xt) (b 2 c 3 - b 3 c 2 ) - (bx + y x ) ( a 2 c 3 - a 3 c 2 ) + ( c j + ^ j ) (a2b3-a3b2) = [ fi (b2c3-b3 + [xt(b2c3-b3 Ol a2 h b2 c2)~ bx ( a 2 c 3 - a 3 c 2 ) + c ^ f o f>3 - a3 b2~) ] c2) (a 2 c 3 - a 3 c 2 ) + zi ( a 2 - a 3 62) ] c1 Ji yi h + }'i b2 b* h
c
\ + z\
C2 c,
a2
b2
c2
b3 a3 h c3 C, a3 Conversely, it can be easily seen that the sum of two determinants differing only in one row or column can be expressed as one determinant of the same order. For example, we have x I y m w z X V z n x I u y+ y m+m' v + v' z n w
I U
m'
V W
It can be seen that if every element of two rows or of three rows is expressed as a sum of two terms, then the determinant can be expressed as a sum of 2 2 i. e. 4 determinants or of 2 3 i. e. 8 determinants. Property VI. The value of the determinant is not altered by adding to the elements of any row (or column) the same multiples of the corresponding elements of any other row (or column ). Let, with the usual notation, D be the given determinant. Multiply all the elements of the second row by m and add them to the corresponding elements or the first row. Let the resulting determinant be denoted by D\ so that at + ma2 + mb2 + mc2 D = a2
We have to prove that D' = D. Ol D' = a2 h b2 b3 C2 Ci

u
We have, by Property V,ma2 mb3 b2 h mc2

C
a2
2
3
D+ m
b2 h
C-i
[ by Property IV ]
= D + m (0) [ by Property III ] = D. By a simple extension of the above property, we can see that at + ma2 bt + mb2 ct + mc2 D which = D\ namely,
3
a j + ma2 + na 3 bt + mb2 + nb3 is also = a2 a3 b2 b3
ct + mc2 + nc3 c2 c3
We may, similarly, show that + ma2 bt + mb2 D = a2
[ + m<\
a3 + not b3 + nbi c3 + nc t We note that in any one application of this property at least one row ( or c o l u m n ) must remain unchanged and further if the multiples of the elements of any column ( or row ) are added to the elements of any other column ( or r o w ) , then the multiples of this second column ( or row ) should not be added to the first at the same time. For example, we have 1964 1966 t. i ) 1965 1967 1 1 1 (ii) 11 10 9 99 1964 1 1 10 1966
= 2.
1 1 9 99 0 1 1 0 1 1 9 =0;
101 100
1 100
1 99
[ In (ii) we subtract the elements of the second column from the corresponding elements of the first column in the first step and subtract the elements of the third column from the corresponding elements of the second column in the second-step ). 8. Illustrative Examples:
W e now illustrate application of the above properties, determinants, b y the following examples. 20 27 36 Ex. 1. F i n d the value of | 2 3 4 in evaluating
1 2
Multiply the elements of the second row b y 9 and subtract them from t h e corresponding elements of the first row. W e may briefly write this a s i?i - 9 20-18 27-27 36-36 the given determinant
= 2 ( 9 - 8 ) - 0 ( 6 - 4 ) + 0 ( 4 - 3 ) = 2.
3 4 6 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA 11 Ex. 2, F i n d the value of

12
13
12
13 14
13
14
15
Multiplying all the elements of the first row by - 1 and adding them to the corresponding elements of the second and third rows, ( w e may briefly indicate this as R a - Ri and R s R l respectively.)
11 12 1 2 13 1 2 = 2 11 1 1 12 1 1 13 1 1
Determinant =
1 2
= 2 x 0 = 0,
14 - 2 *
10 16 13
9 15 12
Ex. 3 .
Solve the equation
10 - 3 *
= 0.
6 -x
Let a denote the determinant on the left h a n d side of the equation. W e will use the symbol A , in this chapter, for a determinant. Multiplying all the elements of the third column by - 1 and adding them to the corresponding elements of the second column ( say C.3 C 3 ) , w e have
1 4 - 2 * A = | 1 0 - 3 * 9 15
( by Property V I )
0-x
12 1 and adding them to
Multiplying all the elements of the first row by -
the corresponding elements of the second and third rows, we get

14 2 * A = 4 * 8 + * 1 0 0 9 6 3
( b y Property VI )
Interchanging the first two columns, we get

1 A = 0 0 1 4 - 2 * 9 6 3
-4
x
*
( by Property I I )
8 +
S i n c e the interchange of rows into columns and vice versa does not alter the value of the determinant, we can as well expand the determinant in terms of the elements of the first column.
DETERMINANTS : 3 4 7 4 = - [ l | ( - 4 - * ) ' 3 - ( - S + = = .'. [ - 12 - 3x + 48 - 6* ] [ - 9* + 3 6 ] . *)'6j]
the given equation A = 0 reduces to 9x - 36 = 0.
.*. x = 4 is the required solution. Ex. 4 . Show that b + c c + a a+b a b

6 -
a b c A , can be expressed as a sum of four = 3 abc - a ' - b 3 - o
c a
The L. H . S. determinant say, determinants.
a
A=
b
o
b a a
.". A =
a b b
a c c
The _ sI first three determinants on the R . H . S. vanish as they have two of their columns identical,
A = a a 1 } o ,(c c a - ab ) - b (aa - 6 ) + a (a = - ( a + 6" + c" - 3a6o) .
- be)
/.
A = 3abo - a* - b*Show that a + b + 2c a c
c8.
Ex. 5.
a b + c + 2a a
b b c + a + 2b = 2 ( + & + c)8
Add the second and third c o l u m n s to the first; then 2 ( + & + c) a b + o + 26 a a 6 + c + 2a a b 6 c + a + 26 6 6 c+a+26
2 (a + b + c)
2 (a + 6 + o) 1
=2 (a + b + c) 1 1
3 4 8 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA Subtract the first row from the second and third ; then l
A = 2 (a + b + o)
a a + b + c 0
b 0 a + b + o
0 0
A = 2 ( a + 6 + c )*, on expanding the determinant i n terms of the elements of the first colnmn. Ex. 6. Factorize a b c b+ c a + a a+b c'
a8
Adding the elements of the first colnmn to the corresponding elements of the second colnmn, we get a a + b + a a b a a A = {a + b + o) b
C
a +
b-t-c
6* r
a + b + c 1 1
1
a* 6*
C1
A = ( a + b + c ) A ' , say. I f a b, b => o or c a be substituted in A ' , then two rows become identical and hence A ' vanishes, /. (a b), (b c), (c a) are factors of A .
Now A ' is of the third degree in a, b, c and hence i t cannot have a fourth factor except a constant, say k. A' = fe(o-b) (J-cl ( c - 4 ... ( 1 ) B y comparing the coefficient of any term, say ca. from both sides w have 1 = ft. Otherwise, to find the valne of k give convenient values to a, b, a la ( i ) , say, a - 0, 6 = 1 and c = - 1. .'. relation ( i ) reduces to
0 1 -1
i. e A = -
1 0 1 1 1 1
* = - 1. ) (o a).
- * (0 - 1) (1 + 1) ( - 1 - 0)
- l ( l + l)=*(2)l. e.-2-2* ( + * + c ) ( - 6 ) (b-a
Exercise 13 ( b ) 1. In the following determinants, express two of the elements in the first row as zero and hence evaluate them. 1 ( i ) 10 1 11 1 12 1
x + 2
1
* + 3
1
JC+4
1000 1001 1002
y+5
y+6
y+ 7
2. In the following determinants, express any two rows or columns so as to have the same elements and hence find their values. 1 1001 17 10 13 16 ( i) 30 47 3. Write cp + dq cr + ds 33 50 36 53 ar + bs 3 5 3G03 5005 19 23
ap + bg
as the sum of four determinants and hence prove that it equals

a c b
X
d X y z
p r
1 4. If D = 1 1 in terms of D. 5.
X2
y*
x2 , express
X
y> y
z2 z 2
z2
Without expanding the determinant, show that 1 1 1 x x' x

3
= 0.
Verify the result by actually expanding the determinant
6. Without prove that 1
expanding 2 3 1 2
or
evaluating any 2 1
- 2
determinant 3
2
3
- 2
Further express the right hand side as a determinant in which two elements of the first column become zero and hence show that the value of the determinant is equal to 18. 7. Verify, without expanding any determinant, that 3 2 -1 2 5 7 2 5 -9 15 -3 4 1 8 5 -3 3 4 1 8 = 2 -2 6 -3 4 5 1 8
State the properties about determinants used in the above proof. 8. Without direct expansion, prove that b c 0 ( i ) -b c 0 (ii) b-a ca 0 a a-b 0 c-b a 0 a - c bc 0 = 0. = 0
Verify the results by actually expanding the determinants. [ H i n t ; Take ( 1 ) common from Ci, C 2 , C 3 so that D' = ( 1 ) 3 >.' Interchange columns into rows in D' so that D' = D]. Without expanding any of the determinants in examples 9 to 18, show that : a
9.
X
b
y
c z
r
=
X y
P q
z
r
=
X a P z c
r
< 7
DETERMINANTS : 351
ax
by
cz
a
=
b
y
c
z
10.
x
1
be
y2
z2 1
a2
I
a b c
yz
zx a*
xy
1 1 1
a+b c+ a b+c
y
a3 63
c3
11.
ca ab
b2
62
c2
a
c2
b + c c+a
12.
a+ b b+ c c + a a+b
= 2
c b
j y-z
y+ z z+ x x+y
a+ 2 a+ 5 a + f>
P+b q+ b r+ b
j 1
=
13.
zx x-y a+ 1
0.
X
a+ 3 a+ 6 a+ 9 p+ c q+ c r+ c
14.
a+ 4 a+ 1 p+ a
= 0.
15.
q+ a r+ a
= 0.
11- x
11
10
16.
17- x
14- x j 4 11 2 5
17
14 10 6 4
16
13
0.
5 = 3 3 2
11 2 5
10 6 4 = 0.
17.
I 7 1 1
a7 + 2ab
a b c
1 1 1
a2 b2
a b c
18.
3b* c2 + 2bc
19,
Solve the following equations: 3 (i) 1 9 9 5 7 31 = 0,
15 2x + l
x+2
x +6 xl x+2 c bx a b a cx
x-1
(H)
x+6 x-1 ax
x+2 x+6
= 0,
(Hi)
c b a2 b*
c2 1
= 0.
Find the factors of the following determinants. 1 20. 1 1 1 22. 1
a b c
1 21. 1 1
a b c b b2 ca
be ca ab c
c2
a
a3
23.
a2 be
b3 c 3
ab
possible,
Without developing the determinants, as far as prove that
a-b-c
24.
2a b c-a 2c
2a 2Jb c-a-b
( a + fc + c ) 3 .
2b 2c
a b c 1 26. 1 1 y+z 27.

Z
a c c+ a c a
X X2
a-b b-a a+b -yz = 0. = 4abc.
y z z
y2 zx z2 -xy y
X
Z+ X
= 4 xyz.
y 1+a 28. 1 1 ab 29. bc ca 1 30. 1 1 a b c
x 1 1+6 1
x + j> 1 1 1+c bc ca ab b+ c c+a a+ b = 0. ca a-b b-c = 0. abc r i 1

+
_ l a
i b
i c J
O - l ) 31.
x2+l y2 +1
22 + 1
x y
z
(.y-iy (
z
=0.
_ 1 )2
a 2 + 2a 32. 2a + 1 3 C. A. 23
2a+ 1 a+ 2 3
1 1 1 =(a-l).
3
1 + a 2 b2 33. 2 ab 2b x2 34. If Z3 + l J>2 z2 1 -a

2
2ab + b2
-2b 2a l-a2-b2 -=(1 + a2+b2)\
-2a x y z
0 and x, y, z are all different. =
prove that xyz = - 1. 35. Solve the following equations using determinants. (i) (ii) 2x + y-z 2x + 3y-z-2 = 2, x-2y + z = 5, x+y + 2z = 3: = 0,x + 2y + z + 3 = 0 . 3x + y-2z-l = 0.
AnswersExercise 13 ( b )
1. ( i ) 0. (u) 0. 2. ( i ) 0. ( ii) 0. 4 -2D.
19. ( i ) * - 10.
(iii) 20. + (a-b) (b-c) (c-a).
( ii)
y = - 7/3.
x - a + b + o, * V a ' + f t ' + o " ab- bc ca. 21. ( a - b ) (b-c ) {o-a).
22. { - i ) ( 6 - c ) (c - a) ( + 6 + o).
23. (a-b) (b-c) (c-a) (ab+bc+ca).
35. ( i )
* = + 2 , y = - 1 , * - 1;
(ii)
* = - 2 , y = 1, * = - 3
Appendix 1
LOGARITHMIC TABLES
0 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8
Mean Differences 1 2 3 | 5 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 9 13 8 12 8 12 7 11 7 11 7 10 6 10 6 10 6 9 6 9 6 9 6 8 6 8 5 8 5 8 5 8 5 7 4 7 4 7 4 6 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 4 3 6 17 21 26 16 20 24 15 19 23 15 18 22 14 18 21 U 17 20 13 16 19 13 16 19 12 15 19 12 15 17 11 14 17 11 14 17 11 14 16 10 13 16 10 13 15 10 12 15 9 12 14 9 11 14 9 11 13 8 11 13 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 11 10 10 9 9 9 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 S 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 7 8 9 30 34 38 28 32 36 27 31 35 26 29 33 25 28 32 24 27 31 23 26 30 22 25 29 22 25 28 20 23 26 20 23 26 19 22 25 19 22 24 18 21 23 18 20 23 17 20 22 16 19 21 16 18 21 16 IS 20 15 17 19
10 11 12 U 1* IS 16 17 Is Tf
0000 0414 0792 1139 1461 1761 2041 2301 2553 2788
0043 0086 0128 0170 0453 0492 0531 0569 0828 0864 0899 0934 1173 1206 1239 1271 1492 1523 1553 ISM 1790 1818 1847 1875 2068 2095 2122 2148 2330 2355 2380 2405 2577 2601 2625 '2648 2810 2833 2856 2878
0212
0294
0374
0607 0645 0682 0719 0755 0969 1004 1038 1072 110$ 1303 1335 13SL 1399 1430 1614 1644 7 3 1703 1732
1903 1931 1959 1987 2314 m 2203 2227 2253 2279
2430 2455 2430 2504 2529 2672 2695 2718 2742 2765 2900 3 9 p 3118 3324 3522 371? 3892 4065 4232 4393 4548 4698 4843 4983 5119 5250 5378 5502 5623 5740 5855 5966 6075 61 SO 6284 6335 64a4 6580 6675 6767 6857 6946 3139 3315 3511 3729 3909 4082 4249 4409 4564 4713 4857 4997 5132 5263 53)1 5514 5635 575* 5366 5977 6085 6191 6294 63 5 6193 6590 6684 6776 6866 6955 2745 2967 3160 J36S 3560 3747 3927 4,99 4265 4425 4579 472J 4871 5011 5145 5276 5403 5527 5647 5763 5877 5988 60% 6201 6304 6405 6503 6599 6693 6785 6S75 6961 3181 33S5 3579 3766 3945 4116 4281 4440 594 4742 4886 5024 5159 5289 5416 5539 5658 5775 5838 5999; J989 3201 3404 3598 3784 3%2 4133 4298 445$ 4609 4757 190.) 5038 5172 5302 5428 5551 5670 5786 589; 6010
26 21 22 ts 24
3C10 3032 3054 3.175 3222 3213 3263 3231 3424 3444 3464 3483 .3617 3636 3656 3674 3802 3820 <W38 3856
30% 3394 3502 3692 3874 4348 4216 437S 4533 4683 4829 4969 5105 5237 5366
13 15 1719 12 -14 16 18 12 14 15 17 11 13 15 17 11 12 14 16 10 12 14 IS 10 11 13 15 9 11 13 14 9 11 12 14 9 10 12 13 9 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 S 10 10 9 9 9 9 8 8 8 8 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 6 6 11 11 11 10 10 10 10 9 9 9 13 12 12 12 11 11 11 10 10 10
25 3979 3997 4014 4031 26: 4150 4166 4183 4200 43M 4330 4346 4362 28 4472 4487 4582 4518 4 6 * 4639 4654 4669 30 81 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 43 46 47 48 49 4771 4914; 5051! 5185 5315 5441 5563 5682 5798 5911 6021 612S 6232 6335 6435 6532 6628 6721 6812 6902 4786 4928 5065 '5198 <5328 5453 5375 5694 58(9 5922 60S 6138 6243 6315 6444 6542 6637 6730 6S21 6911 4806 4942 5079 5211 5340 5465 5537 5705 5821 5933 6012 6149 6253 6355 6454 6551 6646 6739 6839 6920 4814 4955 5092 5234 5353
5478 5490 5599; 5611 5717 S729 5832 i843 5944 S955 6053 616.1 6263 6365 6464 6561 6656 6749 6839 6928 6064 61% 6271 6375 6471 6571 6665 6758 6843 6937
6107 6117 6212 6222 6314; 6323 6415 : 6425 6513 : 6522 6609 6702 6794 6884 6972 6618 6712 6803 6893 6981
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 2 3 2 3
9 10 8 9 8 9 8 9 8 9 8 7 7 7 7 9 8 8 8 8
2 2
355
356
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA
1 6998 7084 7168 7251' 7332 7412 7490 7566 7642 7716 T789 7860 7931 8000 8069 8136 8202 8267 8331 8395 8457 8519 8579 8639 869" 8756 8814 8871 8927 8982 9036 9090 9143 9196 9248 9299 9350 9400 9450 9499 9547 9595 9643 9689 9736 9782 9827 9872 9917 9961
8 7059 7143 7226 7303 7383 7466 7543 7619 7694 7767 7839 7910 7980 8348 3116 8182 8748 8312 8376 8439 8501 8561 8621 8681 8739 8797 8854 8910 8965 9020 9074 9128 9180 9232 9284 9335 9385 9435 9434 9533 9531 %:s 9675 9722 9768 9814 9859 9903 9948 9901
1 2 3
4 S 6
7 8 9 6 6 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
50 51 S2 S3 54 SI 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64
6990 7076 7160 7243 7324 7404 7482 7559 7634 7709 7782 7853 7924 7993 8062 8129 8195 8261 8325 8388 8451 8513 8573 8633 8692 8751 8808 8865 8921 8976 9031 9085 9138 9191 9243 9294 9345 9395 9445 9494 9542 9591 9638 9685 9721
7007 7093 7177 7259 7340 7419 7497 7574 7649 7723 77% 7868 7938 8007 8075 8142 8209 8274 8338 8401 8463 8525 8545 8645 8704 8262 8821' 8876 8932 8981 9042 9096 9149 92 1 9253 9304 9355 94U5 9155 9504 9S52 3601) 9647 9694 9741 9786 9832 9877 9921 9965
7016 7101 7185 7267 7348 7427 7505 7582 7657 7731 7833 7875 7945 8014 8082 8149 8215 8280 8344 8407 8470 8531 8591 8651 8710 8768 8825 8*82 8938 8993 9047 9101 9154 9206 9258 9309 9360 9410 9460 9509 9557 9605 9652 9699 9745 9791 9836 9881 9926 9969
7024 7110 7193 7275 7356 7435 7513 7589 7664 7733 7810 7883 7952 8021 8089 8156 8222 8287 8351 8414 8476 8537 8597 8657 8716 8774 8831 8887 8943 8998 9053 9106 9159 9212 9263 9315 9365 9415 9465 9513 9562 9609 9657 97)3 9750 9795 9841 9686 9930 9*74
7033 7118 7202 7284 7364 7443 752P 7597 7672 7745 7818 7889 7959 8028 8096 8162 8228 8293 8357 8420 8482 8543 8603 8663 8722 8779 8837 8893 8949 9004 9058 9112 9165 9217 9269 9320 9370 9420 9469 951.5 9566 9614 9661 9708 975 9800 9645 9890 99H 9978
7042 7126 7210 7292 7372 7451 7528 7604 7679 7752 7825 7896 7966 8035 8102 8169 8235 8299 8363 8426 8488 8549 8609 8669 8727 8785 8842 8899 8>54 9009 9063 9117 9170 9222 9274 9325 9375 942S 9474 9523 9571 9619 9666 9713 9759 9805 9850 9894 9939 9963
7050 7135 7218 7300 7380 7459 7536 7612 7686 7760 7832 7903 7973 8041 8109 8176 8241 8306 8370 8432 8494 8555 8615 8675 8733 8791 *848 8904 8960 5015 9069 9122 9175 9227 9279 9330 9330 9430 9479 9528 9576 9624 9671 9717 9763 9809 9854 9899 9943 9987
7067 7152 7235 7316 7396 7474 7551 7627 7701 7774 7846 7917 7937 8055 8122 8189 8254 8319 8382 8445 8506 8567 8627 8686 8745 8802 8859 8915 8971 9025 9079 9133 9186 9238 9289 9340 9390 9440 9489 9538 9586 9633 968!) 9727 9773 9818 9863 9908 9952 9996
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 2 2 2
3 3 2 2 2
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1
4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
7 7 7 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 b 6 6 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3
g 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7
2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
0 < o A o D 6 o 6 6 6 6 ^ ^ 5 5 e 5 e 9 e 9 5 c J 5 5 5 5 5 4 4 4 4 4
4
66 7 68 69 70 71 72 71 74 75 76 77 78 79 <0 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 8* to 91 92 93 4
2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
4 4 4 4 4 4 4
95 9777 96 9823 97 9868 98 9912 99 9956
2 2 2 2
ANTI-LOGARITHMIC TABLES
0 1 t 3 4 5 6 ) 8
1 2 3
4 5 6
7 8 1
00 01 02 03 04 OS 06 07 OR 09 10 11 12 IS 14 is 1 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 '33 34 'S3 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 "43 44 45 46 "47 48 49
1000 1002 1005 1007 1009 1012 1014 1016 1019 1021 1023 1047 1072 10% 1122 1148 1175 1202 1230 1259 1288 1318 1349 1380 1413 IMS 1479 1514 1549 1585 1622 1660 1698 1738 1778 1820 1862 1905 1950 1995 2042 2089 2138 2188 2239 2291 2344 2399 2455 2512 2570 2630 2692 2754 2818 2884 2951 3020 3090 1026 1050 1074 1099 1125 1151 1178 1205 1233 1262 1291 1321 1352 1384 1416 1449 1483 1517 1552 1589 1626 1663 1702 1742 1782 1821 1866 1910 1954 2000 2046 2094 2143 2193 2244 2296 2350 2404 2460 2518 2576 2636 2698 2761 2825 2891 2958 3027 3097 1028 1052 1076 1102 1127 1153 1180 1208 1236 1265 1294 1324 1355 1387 1419 1452 1486 1521 1556 1592 1629 1667 1706 1746 1786 1828 1871 1914 1959 2004 2051 2099 214$ 2198 2249 2301 2355 2410 2466 2523 2582 2642 2704 2767 2831 2897 2965 3034 3105 1030 1054 1079 1101 1130 1156 1183 1211 1239 1268 1297 1327 1358 1390 1422 1455 1489 1524 1560 15% 1633 1671 1710 1750 1791 1832 1875 1919 1963 2009 2056 2101 2153 2203 2254 2307 2360 2415 2172 2529 2588 2619 2710 2773 2838 2901 2972 3011 3112 1033 1057 1081 1107 1132 1159 1186 1213 1212 1271 1300 1330 1361 1393 1126 1159 1193 1528 1563 1600 1637 1675 1711 1751 1795 1837 1879 1923 1968 2011 2061 2109 2158 2208 2259 2312 2366 2121 2477 253S 2S94 2655 2716 2780 2811 2911 2979 3048 3119 1035 1059 1081 1109 1135 1161 1189 1216 1215 1274 1303 1331 1365 1396 1129 1462 14% 1531 1567 1603 1641 1679 1718 1758 1799 1841 1881 1928 1972 2018 2065 2113 2163 2213 2265 2317 2371 2427 2483 2541 2600 2661 2723 2786 2851 2917 2985 3055 3126 1038 1062 1086 1112 1138 1164 1191 1219 1247 1276 1306 1337 1368 1400 1432 1466 1500 1535 1570 1607 1644 1683 1722 1762 1803 1815 1888 1932 1977 2023 1040 1061 1089 1111 1140 1167 1194 1222 1250 1279 1309 1310 1371 1103 1135 1169 1503 1538 1574 1611 1618 1687 1726 1766 1807 1819 1892 1936 1982 2028 1012 1067 1091 1117 1143 1169 1197 1225 1253 1282 1312 1313 1374 1406 1439 1472 1507 1512 1578 1614 1652 1690 1730 1770 1811 1851 1897 1911 1986 2032 1045 1069 1094 1119 1116 1172 1199 1227 1256 1285 1315 1316 1377 1409 1112 1476 1510 1545 1581 1618 1656 1694 1734 1771 1816 1858 1901 1915 1991 2037
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 4 1 4 4 4 1 4 5 5 S 5 5 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 1 4 1 4 1 1 4 4 5 5 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 S 5 5 S 5
2 2 3 2 2 3 r 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 4 1 1 1
2070 2075 2080 2084 2118 2123 2128 2133 2168 2173 2178 2183 2218 vm 2228 2231 2270 zas 2280 2286 2323 2377 2132 2489 2547 2606 2667 2729 2793 2853 2921 2992 3062 3133 2328 2382 2438 2495 2S53 2612 2673 2735 2799 2861 2931 2999 3069 3141 2333 2388 2143 2500 2559 2618 2679 2742 2805 2871 2938 3006 3076 3148 2339 2393 2119 2506 2561 2624 2685 2748 2812 2877 2911 3013 3083 3155
5 5 5 6 5 6 S 6 5 6 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6
3 1 3 4 1 1 4 4
357
I X 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
-to 51 51 53 '54 '55 56 '57 '58 '59 to 61 '62 '63 64 '65 '66 67 '68 *6* 71 72 73 74 '75 76 77 78 79 "80
3162 3170 3177 3184 3236 3311 3388 3467 3548 3631 3715 3802 3890 3981 4074 4169 4266 4365 4467 4571 4677 4786 4898 5012 5129 5248 5370 5495 5623 5754 5888 6026 6166 6310 3243 3319 3396 3475 3556 3639 3724 3811 3899 3990 4083 4178 4276 4375 4477 4581 4688 4797 4909 5023 5140 5260 5383 5508 5636 5768 5902 6039 6180 6324 3251 3327 3104 3483 3565 3648 3733 3819 3908 399? 4093 4188 4285 4385 4487 4592 4699 4808 4920 5035 5152 5272 5395 5521 5619 5781 5916 6053 6191 6339 6486 6637 6792 6950 7112 7278 7447 7621 7798 7980 8166 8356 8551 8750 8954 9162 9376 9594 9817 32S8 3334 3412 3191 3573
3192 3199 3206 3211 3221 3228 3266 3342 3120 3499 3581 3273 3350 3428 3508 3589 3281 3357 3136 3516 3597 3289 3365 3413 3521 3606 3296 3373 3151 3532 3611 3698 3784 3873 3963 1055 1150 1216 4345 4446 4550 4656 1761 1875 1989 5105 5221 5346 5470 5598 5728 5861 5998 6138 6281 6427 6577 6730 6887 7047 7211 7379 7551 7727 7907 8091 8279 8472 8670 8872 9078 9290 9506 9727 9954 3301 3381 3459 3510 3622 37U7 3793 3882 3972 1061 4159 1256 4355 4457 1560 4667 1775 4887 5000 5117 5236 5358 5183 5610 5741 5875 6012 6132 6295 6142 6592 6715 6902 7063 7228 73% 7568 7745 7925 8110 8299 8492 8690 8892 9099 9311 9528 9750 9977
1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 S 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7
3 4 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 1 1 4 4 4 4 1 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8
5 6 7 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 14 11 14 15 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7 7 7
4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 5 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 S 5 6 6 6 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 7 7 7 7
3656 3664 3673 3681 3690 3711 3750 3758 3767 3776 3828 3837 3816 3855 3861 3917 3926. 3936 3915 3954 1009 4018 1027 1036 4046 1102 1198 4295 4395 4498 4603 4710 4819 4932 5047 5164 5281 5106 5531 5662 5794 5929 6067 6209 6353 6501 6653 6808 6966 7129 7295 7164 7638 7816 7998 8185 8375 8570 8770 8974 9183 9397 %16 9840 4111 4207 4305 4406 4508 4613 4721 4831 4943 5058 5176 5297 5420 5516 5675 5808 5943 6081 6223 6368 6516 6668 6823 6982 7145 7311 7482 7656 7834 8017 8204 8395 8590 8790 8995 9204 9419 9638 9863 1121 1217 1315 1116 1519 1624 4732 4812 1955 5070 5188 5309 5133 5559 5689 5821 5957 6095 6237 6383 6531 6683 6839 6998 7161 7328 7499 7674 7852 8035 8222 8414 8610 8810 9016 9226 9441 9661 9886 1130 4227 4325 4426 4529 4631 4742 4853 1966 5082 5200 5321 5445 5572 5702 5831 5970 6109 6252 6397 6546 6699 6855 701S 7178 7345 7516 7691 7870 8054 8211 8433 8630 8831 9036 9247 9162 9683 9908 4140 4236 4335 4436 4539 4615 4753 4864 4977 5093 5212 5333 5458 5585 5715 5848 5984 6121 6266 6112 6561 6711 6871 7031 7194 7362 7534 7709 7889 8072 8260 8453 8650 8851 9057 9268 9481 9705 9931
7 8 7 8 7 8 7 8 7 8 8 9 8 9 8 9 8 9 8 9 9 10 9 10 9 10 9 11 911 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 13 13 13 13 U :1 11 15 15 15 16 16 17 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 13 13 13 11 U 14 15 IS 15 16 16 16 17 17 17 18 18 19
6 7 6 7 6 8 6 8 7 8 7 8 7 8 7 8 7 9 7 9 8 9 8 9 8 9 8 10 8 10 8 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12
81 6457 6471 82 6607 6622 'S3 6761 6776 "84 6918 6934 85 7079 70% 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 '98 '99 7244 7413 7586 7762 7943 8128 8318 8511 8710 8913 9120 9333 9550 9772 7261 7430 7603 7780 7962 8147 8337 8531 8730 8933 9141 9354 9572 9795
8 11 13 15 17 19 9 11 13 15 17 20 9 11 13 16 18 20 9 11 14 16 18 20
Appendix 2
I m p o r t a n t F o r m u l a e F r o m School Algebra. 1. (a + (a(a + a2 + b )2 = a 2 + by = a2 b ) ( a - b) f>2 = ( a + 2ab + b2 lab + b2. = a2 - b2. b)2 - lab = ( a - b)2 + 2ab. 4afc. 4ab. + (a + b)x + ab. lab2 + b* = a3 + b3 + 3ab (a + b).
2.
3. 4.
5. ( a 6. ( a 7. (x 8. ( a
+ 6 ) 2 = (a - 6)2 + - 2>)2 = (a + b)2 + a) (x + b) = x2 + fc)3 = a"* + 3a 2 6 +
9. ( a - ft)3 = a 3 - 3 a 2 b + 3 a b 2 - b * = (a-6). 3 2 2 10. a + < = ( a + 6 ) (a -ab + b ). 11. = ( a - 6 ) (a2 + ab + b2). 12. ( a + b + c )2 = a 2 + 6 2 + c2 + lab + 2bc + lea 13. a 3 + i>3 + c 3 3abc = ( a + 6 + c ) X ( a 2 + i 2 + c2ab bc c a ) .
3 14. If a + b + c = 0, then a 3 + Z > + c 3 = 3abc. 15. ai + a2b2 + bi = (a2 + ab + bi) ( a 2 - a & + 6 2 ,). 16. ( a + 6 + c ) ( 6 + c - a ) ( c + a - 6 ) ( a + 6 - c ) =2a2b2 + 2b2c2 + lc2a2 - a 4 - b* - c*.
17. If 4 " <= 4 r , then b a
= (Invertendo ). a c
18.
then
-fL = A
. (Alternendo ).
19.
If 4 - = 4 - - t h e n b a If = , then
' (Componendo ) .
20.
=
359
. ( Dividendo ).
21.
I f A ' t h e n b a
ab
c d ( Componendo and Dividendo )
22.
If-^- = - j - y
then each of the equal fractions
fa + /c + e + ~ lb + md+nf + where /, m, n , . . . are + ve or ve numbers.
Important Formulae and Results from F. Y. Algebra.

Chap. 1. A set is a well defined collection of objects. Sets The objects constituting a set are called its elements. can be described either by tbe Roster or Rule method.
A set is called a finite set if it has a finite number of elements; a set that is not empty or finite is called an infinite set. Two sets A and B are said to be equal if they have the same ( i . e. identical) elements and we write A = B. The order in which the elements are listed is immeterial. If an object occurs more than once, it is listed only once in the set. A null or empty or void set is a set containing no element. It is denoted by the symbol <t>. Diagrams representing sets are called Venn diagrams. A set with one element is called a singleton or a unit set. A set A is a subset o f a set B if x e A askcB. Every set is subset of itself. The null set $ is a subset of every set. From a set containing n elements, 2" subsets can be formed and a set consisting of these 2" subsets is called a power set of a given set. Two sets are called equivalent if the elements of one set can be put into one-to-one correspondence with the elements of the other set. x e B; and we write it
IMPORTANT FORMULAE FROM F. Y. ALGEBRA : 3 6 1
A set A is called a proper subset of a set B if every element of A is an element of B and there is at least one element in B which is not in A. We write this as A c.B. Thus A c B if a <? A, then a e B and 3 b e B s. t. b A. Two sets are called disjoint if they do not have any common element. Given sets can always be considered as subsets of some fixed set called the universal set, denoted by, say, X. The compliment of any set A, which is a subset of some universal set X, is a set of those elements of X which do no t belong to A. We write it as A'. Thus, A' = \x\xeX;x(A\.
The union of two sets A and B ( written as A U B ) is the set of elements which belong to A or to B or to both A and B. Thus, AU B = \ x\xeA and/or e 3 | .
The intersection of two sets A and B ( written as A fl B ) is the set of those elements which belong to both A and B. Thus, AV\ B \ x\xe A and x e B
Following results may be carefully noted. If A = B and B = C, then A = C. A = B iff A c B and B C A. AUA = AIADA = A. AU<t> = A;Af)X = A. A U X - X; A D 0 = 0. A U A' = X; AH A' = 0 . (A')' =A;(X)' =0; 0' = X. Commutative Laws : AU B = BU A; AC]B = BCl A. Associative Laws : Distributive Laws : ( ^ U B ) U C = , 4 U (5U C); M n ^ n c = ^ n ( 5 n c ) . AU(B[^C)
AV\{BUC)
= = (^nJB>u(^nc).
De Morgan's Laws :
(A U B)' =A' fl B'; ( ^ f l B)' =A'U B'
Chap. 2 . Positive integers are called natural numbers A number which can be expressed as a ratio of two integers, say plq where q i * 0, is called a rational number. A number which can not be expressed as a ratio of two integers, say p/q, qj= 0, but which corresponds to some point on the number axis is called an irrational number. Rational and irrational numbers together form a set of real numbers. The square of every real number is non-negative. Every real number can be represented by some point on the number axis and conversely every point on the number axis corresponds to some real number. The set of real numbers is ordered and dense. A set of real numbers satisfies the properties of ( i ) closure with respect to addition, subtraction, multiplication, division except by zero and involution, ( ii ) commutativity, (iii ) associativity and ( iv ) distributivity. Approximate rational value, of any irrational number can be calculated. The properties of real numbers as given in articles 4 and 9 should be carefully remembered. Chap. 3 . \j 1, denoted by i, numbers. We have i1 = 1, i 3 number of the type a + ib where a called a complex number. If a = 0, imaginary and if b = 0 it reduces to is the unit of imaginary = i, i* = 1, ... etc. A and b are real numbers is the number becomes purely a purely real number a.
Two complex numbers are said to be conjugate complex numbers if either of them can be obtained from the other by changing i to i. Two complex numbers a + ib and a' + ib' are equal if a = a' and b - b'. If a + ib = 0, then a = 0 and b = 0. The sum and the product of two conjugate complex numbers are purely real while their difference is purely imaginary. The complex numbers can be represented in the Argand's diagram on a plane with rectangular coordinate axes. Algebraic operations with complex numbers as defined in article 3 should be carefully noted.
C h a p . 4 . If a and b are real numbers and m, n are positive integers, then ( i ) (ii) ( iii) (iv) a x a" == a m + n , am -s- a = a " - " , ( a = 0 ) , ( a ) = a"*" = ( a ) m , (ab)m = ambm,
< * > (f)"-
These laws are true for any rational values of (provided a > 0, b > 0 ) .
m and n
Definitions:
( i ) ( ii ) If a js any real number and m a positive integer, then am = a x a x a x m times. If a is any non-zero real number, then a.0 1.
(iii ) If a is any positive real number and pfq a positive rational number, then i>h <i a = v a*. ( i v ) If a is any positive real number and r any positive rational number, then a 1 = ar
( v ) If a is any positive real number, x an irrational number and ( x ) a sequence of rational numbers such that
x
Lt x = x, then noo
a* =
Lt a n > oo
If a # 0, a 4= 1 and a* = a\ then x = v . Chap. If a and N are positive real numbers and a # 1, then a* = N ^ x - log a N. Ion N We have the identity : N a *a . log 1 = 0 and log a a = 1, a e R and a > 0 and 1. 5.
If a,TO,n e R and m > 0, / i > 0 , a > 0 and # I, we have ( i ) ( ii ) log a mn = log a m + log a n, loga (mjn ) = log a m - log a ,
(iii)
(iv) Chap. 6. then ( i ) ( ii ) (iii)
logaCm") =
nlo&m,
> 0 and = 1.
Iog 6 m = l o g a w -7- log t t 6,
A surd is an irrational root of a rational number. are real surds,
If a and x are rational numbers and sfb,
a +\[b = x + yf~y a + \fb = x +

\[7> = x + \[~y
\[~y
a = x and b = y;
=>
a
-\f~b =x - \ f y ;
x = 0 a n d b = y;
( i v ) /Ja+\[T
( v ) ^Ja
=\Tx +s[y =>Ja - \[~b

2
=yf7-yfyi
+y[~b =sf x + y f y
if a > 0 and a b is a
perfect square and x + y = a and 4xy = b. C h a p . 7 . ( a ) The roots of ax2 + bx + c = 0 are given by
V = X
b \[5 b2 4ac 2a
> 0, the roots are real and unequal; = 0, the roots are real and equal ; < 0, the roots are imaginary; =s a perfect square, roots are rational
(b)
If b2 -4ac
We have assumed that a, b, c are rational. ( v c ) ' Sum of the roots = ; a
Product of the roots = a
( d ) The equation whose roots are known can be written as x 2 ( sum of roots ) x + ( product of roots) = 0. ( e ) Conditions for ax2 + bx + c = 0, a'x2+b'x + c' = 0 to have ( i ) one common root is (ca'-c'a)2 = (ab'-a'b) (bc'-b'c), ( both the roots in common is = = v ii ) ' a b c ( / ) Irrational and imaginary roots of a quadratic equation always occur in pairs ( g ) If /3, Y are the roots of the cubic equation ax* + bx2 + cx + d = 0, then 2<* = , 2/3 = and c/3y = a a a (h) If , ft, y, $ are the roots of the biquadratic equation axi + foe3 + cx2 + dx + e = 0, then a Chap. 8. a ' a a
Method of Induction is a method used to prove the results ( which are already given or known ) to be true for positive integral values. If P (ni) denotes a statement containing a property of the natural number n, the method consists of the following two steps:
(a) P ( 1 ) or P ( 2 ) is verified. ( b ) Assuming P ( ) to be true, say for n = k, we show that P ( & ) = > P (fc + 1 ) With the help of step ( a ) , Chap. 9. ( i ) ( ii ) the repeated use of step ( b ) establishes the result y n. With usual notation, we have wth term of an A. P. = a + ( n - 1 ) d; Sum of n terms of an A. P. = = ( iii ) nth term of a G. P. = ar 2a + ( n -1) + n; d]
(iv)
Sum of n terms of a G. P. =
=
a (r
" } r 1
ifr>l,
i f r < 1
1 r
= na if r = 1; ( v ) a, b., c are in A. P., G. P. or H . P. according as ab a o r a T a res ect,v . el , a n d
~b ~c
conversely;
1 < r < 1,
( vi ) Sum of infinite geometric series, a is 1 -r ' (vii)
if -
A arithmetic mean between a and b = G = geometric mean between a and b= H = . harmonic mean between a and b = \fab. -: a +b
(viii)
A > G > H and AH = G2.
Chap. 10. Following formulae must be remembered. ( i ) 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + i . e .

2 2 2
2 r - "
"
+ 1 2
> .
( ii ) l + 2 + 32 + ... + n
(iii)
i.e. 2 r J = n ( n + I ) (2n + 1 ) _ l 6 l 3 + 2 3 + 3 3 + ... + 3 . n2 in + 1 l. e. 2 r 3 = l 4
( i v ) 2 ( a r 3 + br2 + cr + d) l = 2<zr3 + 2ir2 + 2cr + 2</ = a 2 r 3 + 6 2 r + c 2 r + nd. i t I Chap. 11. ( i ) w! = n (n - 1 ) (n - 2 ) . . . 3-2-1. ( ii ) "P, =n(n (iii) Cr = Pt r\ - 1 ) ( n - 2 ) ... (n-r n! r! (n r ) ! + l )= nl
IMPORTANT FORMULAE FROM F . Y . ALGEBRA : 3 6 7
( iv )
"C
= "C-r.
= " C f l = 1, 0 ! =
1.
( v ) "C r +
"c,-t =
"C^"'2 a2-f a\
Chap. 12. ( i ) ( x + a)" = x + "C1x"'1a+ + nCrx"'r ( ii ) Genera] term, T r

+
a 4-... + a.
j = "C^x"
_ n ( 1) f 2 ) . . . ( r + 1) r r x*' a . r! (iii) is the middle term if r T r + 1 will be the middle term if r = and r = 1 * when n is odd. when n is even.
( i v ) - C o + Q + C 2 + . . . . + C = 2 ; C0 + C 2 + C4 + Chap. 13. ( i) a2 (ii) Two equations At x-f consistent if a2 b2 = 0 and a2x + b3=0 = 0.
are
n-1 = C 1 + C 3 + C 5 + ... = 2
= CTifcj "2
( i i i ) The solution of equations written in the form a-ix + biyand a2x + b2y = c2 is given by the Cramer"! rule x ct C? bt b2 a1 2 v C\ c2 a1 <>2 1 bx bt
(iv)
The solutions of equations written in the form fljx + i'iJ' + ci = 0 and a2x+b2y + c2 0is given by x bx b2 Cl C2 v ax a2 y bx b2 c\ c2 c-i c2 a2 a\ a2 1 a\ b2 a2 bt 1 cx c2 ax
a
bx b2
or by
i. e.
bi c2 b2 ci ( This is known as the bx cx
y c-i a2 c2
Rule of Cross-Multiplication ) .
(v) (vi)
a2
b2
c2
= ax (b2c3 + ?! ( a2b3 a3b2).
a3 b3 C3 Three equations arx + bry + cr = 0, consistent if ax bx cx a2 b2 c2 0.
r = 1, 2, 3 are
(vii)
b3 a3 c3 The solutions of three equations a,x + bry + crz = dr is given by Cramer's rule dx d2 d3 x bx b2 h cx c2 c3 <t\
2
d\
c\
C
ax h a2 a3 b2 h
dx d2
<*3
a3 at a2 a3
d3 1 bi b2 b3
Cl ct c2 c3
(viiij
Various properties of determinants should be remembered.
Appendix 3
Test Paper I 1. (a)
TEST PAPERS
Given two sets A and B, define AVB and Af\B. one illustration of each.
Give
Prove : ( i ) AUB = BUA, ( ii) U D f l ) fl C = Af) (Bf)C). If A = ) 2, 4, 7, 9 B = } 3, 5, 7, 9 { and the universal set X = J x \x is a + ve intger < 11 }, find ( AUBy and ( A'?\B') and verify that these sets are equal. (b) A is the set of students studying mathematics. B is the set of students studying sanskrit and C is the set of students studying Gujarati. Interpret the sets ( AU B) fl C and ( At\B ) U C. Draw Venn diagrams to illustrate your answer . 2. (a) Explain the meaning of the symbol a* where a is + ve real number and x is irrational. (b) Define a rational number and show t h a t ^ 2 can not be a rational number. Find three rational numbers in ascending order giving better and better approximate value of V 2. (c) State whether the following statements are true or false. If a statement is true, prove i t ; if you consider a statement to be false, give an example in support of your answer. ( i ) The product of two rational numbers is rational. ( i i ) The sum of two irrational numbers is irrational. (iii) The product of two odd integers is an odd integer. (iv) If x is less than y, then x2 is less than y2. ( v ) Given any real number x, we can find a real number y such that xy = 1.
C. A . 24 369
(vi) A = \ - 1,0, 1 ( ; then A is closed under multiplication. (d) If one root of the equation x2 + x + 1 = 0 is a then show that ( i ) the other is ca2 and ( i i ) w3 = 1. 3. (a) What do you understand by the statement " < x is a root of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 " ? Solve the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 ( a 0). If * and ft are the roots of this equation, express * + ft, ft and o<2 + j n terms of a, b, c. (>) If both roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c - 0, where at is a non-zero rational number, are rational, prove that ( i ) b and c are rational and ( i i ) ( b2 4ac ) is the square of a rational number, (c) If the equation x3 - bx2 + cx d = 0 has the sum of two of its roots equal to zero, show that be d. 4. (a) If a is a real number and m and n are positive integers, prove that ttt v fl tttft ( a ) = a . If m and n'are positive integers, does am an imply that m = n for all real numbers a ? Give reasons for your answer. If 3 f c + 1 - 3" = 3* +3 - 9, find x. ( b ) If a, b, c are rational numbers, but neither b nor c is the square of a rational number, prove that a + Vb = Vc implies a = 0, b c. If a + 2 ^ 5 - 156 = 7a - (b + 4)\[\25, a and b are rational, find a and b. 5. where
( a ) Define log a x, where a and x are positive real numbers and a =1 . Find the positive integer n such that log 3 96 lies between n and n + 1. If A, b, c, d are positive real numbers such that a = b2 = c3 = d* ( # 1), find log 0 ( bed).
TEST PAPERS : 3 7 1
(6) Prove, making suitable assumptions (which must be stated), that ( i ) log ( m ) = log a m + log 0 n and ( u ) ( l o g 0 6 ) ( l o & f l ) = 1. If loga m = x a n d 1 Sa n y> where a, m, n are positive, a # 1 and m n # 1, express log a in terms of x and y.
mn
6.
(a) Assuming that ( n - r + 1), obtain a formula for the number of combinations of different things taken r at a time. Deduce that ( i ) (ii) " c r - i + "Cr = " +1 C r and Cr + 2 C r +i + Cr+2 = C r +J.
n
Pr = ( n - l ) ( n - 2 )
(>) A guard of 12 men is formed from a group of n soldiers in all possible ways. Find ( i ) the number of times two particular soldiers A and B are together on guard, and ( i i ) the number of times three particular soldiers C, D and E are together on guard. Also find n if it is found that A and B are three times as often together on guard as C, D and E are. 7. (a) Prove the binomial theorem for a positive integral index.
6 If n is a positive integer such that the coefficient of J C
in the expansion of ( 1 + x ) " is 593775, find the ti6 coefficient of x in the same expansion.
Use the expansion of ; 1 + x ) " to prove that "Co + n C 1 + " C 2 + + "C = 2". (Z>) , ft and y are the roots of the equation
3xS + 4x2+5x + 6= 0
Find the values of ( i ) 2<x2 and (ii)
8.
Attempt the following : ( i ) ( ii) Find the sum of all odd positive integers from 1 to 149, excluding those divisible by 7. The sum of the first n terms of a series is ( 3 n 2" )/2" 2. Find the n term of the series and prove that the series is a geometrical progression. (iii) Find the sum of the first n terms of the series 1
+
1+ 2 ^
1+2 + 3
Answers.
1. (a) A LJB = } 2 , 3 . 4 . 5 , 7 . 9 /. ( A U B ) ' = ) 1, 6 , 8 10 \ . A' = $1.3 5 . 6 8. 0 and JB' - \ 1 . 2 . 4 . 6 . 8, 10 \ A ("|B' - $ 1 . 6 , 8 . 10$. Hence etc. ( b ) {A LIB) f | c = set of students who have taken ( i ) Gnjarathi, Mathematics but not Sanskrit ( i i ) Gnjarathi Sanskrit but not Mathematics and ( i i i ) Gujarathi, Mathematics, and Sanskrit See fig. 10 page 26 This set is shown by ( 4 ), 5 ) and ( 7 ) Similarly the set ( A f l B ) |J C is shown by ( 7 ) . ( 4 ) . ( 5 ) , ( 6 ) and ( 2 ) . 2. ( a ) ( i ) True. Let pjq, rjs be two rational numbers so that p, q, r The product = qs is a rational number
and s are integers and q, s #= 0.
since pr, qs are integers add qs 4= u. ( i i ) False, 3 + V 5 , 3 - J 5 are irrational numbers but their sum is 6 which is rational. ( i i i ) True Let 2m + 1. 2 + 1 be two odd integers. Their product = 4 m n + 2m + 2n + 1 which is an odd integer of the from 2k + 1 since 4 mn, 2m, 2 n are all even and their sum which is even is increased by 1. (iv) False. - 4 < 3 and 16 > 9.
( v ) False. If we take a real number zero, then we can not find any real number whose product with zero is equal to 1. (vi) 4. True, Multipl cation of any elements gives an element of the set. i a) (6) a m = a" does not Imply that m = t for all real numbers a. In fact m =t= when a 0 or 1 : * = > - 1 or 2. a = 11 and 6 = - 22/5.
TEST PAPERS : 3 7 3 5. () 81 < 9 6 < 243. 3* < 96 < 3* . 4 < logs 96 < 5 .
n - 4 ; loga (bed) ~ jL
log^ n ( i i ) nCf
Iog^ m + Iog (
* + y
6.
(a)
+ 2*0.
+1
+ *Cr+2 ["Cr+1+"CI+J]
= ["Cr + " C r + 1 ] +
n+l_ W+l (6)
+l
2
n 3
n+2 S+2 '
( n "~ 2 c , ( ) 1 0
" c9. *
-2
ri is given by the relation 7. (a)
C^ = 3
*r ~ 3
C^; = 32.
6
The coefficient of x* is " c

n
6-
The coefficient of
i s *C n ,
Bat we have the relation that /.
C ^=
"c rt
"C ( - " c _ 6 = 59377S as given.
Put * = 1 in the expansion of ( 1 + * ) (6) 8. (i) (i) - 14/9 ;
It
to get 2
& fl
C 2
ff
r=0
( ii ) - 23/36.
5798.
(.1)
3" _ 2"
3"-1-2"-1_ 4 /
-3 ^
3. \ r
2
We have - 4 - for all
V1 fm\
(iU)
.\
au ait ch
arelnG.P'
1* +2* +3' +
1 + 2+ 3 +
+r* + r
x X
*(+!) (2r 6
1)
2 _ r ( r + 1)
. 3
Test-Paper II. UNIVERSITY O F BOMBAY, April 1969. 1. (a) State when A C B ( A is a subset of B ). Explain the term " Empty S e t I f 0 is an empty set, state whether the following statements are true or false. ( Assume that A is not an empty set ) : ( i ) 4>CA, ( i i ) ACA. Write all the possible subsets of the set ) 1, 2, 3 (. Define the complement A' of a set A with respect to the universal set S and write down S'. (b) Given two sets A and B, define A U Band AO B. If A = ) x\x*~ 3x + 2 = 0 (, B = j + 4x 12 = 0 write AD B and AO B. (c) State with reasons whether the following statements are true or false : ( i ) A CB and B CC=> ACC, ( i i ) AD B = A U C => B = C. ( Assume that A, B, C are three non-empty sets ). Or ( For students appearing under the old course only ) 1. ( a ) Prove that 1 +a 1 1 1 1 1 + b 1 = abc 1 1 +c + 4" b + V c J
(l + \ a
([b) If the three equations in x and y x + y 1=0, ax + (a + \ )y - ( a + 3 ) = 0, a2x + ( a + l f y - (a + 2 ) 2 = 0 are simultaneously true, find a. (c) The product of three numbers in a G. P. is 216 and their sum is 26. Find the three numbers. 2. ( a ) Attempt any two of the following : ( i ) Give any two values of x, one rational and one irrational, such that \f 5 < x < yf 7.
TEST PAPERS
375
( i i ) If a is any positive real number, show that : a+ >2. a
(iii) If n is a positive integer and < 5 -^37 < + 1, find n. ( b ) ( i ) Find four rational numbers /, m, x, y such that I < / < x < \[2 < y<m< 2
and represent these numbers (roughly) on a straight line. ( i i ) If = ) 1,3,5,7, . . . . 5 = ) 2,4,6,8, . . . . examine whether the sets A and B are closed under the operations of addition and multiplication. Or For students appearing under the old course only ] (6) ( i ) If x = value of x 3 . (ii) Ifx = / 4 + \ f T 5 + y show that x 3 - 3x - 8 = 0.
X
where / = \ j ~ T ,
obtain the
= 4 + \fl5~
3. (a) Define a
when : (ii ) x = , ( iii ) x = 0,
( i ) x = m,
where m is a positive integer stating in each case the restrictions, if any, on the value of a so that a* becomes a real number. If a is a real number and m, prove that m n m+H a x a = a n are positive integers;
(b) Evaluate : 2
--2
-3
--112
5/6
+2
--3
-3
,-1/2
2/3
10 ( 2 7 a )
* -1/6
where a = 64.
(c) Arrange the following numbers in the ascending order of magnitude :

lOO/TT
\[27,
, 3V
J T
2
.
where x is
[ Hint : Express each number in the form a expressed in decimal notation ].
4. (a) Define log^m, stating the usual restriction put on m and a. Assuming that the necessary restrictions are satisfied by a, m, n prove that
18a ( m") = n loga m.

(b) Without using tables, find x if - i - log10 (11 + 4 \ f 7 ~ ) = log i o (2 + x ). (c) If ' ^ ^ = a + ib, where a and b are real and
i \[ 1, find a and b and plot the points a + ib and a ib in a plane mentioning the necessary set of axes. 5. (a) Define a surd. State one positive rational value of a such that \f a is not a surd. If a + \f b = x + \l y, then prove that a = x and b = y stating the necessary restrictions on the values of a, b, x and y. TO If =
+
5 ^294 find
- J l J j - J ' J J )
a. = 4 + \f~lT. Deduce
(c) Find x and y if ( \ f x + \f~y)2
Hence Snd k if
( 4 + yflS
+ (4 -
f"
= k \f10.
TEST PAPERS : 3 7 7
(fl) Obtain
2
the
roots
of
the
quadratic
equation
ax + bx + c = 0. State the restrictions on the values of a, b, c under which the roots are ( i ) equal, (iv) ( b ) If ( i i ) real but unequal, ( iii) rational,
purely imaginary. P are the roots of x2 - 2x + 3 = 0, find the
o c Q quadratic equation whose roots are - 3 - , p <x (c) If

3
j3, y are the roots of the cubic equation
4x - 5jc 4 - 7 = 0 find the values o f (i) + ft2 + y2. Or ( For students appearing under the old course only ) (c) For what values of a, are the roots of the equation x2 + a? = 8x + 6a real and unequal ? () Prove by Mathematical formula 2 ax ,=0
r
(ii)
+ -J- + \
Induction
or otherwise the
a ( x" - 1) , , = x=F 1. r, x - I '
State also the sum when x = 1. () I f S = prove that 2 Sr=

r=l
fl(
x 1
ax ( x" 1)
( ~ ( x
tta
\2 l1 )
X - l
(c) For an examination, a candidate has to select 7 subjects from 3 different groups A, B and C which contain 4, 5, 6 subjects respectively. In how many different ways can a candidate make his selection if he has to select at least 2 subjects from each group ?
378
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA
8. (a) Prove the Binomial Theorem : (x + a)

n
2
r=0
Cr x
n-r
a,
where n
is
positive integer. (ft) Using the Binomial Theorem, find the value of ( 2-02 ) 5 Correct to 5 places of decimals.
3 3
+ 2
Find
2 a
r=1
if a, =
+ + r2
Answers.
1. (6) A = \ * ! ( * - 2 ) ( * - 1) - 0 j, B = \ x\ ( * + 6 ) ( * - 2 ) = 0 A - \ 1 . 2 j. B = } 2, - 6 2\.
A U B = ) 1. 2, - 6 ( and A f | B = \ (c ) A c B and B S C
A C . This statement is correct.
x e A o * e , since A C B. Similarly * e B (ii) * e C, since B C C.
Thus * e A * f C. Hence i C C , .A U B = A U c => B = C This statement is wrong. The elements in C which are common to A need not be the same as the elements in B which are common to A. Consider A = \ 1.2.3 B = ) 2. 3. 4 C = \ 1. 2 . 3 . 4 ) We have A L)B = \ 1. 2, 3, 4 \ = A U c : but B 4= C.
Alternative Question : 1 ( 6 ) 2. (a) ( i ) (ii)
a =
- i - . 1 ( c ) 2, 6, 8.
Rational value : 2-5, irrational value : ^ ^ ^ > 0, since the square of a real numbti (iii ) n = 2.
is non-negative. (6) ( i )
The value of V 2 correct to three places of decimals is 1-414. Hence we may take J = 1 2 , * = 1-3. y = 1-5 and m = 1-6. The
( i i ) The set A is closed for multiplication but not for addition. set B is closed both for addition and multiplication, Alternative : 2 ( b ) ( i ) * = 1.
TEST PAPERS : 3 7 9
3. (6) 5/ V 3.
(c) 3
M
< 31'41 < 3^2
< 3 1 ' 5 . since V"2
1-414, correct
three places of decimals. . 5/ T V 3 < 100 / l 4 1 V~2 V 3 < 3 <V27.
5.
(a)
Sard is an irrational root of a rational number.^ 4 is not a surd.
(6)
6. (6)
a = 41.
s
(c)
ft-7.
(c) 2 < a < 8. (i) 5/2, (ii) 5/7.
3 * + 2 * + 3 = 0. Alternative ( o )
7. ( o ) Ca - 'C, *C, + 'C3 C3 eCj + 'Ca 5Ca C2

= 1200 + 900 + 600 - 2700. 8. (6) 33-63232. (c) ar = .
...
2(n +
l )
+ w
j .
Test-Paper ffl. UNIVERSITY O F BOMBAY, October 1969. 1. ( a ) Explain the term ' Empty Set' and give two examples of it. (6) Given sets A = [ Natural numbers 1 to 10 ], B = [ n\n being a natural number and 2 n < 20 ] and C = [ Even integrers between 1 and 9 ], write down the following sets : ( i ) Bf\C. (H) (^nB)n(Anc). (iii ) Complement of ( BUC ) with respect to A. ( i v ) All subsets of the set in ( i ). (c) Given set X = [ 2, 22, 23, 2i ] and Y = [ AH positive even integers ] state with reason whether XC Y or Yci X. State also whether X is closed with respect to addition and multiplication. (d) In a hostel 15 members take tea, 8 members take coffee and 6 members take milk. If 5 members take tea and
380
: COLLEGE ALGEBRA
coffee both, 4 members take tea and milk both and if none of them takes coffee and milk both or all three (i. e. Tea, Coffee and M i l k ) , find the number of members in the hostel. [ Every member takes at least one of the three beverages ]. Hint:Use Venn Diagrams. Or ( For students appearing under old course ) 1. ( a ) Obtain the condition in the form of a third order determinant, that the equations ar x + bry + cr = 0. [r = 1 , 2 , 3 ] are simultaneously true. (b) Solve 1, 2, 11, 3, 6, 2, 7 3x + 2 3 3, -1, 5, 5 9 = 0.
-2, 1,
4, 14
(c) If p \ q h and rih terms of a G. P. be themselves in G. P. prove that q is the arithmetic mean of p and r. 2. ( a ) For any real number a > 0, give meanings of ( i ) a and ( i i ) a*' ( p } q is a positive fraction.) Prove cT -r- a = a" " for positive integers m and n. (6) Simplify:
M ^ r r
(c) Solve : 3
, + 3
[ w - r
1
-5X2'
+ 1
= 7 x 2*
- 3 , + 2 = 1.
i d ) I f x = ^ 3 2 - V 2 ?how that x2 (x* + 24x2 +144) = 900. 3. ( a ) When do you say log m = x 1 State restrictions on m. a and x. Prove with usual restrictions on m, n and a = log* m - log, n.
TEST PAPERS : 381
(ft) ( i ) Find the value of ) a'2

l0K
3 { X ) log 9 27 { X $ log 27 (3n/3") f.
( i i ) If log 2 ) log, (81) i = 2, find log, ( 3x 2 ). (c) Show without using tables of logarithms, that < logio 2 < - i - (a) State with reasons whether the following statements are true or false : ( i ) If x is rational and y is irrational, then xy irrational. is
( i i ) If x is irrational and y is rational, then x y i s irrational. ( i i i ) Roots of { x p ) ( x q ) = k2 are always real for real values of p, q and k. (iv ) The smallest real number greater than 4 is 4-00001. ( v ) The sum of squares of two conjugate complex numbers is always a positive real number. ( v i ) / =(23)2.
(ft) ( i ) Find the positive integer n such n < (\j2 1 )'2 <n + 1.
7 3
( ii ) Find the greater of the numbers ( i i i ) Show that

3
v5, / 2.
2 Jies
between \J2 and
Or ( For students appeoring (ft) ( i ) I f * = Y ^ J i

find the
under the old course ). value of x3 + x2 - x + 22.
( ii ) Find a and b if 3 + ^6
5. (a) Solve the equation : ax2 + bx + c = 0 where a > 0 and a, ft, c, are r a t i o n a l If 2 (a + i\[3) be a root of x2 - 4x + k = 0 (3 of equation
determine a and k.
[ i = \f 1 ].
(ft) Find conditions on a, ft, c if roots given in ( a ) be such t h a t :

2
(i)
(v t )
=1
'
(ii)
0->2 = 5-
(c) If t, /8, y be the roots of the cubic equation 2x3 - 3x - 10 = 0, prove that : Py A
+ y
3
5
/3
Py
yL.3 Or
( For students appearing under the old course ). ( c ) Prove that the roots of equation : (a1 + ft2) x* - 2b(a + c) x + ( f t 2 + c 2 ) = 0 , are equal if a, ft, c are in G. P. [ a, ft, c are real ]. 6. (a) If a + \f ft = \f c where a is rational a n d \ f b , \fc surds, then show that a = 0 and ft = c. Prove t h a t : (2V5
+
are
3V2)(19-6VI0) (2^5-3^2 )
(ft) If
( h - t )
t )
= a +
find a and ft and represent numbers a ib by points in a plane. (<) If the sum of the A. P. : -47, -42 its positive terms. 248 be 6030, find the sum of all
TEST PAPERS : 3 8 3
7. ( a ) ( i ) Give expressions for "Pr and CT in factorial notation. ( i i ) Prove that nCr + " C r - i = " + 1 C r . ( i i i ) Find x if " c 5 + 2
12
C4 +
12
C3 =
Cr
(ft) In how many ways a party of 7 can be selected from 5 boys and 6 girls so that boys are in majority in every selection ? (<) Use method of Mathematical Induction to prove that ( + ! ) ( / + 2 ) is divisible by 6 for all positive integers n.
6
8. (a) ( i )
Write down expansion of simplifying each term.
M )
!r 1
10
( ii )
Find the value of (1-02 ) using Binomial Theorem.
/ (ft) If the constant term in the expansion of j be 405, find the value of k. (c) Show by Mathematical Induction that
and hence find the sum
l 2 + 32 + 52 +
+(29) 2 -
Answers.
() Two e x a m p l e s (i) A = $* | x ve integer > 3 ( ( i i ) A = ) x'x-- natural number which is the root of " 4 * 1 - 9 0 " (6) A = (i) (iii) 2.3 10(. B = p . 2,3,4 = \2,4,6.8
B O C - j 2.4|, (ii) (BUC)' with
( A f l B) D ( A f l C ) = ) 2. 4 ) 5, 7. 9. 10
respect to A = < * > .
(iv) ) 2 (c)
) 4 (, j 2 . 4
I
X C y . X is not closed with regard to addition as 2 + 2 6 which does not belong toX. X is closed with regard to multiplication; since 2 m x 2 B = 2 m + " eX(ormeN,ne N.
392 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA (d) Numbers of members taking only tea, only coifee and only milk are 6, 3 and 2 respectively total number required = ( 6 + 3 + 2 ) + ( 5 + 4 ) = 20. 1. ( 6 ) * = 4. 2 . ( 6 ) Exp. = ^ ) ' ( ) * = 3, y 1.
OR
3. (6)
4. (a)
(i)
(i) (ii)
-3J-
(ii)
xy = 0
2
False; Take * = 0, y = V2". False; * =J number^ True, False. a =
which is rational.
2, y = 2; x = ( J z ) = 2 a rational - g )2 + J^ A
(iii) (iv)
> 0.
1
The number
is real, greater than 4 and
smaller than 4-0001. (v) False, (a + ib ) 2 + ( a - ib)2 = 2o - 2 6 ' = 2 ( ' - & ' ) .
It is negative if a s < 6'. (vi) (6) 4. 5. 6. (i) False. n = 5. (6) ( i ) = 16. 7. (6) L. H. S. = 2 and H. H. S. = 2 .
(ii)
V~
Old course (a) a = 1,
( i i ) a = 0, 6 = 1. (i) 6 s = c\ (ii) 6" - 4ac = 5a1
(a) Exp. = (19)2 - ( 6 ^ 1 0 )? = 1. (6) = 3, b - - l . ( 3 , 1 ) . ( c ) 6275. (iii) x = 5Points (6) (-3,-1), 115. ( - 3, 1), (3, - 1),
7. 8.
(a) (a)
( i ) 729 * - 729* 5 y + x* y" 135 . , , 135 , . 9 . , y
( i i ) 1-08 24 32 16.
( 6 ) ft = 3.
(c)
4495.
Test Paper IV. 1.
UNIVERSITY O F BOMBAY, 1970 GC.H.
(a) Give four sets E, F, G, H such that E C F(Z
( b ) If A and B are two sets, define A fl B and show that At\B = Bfl A. (c) Draw Venn diagrams illustrating the relation between the sets mentioned below :
(0
A\JB =2 A,
(ii) C O D = C,
(iii) EOF = tf>.
( d ) If A C E, define A' the complement of A in E. If J is the set of all integers and N is the set of all natural numbers what is N' in J? (e) If A is the set of all quadrilaterals, B is the set of all squares, C is the set of all parallelograms, and D is the set of all rectangles state with reasons which of the following are true or false : ( / ) S C f l , (/';) AC.B, (iii) B-D, Or ( for students appearing under the old course only ). 1. (a) Find the value of 2 4 3 3 -1 -4 -5 2 1 (iv) D C C C A.
ib) If a + b + c = 0 show that ax bz cy by cx az cz ay bx = abc x z y y x z z y x
(c) If ax + by = bx + cy = cx + ay, prove that a1 + b2 + c2 = ab + be + ca.

C A T 25.
335
2.
( a ) Define a quadratic surd.
If a + \Jb = y[c where a is a
rational number and \[b andVc are surds, prove that a = 0 and b = c. (b) If - p 5\f3 + 4 \ f 2 --v/72 - -N/ 108 + find a and ft. (c) If a and ft are real and if ( i 4 + 3/) a + ( / -
= a +
8 + 2
bs/3
1) ft + 5/ 3 = 0 find a and ft.
( d ) State with reasons whether the following statement is true or false : If a is real then a 2 8a + 16 is always -f ve. 3. (a) Solve the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. (ft) If one root of a quadratic equation is 3 + \ [ 4 the equation. (c) Find the value of k if the roots of the equation x(x - 6 ) = 3 * ( 1 - x) are equal in magnitude but opposite in sign. ( d ) Prove that the roots of the quadratic equation (x a) (x-b) + (x-b) (x-c) + (x-c) (x-a) are equal if and only if a = ft = c. 4. (a) Obtain the value of the following : ( / ) ( 2 " 3 ) 2 , ( / / ) ( 125 ) (4 + \ji-Jf 5) . f. . ( /V) (ft) Show that 3 X 3" (3 ) ~* (c) Prove that 1
1+X"'m + xt~m
n n 2 3
find
= 0
' , (Jit) ( 2
3>
),
9" + 1 (3 ~y
M ,+1
1
9
+ '
, . 1 + Xm'"
I + XP-
| , T J. l+X">-i>
. A = 1 1 +x"-*
(d) Determine x if
3 2 l + 1 - 3* = 3* +3 - 9.
B. u .
PAPER 1 9 7 0 : 3 8 7
5.
(a) Prove the following results : ( i) (ii ) l o g a M + \ogaN = l o g a ( M N ) ;
log a x = Iog&* log 6 a (b) Find x in the following cases : ( 0 logy-y x - 4, (ii) log., 125 = 3, (///) X=221ob*5 (c) If y = log 2 ( l o g 2 x) when y = 2. (d) Prove that find
y when x - 2 and find x
log\f 27 + l o g V 8 - logy/"l25 _ = log 6 - log 5
3_ _ 2
() Prove by the method of induction or otherwise

n
i 1-4
+ +
i , 4-7
1 7-10
" ' _ ~
1 (3 - 2) (3n +
;
1)
n ( 3/i + 1 )
(ii)
l 3 + 2 3 + 33 +
+ 3 = " 2 ( _ " 4 +
1 )2
() Find the sum to n terms of any two of the following series: (/) 2 r(6r-2), r= 1 ( ) 1 + 5 + 9 + 13 + 17 +
(j/I) 2 + 22 + 222 -+ 2222 + , ( a ) Define nPr and nCr and derive the formula for nCr. (b) If ^ nr = 5
3
find n.
(c) Find r if 21Cr = 2 1 C 3 r - 8 . (d) The staff of a bank consists of the manager, the deputy manager and 10 other officers. A committee of 4 is to be selected. Find the number of ways in which this can be done so as to always include ( i ) the manager, (ii) the manager but not the deputy manager, (iii) neither the manager nor the deputy manager.
8.
(a) If n is a positive integer and x and a are any real numbers prove by the method of induction, ( x + a ) " = x + nCxxn-xa + nC2 x" 2 a2 + (ft) Obtain the coefficient of + n C,. xn'r ar + in the expansion of + a.
(c) If a is a real number and if the middle term in the expansion of + 2j is 1120 find a,
Answers
1. (a) = 5 l | , F = J l , 2 ( , G = j l , 2 , 3 [ , (<*) N' = J 0, - 1. - 2 - n , ... j. tf| 1,2,3.4
( e ) ( i ) True; since every square is a rectangle. ( i i ) False; since every quadrilateral cannot be a square. (iii) False; since every rectangle cannot be a square. (iv) True; since every rectangle is a parallelogram and every rectangle or a parallelogram is a quadrilateral. Or 1.
(a)
8 85, (b) L . H . S. = abc ( A T + y8 + z s ) xyz ( a s + 6 s + c 3 ) s 8 = abc ( X + y* + e - 3*y2 ) = R . H . S. ( c ) Put each
expression equal to 2.
0). Form three equations and eliminate'*, y, k.
(6) a = 14, b = 9, (c) a = 5/4 = b. (d) (a - 4 )a > 0 statement i3 false since for a = A, the expression is equal to zero which is a signless integer. (b) - 6* + 13 = 0, (c) k = 2. (d) x = - 1 or 2.
3. 4.
5.
(a) (i) 1/64. ( i i ) 1/25, (iii ) 1/512. ( i v ) 1/4.

(6) ( i ) 1 / 9 , ( i > ) 5 . ( i i i ) 2 5 . (c) y = 0 , * = 16.
a 6. ( 6 ) (i) 2 i ( + 1), (ii) n (2 1), (iii ) M L ( 10"-1

7. 8. (6) n = 123, (c)r = 4, W) ( i ) 165. ( i i ) 120, (iii) 210.
( b, 165, (c) a = 2
B. u .
PAPER
1971 s 389
Test PaperV
University of Bombay, 1 9 7 1
1. Attempt any three : ( i ) Define : ( a ) The complement A of a set A with respect to the universal set X. (b) a subset A of a set B, ( c ) A O B* and A U B . ( ii ) If A and B are the subsets of the universal set X A C B, prove that B C ( i i i ) If X = J a, b, c, d,e\, A. state two non-empty subsets and
A and B of X such that A fl B = 0 . ( i v ) If A = | 2, 4, 6 B = ( 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ) and $ = ) n | n i s a + ve integer < 10 | is the universal set, then verify the result that
( A U B ) ' = A ' n b'.

( v ) Draw a Venn digram indicating the three non-empty subsets A, B, C of the universal set X and satisfying the following requirements AflB#0, A f l C = 0, BflCiM. 2. Attempt any three:
( i ) Define a rational number and show that there is no rational number whose square is 2. ( i i ) Define a surd number and state two irrational numbers which are not surds. State a real value of a for which tya is not surd. State a rational between \ [ 5 and \f 6.
( i i i ) If x = ( 4 + y [ l 5 ) 1 / J + ( 4 + s [ l 5 ) _ 1 , \ prove that x3 3x 8 = 0. .. . T. \f~3 - V 2 , , ( i v ) If a= : and b= \[3+\f2 find the value of a 3 + ft3. \f2 N/3-V2
3 9 0 : COLLEGE
ALGEBRA
42 / ( v ) Express the number p - ^ - r in the form a + ib where a and b are real and hence represent this number in a plane mentioning the necessary set of axes. 3. Attempt any three : ( i ) Define log a m, stating the usual restrictions put on m and a. Prove with the usual notation that log a ( m ) = n l o g a m . ( i i ) Simplify and show that
logio (343)
1 + i l o g 1 0 ( 4 9 / 4 ) + | l o g 1 0 ( 1/125)
3.
( i i i ) If (2-5)* = (-25 )* = 1C00, prove that - I - = - | ( i v ) Simplify and find the value of (008 ( 0 0 8 ))""2
2/ /33
++ 1 100 ( ( 2-22) +
(256)2"3.
( v ) I f 2 x = \[5/3 snow that ^ x+\!
y/S/5,
1 + A
- = 4-5 I + x2
4. Attempt any three : ( i ) State without proof the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. If a, b, c are rational find the conditions under which the roots are ( i ) real, ( i i ) rational, ( i i i ) imaginary. ( ii ) Find the range of values of p for which the roots of the equation / > ( x + l ) ( x + 3 ) + 2 = 0 a r e not real.
3 3
( i i i ) If < * fi=z4 and * whose roots are < * ( iv ) Solve the equation given that one of other two.
- / 3 =208, find a quadratic equation and ft. 9x3 - 36x2 + 23* + 12 = 0, it being its roots is half the sum of the
B. U . PAPER 1 9 7 2 : 3 9 1
( v ) Use the method of induction to prove the following result: (xn) =n xH~\ where n is a positive integer,
( T h e results used in the proof should be clearly stated before using them ) Attempt any three : ( i ) Prove with the usual notation the formula : 2 [ a + ( r - l ) r f ] = -^[2a
r=1 *
+ (n-l)d].
( i i ) I f S = S'=
2
r=l
tr, where tr = a + ( r - \ ) d , where t \ = d + ( r prove that x t* = 1 ) d' t\.
2 t'r,
r=1
H and gr=
, S
3n + 5
t,
( i i i ) Define "P r and "C r and state the relation between them. Prove that 2 i ( V r=i r ! ) = 2n -1.
( i v ) There are 25 seats vacant in a double decker bus, 18 on the lower deck and 7 on the upper deck. In how many ways can 25 persons be accommodated in the bus of 6 persons refuse to go up and" 3 insist on going up ? Attempt any three: ( i ) Prove the Binomial Theorem : ( x + a ) " = 2 "cr x" r=i) integer. ( i i ) Find the
(X X
r
a where
is a
positive
coefficient
) .
of x
17
in the expansion
of
( iii) Show that ( \ f 3 + 1 ) 5 - { s f l - 1 ) S = 152. Hence find the integral part of ( \ f J + 1 ) 5 . ( i v ) Find 2 ( 2r 1 ) ( 2 r + l ) ( 2 r + 3 ) .
r=l
3 9 2 : COLLEGE
ALGEBRA
Answers
1. ( i i i ) a ' -
\ a, b j, B = j d,
A = ) e,
d, e\,
B j a,
b. o \
( i v ) each set - $ 1, 3, 8 , 9 , 1 0 . 1 1 f . 2 . ( i l ) ir, ; = 27; 2-3. 3 . (iv). 23 + 1 + 2 = 28. -<*> =f' f

3
( v ) Refer to page 40. Fig. 22. ( v ) 1 - 3*. (Hi) * T 8* + 12 - 0,
( i v ) 970.
4 . (ii ) 0 < < 2,
5 . ( i v ) " C u = 1820, assuming that the order of occupying the seats is immaterial. 6. ( i i ) - 1363. ( i i i ) Integral part = 132.
( i v ) 2" ( + 1 ) ' + Zn ( + 1 ) ( 2 + 1 ) - ( + ! ) - 3.
Test Paper VI. University of Bombay, 1 9 7 2

1. Attempt any three : (a) (b)
X
For the two given sets A and B, define: CO AU B (ii) Aft B, (iii) A', (iv)AcB. A and B are subsets of the universal set X where X = j x | x is an integer and - 5 < x < 6 B= jx |y
X
A = 5 x | - y is an integer Find
is a positive integer (iii) 5',
( i ) AU B, (ii)^fl5, ( i v ) all the subsets of A'.
( c ) If X is the universal set, with A and B as its nonempty subsets, show that ( AU B)' = A' C\ B'. ( d ) 9C00 students appeared for two papers in Mathematics at the F. Y. Science Examination. Exactly 7,400 and 6,600 students passed in Papers I and II respectively. 6,400 students passed in both the papers. Draw a venn-diagram to indicate these results and hence or otherwise find the number of students who have failed in both the papers.
B. u . PAPER 1972 : 393
2.
Attempt any three : ( a ) State any two values of x, one rational and one \/T'
irrational such that V 2 < * <
If x is a real number, find the least value of x2 4x 10. ( b ) Examine which is greater 2 1/3 or 31/5. If x > 0, solve the equation ( x )X"J* = ( x s f x )*. ( c ) Simplify and show that J 1(l-flsj^J - i i ~1/2 I = a, ( a > 0 and a # 1 ). are
(</) If V a =b+ \Jc where b is rational a n d \ f a , \Jc quadratic surds, then prove that b = 0 and a = c. (e) If 2x =\f3 sf x2X - \ F X
2
+ ~ , find the value of _\f3 1

1
3.
Attempt any three : ( a ) Prove with the usual notation that log 6 m = (log m ) -r (log a b ) and logj a l o g a b = 1. ( b ) Show that logy ( x 3 ) log, ( j 3 ) < log* ( z 3 ) = 27. ( c ) Without using log-tables, show that y < logio 6 < y yz=x, deduce that
(d) If x, y, z are all > 0 and # 1, and x=z, z* = y, then prove that xyz = 1. (i -/3V ( e ) Represent the number I p p p 1 expressing it in the form i = \f in
a plane
by
a + ib where a and b are real and 1.
Attempt any three : ( a ) If a # 0, solve the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. State the sum and product of its roots. ( b ) Solve the equation - 3 ( 2* +2 ) + 32 = 0. ( c ) If A: is real, find its possible values for which x2 + kx + 4 = 0 has no real root. ( d ) Find the equation whose roots are the reciprocals of the roots of x3 + px + q = 0. 5. Attempt any three: ( a ) With the usual notation prove that
4.
( b ) A number of 4 different digits is formed by using the digits 1, 2, 3,4, 5, 6, 7 in all possible ways. Find ( i ) how many such numbers can be formed and ( i i ) how many of them are greater than 3,400. ( c ) Prove, with the usual notation, that
r fe=i ~ 1 Find the sum when r = 1.
( d ) If 2
r= 1
a, = 4 - ( 3 " - 1 ) for all n, find an.

^
Show that - f l " + 1 is constant.
aM
Find the value of a7.
6.
Attempt any three : prove the Binomial Theorem for a
( a ) State and positive integral index. (b)
If 2nd, 3rd and 4th terms in the expansion of
( x + y)" are 240, 720 and 1080 respectively, find x, y and rt. ( c ) Prove by Induction that (a" b") is divisible by (a b). ( d ) Find the sum to n terms of the series i3 1 .I'+a'i'+a'+a', 1+ 2 1+2 + 3
B. u . t>APER 1 9 7 2 . 3 9 5
Answers
i. (6) X = A = (i ) (iii) (iv) ) - 4 . - 3, - 2. - 1 . 0 . 1 , 2 . 3 , 4 } - 4. - 2. 0. 2, 4 B = ) 2, 4 A u B = ) - 4, - 2. 0. 2, 4 ( i i ) ADB = ) 2, 4 B ' = } - 4, - 3. - 2. - 1. 0. 1, 3. 5 f . )2,4\, \2\,)4{.<t>.
(c) (d)
See the solution of Ex. 12 ( i ) on page 40. In the follwing venn-diagram S denotes the universal set of
9000 students. A denotes the set of 7400 students who have passed in Paper 1. B denotes the set of 6,600 students who have passed in Paper I I . A fl B contains 6400 students who have passed in both t h e papers. from the diagrom, the number of students who have passed in both or in either paper = 6400 + 1000 + 200 = 7600. the number of students who have failed in both the papers = 9000 - 7600 = 1400, Alternative Method, We want A' fl B ' . By the result in (c ) above, we have A' n B ' = ( A u B )' = 1400, since A ( j B = 7600 and S = 9000. 2. ( a ) Rational number = V 2 25 i . e . 1-5; irrational nnmber x 1 - 4* - 10 = ( a - 2 )2 - 14. Least value = - 14 V ( x - 2 ) ^ l/s is / 1/5 15/ 1 1 > ( 6 ) 2 ' = V32 and 3 - / 2 7 . 2 >3 ; * = 9 /4. ( e ) Expression = 1. 3 . ( e ) W e get a = 0 and b = - 2. the number in Argand's diagram. 4. ( 6 ) * = 2 or * = 3 ; .'. the point (0, 2 ) represents (d) qx* + fix* + 1 = 0 .
0.
(c ) - 4 < k < 4 ;
3 9 6 : COLLEGE ALGEBRA 5. { b) ( i ) 'p, i. e. 840. (d)an~ 3""

1
( i i ) 560,
-2HL = 3 . a, = 3 i, e. 729.
OH
6.
(b) x = 2, y 3 and n = 5
(d)
> (w
> .
Test Paper VH-University of Bombay, 1 9 7 3

1. Attempt any three:
() State with reasons whether the following statements are true or false. If they are false, correct them : ( i H 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ( Utf = JO, 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 ( , ( i i ) J.5 ( e } 1 , 5 (iii) There are 16 subsets of a set having 4 elements. (iv) A = } 1,2 \ and B = ) 1, 2, 1, 2, 1 , 2 {, the =5. () ( i ) Define the complement A' of a set A with respect to the Universal set S. ( i i ) If A = J 1, 2, 3 f, B = $ 2, 3, 4 \ and the Universal set S = ) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 {, then verify that (A U B)' = A' fl B'. Draw a Venn-diagram to illustrate this result. (c) Give an example of three sets A, B and C such that
AnB
<t>,B0C4= <f>&nd AO C<(f> but Aft BftC=<l>.

(d) a-4* + 3=0|,
B = \x | sc2 7x + 1 2 = 0 \ and
C as j x | x is a positive even integer less than 6 j , verify that A U (B fl C) = (A U B)0(A U C). 2. Attempt any three : V~2~ can-
(a) Define a rational number and show that not be a rational numbeh
(b) A = } - 1 , 0 , 1 { . B = \ 2, 22, 2\ 2* examine whether the sets A and B are closed under the operations of addition and multiplication.
(c) ( i ) If m and n are positive rational show that m+ n numbers,
is a rational number between 1 and 2.
6.
PAPER 19?3 : 397
( i i ) !f 7m - 3 > ( m + 1 ) 2 > 5m - 1, find the integral value of m. (d) Find real numbers x and y such that (2~i)x + (l+3i)y + 2 = 0. (e) I f a = b+ \[ c where b is rational and \ja,
\J c are quadratic surds, then prove that b = 0 and a = c. 3. N and a. Attempt any three : (a) Define log N, stating the usual restrictions put on Prove, with usual restrictions on N, a, b, that tafctf-jSi^. a log 5 a
(b) Without using logarithmic tables, prove that ~ < log10 5 <
(c) If a2 + i 2 = lab, show that 2Iog|y(fl + i ) | = ( l o g + log b).
(</) Show that ^
(37-20^1 5 2 \f 3
is rational.
( c ) I f ( 2 - 3 8 1 )* = ( -2381 )" =10", Jx L - y i + i z. 4. Attempt any f/iree
prove that
(a) Solve the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c= 0. If n and /S are the roots of this equation, express <x/3 and 2 4in terms of a.ft.c. Hence find the equation whose roots are 0
ax2-6x
(4) If 3 + 5/ is one root of the quadratic equation + c=s 0, find the values of a and c. a I
(c) If two roots of the equation x3 + px* + qx are equal and of opposite sign, show that pq=r. (d) If ( 1 + 2 / ) ( 2 - 0
r =6
( 2 + i ) _ 1 a + ib, where a
and b are real and i = \f 1, find a and b and plot the points a + ib and a ib in a plane mentioning the necessary set of axes. (e)If32*+15. 3*=3*+3-9.find*.
Attempt any three :
(a) Assuming the formula for nPr, obtain a formula for the number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time. (b) How many of the numbers formed by using all of the digits 2, 5, 6, 8 , 9 are divisible by 2 or 5 ? (c) From 7 teachers and 4 students a committee of 6 is t o be formed; in how many ways can this be done, (1) when the committee contains exactly 2 students, (2) at lest 2 students ? ( d ) Prove by the method of induction or otherwise 4 + 1 4 + 30 + 5 2 + + n ( 3 + l ) = (n + 1)2. Attempt any three : (a) State and prove the Binomial Theorem for a positive integral index. ( b ) Find the term independent of x in 6.
(Tx2-i
(c) Use the method of induction to prove that n2(n + 1 ) 2 is divisible by 4 for all positive integral values of n. (d) Find the sum to n terms of the series : 3 + 33 + 333 + 3333+
Answers
1. ( a ) ( i ) False. : A A. If the set on L. H . S. is A, and the set on R. H. S. is B, A 4= B as OeB but O g A . Correct statement = j 1, 2, 3 , 4 , 5 j U 0 = i 1. 2, 3, 4, 5 S. ( i i ) False. \ 5 [ is a set; it cannot belony to J 1, 5 Correct statement : 5 e \ 1. 5 [ or ) 5 ( C \ 1, 5 (iii) True. If a set has n elements it has 2 n subsets.
B. u . PAPER 1973 : 3 9 9 (iv) True. There are two elements 1, 2 in both the sets. They are repeated in B. Repetition does not affect equality.
(b)
(H) A u B = 5 1,2,3.4 (A u B ) ' = j 5, 6, 7 }. A' = } 4, 5, 6, 7 B' = ) 1, 5, 6. 7 A ' O B ' = )5, 6, 7\.
(A u B ) ' = | 5, 6, 7 ( (c) A = $ 1 . 2 B = $ 2,3 C = $3,4
A'UB' = $5,6.7}
(i) A = j l , 3 i , B = S3,4i,C = !214!,

B n c = )4j, A u B = ) 1, 3, 4 AU(BDC)=|1,3,4} A u C = \ 1, 2, 3, 4 Hence the result. -
( A ( j B ) f l ( A u C ) = } l , 3 , 4 j,
2. (6 ( A = \ - 1, 0, 1 It can be easily verified that if x, y e A, (x + y) e A and xy e A. Hence A is closed under addition and multiplication. B = )x]x = 2 n , e N B is not closed under addition.
If
2* + 28 =
m
1 + 2 ) = 2 a -3 B. -Hence
If m, n N, 2 - 2" = 2"* + " e B and 2"'eB
2 e B. Hence B is closed under multiplication. (c) (i) m , n e Q ( w + 2 w ) e Q and ( + ) e Q.
V m + w =j= 0 as m, n > 0,
Show that
m
m + 2 m + n Q.
m + 2n + 2 - - 1 > 0 and 2 - '" ^ > 0 ( m , n > 0 ) . m + ft m+n s 8 (ii) (m + 1 ) < 7m - 3 => m - 5m + 4 < 0 (w - 1) (m - 4) < 0=> 1 < m < 4.
(i)
400 : COLLEGE
ALGEBRA
Also ( m + 1 ) a > 5m 1 m1 3m + 2 > 0 (m - 1) (m - 2 ) > 0=> m < 1 or m > 2. F r o m ( i ) and ( i i ) m = 3, ( d ) Equating real and imaginary parts we get 2x + y + 2 = 0 Solving ' * 3. ( b ) 10a < 5* and - x + 3y - 0. 4 log,,, 5 < 3.
J
...
(ii)
and y
2 < 3 log, 0 5;' 5 4 < 10s | - j - (a + b ) j
( c ) The result is true if
= ab i. e. if a' + b' =
lab.
Id) EXD ( d) Exp .
, (5 + 2^3) (37 - 20Vf) fr
= - j y ( 3 7 + 20VF). ' -
(37 - 20^3")
- j | ( 3 7 ) ' - (20 -JT) \ = a rational.
() x log (2-381) = y log (-2381 ) = z log 10 = z. Use now the fact 2-381 = 10 x -2381. 4. (a) Equation with roots <x//8 and /8/<x i s a c * ' - ( 6 ' - 2 a c ) * + a c = 0. a = 1, c = 34. r,
( 6 ) 3 5 * is also a root,
( c ) If , - and /3 are the roots then /S = - p, - a = q, oca j5 Hence pq = r. (d) Exp, = , = -j - , 6 = Plot the p o i n t s
^ taking the 1 and y axes as the axes of reals and imaginary numbers respectively. ( e ) Put 3 = y. 5.
x
3
Then 3y - y = 2 7 y - 9 ^ > y = 3
-t
or 3 =i> * = - 1 or 2
( 6 ) 3-4 ! + 1-4 ! = 96. ( c ) ( 1) 210, ( 2 ) 210 +.140 + 21 = 371.
6.
(6) 7/18. ( c ) H i n t . If a H = ' ( + 1 ) ' , a + 1 - a n = 4 ( n + 1).
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College Algebra (9th Ed) (1973) (Gnv64)

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; 1958 1959 1961 1962 1964 .1965 1968 1970 1973

Preface to the Revised Eighth Edition, 1 9 7 3

Logarithmic and A.nti-logarithmic Tables

... 355 ... 359 369

2 Important Formulae and Results 3 Test Papers Bombay University Papers

The Concept of a Set.

Set A, element Fig. 1

A is the set of integers x, where x is a perfect square of an integer

Subsets, Equal and Equivalent Sets. only

Subset. Definition. Set A is a subset of set B if and if every element of A is an element of B.

We write this relationship as A c proper subset of B

B and read it as "A

Consider a set of three elements say

It has eight ( i. e. 2 ) subsets, namely, ) a )b ) c I ) a, b\, ) a,c

Set A, Universal set X, A' complement of A Fig. 4.

( 5 ) (A')' A' is A. Proof:

16. 17. 18. 19.

a positive integer. 3. 4. ( i ) / = } (11) - 3, - 2, - 1, 0, 1, 2 . 3 . J = * * I * is an integer

Set A in example 1 is finite and sets in examples 2 and 3 are infinite.

0 a n d M , ( i i ) <p,) x\, )y ) z \,\x,y\. * \ There are in all 2 s i e. 8 subsets.

Union of Two Sets.

Proof, follows. (v)

xe A and A; e 2? and hence the CCLAftB.

If CCZA and C C f i , then

( A D B ) (1 C is the portion ( 7) shaded sets in the figure 10 ; it is common to the A, B and C.

^ u ( s n c ) = (y4u B>n(^iu c>.

Shaded portion also indicates (ÛB)fl(ÛC). Û(JSnC)

Shaded portion A B. Fig. 12

Example. If A = ) 0, 1, 2 j and B = j 2, 3, 4 f, then A B = set of elements which belong to to B. A - B = ) 0, M; and similarly B A = J 3, 4

x<ZB\ B' ( ... ( i ) this proves the former

Ex.i, ing sets.

SETS : 3 1 Similarly, C S Z 3 and C C ; hence C = P. These are the or B. Also

Similarly C (~) > = C or D ; i.e. = ) l \ . Finally, c n f = >riF'

EX. 3. A = \ 0, 1, 2, 3 subsets has the set A ? (i ) (ii) ) 0. 3 (,

Write down all the subsets of A.

(iii) Subsets of A with two elements only are J I, 2 j 1, 3 and \ a, 3 ( ;

(iv) A ' f l B ' .

(i) An(BuC)and/lu(BuC) (ii) (A OB) n (A DC) and (A f l B ) u ( A n c ) Answers:

formed by the two types of inclined C. A.3

Rectangle indicates universal s e t . A - B =) x e A, x f c B , j plain area ( A B )' = shaded area. () (vi )

A', ( i i ) A'ClB, ( i i i ) AUC, ( i v ) (AU C ) \ vi A fl x ( ) A U 0. Verify that AC\X = A\J<f>.

If A = ) a, b, c B = J c, x, y, z (, find ( i ) AuB, U . 4 ; ( ii ) Aft B, Bft A. Is ( i ) /4 U 5 = B I) A, ( i i ) At\B BViAl

if A C C and B C C, then ( A U B ) Q C and ( A f ) B ) C C .

Prepare a Venn diagram to show that A B + <*>, A C = B f l C * <t>.

[ This is called the associative property for intersection of sets A, B, C. ] 20.

[ This is called intersection. ]

A f \ B = ] x i x e A and B j. If A = j 1, 2, 3, 4 j and B = j 3 , 4 , 5,6, 7 | , then A f l B = ) 3 , 4 A (J B = ) a, b. c, d, e / A f | B = ) c (.

SETS : 3 9 ( i ) (iii) 4. (i) (iii) (v) (vi) 5. (i) A U-Y =

A f l A' - <t>. (ii) A ' n B = | 0 , l j , (iv) (A (J C)' = j 0 \.

A u C = j - 4 , - 3, - 2 , - 1 , 1, 2, 3, 4,' ( , A OX = A = J -4, -3. -2, A u<t> - A = ) -4, -3, -2, -1 -1 B UA -

A u B = \ a, b, c, x, y,'z A\JB = BUA.

( i ) (ii) (iii) (iv)

First let us write A - C = ) 1, 2, 3, 4 ( - $ 3 , 5 , 6 ( = J 1 , 2 , 4 } , ( A - C ) ' = ) 3, 5 , 6 ' . \ 1, 3, 5 6 [ = ]2. 4

(v ) (vi) (viii) . (ix) (x)

First we write A - B' = \ 1, 2, 3 , 4 ( -

A (A - B ' ) ' = (1,3,5,6).

A H b = set of all male students who have taken mathematics.

(AuB)' = A ' n B ' = j 4 | .

(A U J B ) ' S ( A ' n B ' ) .

B simultaneously ... (ii)

^xe(ADB)'. ( A' n B' ) S

and hence deduce the result. 13. ( i) (ii ) 14. () ( b ) (A n B)' = \ 0, * 1, ?, 5, * \ !, ?, 5, * I

Prepare a Venn diagram to show that A B + <>, A C = B f l C <t>.