Plant Soil (2010) 332:233246 DOI 10.

1007/s11104-010-0288-3

REGULAR ARTICLE

Recovery of nitrogen fertilizer by traditional and improved rice cultivars in the Bhutan Highlands
Bhim Bahadur Ghaley & Henning Hgh-Jensen & Jrgen Lindskrog Christiansen

Received: 13 July 2009 / Accepted: 11 January 2010 / Published online: 13 February 2010 # Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2010

Abstract The recovery of soil derived nitrogen (NDFS) and fertilizer N (NDFF) was investigated in highland rice (Oryza sativa L.) fields in Bhutan, characterized by high inputs of farmyard manure (FYM). The effect of 60 kg N ha1 (60 N) applied in two splits to a traditional and an improved cultivar, popular among the farmers, was investigated using the 15N isotope dilution technique. No differences were found between
Responsible Editor: Elizabeth (Liz) A. Stockdale. B. B. Ghaley Renewable Natural Resources Research centre, Yusipang, Council for Renewable Natural Resources Research of Bhutan, Ministry of Agriculture, Thimphu, Bhutan J. L. Christiansen Department of Agriculture and Ecology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Hjbakkegrd All 13, 2630 Taastrup, Denmark H. Hgh-Jensen Department of Policy Analysis, National Environmental Research Institute, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgvej 399, 4000 Roskilde, Denmark Present Address: B. B. Ghaley (*) Department of Agriculture and Ecology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Hjbakkegrd All 30, 2630 Taastrup, Denmark e-mail: bbg@life.ku.dk

cultivars with respect to the uptake of NDFS and NDFF, but the improved cultivar yielded 27% more (P 0.05) grain compared with the traditional cultivar. This was largely due to its greater harvest index (HI). The mean percentage recovery of fertilizer N (REN) applied at 45 days after transplanting (DAT) was 34% compared to 22% at 7 DAT, resulting in 56% greater uptake of NDFF at 45 DAT. The overall REN for both the improved and the traditional cultivars were 25.7% and 30% respectively, with no difference between cultivars, but REN decreased with increasing FYM inputs. Fertilizer N recommendations that allow for previous FYM inputs combined with applications timed to coincide with maximum crop demand (45 DAT), and the use of improved cultivars, could enhance N fertilizer recoveries (REN) and increase rice yields in the Bhutan Highlands. Keywords Added nitrogen interaction . Oryza sativa L. . 15N isotope dilution . Farmyard manure . Environmental index . Nitrogen fertilizer

Introduction Asian irrigated rice (Oryza sativa L.) constitutes 70% of global rice production and feeds almost half of the worlds population (Bouman et al. 2007). Given the growth in world population and rising food demand, rice yields need to be increased (Jing et al. 2008). Across Asia, rice yields vary from 215 Mg ha1 depending

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on soil fertility, genotype, environment and management practice (Romyen et al. 1998; Cooper et al. 1999; Dobermann et al. 2003; Whitbread et al. 2003; Tang et al. 2007). In Asia, recovery of applied nitrogen (N) is only 3050% (Cassman et al. 1993; Cassman et al. 1996b; Dobermann and Cassman 2002; Dobermann et al. 2003) due to losses from volatilization, leaching and immobilization in combination with sub-optimal application procedures in terms of timing and placement of N. Hence, improving N recovery efficiency may increase crop yield, reduce production costs and limit negative downstream environmental effects. The common method of N application is topdressing over the standing crop, which leads to significant losses (Peng and Cassman 1998). Hence, there is a need to understand the demand-supply dynamics of N to make the best use of the available N. On-farm studies have demonstrated that 60% of the variation in crops N uptake from the soil (NDFS) is due to spatial variation within single fields and temporal variation over seasons (Cassman et al. 1996a). However, such variations are not taken into account when making blanket N recommendations, which may lead to over-fertilization in fertile soils and under-fertilization in poor soils. Rice is the staple food grain in Bhutan and rice is cultivated in terraces by smallholder farmers primarily to meet the food needs of the family (Ghaley and Christiansen 2009). In the highlands of Western Bhutan, farmyard manure (FYM), consisting of composted bedding material from cowsheds and leaf litter from forest, is the main source of N input to the terraces, supplemented with 3580 kg N ha1 urea topdressing applied, at or shortly after transplanting the rice seedlings. However, there is a lack of knowledge regarding the optimal timing and dose of topdressed urea and the inherent soil N supply in such highland rice production systems. Availability of such information may help to match the inherent N supply of the soil with the corresponding requirement for additional N input, based on local yield levels. Improved cultivars are released by the Bhutanese National Agricultural Research System, based mainly on grain yield performance and constitute 35% of total rice area. However, knowledge of cultivar differences in N uptake and utilization efficiency are lacking in both on-farm and onstation cultivar evaluation. Based on the hypothesis that cultivars have different N utilization potentials and the farmers fields differ in N supply potentials due to N management and soil

fertility, the objective of the current study was to quantify N recovery efficiency in a traditional and an improved rice cultivar under field conditions using 15N labelling techniques.

Materials and methods Site characterization The trials were conducted in 2007 in the fields of ten rice (Oryza sativa L.) farmers in Paro and Thimphu, two of the main rice-growing districts in Western Bhutan and representative of the region. The trial fields were located within an altitude range of 2,2002,300 m asl in Thimphu and 2,3002,500 m asl in Paro, distributed over four different village clusters within two districts in order to capture the variation in the rice cropping environments. The trial sites represented the target population of environments with regard to differences in input access, irrigation facilities, rainfall, slope, altitude and management factors. More than 90% of the farmers at the trial sites grow rice for subsistence and both traditional and improved cultivars are grown. Improved cultivars are grown due to their high yield whereas traditional cultivars are grown for their aroma, good taste and for ritual offerings according to traditional cultural norms. Rice is grown in terraced bunds along sloping hills with irrigation water drawn from the nearby rivers and supplemented with seasonal monsoon rainfall. Soil fertility is traditionally maintained by annual applications of 520 Mg ha1 of FYM, consisting of composted bedding material from cowsheds and forest leaf litter. The dominant cropping system is a single rice crop from May to October and vegetables like chilli, peas, potatoes and tomatoes in the spring (FebruaryMay) for household consumption as well as for sale. From November to May, farmers cultivate winter wheat and barley in the paddy terraces as the main winter food crops. Trial layout All the participating farmers were supplied with seeds of Janam, a traditional cultivar, and Khangma Maap, an improved cultivar and established their own nurseries. The terraces for transplanting were prepared by puddling, levelling and removal of weeds,

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after which standing water was maintained in the terraces. Transplanting took place from mid-May to the third week of June, varying from village to village. The seedling nurseries were watered a few days before transplanting to ease removal of the seedlings. The seedlings were packed in small bundles and transported to the fields and 13 seedlings were transplanted in a single hill. Field trials were laid out in two parallel split plot designs at each site. The first split plot set (cultivar N supply) consisted of two N fertilizer levels as main plots and two genotypes as subplots. The two main plots were two paddy terraces supplied with 0 kg N ha1 (0 N) and 60 kg N ha1 (60 N) and the subplots consisted of two genotypes, Janam, and Khangma Maap. Urea was the N source, and the traditional cultivar with 0 N was treated as the farmer s practice. There were four treatments in the first set of split plots. The second split plot set (cultivar topdressing) was superimposed on 60 N plots with two cultivars as the main plots and two 15N microplots in each cultivar. The two microplots in each cultivar consisted of two topdressing treatments at 7 and 45 days after transplanting (DAT), respectively. There were four treatments in the second set of split plots. Hence, at each site, there were eight treatments with one replication per site. The first split plot set was necessary to obtain a higher degree of precision in varietal differences in N uptake under both fertilized and non-fertilized conditions and the second split plot set was designed to determine a higher precision in the efficiency of topdressing timing relative to the varietal differences. The traditional cultivar (Janam) is a tall cultivar that has been cultivated for generations and is valued for its aroma, taste and high straw yield. Khangma Maap is a semi-dwarf, early-maturing cultivar released by the National Agricultural Research System of Bhutan in 1999. In the first split plot (cultivar N supply), the main plots were 4560 m2, varying with the size of the paddy terrace available in the farmers field. The subplots were 1520 m2 (54 m2) in size and two genotypes were randomly placed within each main plot. 60 N was split into two equal doses and applied at 7 DAT and 45 DAT to meet the N requirement in the early establishment phase following transplanting and at the active tillering stage. In the second split plot set (cultivar topdressing), the main plots were 1520 m2 in size and two microplots were inserted in each of the

two cultivars. To each microplot, 60 N was applied in two splits of 30 kg N ha1 (30 N) each at 7 DAT and 45 DAT. Of two splits in each microplot, one split was labelled with 3 atom % 15N whereas the other split was applied as unlabelled 14N urea. In the 7 DAT split, one of the two microplots in each cultivar was labelled with 15 N while the other microplot was supplied with unlabelled 14N urea, and vice versa in the 45 DAT split. Each microplot was 0.5 m2 and consisted of rectangular iron frames (18 mm thick) measuring 50 100 cm with a height of 50 cm. After transplanting of the rice seedlings, the frames were driven 20 cm into the soil to avoid exchange of water with the bordering rice plants outside the microplots. The 15N microplots were placed 1 m apart in the field to eliminate cross contamination. The microplots were treated in precisely the same way as the surrounding 60N plots. Fertilizer application, weeding and irrigation in the microplots followed the same timing and frequency as in the 60N plots. This trial design enabled a direct estimation of the partial fertilizer use efficiency of 30N applied at each timing and the total fertilizer use efficiency of two-split application of 60N. Management practices All other management practices were treated as nonexperimental variables and was left to the farmers in order to enable evaluation of the treatments under realistic farming conditions. There was no major pest or disease pressure during the crop cycle, so no control measures were taken. No potassium or phosphorus fertilizers were applied in the terraces as the traditional practice of 7 t ha1 FYM provided 76 kg N, 38 kg P and 138 kg K ha1, which is sufficient to produce rice yields in the range of 46 Mg ha1 (Chettri et al. 2003). Due to surface application of FYM 1 to 2 months before land preparation, a considerable quantity of N is liable to be lost (via volatilization, leaching and surface run-off) and consequently N was expected to be a limiting factor for the crops. Field data collection and sampling During the entire crop cycle, data was recorded on the different crop management practices of each farmer. This included recording dates of different cultural practices, such as nursery sowing, transplanting, topdressing, weeding and harvesting. In the first split plot, a

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harvest area of 6 m2 (32 m) was demarcated in each subplot (15 m2) after excluding the border rows. Within the harvest area, the crop was cut at 2 cm above ground level and the fresh biomass was recorded. Threshed grains were cleaned and grain weights were recorded along with the moisture content of the grain samples, so that all grain weights could be standardized to 14% moisture content. A subsample of 500 g grain and straw was weighed and dried at 70C for 2 days to constant weight to determine total dry matter (TDM). In the second split plot, all plants within the microplots were harvested and the fresh weights were recorded. The samples were separated into straw and grain, weighed, and dried at 70C for 2 days to constant weight to determine TDM. The samples were powdered (mess 0.2 mm) and 15N and N contents were analysed using an ANCA-SL elemental analyser coupled to a 2020 Tracermass mass spectrometer (SerCon Ltd., Crewe, UK) using the Dumas combustion method. One soil sample from each trial site (i.e. from each farmer) was collected 3040 days before transplanting of the rice seedlings. Each soil sample consisted of 56 subsamples taken from a depth of 020 cm topsoil and bulked into one composite sample. The soil samples were then air-dried, sieved and analysed for total soil N (Kjeldhal), pH (H20), and cation exchange capacity (CEC) (Table 1). The trial sites were characterized by heavy soils, ranging from sandy loam to loamy with mean sand, silt and clay proportions of 52.83.1, 32.5 2.8 and 14.61.7, respectively. Soil analysis showed significant differences in soil fertility characteristics among the sites (Table 1). Total soil N content ranged
Table 1 Soil total nitrogen, C/N ratio, pH and cation exchange capacity (CEC) of 020 cm topsoil of ten farmers fields (sites) in Western Bhutan District Site Village clusters Doteng Doteng Doteng Shari Chento Chento Khasa Khasa Khasa Khasa

from 0.100.22%. Significant differences (P 0.001) in total soil N content were recorded among the sites. The C/N ratio differed (P 0.05) among the farms, ranging from 13.1 to 19.1 with a mean value of 16.1. pH values ranged from 5.06.0 with significant differences (P 0.05) between the farms, and lowest and highest CEC range varied by more than two-fold between the farms, ranging from 7.0 to 15.3 me 100 g1 soil. Calculations and statistics Agronomic parameters (Bandyopadhyay and Sarkar 2005; Ghaley et al. 2005) were calculated as given below: % N derived from fertilizer % N DFF
15

N excess in rice

15 N excess in applied fertilizer

100%

Nitrogen derived from fertilizer NDFF in kg N ha1 TDMN %NDFF 2 Nitrogen derived from soilNDFS in kg N ha1 TDMN NDFF Agronomic efficiency in N useAEN in kg grain kg1 N applied
Total soil N (%) 0.22 0.11 0.16 0.13 0.14 0.10 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.17 0.14 0.02 C/N ratio
GYF GY0 NF

pH

CEC (me 100 g1 soil) 10.8 7.0 11.5 9.4 9.3 7.8 14.5 11.8 10.6 15.3 10.8 3.8

Paro

1 2 3 4 5 6

13.4 19.1 16.4 16.6 14.1 13.1 15.2 17.6 18.4 17.0 16.1 3.0

5.0 5.1 5.1 6.0 5.1 5.2 5.5 5.5 5.7 6.0 5.4 0.5

Thimphu

7 8 9 10

Mean LSD
0.05

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Recovery efficiency of applied NREN in % NDFF 100% NF 5

Physiological efficiency of NPEN in kg grain kg1 N uptake GYF GY0 NDFF 6

Partial factor productivityPFPN in kg grain kg1 soil GYF applied N 7 NF

treatment and EI-by-soil property interactions were tested with multiple regressions to assess the significance of the relationship. Cultivar, N supply, topdressing timing as well as two-way interactions between these factors were treated as fixed effects, whereas sites and their interactions with treatment factors were treated as random effects. All three-way interactions were treated as residuals and were considered non-significant. Differences were considered significant if P 0.05. Levels of significance are denoted as follows: *** significant at P 0.001, ** significant at P 0.01, * significant at P 0.05, ns = not significant. Data were analysed with the Genstat software package (Genstat 8.1 2005).

Nitrogen harvest indexNHI

GN TDMN

Results Accumulation of dry matter and N in grain and straw Grain and straw yield, harvest index (HI), grain and straw N accumulation, TDMN, NDFS, and quantities of estimated FYM are provided in Table 2. Rice grain yield (14% moisture content) was significantly affected by site (P 0.001), cultivar (P 0.001) and N supply (P 0.001), and there were interactions between N supply EI (P 0.02) and cultivar EI (P 0.04). Among the farmers, Thimphu farmers 9 and 10 harvested significantly higher grain yields (6.07 and 6.35 Mg ha1 respectively) compared with the other farmers (3.365.85 Mg ha1). The difference between the lowest and the highest average grain yield was as high as 81% of the lowest average grain yield. Such wide differences in average grain yields demonstrated wide fertility differences between the farmers, a measure of EI variability at the trial sites. Averaged across sites and cultivars, the supply of 60 N increased grain yields by 15% (P 0.05) compared to 0 N (Table 2). Averaged across site and fertilizer treatments, farmers using the improved cultivar obtained 27% higher (P 0.05) grain yields compared with those using the traditional cultivar. This yield improvement was mainly due to 27% higher HI of the improved cultivar compared to the traditional cultivar. Straw dry matter accumulation was significantly affected by site (P 0.001), cultivar (P 0.001), N supply (P 0.01) and cultivar N supply (P 0.04). Averaged across sites and cultivars, 60 N increased straw yields (12%) significantly compared to 0 N

where TDMN is total dry matter N, GY0 is grain yield without fertilizer N application, GYF is grain yield with fertilizer N application, NF is fertilizer N rate applied (kg N ha1) and GN is grain N. Based on NDFS accumulation, equivalent FYM quantity was calculated based on 1.6% N content at 68% dry matter of FYM, as reported in a similar field study in rice in Bhutan (Chettri et al. 2003). FYM content of P and K nutrients are taken as 0.8% P and 2.9% K, respectively. As there was only one replicate per site (per farmer), an analysis of variance over sites could not be carried out to separate the effects of site on treatments. In such situations, adaptability analysis provides a good option to determine site effects on the treatments (Hildebrand and Russell 1996; IITA 1991; Mutsaers et al. 1997; Mutsaers and Walker 1990). Crop response in terms of grain yield of a particular treatment in a given farmers field is compared with the environmental index (EI), which is the average of grain yields under all treatments at a given site. The EI is thus an integrated index for overall growing conditions in the field due to agronomic, biophysical and socioeconomic factors affecting crop productivity. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was carried out for combined data from ten sites with a nested design for the main plots and the subplots. Separate ANOVA for cultivar N supply (first split plot set) and cultivar topdressing (second split plot set) was carried out to determine the significance of treatment effects on the respective dependent variables. EI-by-

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farmyard manure (FYM) in the traditional the dry improved Table 2 Grain and straw yield, harvest index (HI), grain and straw N accumulation, total accumulation of N and in the matter cultivar underin 0 the andtraditional 60 N treatments in ten farmers fields (sites) ) and applied farmyard (FYM) and the improved cultivar under 0 (TDMN), straw N accumulation, nitrogen derived totalfrom accumulation soil (NDFS of N in the dry matter manure applied and 60 N treatments ten farmers fields (sites) Western Bhutanin Western Bhutan (TDMN), nitrogen in derived from soil (N DFS) inand Site Grain yield (Mg ha1) 3.36 4.90 4.29 5.63 4.74 4.54 5.45 5.85 6.35 6.07 4.76 5.47 4.50 5.73 0.57 0.43 0.28 Straw yield (Mg ha1) 4.88 7.51 6.65 7.16 4.77 5.02 5.91 7.52 10.75 6.50 6.26 7.07 7.20 6.13 1.09 0.57 0.49 HI Grain N (kg ha1) 40.6 47.2 51.8 57.1 53.6 55.1 54.4 57.6 63.3 61.3 45.3 63.9 49.5 59.7 3.9 6.3 4.0 Straw N (kg ha1) 42.1 50.2 66.9 60.9 38.0 45.1 44.5 47.7 80.1 48.7 44.2 61.4 54.6 51.0 7.8 9.0 5.7 TDMN (kg ha1) 82.7 97.4 118.7 117.9 91.6 100.2 98.9 105.4 143.4 110.0 89.5 125.3 104.1 110.7 10.3 13.6 7.3 NDFS (kg ha1) 64.0 80.4 103.6 99.4 71.8 84.0 83.1 87.1 130.0 95.6 89.5 107.0 94.0 102.5 10.9 12.2 9.6 FYM (Mg ha1) 5.59 6.21 8.48 7.69 5.41 6.50 6.25 6.54 10.03 6.99 4.10 9.83 6.73 7.20 2.02 1.04 0.56

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 N 0 60 Cultivar Traditional Improved LSD0.05 (site main effect) LSD0.05 (N main effect) LSD0.05 (cultivar main effect)

0.35 0.34 0.34 0.38 0.43 0.41 0.42 0.38 0.32 0.42 0.38 0.38 0.33 0.42 0.02 0.02 0.02

(Table 2). Averaged across site and fertilizer treatments, the traditional cultivar produced 17% more straw yields compared to the improved cultivar. HI was significantly affected by site (P 0.001), cultivar (P 0.001), and cultivar N supply interaction (P 0.02). HI differed widely among the farmers with a difference of 34% between the highest and the lowest HI (0.32 and 0.43). However, the N supply level had no effect on HI. Accumulation of N in the grain was significantly affected by site (P 0.01), N supply (P 0.001) and cultivar (P 0.001). Application of 60 N increased grain N accumulation by 41% over 0 N, and the improved cultivar accumulated 21% higher grain N compared with the traditional cultivar. Accumulation of N in the straw fraction was affected by site (P 0.003) and N supply (P 0.001). Farmer-tofarmer differences in straw N accumulation were recorded, with Thimphu farmer 9 harvesting the highest quantity of straw N compared with other farmers. 60 N increased straw N accumulation by 39% and there was no difference in straw N accumulation between the two cultivars.

N accumulation in crop, soil N supply and FYM application Total accumulation of N in the whole crop (TDMN) was affected by site (P 0.01) and N supply (P 0.001). TDMN ranged from 82.7143.4 kg ha1 among the farms (Table 2) and 60 N supply resulted in 40% increase (P <0.05) in TDMN compared to the 0 N plots. However, there was no difference in TDMN accumulation between the cultivars. NDFS was affected by site (P 0.002), and N supply (P 0.001). Wide variations were observed in NDFS (64 130 kg N ha1) with a difference of 103% between the highest (farmer 9) and the lowest (farmer 1) amount of NDFS among the rice fields. 60 N increased NDFS by 19%, compared to 0 N and NDFS was similar in the improved and the traditional cultivar. Estimated FYM quantity differed significantly among the farmers (P 0.05) and there were significant effects of N application (P 0.05) and cultivar (P 0.05). Quantity of FYM applied differed widely between the farmers (5.410.0 Mg ha1). 60 N enhanced the FYM effect

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by 100% and the improved cultivar had 7% higher FYM application effect than the traditional cultivar. Urea N uptake Accumulation of N from the applied urea fertilizer (NDFF) (kg ha1) in grain + straw differed by site (P 0.05), urea topdressing timing (P 0.01), cultivar EI (P 0.05) and topdressing EI (P 0.05) (Table 3). Averaged over cultivars, NDFF (kg ha1) quantification by 15N dilution in grain + straw was significantly higher (56%) with top dressing at 45 DAT than at 7 DAT. Of 30 kg N ha1 top-dressed each at 7 and 45 DAT, the mean NDFF in grain + straw, averaged over cultivars, were 10.2 kg N ha1 with 45 DAT topdressing and 6.5 kg N ha 1 with 7 DAT. Correspondingly, the mean REN at 45 DAT was 34% compared to 22% at 7 DAT. Over two topdressings, the mean REN in grain + straw in the traditional cultivar and the improved cultivars were 30.0% and 25.7% respectively with no significant difference between the cultivars. Compared to the 15N dilution method, the mean REN based on N differ-

ence method (Table 3), were significantly higher in both the traditional (56.2%) and the improved cultivars (46.2%) with no significant difference between the cultivars. N utilization efficiency N utilization efficiency varied according to farm and cultivar (Table 4). Agronomic efficiency in N use (AEN) (kg grain kg1 N applied) varied among the farmers (P 0.01) from as low as 1.2 up to 22.9 kg grain kg1 N applied (Table 4). Across the farms, the improved cultivar exhibited 66% higher AEN (P 0.001) than the traditional cultivar. Similarly, physiological efficiency in N (PEN) (kg grain kg1 N uptake) deviation was significant (P 0.01) across the farms and the PEN of the improved cultivar was almost 100% more (P 0.001) than the traditional cultivar. Although, there was no cultivar differences in fertilizer N uptake, higher PEN in the improved cultivar resulted in higher AEN. Partial factor productivity in N (PFPN) (kg grain kg1 soil + applied N) differed significantly between

1 1 (15N of Table 3 N derived derived from from fertilizer fertilizer (N (N in kg kg N N ha ha ) )and andrecovery dilution) the fertilizer and REN% N (REN with %)N indifference grain + straw, method from in two the DFF DFF in 1 splits applied at 7 and after transplanting (15N traditional dilution) and with N cultivar difference method in the traditional recovery 30 kg N ha ofthe fertilizer N (REN %)45 indays grain + straw, from two andREN% the improved in ten farmers fields (sites) applied 7 and 45 days after transplanting andkg the cultivar inat ten farmers fields (sites) in Western Bhutan 30 Nimproved ha1 splits in Western Bhutan

NDFF (kg N ha1) by 15N dilution Traditional Site 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Mean (topdress) LSD0.05 (topdress effect) Mean (cultivar) LSD0.05 (cultivar effect) (7) 8.3 6.6 6.6 10.0 9.4 6.8 5.9 8.1 4.4 5.1 7.1 1.7 9.0 1.5 (45) 12.2 12.5 9.2 11.9 13.0 9.6 10.2 11.6 9.3 9.9 10.9 Improved (7) 6.2 5.0 5.9 6.2 8.1 7.7 5.6 6.3 4.3 4.4 6.0 2.3 7.7 (45) 10.8 9.9 8.6 9.0 9.0 8.5 9.9 10.6 8.9 9.4 9.5

REN by 15N dilution (%) Traditional (7) 27.6 21.8 21.9 33.3 31.2 22.6 19.5 27.0 14.5 17.0 23.6 (45) 40.7 41.6 30.7 39.6 43.3 31.9 34.0 38.5 30.9 32.9 36.4 Improved (7) (45)

REN by

15

N dilution (%)

REN by N difference (%) Traditional Improved

Mean Traditional (7+45)

Mean Improved (7+45) 28.5 24.9 24.2 25.3 28.6 26.9 25.8 28.2 22.0 23.1

20.8 36.1 34.2 16.6 33.1 31.7 19.8 28.5 26.3 20.6 29.9 36.5 27.1 30.1 37.3 25.5 28.3 27.3 18.6 33.0 26.8 20.9 35.5 32.8 14.2 29.8 22.7 14.7 31.5 25.0 19.9 31.6 7.7 30.0 5.1

72.1 39.3 68.0 53.3 44.6 67.9 52.4 59.3 63.2 42.1

58.8 30.7 65.1 56.0 34.8 37.6 52.2 30.9 56.3 39.5

5.8

25.7

56.2

46.2 11.0

240 Table 4 Agronomic efficiency in N (AEN) (kg grain kg1 N applied), physiological efficiency in N use (PEN) (kg grain kg1 uptake), partial factor productivity in N use (PFPN) (kg grain kg1 soil + applied N) and nitrogen harvest index (NHI) in the traditional and the improved cultivar in ten farmers fields (sites) in Western Bhutan Site 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Mean Cultivar Traditional Improved LSD0.05 (site main effect) LSD0.05 (cultivar main effect) 8.7 14.5 7.8 2.8 29.1 57.4 32.7 10.3 68.3 88.6 18.2 3.1 0.48 0.55 0.08 0.03 AEN 22.9 6.6 19.0 11.5 1.2 7.7 15.7 7.6 9.7 13.9 11.6 PEN 73.3 24.2 75.9 38.6 2.6 28.4 60.2 27.1 43.9 58.1 43.2 PFPN 59.6 66.9 71.0 86.4 68.5 68.9 86.0 87.6 95.8 93.9 78.5 NHI 0.48 0.48 0.44 0.48 0.59 0.54 0.55 0.55 0.45 0.56 0.51

Plant Soil (2010) 332:233246

ments, and grain yields differed significantly (P 0.02) between the N treatments.

Discussion The current study tested the hypothesis that cultivars have different N utilization potentials and that the cultivars manifest such inherent potentials across a wide range of environmental conditions. The study, to our knowledge, is the first to combine the rigour of the 15N dilution technique with the flexibility of fieldoriented adaptability analysis, based on large environmental variations and under conditions prevailing for highland rice farmers in the Himalayan region. On-farm data with single replication per site is suited to adaptability analysis, and EI-by-treatment interaction analysis can be consistent over a number of years if certain requirements are met in a single years trial (Hildebrand and Russell 1996; Meertens et al. 2003; Fukai et al. 1999; Kajiru et al. 1998; Sall et al. 1998). Firstly, for linear and quadratic response estimation of EI-by-treatment interaction, ten environments are recommended with four treatments in each environment (Hildebrand and Russell 1996), and the trial set-up in the current study contained ten environments with eight treatments in each environment (site). Secondly, EI values should represent distribution of the target population of environments at the trial site for improved data quality and reliability. In the present study, EI values reflected a normal distribution with most environments clustered around the average environments, representative of actual farming environments in the trial sites (Fig. 1). Thirdly, crop yield levels should represent average yields in the area, typical of a normal cropping season. According to the national agriculture production census in Bhutan, average yields reported for rice at the trial sites were in the 3.84.2 Mg ha1 range (MOA 2001, 2004), and yield data from the current study conforms to these levels. Our dataset therefore meets the requirements for carrying out adaptability analysis. Cultivars differ in response to environmental conditions Cultivar EI (P 0.05) values indicate that NDFF varied across the range of EI depending on the field conditions. Differences in field characteristics among

the farms (P 0.05), with the improved cultivar producing over 20 kg more grain kg1 N (P 0.001) applied than the traditional cultivar. Nitrogen harvest index (NHI) (proportion of grain N to total TDMN) varied across the farms (P 0.05) according to farm environments, and the improved cultivar showed 15% (P 0.001) higher allocation of N to the grain than the traditional cultivar. Adaptability analysis Grain yields of the traditional and the improved cultivar differed with EI with significant cultivar EI interactions (P 0.04) (Fig. 1a), demonstrating genotypic differences in grain yield performance across the environments. The improved cultivar produced higher treatment grain yields across the environments compared to the traditional cultivar. Across the farms, grain yield of 60 N plots were consistently higher than in 0 N plots (N supply EI) across the EI (Fig. 1b). Grain yield differences between the 0 and 60 N plots were higher in lowyielding environments than in high-yielding environ-

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(a)
y = 0.337 + 1.055x R = 0.69***
2

(b)
y = 0.767 + 0.920x R2 = 0.50***

Grain yield (Mg ha-1)

y = - 0.338 + 0.946x R = 0.76***

y = - 0.768 + 1.080x R = 0.67***

Environmental Index (Mg ha-1)

Fig. 1 Relationship between environmental index and grain yields in (a) the traditional (empty circles, broken line, bottom right equation) and the improved cultivar (filled circles, bold

Environmental Index (Mg ha-1)

line, top left equation) and (b) 0N (empty circles, broken line, bottom right equation) and 60N (filled circles, bold line, top left equation) in ten farmers fields in Western Bhutan

farmers, which cause variation in NDFF uptake, have been reported in other studies (Cassman et al. 1996c). The AEN range (Table 4) in our study (1.222.9 kg grain kg1 N applied), with no relationship between AEN and EI (R2 =0.15), corresponds to other field studies in Asia (Hossain et al. 2005; Olk et al. 1999). Higher AEN in the improved cultivar, reported in this study, is in consonance with a previous study in Bhutan (Ghaley and Christiansen 2009). AEN values in our study are considered low, given that 2433 kg grain kg1 N applied can be achieved with proper crop and fertilizer management (Peng et al. 1996). PEN (kg grain kg1 N uptake) was quite stable across the EI in the improved cultivar in contrast to the traditional cultivar (data not shown), showing significant cultivar EI (P 0.001) interactions (Table 4). The improved cultivar exhibited higher PEN due to inherent higher HI. PEN range was relatively wide (2.675.9 kg grain kg1 N uptake) compared with another study (Wopereis et al. 1999), and the low values in our study signify that N was not the major limiting factor in some sites. Partial factor productivity of N (kg grain kg1 soil + applied N) is an integrative measure to assess N use efficiency. Higher PFPN values of the improved cultivar (P 0.01) across the environments indicated more efficient N utilization efficiency than in the traditional cultivar (Fig. 3d). The range of PFPN (59

95 kg grain kg1 soil + applied N) in the current study is slightly wider than values reported by Olk et al. (1999). NHI (proportion of grain N to total TDMN) was relatively stable across the EI in both cultivars, with consistent higher N translocation in grain in the improved cultivar (Table 4). The NHI range (0.44 0.59) and cultivar differences reported in our study is in line with findings cited in other studies (Samonte et al. 2006; Ying et al. 1998). Mean REN values in the present study (25.730.0%) with absence of cultivar EI interactions were reported in other field studies (Dobermann et al. 2002; Dobermann and Cassman 2002). Despite that terraced fields are more prone to N losses due to downhill gradient flow, REN range in our study was typical of transplanted rice production systems reported in lowland rice production systems. Uptake of the supplied N The timing of topdressing had significant effect on NDFF and 56% higher NDFF was achieved with topdressing at 45 DAT compared with at 7 DAT (Table 3). Lower NDFF uptake at 7 DAT can be due to greater availability of soil N at the beginning of the flooding period; partly due to accumulation of N in the paddy fields during the preceding dry period. Another possibility could be the lower requirement for N during the early establishment

242

Plant Soil (2010) 332:233246

phase of the seedlings (Zhang et al. 2007; Peng and Cassman 1998). A similar study on transplanted rice in China found that the indigenous soil N supply fulfilled the N requirement at the early rice seedling stage (Xue and Yang 2008). Environmental variation and soil fertility The measured soil properties were found to have varying degrees of effects on EI (Fig. 2a, b, c, d). Total soil N % and EI were not correlated (P 0.24) (Fig. 2a), which conforms to the results in other onfarm studies of rice-wheat and ricerice systems (Adhikari et al. 1999; Cassman et al. 1996b). A possible reason for the non-correlation is that the warm monsoonal climate during paddy growth is conducive for sufficient mineralization of N, masking the soil N status measured before transplanting (Adhikari et al. 1999). Soil C/N ratio, however, was
Fig. 2 Relationship between environmental index and (a) total soil N % (b) soil C/N ratio (c) soil pH and (d) cation exchange capacity (me 100 g1 soil ) in ten farmers fields in Western Bhutan
0.30
y = -0.01x + 0.22 2 R = 0.17

positively correlated with EI (Fig. 2b), indicative of a better proxy for potential soil N mineralization than total soil N content. Similarly, soil pH was positively correlated with EI (Fig. 2c), indicating that the soils with neutral pH (5.56) had higher yield levels compared to the slightly acidic soils (55.5). CEC was not found to be correlated (P 0.31) to EI (Fig. 2d), in contrast to other studies (Ruth and Lennartz 2008; Yanai et al. 2000, 2001). However, the high fertility of the soils and the tradition of consistently applying FYM to the fields may eliminate or reduce the importance of CEC effects. Environmental variation and management FYM application and EI were not correlated (R2 = 0.25), but the direct role of FYM in supplying N to the crops (Fig. 3a) was significant in line with the findings from other studies, including a study in

(a)
20

y = 1.44x + 8.68 2 R = 0.41*

(b)

Total soil N %

0.20

Soil C/N ratio

0 2 4 6 8

10

0.10

0.00

0 0 2 4 6 8

Environmental Index (Mg ha-1)

8
y = 0.33x + 3.74 2 R = 0.67**

Environmental Index (Mg ha-1)

15

(c)
CEC (me 100 g-1 soil)

y = 1.02x + 5.59 2 R = 0.13

(d)

10

Soil pH

0 0 2 4 6 8

0 0 2 4 6 8

Environmental Index (Mg ha-1)

Environmental Index (Mg ha-1)

Plant Soil (2010) 332:233246

243

Bhutan (Ghosh and Sharma 1999; Chettri et al. 2003; Satyanarayana et al. 2002). FYM may thus have a priming effect or added nitrogen interaction (ANI) (Azam 1990; Ghosh and Sharma 1999; Jenkinson et al. 1985). Consequently, NDFS and EI were correlated (Fig. 3b). However, there was a negative correlation between FYM quantity and REN (Fig. 3c) at relatively high FYM input levels, found in some sites (Table 2, site 3, 10) compared with others (Table 2). Correspondingly, REN values were low (Table 3, site 3,10) in high fertility sites, and FYM input therefore needs to taken into account when formulating fertilizer N recommendation for farmers. The tendency of decreasing REN from fertilizer with increasing availability of N from indigenous sources has been reported in similar rice field studies in the Philippines and Bangladesh (Hossain et al. 2005; Cassman et al. 1996c).
Nitrogen derived from soil (kg N ha-1)
Fig. 3 Relationship between nitrogen derived from soil (NDFS) and (a) farmyard manure (FYM) and (b) environmental index (EI); (c) farmyard manure (FYM) and recovery efficiency of N (REN %) and (d) environmental index (EI) and partial factor productivity in N use (PFPN) in ten farmers fields in Western Bhutan

Soil N supplying capacity Nitrogen derived from soil constituted 7791% of TDMN (Table 2), corresponding with the results from a very large study covering 179 sites over 2 years in eight key rice domains in Asia (Dobermann et al. 2002). In flooded rice paddies, NDFS constitutes N contribution from the soil organic matter fraction (FYM), atmospheric deposits, irrigation water, stubble residues from preceding crops and N2 fixation. N contribution from atmospheric deposits and irrigation water are in the range of 13 kg ha1 per rice crop and considered negligible (Cassman et al. 1996b). Nitrogen contributions from stubble residue and N2 fixation are interrelated as availability of crop residue enhances N2 fixation due to increased carbon substrate for microbial activity (Roper and Ladha 1995). Nitrogen fixation is reported in the range of 28

120

y = 12.80x + 0.66 2 R = 0.95***

Nitrogen derived from soil (kg ha-1)

(a)

120

y = 13.36x + 21.51 R = 0.44*

2

(b)

80

80

40

40

0 0 3 6 9
-1

0 12 0 2 4 6
-1

Farmyard manure (Mg ha )

Environmental Index (Mg ha )

Recovery efficiency of N in % (REN)

40
y = -0.02x + 0.40 2 R = 0.49*

PFPN (kg grain kg -1 soil + applied N)

(c)

120
y = 15.30x + 10.29 R = 0.88***
2

(d)

80

20

y = 11.04x + 11.83

40

R = 0.74

0 0 4 8 12

0 0

Traditional Improved Linear (Traditional) Linear (Improved) 10 5 Environmental Index (Mg ha-1)

Farmyard manure (Mg ha-1 )

244

Plant Soil (2010) 332:233246

51 kg Nha1 per crop cycle with sufficient crop residue and phosphorus availability, and N2 fixation might have contributed significantly due to the abundance of FYM as substrate for microbial activity. After N2 fixation is accounted for, the remaining organic soil N must have come from mineralization of FYM, constituting the major bulk of soil N, which corresponds with the strong correlation (R2 =0.95***) between the NDFS and quantity of FYM applied (Fig. 3a). Quantification of REN Quantification of REN can vary according to the method used. The N difference method may in some cases give a higher estimate of REN than the 15N tracer method in transplanted rice (Bronson et al. 2000). In concurrence with other studies (Rao et al. 1991; Bronson et al. 2000), REN estimated by the difference method in our study was 2026% greater than that obtained by the 15N dilution method. This positive Added Nitrogen Interaction (ANI) may be real or apparent. A real ANI may arise due to greater accumulation of soil N in plots receiving fertilizer N compared with unfertilized plots, while an apparent ANI may arise as a result of pool substitution. A real positive ANI may arise due to enhanced soil organic matter mineralization following the application of N fertilizer. It may also occur as a result of greater soil exploration by plant roots and enhanced uptake of unlabelled N in fertilized plots. Both of these mechanisms may have operated in this study, but uptake of N mineralized from previous inputs of FYM may also have enhanced the potential for pool substitution. Hence, REN estimation by 15N dilution method may have been affected by both real and apparent ANI.

yielded significantly more grain compared with the traditional rice variety given the same amount of fertilizer N. Consequently, the wider use of improved cultivars may enhance rice yields without the need for greater N inputs. The decreasing REN with increasing FYM application is a matter of concern as N lost from fields may contribute to eutrophication of rivers and streams, as well as increase the cost of rice production due to the decreasing marginal rate of return at higher FYM input. Nitrogen application at 45 DAT resulted in 56% greater uptake of NDFF than at 7 DAT, indicating that the first topdressing could be delayed until 45 DAT (maximum tillering) to coincide with the maximum crop N demand and enhance the opportunity for N uptake. To make the best use of both fertilizer and soil-derived N, the fertilizer N recommendations for rice farmers in the Bhutan highlands should to take account of previous inputs of FYM and the timing of maximum crop N demand.
Acknowledgements We gratefully acknowledge the financial assistance by the Consultative Research Committee for Development Research/Danish International Development Agency, under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Denmark. The study would not have been possible without the help of Dr. Lungten Norbu, Mr. Padam Lal Giri, Hema Devi Nirola and Kalpana Rai, who provided full assistance in terms of planning and implementing the field activities with the farmers in Thimphu and Paro districts in Western Bhutan. Thanks are due to Mrs. Marie Bcker Pedersen for language editing and feedback on the paper and to the anonymous reviewer for the significant contributions in improving the scientific content of the manuscript.

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