Contact Linguistics

1. Contact linguistics in the narrower sense is concerned with the language borrowing. A more recent definition involes the study of a whole area of language contact and language conflict, both in theory and practice, and based on the results it forms linguistic principles related to bilingualism, multilingualism, language borrowing, translation, foreign language acquisition, language loss or language shift, language planning, and all forms of interference that arise as a result of lanaguage contacts, as well as the culture contact at all levels. In the wider sense, apart from the linguistic study, it is concerned mainly with the cultural borrowing and aspects of non-linguistic nature. There are different types of languge contacts: . !irect "" creating pidgin and creole languages# as a result of geographical closeness, borowing of the words, constructions# it is also present in the multilingual parts where there is a parallel use of the official language and other languages $%o&vodina', or in the parts where there are more that one official language $Canada, (elgium, etc.' ). Indirect "" world languges influence other languges# words are not ta*en over from the giving language directly, but there are intermediary langugaes which already use the word as a loanword. +owever, if the word goes through two intermediary languges, in the new languge it can apprear with two different forms and meanings# via mass media, no intermediary languages. 3.The term contact-contrastive linguistics involves the study of the similarities and differencies between the ,nglish and -erbian $or any other' language, in the conte.t of ,nglish as the nativi/ed foreign languge and its influences on the -erbian $or any other' language. 5.The status of a $prototypical' foreign language is usually determined by 0 criteria: a. it is not the mother tongue or the first language of a given country b. it is not the official language of a given country c. it is taught in the school. (ased on these criteria, ,nglish belongs to the category of a foreign language. +owever, what we should ta*e into account when it comes to the status of ,nglish is its relation to other foreign languages, and especially to mother tongues of foreign spea*ers and students. 1amely, during the last )2 years ,nglish has become the first language of international communication, and for this reason it should be viewed differently from all other languages. !ue to these new socio-linguistic facts, that are a consequence of its new leading role in the world, some additional characteristics of ,nglish appeared, that distinguish ,nglish from other foreign languages. According to these characteristics ,nglish can be seen as the nativized foreign language: a. Ready audio-visual availability "" ,nglish is no longer used &ust in bidirectional spo*en and written global communication in politics, economy, science, culture, etc., but it is also audio-visually available in unidirectional communication, by the means of modern technology, such as satellite or cable television, computers and internet, cinematography, or %+-, !%!, C! or 3C formats. This particular characteristic

ma*es ,nglish more similar to a mother tongue and partially to the second language, but at the same time it ma*es it different from a foreign language. b. Dual acquisition "" there is a tendency for ,nglish to be acquired outside the school system first, i.e. to be learned spontaneously# children are e.posed to ,nglish via T%, internet, films, music, etc. and they grow up with it, along with their mother tongue. The language is acquired non-systematically# only certain words, structures, phonemes, or graphemes are acquired, and *nowledge of the same is insecure, incomplete, and follows the principles of a popular etymology. (ilingual dictionaries are used during this process. The result of this all is a certain level of passive *nowledge that allows only vague understanding of the general meaning. Afterwards, ,nglish is being taught at schools, as a foreign language, but it includes the contents that frequently differ from $and are often simpler' than those already acquired. c. unction of a su!!le"entary language "" it supplements the communicative needs of a given linguistic community by filling in various e.isting and assumed le.ical or other gaps in a mother tongue# this way it contributes to forming a more or less complete communicational resource that is comprised of the mother tongue enriched by the selected elements of the ,nglish language. Inside the big circle $-erbianmother tongue', there is a smaller one $,nglish as the nativi/ed foreign language', with the open borders between them and the constant input of the le.ical and other material from the ,nglish language. As the nativi/ed foreign language ,nglish appears: #$%&$D' the mother tongue $at the level of words through loanwords, phrases and clauses through calques, etc.' #%'() to the mother tongue $with the e.isting translation# the ) languages are used side by side, simultaneously' #*+,-' the mother tongue $without the e.isting translation, use of spo*en and written ,nglish, while the mother tongue is fully suppressed'. ).' %*)$-$/'D ,R'$0% L0 is a subtype of a foreign language which pertains especially to ,nglish. 'nglish as the nativized foreign language 4 means that ,nglish has ob&ectively and sub&ectively became part of many native languages and cultures in the world. -o, some of its features of foreign languages have wea*en

1. 2. $%%'R C$RCL': traditional bases of ,nglish $56, 5-A, Ireland, Canada, Australia, 1ew 7ealand'# ,nglish as a st language# )02-082 million ,3)'R C$RCL': ,nglish is part of the country9s chief institutions $government, education, and media', )nd language $India, 3alawi:'# ;2-022 million '(4*%D$%0 C$RCL': ,nglish important as an international language, but there is no history of coloni/ation and no special status of ,nglish in institutions# ,nglish as a foreign language. (oundaries are not firm, possible is language shift.$eg. <oreign language becomes )nd'# 22 million- billion 5. 6,RLD '%0L$&. "" meaning both standard ,nglish and all ,nglish# it was possibly born in the 5-A, perhaps serving the same purpose as international in the names of American dictionaries. =orld ,nglish may or may not be standard, although standardness was somewhat of a criterion for this definition. It is $according to 3cArthur' standard and non-

standard, mother tongue and other tongue, dialect, pidgin, creole, lingua franca and Anglohybrids, especially where the Anglo element is strong, use is communal and significant social ends are being served. It is superordinate term for (r,, Am,, -A,, 17,, Aus,, 1igerian,, etc. 1ew -horter >.ford ,nglish !ictionary $ ??0' "" a variety of ,nglish, standard or nonstandard, wherever it is spo*en, including all regional varieties ,ncarta $ ??8' "" =, is the ,nglish in all its varieties as it is spo*en and written all over the world. NOT RELATED TO STANDARDNESS!!! $%)'R%*)$,%*L '%0L$&. "" since ?02s- today# refers to multinational use of ,nglish $notably in language teaching'# sense of standardness augmented $Trudgill-+annah' by a language-teaching development that became *nown in the ?82s as $T' ,I@. Two-fold: . 56-T,I@: an applied linguist and a language teacher -trevens ). 5-A-T,I@: @arry ,. -mith" socio-cultural line T,I@ $-mith'"" native spea*ers also need to ma*e an effort in international situations. ,nglish belongs to all its users# ways of spea*ing and patterns of discourse are different across $and inside' all languages and communities, and they influence both native and non-native spea*ers when a language serves as a shared international medium, often in ways that inhibit easy communication. In the end, it is three-fold: . !istribution across nations ). -tandardness 0. @ingua franca-hood. 0L,+*L '%0L$&. "" ??2s# it implies a vast use and lin*s the language $often negatively' with socio-economic globali/ation. Concise Companion $ ??8':A,nglish as the world9s pre-eminent languageA. The term global tends to imply an ecologicalBeconomic scale. According to Crystal, there are two names $world, global' for the same phenomenon. +e claims that they are only ) style variants. According to him, ,nglish $=orld -tandard ,nglish# world and global are the same to him' is e.pected to be Aa totally uniform, regionally neutral, and unarguably prestigious varietyA. Although this *ind of variety will probably never e.ist, there is some Cstandard9 core within The =orld ,nglish and a range of comprehension. 7. Deasons for the global spread of ,nglish: non-linguistic: a' historical-(ritish colonial power which pea*ed in the ?th c. b' economic-emergency of the 5-A as a leading economic power of )2th c. c' political-5-A as a military power linguistic: ' le8ical brevity- concerns the availability of a large number of short words $of one, two, three syllables' which are sufficient for fulfilling a wide range of communicative needs. ,g. vlog $v$ideo b'log'-shorter )' functional versatility- concerns the availability of productive and efficient mechanisms for le.ical innovation$three *inds: a' e.pressions of new meanings with new forms$by suffi.ation$eg. blogger', prefi.ation $eg. multiblog', blending$eg. moblog from mob$ile b'log', conversion $eg. blog as a verb'# b' e.pression of e.isting meanings with shorter forms$by clipping, acronymy, ellipsis$eg. =eb from =orld =ide =eb front ellipsis'# c' e.pression of new meanings with e.isting forms $by metaphor, metonymy, conversion', both formal and semantic. 0' gra""atical si"!licity-concerns the availability of simple, straightforward and fle.ible morphological and syntactic rules for combining words into phrases and sentences. ,g.

reduced number of inflectional suffi.es, -%> word order, manageable number of irregular forms of nouns, ad&ectives, verbs and adverbs. 9.L$%03$&)$C *%0L,0L,+*L$/*)$,% "" ,ntertainment and computer science, names and descriptions of various products, as well as adverti/ing slogans, all over the world, almost without e.ception, Aspea*A ,nglish and contribute by large to the spread of so- called angloglobali/ation, which is concerned with the supremacy of ,nglish $especially the American variety' at the linguistic and cultural level. That is why we have sales all over the town, roaming, e-mails, unnecessary capitali/ation, etc. In addition to this, we have all sorts of Anglo-hybrids, e.g. Angloserbian, -panglish, etc. 11.a. Languages in contact :: could appear within one person $a bilingual person' who besides the mother tongue acquires another language, or between two languages that are geographically close, where there are some cultural lin*s, such as the e.change of boo*s, music, etc. where more persons are included# the linguistic material is ta*en from a @g and integrated into a @r. b. 0iving language ;Lg<L1= :: the language which provides the linguistic material# words and e.pressions are ta*en from it, most often the dominant language c. Receiving language ;Lr<L>= :: the language that receives the linguistic material from another $usually dominant' language. d. Linguistic interference :: the influence $most often unwanted' of a dominant language $@g' on the receiving language $@r'# the deviation from the norm that arises in the speech of a bilingual spea*er due to his *nowledge of ) languages. e. Linguistic borrowing :: linguistic material of any *ind is ta*en over. (orrowing does not imply giving bac*, one-way. 3il*se&*, *rat*a prica, podici san*ci&e, pitao me &e da se udam /a n&ega f. Le8ical borrowing :: the most common type of borrowing when the le.ical units are borrowed $words, collocations, etc# mil*Ee&*, &ogurt, dis*men' 1>. Linguistic interference is a result of *nowing and spea*ing more than one lg. $bilingualism or multilingualism'. :: the influence $most often unwanted' of a dominant language $@g' on the receiving language $@r' deviations from the norm that arise in the speech of a bilingual spea*er due to their *nowing of ) languages. $nter"ediary borrowing is a process based on a mediator via which @g and @r come in contact. 5sually the mediator is mass media. Direct borrowing happens when there is a direct contact between spea*ers of @g and @r without a mediator. @inguistic borrowing includes borrowing of all the linguistic material: phonemes $f, w', morphemes$suffi.es and prefi.es', synta.$language structure-mo&e ime &e,..', pragmatic aspect-we use discourse formulas, -ebian words, ,nglish structures-F!a li mogu da vam pomognemGF umesto FI/voliteF Deasons for linguistic and le.ical borrowing are le8ical ga!-is a phenomenon which represents the absence of a formal correspondent in @) of the word in @ e.g. grandparents. and conce!tual ga!- is a phenomenon which represents the absence of a certain concept in a specific culture, and therefore the absence of a le.icali/ed form in that language e.g. kilt.

13. A loanword is a word from a giving language used in a receiving language# it is completely integrated in $adapted to' the linguistic system of the @r at several levels $phonological, morphological, orthographic, semantic level'# mil*Ee&*, *omp&uter, *eIap, dJogirati, tramva&, etc. There are linguistic reasons for the borrowing: the le.ical gaps in the @r, e.isting and sub&ective. The loanword can be a result of fashion or necessity. In the st case, both the notion and word are borrowed, so the most frequent loanwords are names of places, personal names and names of imported ob&ects.

15. A borrowed element, after being ta*en over, tends to have an undefined linguistic status, in the form of a compromise replica. (efore some form of a loanword becomes socially accepted every spea*er-borrower can form their compromise replica that will more or less resemble the model. Thus, the borrowed word can have its alternative forms. It can be due to both phonemic and morphemic substitution# evro and euro are the alternative forms of a compromise replica. 1. ?,D'L "" A bilingual spea*er introduces new words whose phonetic forms are close to the source forms as much as that spea*er can pronounce them. That element is the word as it is pronounced by native spea*ers of the @g. That is a foreign word or a model of a giving language: the domain of performance. >. C,?4R,?$&' R'4L$C* "" partial substitution by the domestic elements, i.e. some elements of the @r are introduced. This is then a foreign loan or a compromise replica. If an element in the transition from a @g to a @r retains some characteristics of the @g, it is called a compromise replica# evro-euro"transition from the performance to competence 3. R'4L$C* "" It is the borrowed element pronounced the way it is done so by the spea*ers of the @r. If a monolingual spea*er learns the borrowed word, the complete or nearly complete substitution ensues. It is then a loanword or a replica."belongs to the domain of competence. It is the final form which the word assumes in the @r# no adaptations after that, there is only one final form, fi.ed and established. 6his@y:vis*i- no compromise replica, replica D-D:de-ve-de or di-vi-di-still a compromise replica 6ebsite: still a compromise replica ,ach word does not have to go through all the phases, as seen above. The replica, however, must be accepted by all spea*ers, not &ust the one who used it first. The whole process from a model to a replica would be the transition from the performance $speech-parole' to competence $language-langue'. 12. 4ri"ary and secondary ada!tation !rocess of loanwords. 4ri"ary ada!tation- is a process of adaptation of loanwords characteristic of bilingualism in which influences of @g and @r are present and as a result of that numerous variants of compromise replicas are formed. It is a change from model towards replica on the level of pronunciation, grammar, and semantics. ,g. waterpolo-vaterpolo &econdary ada!tation- refers to the changes which sometimes occur within loanwords that have become part of the content of the @r $replica' that are strictly related to the tendencies of development of @r. It is characteristic of monolingual spea*ers. ,g. waterpolovaterpola$genitive case'

15. 4seudoanglicis"s are words or e.pressions comprised of elements of ,nglish origin $anglicisms', but the whole they ma*e is not ta*en from the ,nglish language since it does not e.ist in it, e.g. pripe&d, postpe&d. They are created in order to fill in a le.ical gap but the elements of such new words are loanwords, and not elements of a mother tongue. As pseudoanglicisms have anglicisms as their elements, they undergo the adaptation at three levels $phonological, morphological and semantic'. Kseudoanglicisms, unli*e anglicisms, undergo &ust the secondary adaptation# thus they are also called secondary anglicis"s. They are built in 0 ways: 1. composition "" pseudoanglicisms are compounds in which the first element is an anglicism, while the second element is the word man# golman >. derivation "" pseudoanglicisms are derivatives formed by an anglicism and the suffi. er that is the most frequent mar*er of a pseudoanglicism# autostoper, dJe/er, *omba&ner, teniser 3. ellipsis "" evicting the suffi. ing in ,nglish e.pressions# happy ending- hepi end, bo.ing match-bo*s meI, air-conditioning i air-condition. $according to KrLiL, this is clipping'. 1. ellipsis $according to KrLiL': combine harvester " the whole word is left out so we get komba n. 17. )hree levels of the ada!tation !rocess. 4honological level- ,nglish and -erbian differ in the inventory of phonemes, distribution of phonemes and intonation. ,g. intrviewBMintNv&u:B inMterv&u -a*cenat &e promen&en. ?or!hological level- ,g. intrv&ua genitive 7ero transmorphemi/ation primary change, secondary nouns. waterpolo-vaterpola $imenice u engles*om na BouB prosle *ro/ primarnu adaptaci&u i po obli*u odgovara&u imenicama mus*og roda. -e*undarna adaptaci&e-adaptation of the noun according to the morphological system of @r. ad&ectives. fair-fer, fit-fit-this is primary adaptation on phonological and morphological level $these are compromise replicas because they have *ept morphological characteristics of ,nglish ad&ectives-they are same in -g. and Kl, donMt have case inflections, no gender differentiation'# club- M *lub- )MM *lups*i ili lord- lord- lordov -secondary adaptation-made from the citation form of adapted loanword noun and ad&ective inflections in -erbian 4an, -ov, -s*i verbs. train- M trenirati- )MM istrenirati, &e"antic level- eg. interv&u-narrowed number of meanings-only first meaning is used in -erbian-to interview sb. 1arrowingBbroadening the meaning of loanwords. -econdary adaptation refers only to broadening of the meaning. 1ylon- M na&lon- )MM na&lon pi&aca $flea mar*et' 19. The statement that the ada!tation !rocess of loanwords is< in essence< governed by the linguistically founded rules and !rinci!les is &ust a wishful thin*ing. This is how a word should be borrowed, but it is not done so. (orrowing is rarely done by linguists. It is usually done by ordinary people $laymen' without proper linguistic *nowledge. It is usually a result of an accident often involving the associations, analogies, mediators, but rarely the linguistic principles. Thus, we do not spea* of the linguistic borrowing, but &ust borrowing. In cases of compromise replicas, the tas* of a linguist is to recommend one of the forms.

>A. )rans!hone"ization is a replacement of phonological elements of @g with the ones from the @r. It is substitution on the phonological level. Co"!lete trans!hone"ization-is replacement of phonemes from @g with phonemes of @r that have the same description. ,g. %owels: team-tim Bti:mB, rugby-ragbi# Consonants: golfgolf BgB 4artial or co"!ro"ise trans!hone"ization- eg. %owels: &am-d/em $u srps*om obicno e' Consonats: punch-punc $nema aspiraci&e u srps*om', doc*-do* $in ,nglish BdB postalveolar, in -erbian dental' ree trans!hone"ization- phonemes which don9t have articulatory equivalents in @r so the transphonemi/ation is based on ortography or nonlinguistic factors. ,g. vowels: corner-*orner $Eva &e /amen&eno sa er', detector-dete*tor $Eva u or' Consonats: whis*ey-vis*i $w u v' Importation-u/eli smo f i/ grc*og fen&er, fudbal. 3o/e se desiti da uvedemo w. >1. In addition to segmental elements, there are su!raseg"ental elements that need to be adapted. In ,nglish we have udarni stress, which mar*s only the place of the stress# -erbian has melodi&s*i stress which combines the intensity, quantity and melody, so we have H types of stress $combinations of short, long, rising and falling'. Klacement of the stress in replicas belongs to the !ri"ary ada!tation, while determining which stress to use belongs to the secondary ada!tation since the loanword needs to behave li*e a native word in order to get a melodical stress. Those cases where the loanwords have only udarni stress, and not the melodi&s*i stress belong to the primary adaptation. They are compromise replicas. The ,nglish model is under the influence of the udarni stress, only the stressed syllable is pronounced with a fully reali/ed vowel# in the unstressed syllables, vowels are shortened and wea*er, sometimes even lost. A replica in -erbian assumes melodi&s*i stress and there is no much difference between stressed and unstressed syllables $i.e. vowels': CIeting Cprocesor CrePbutivati According to KrLiL, in ,nglish it is possible to distinguish primarily and secondarily stressed vowels from those unstressed, although in the polysyllabic words it is not easy to predict the position of stress. In -erbian, the same vowels are modified by the elements of intensity $stressedBunstressed', quantity $shortBlong' and melody $rising, falling'. -yllable. In ,nglish more consonant clusters. In -erbian at the end of the syllabel we have only H consonant clusters 4st $hrast', -sht $plast', -/d $gro/d', -/hd $du/d' <rom ,nglish 4nt deterd/ent, -rt flert, -lm film, nd forhend, -rd clipboard, -&t ba&t, -n* lin*, -gd smaragd, -ps cips, -ft lift. All these words are compromise replicas. Deplicas: tunel $instead of nl imamo nel', signal $instead of nl imamo al', model, modem >3. )rans"or!he"ization "" the replacement of the morphemes from a @g with the morphemes from a @r. It is the analysis at the morphological level. /'R, )R*%&?,R4.'?$/*)$,%: the model is ta*en over as a free morpheme without a bound morpheme, so there is no need for the morphological adaptation of the citation form. The morphological system of the @r ta*es over these loanwords without changes. As this stage of the morphological adaptation is characteri/ed by the /ero morphemes, it is called the

/ero transmorphemi/ation. 3orphologically, the model corresponds to the replica, and vice versa. The /ero transmorphemi/ation for all !arts of the s!eech $nouns, ad&ectives, but not verbs' has the following formula: free morpheme R /ero bound morpheme, e.g. na&lon, bo&*ot, test, fer, fit, etc. It appears most frequently with nouns since there are many nouns that end in a consonant and have no bound morpheme. ,1S@,-6I $osnova R nulti sufi*s': scout "" -DK-6I $slob.morfem R nulti ve/ani morf.': s*aut -ome citation forms of models that do not end in phonemes or consonant clusters that are typical for the morphology of the @r are considered to be innovations in the distribution of phonemes and the consonant clusters $final i! "u and final consonant clusters #t! "lm' in the D,C,I%I1S @S. I3,1IC, Dugby : ragbi =his*y : vis*i Interview : interv&u @ift : lift <ilm : film KDI!,%I fair : fer fit : fit

=ith this type of transmorphemi/ation, when we adapt nouns, we obtain replicas# however, when the ad&ectives are adapted, they receive the status of compromise replicas because only the citation forms are morphologically adapted, while they are not adapted in other morphological category $indeclinable'. 7ero transmorphemi/ation appears in the primary adaptation, so its changes are qualified as !ri"ary changes. C,?4R,?$&' )R*%&?,R4.'?$/*)$,%: appears at the morphological level only when the loanword retains the suffi. 4 a bound morpheme from the @g that is phonologically adapted- but isn9t fully in accordance with the morphological system of the @r. This only partially adapted form of the model represents a compromise replica at the morphological level, but in our system we call it compromise transmorphemi/ation. -ome compromise replicas will not be further adapted and the bound morphemes from the @g that are retained in the system of @r are considered to be innovations. These bound morphemes display the high level of integration as they are being used for building pseudoanglicisms. Tennis player : tenis R er The most frequent e.amples of compromise transmorphemi/ation are compromise replicas with bound morphemes 4er and 4ing. (o.er : bo*ser !ribbler :dribler <armer : farmer !oping : doping Kar*ing : par*ing C,?4L')' )R*%&?,R4.'?$/*)$,%: continues the adaptation of the bound morpheme from the @g by substituting it with the bound morpheme from @r $with the same function and meaning, e.g. agent'. The result of the complete transmorphemi/ation at the morphological level is a replica that is fully integrated in the @r.

(o.-er " bo*s-er " bo*saI $replica, CT' -tri*-er" BBBBBBBBBB " Etra&*aI $no compromise relica, directly from model to replica'. 1ouns: farmer, &ungle, rugby .,6 ), D')'R?$%' ).' %,3% 0'%D'R: 1. Certain number of loanwords retain their natural gender $ta*en with the @g', i.e. masculine gender in the nouns that refer to the males. (ac* $m' : be* $m' (o.er $m' : bo*ser $m' Sentleman $m' : dJentlmen $m' -teward $m' : st&uard $m' >. 3any loanwords ending in a consonant assume the masculine gender since many nouns in -erbian that end in a consonant are of masculine gender: (ar $n' : bar $m' (eefstea* $n' : bifte* $m' 3otel $n' : motel $m' Team $n' : tim $m' This principle, according to which the ma&ority of loanwords assume the masculine gender is called ?*&C3L$%' )'%D'%CB. The loanwords ending in 4o assume the masculine gender as well, although in our language they would be of neutral gender $bendJo, bungalo, polo, vaterpolo, etc'. @oanwords ending in 4i and 4u following the masculine tendence also assume the masculine gender# brendi, hbi, poni, reli, interv&u. 3. The second way to determine the gender is to follow the si"ilarity of "eaning and the gender is mar*ed by using the formal mar*ings $B,a,oT ad&ectival suffi.es' of the morphological system of the @r $complete transmorphemi/ation'. There are two ways to do so: A. based on the se8 of hu"an beings To mar* the feminine gender: -a $st&uardesa, although there is a formal mar*er of gender in ,nglish' (. conta"ination $the process by which one word or phrase is altered because of mista*en associations with another word or phrase$ that is conditioned by the meaning analogy between the loanwords and some native words in the @r: !og $n' "doga $f' "analogy $Jivotin&a' <arm $n' " farma $f' " analogy $/eml&a, *uLa' Uungle $n' " dJungla $f' " Euma Vacht $n' " &ahta $f' " lad&a CA-,-: loanwords ending in a consonant are declined li*e the noun Celen. @oanwords ending in 4o are declined li*e the noun 3ar*o. -ome of them show signs of a compromise replica: they retain the full nominative form $bungaloa'. @oanwords ending in 4I insert U $hi&ats*o'# poni&a, reli&a. @oanwords ending in 4u retain the do not insert the hi&ats*o U $interv&u R a'. %ouns in !luralD . Ky&amas:pidJama# analogy with spavaLica $contamination', loss of 4s R -a $f' ). Ca*es: *e*s# li*e other loanwords ending in a consonant $masculine tendency'.

-'R+&: =e add infinitival formants $-a,-ova,-ira,-isa' to the model R the suffi. 4ti, e.g. download "" daunloud R ova R ti. -uffi.es 4irati and 4isati are comple. suffi.es"" -irati, a hybrid: a Serman formant ier"ir R formant 4a R suffi. -ti $blefirati' -isati, a hybrid: a Sree* formant 4is R inf.formant 4a R suffi. 4ti $interv&uisati' ,.amples: bo&*otovati, bo*sati, driblati, faulirati, *idnapovati, EutiratiBEutati, testirati, trenirati, flertovati, *ampovati, startovati. *s!ectD Krimary changes"" perfective $faulirati', imperfective $bo*sati, driblati, trenirati' and biaspectual verbs $blefirati, interv&uisati, linIovati, testirati'. -econdary changes"" adding a suffi., infi. or by the root change, e.g. Krefi.: i/-blefirati Infi.: blef-nu-ti "" they became perfective verbs *DE'C)$-'&D . the first group are ad&ectives that undergo no changes $!ri"ary ada!tation'. Their citation form is obtained by the /ero transmorphemi/ation. They are compromise replicas since they retained the characteristics of the ,nglish ad&ectives $indeclinability', and they did not ta*e the characteristics of the -erbian ad&ectives $gender, number and case'# fer, fit, mini, se*si, vestern. They form comparative by using viEe $viEe fer, viEe fit'. ). &econdary ada!tation: -erbian ad&ectival suffi.es are added to the already adapted bases $mainly nouns' at the stage of secondary adaptation. Three main ad&ectival suffi.es used for the derivation of new ad&ectival loanwords: -s*i: bars*i, bo*sers*i, films*i, gangsters*i -ov: be*ov, st&uardov, bo*serov, lordov -an: re*ordan, standardan, startan They are fully integrated into the @r system and have all morphological characteristics of the native ad&ectives $films*i, films*a, films*o'. +owever, according to Krcic, it is primary, not secondary adaptation. $"!ortation: the morphological elements from a @g are integrated into the @r and used for the derivation of new words, e.g. co"*o: *oautor, *oosnivaI# re: rei/bori. &ubstitution: the replacement of the morphological elements from a @g by the corresponding ones from a @r, e.g. er "aI# bo*saI, EtampaI, etc. This is not only a morphological adaptation, but rather a "or!ho-syntactic one. )H. derivationl &edna*o le.ical I to &e secondary &e primarna primarna fle*tivna &edna*o gramraic*A to

>5. aut< @orner< vis@i< "il@FeC@< Cogurt< @o"!Cuter< far"a< dGungla< ge"<set RecentD daunloudovati< vebsaCt< Changes in se"antic e8tensionD involve restriction of meaning and e.tension of meaning of the model. As the meaning of the model can be sometimes unchanged in the replica, there are three possible changes:

a. /'R, &'?*%)$C '()'%&$,% :: the meaning of the ,nglish loanword- replica, after being integrated into the @r language system, stays unchanged and corresponds completely to the meaning of the model. This is especially the case with those terms that are limited to one speciali/ed area. )er"s related to food and drin@D beefstea*- bifte*, gin-dJin, grapefruit-gre&pfrut, hamburger-hamburger, hot dog-hot dog, *etchup-*eIap, martini-martini, whis*y-vis*i )er"s related to s!ortsD baseball-be&/bol, bo.er- bo*ser, fair play-fer ple&rugbyragbi, and sprinter-sprinter ,ther areasD fo.trot- fo*strot, po*er-po*er, *ilt-*ilt, boycott-bo&*ot, hooliganhuligan, etc. b. R'&)R$C)$,% , ?'*%$%0: The general tendency for the loanwords is the restriction of meaning since they are ta*en over by the @r in order to name an ob&ect or a notion ta*en from the culture or civili/ation of the @g. A loanword is usually ta*en only in one specific conte.t so only one sense of its old meaning is ta*en along. This represents the transition from the general to more speciali/ed meaning, technical. In most cases it means that only one specific meaning is ta*en over. =e have to distinguish two types of restriction: . Destriction in number " the @r usually transfers only one specific senseBmeaning. +owever, there are cases where loanwords transfer more than one sense. >1@V >1, 3,A1I1S TDA1-<,DD,!: (5@@!>7,D-(5@!>W,D, (51SA@>=-(51SA@>, ,--AV-,-,U, <AD3- <AD3A, <I@3-<I@3, <>D,+A1!-<>D+,1!, SA3,-S,3, U53K,D-!W,3K,D, U51S@,!W51S@A, @,A!,D-@I!,D ). Destriction in the <ield " some loanwords, ne.t to the restriction in number $fewer meanings retained' also e.perience restriction in the semantic field, e.g. pantry " pentri $smoInica, but only on the boat' or steward " st&uard $sluJbeni*, only on the plane, not the boat, train, etc' c. '(4*%&$,% , ?'*%$%0 of a loanword belongs to the secondary adaptation, but this change will happen only if a loanword meets two conditions: . The full integration of a loanword into the system of a receiving language ). <ree use $as one of the native words' within the @r. In the !ri"ary ada!tation the loanword retains one or two meanings of the model at the moment of the transfer or integration. At this stage, the loanword creates its meaning by the /ero semantic e.tension or the restriction of meaning. =hen the loanword is fully integrated in the @r language system and after its function to denote a specific notion or an ob&ect is fulfilled, the intensity and the precision of its meaning starts wea*ening, only then can the loanword e8!and its meaning and distance itself from the use it had in ,nglish. There are two types of the e.pansion of the meaning: . '(4*%&$,% $% ).' $'LD: there are terms $such as sports terms' that entered the @r with &ust one specific meaning. It usually happened when the rules of certain sport games were translated, e.g. soccer, so the ,nglish terms were adapted at the phonological and morphological level. After the games became very popular, many sport terms started to lose their meaning intensity as well as to e.pand the range of its meaning by including the additional elements in the semantic field. ,.g corner" *orner-udarac s ugla $restriction, primary adaptation' "*orner-prostor i/a lini&e gola, $e.pansion of meaning, secondary adapt.'

>r out " aut $restriction of meaning, primary adapt.' " aut-lopta $atribut, ne posto&i u eng.,secondary ad.', prostor i/van crte *o&a ograniIava igraliEte, lopta &e preEla crtu i i/van &e igre, lopta &e ubaIena u ugru $(acio &e aut.'"secondary ad., e.pansion of meaning. ). '(4*%&$,% $% %3?+'R: certain sociological and socio-linguistic factors play an important part. All e.panded and freer uses of the loanword are related to the environment and the area of the @r. e.g. nylon" na&lon-sintetiI*i material odreXene hemi&s*e formule $restriction of meaning, primary adaptation'" na&lon-Iarape, na&lon-blu/a " plasti*a $secondary adaptation, e.pansion of meaning'""due to the society9s unfamiliarity with the material, plastic as a material un*nown to them. They related it with sth *nown to them.na&lon-vreLica, instead of plastiIna vreLica. R materi&al od na&lona $secondary ad., e.pansion of meaning' bar" bar, in the 3atica dictionary appears with two meanings: . $older' noLni /abavni lo*al s mu/i*om i artistiI*im toI*ama ). $newer' lo*al u *ome se al*oholna piLa pi&u obiIno sto&eLi# when we compare these meanings of the word bar to its meanings in ,nglish, we see that only the )nd meaning e.ists there. This means that the newer meaning of this word e.perienced the restriction $primary change', while the st one $non-e.istent in ,nglish' represents the e.pansion of meaning $secondary change'. It is odd, however, for the secondary change to occur before the primary change. This could be e.plained by the influence of the Serman language"bar-noLni lo*al. The semantic adaptation usually has the tendency to restrict the meaning of the loanword since the word is ta*en over to name an ob&ect or a notion that belongs to the culture and society of the @g, and that is usually only one sense. That is called the primary adaptation that ta*es place at the moment of transfer of a word from the @g into the @r, and the changes that happen are called 4R$?*RB C.*%0'&. 7ero semantic e.tension $the meaning of the model and replica is the same' as well as the restriction of meaning $replica has fewer meanings than the model' belong to the primary adaptation, and all the changes that happen at this stage are primary changes. <rom the moment of integration into the @r the word goes through secondary adaptation, and its meaning can undergo several secondary changes. The e.pansion of meaning $in number and field', which is conditioned by its longer use in @r, belongs to the secondary adaptation, and all changes from that period are &'C,%D*RB C.*%0'&. e.g. nylon ""na&lon ,nglish word: nylon " sintetiI*o vla*no I stvari napravl&ene od te materi&e Krimary Adaptation: na&lon $ ' FsintetiI*o vla*noY# na&lon Iarape -econdary Adaptation I: na&lon $)' Fplasti*aY# na&lon stoln&a*, na&lon vreLica -econdary Adaptation II: na&lon $0' pe&orativno /naIen&e# na&lon pi&acaTpi&aca na *o&o& se proda&u be/vredne stvari, na&lon plaJaTnudistiI*a plaJa, na&lon mo/a*Tmo/a* *o&i spror reagira, na&lon hotelThotel na /lu glasu, na&lon mentalitetTprimitivni *ara*ter.

4*R) > 1. Levels of the ada!tation of loanwords: phonological, morphological, semantic and orthographic

>. )he status of 'nglish as the nativized foreign language has brought about so"e new changesD -erbian is used under the influence of ,nglish norms, that is with ,nglish meanings and structures. a'Anglicisms in the narrower sense# -ebian words with ,nglish meaning " ohrabriti Z encourage# petrol$e&' " ben/in# *opi&e T primerci $polysemy grows' " e.pansion of meaning b'Khrases and clauses " used the way they are used in ,nglish: u vaEem na&bol&em interesu, pitao me da se udam /a n&ega $anglicisms in the wider sense T all phrases and clauses in -erbian that follow the norms of ,nglish' c'>rthography: capitali/ation, quotation mar*s, decimal point# anglicisms and englishisms retain the original writing 0. +ybridi/ation of receiving languages $@rs': the mi.ture of two languages which is subconscious, spontaneous, unplanned# it is the result of the influence of the ,nglish language. It manifests itself in -erbian by performing a function of the supplementary language $inside the -erbian language' " they ma*e a whole $a mother tongue supplemented by the elements of ,nglish'. ,very influence that does not change the e.pressive potential of a language is bad $le.ical, orthographic, syntactic, semantic level $of a sentence', as well as the pragmatic aspect'.

1. *%0L,-.B+R$D&: In <rench, the head of the 1K is placed at the beginning, while in -erbian the head is in the final position. That is why the term ranglais is formed# it implies that <rench is influenced by ,nglish. *ngloserbian carries the same implication# it is -erbian modified by ,nglish. =hen it comes to .inglish, the term is &ustified# it is ,nglish as spo*en by the spea*ers of +indu, where we have ,nglish as the )nd language, it is a local variety so the %lis& functions. >n the other hand, we have other Clishes such as Dusglish, Sree*glish, -panglish, Domglish, C/english, etc. where the terms are not &ustified, they are incorrect# they imply that the focus is ,nglish modified by other languages, and not vice versa.

5. *ngloserbian is a new sociolect, a type of -erbian which abandons the norms of -erbian and is used according to the norms of ,nglish. It is used by young, urban people, more or less bilingual, of unfinished education, who acquire their culture via popular media. 1ot every influence of ,nglish on -erbian is considered a part of Angloserbian, but only un&ustified, unnecessary innovations created under the influence of ,nglish norms. Concrete e.amples at the level of: - ,rthogra!hy 4 e-mail $instead of ime&l', roaming $roming', web sa&t $vebsa&t', 3atica -rps*a $3atica srps*a', Koliti*in 7abavni* $Koliti*in /abavni*', (ulevar >sloboXen&a $(ulevar osloboXen&a', ovogodiEn&i 1obelovci $ovogodiEn&i nobelovci', ?O,222 dinara $?O.222 or ?O 222 dinara', film poIin&e u )):02 $)).02', ?).; 3+/ $?),; 3h/', ula/a* u )222 godinu

$)222.', bo/icno sni/en&e cena $boJiLno sniJen&e cena', ma.imalan $ma*simalan', chacha* $IaIa*'. - 4honology - (oing QOQ is pronounced as BQ-O-QB $instead of BQOQB', co.yu as Bco-taI*a-&uB or B*o-taI*a-&uB $Bce-o-taI*a-ipsilon-uB or Bco-taI*a-ipsilon-uB', image center as BimidJ centarB $imidJ senter'. - &ynta8 4 streI pantalone $instead of pantalone od streIa', !Jon <. 6enedi bibliote*a $(ibliote*a !Jon $<.' 6enedi', film [arli [aplina $film [arli&a [aplina', saradn&a sa 51IC,< $51IC,<om or 5nicefom', *onta*tirati ne*oga $*onta*tirati s ne*im'. - &e"antics 4 tender $instead of *on*urs', tribunal $sud', licenca $do/vola', e.- $bivEi', wow\ $a-u\ ro oho\ or opa\'# new meanings of domestic words are developed e.g. rela*saci&a $labavl&en&e, popuEtan&e', trening $obu*a, obuIavan&e, osposobl&avan&e'# tautologies e.g. fo*us teJiEta $teJiEte teJiEta', svemirs*i spe&s-Eatl $svemirs*i svemirs*i Eatl'. - 4rag"atics 4 mo&e ime &e... $instead of &a sam... or /ovem se...', mislite o tome\ $ra/mislite $o tome''.

2. Contact language culture is a new applied linguistic discipline theoretically and methodologically based on the principles of modern contact and contrastive linguistics and those of linguistic planning as one of the branches of sociolinguistics. It deals with -erbian in contact with foreign languages with special focus on ,nglish as nativi/ed foreign language. There are three constituent parts of contact language culture: 4 )he contact-contrastive "odule implies what has not yet been ta*en from ,nglish language $@ ' and become a part of -erbian language $@)'. =hat is emphasi/ed here are general discussions on the nature of ,nglish words and names and pointing out the need for standardi/ation of their ad&ustement in the system of -erbian language and standardi/ed use by the collective. The primary way of adaptation is translation. It is possible to differentiate &ustified words from the un&ustified ones $&ustification scale'.The primary way of adaptation of names is phonological, morphological and graphological transshaping e.g. =illiam as %ili&am, 6ennedy as 6enedi. ) 4 )he contact "odule implies what has already been ta*en from ,nglish language and deals with the way of ad&usting the elements from ,nglish language $@ ' to the system of -erbian language $@)'. -pecial attention is given to a' pronunciation: according to the rules of -erbian language without ,nglish phonemes li*e BwauB for e.clamation wow\ b' grammar: determining a basic form for nouns, verbs and ad&ectivs# case changes of nouns and names $including acronims li*e ((C and 51IC,<' according to their gender# coining domestic words from words and names ta*en from ,nglish $bodibilder*a from bodibilder or Te*saEanin from Te*sas'. c' orthography: transcribing words and names into -erbian $cyrilic or latin' in a standardi/ed way and writing of their grammatical forms, where it must be ta*en into account that -erbian Kravopis e.cludes original or, even worse, hybrid spelling of words e.g. air bag, roaming or web sa&t, downloadovati $older anglicisms li*e dJentlmen or tramva& are never being left in the original'. d' semantics and pragmatics: the meaning and usage of anglicisms, synonimity between anglicisms and the already e.isting domestic words $fan and oboJavalac, tender and *on*urs'# laJni parovi $*opi&a$*n&ige' because of copy instead of primera*'# recogni/ing words from professional terminologies# translating of geographical, institutional and other names. 0- Contrastive "odule implies what has been ta*en and deals with the ways of preventing the usage of -erbian $@)' according to the norms of ,nglish language $@ '. =hat is emphasi/ed here is the recognition of phenomena in -erbian language created under the influence of the norm of the ,nglish language, that is determining traces of Angloserbian at

the level of orthography, pronunciation, synta., semantics and pragmatics and their correction in accordence with the norm of -erbian language.

5. The term anglicis" denotes two types of le.ical units. It can denote a general word or a bound morpheme $i.e. prefi. or suffi.' from ,nglish that is used in -erbian. It can also denote a word, a syntagme or a sentence in -erbian that follows norms of ,nglish - orthographic, phonologic, syntactic, semantic or pragmatic. Clasification of anglicisms according to: - )y!e 4 a' obvious anglicisms 4 words and affi.es ta*en from ,nglish that have become more or less integrated into the system of -erbian language, that will in time gain the status of more or less domestic words or affi.es e.g. fa&l, mil*Ee&*, roming, bodibilder, hamburger, vauIer, o*e&, pripe&d, e*s-, mega-. b' hidden anglicisms 4 meanings andBor uses caracteristic of ,nglish language are hidden in -erbian, and they become domestic relatively quic*ly e.g. miE $from ,nglish mouse in the sense of *omp&uters*i po*a/ivaI*i ureXa&', *opi&a $from copy in the sense of primera*', Eto &e pre moguLe $from as soon as posible in the sense of Eto pre'. c' raw anglicisms 4 words, syntagms and sentences ta*en from ,nglish directly, without any ad&ustment in writing e.g. e-mail, roaming, prepaid, air bag. - or"ation 4 a' reshaped anglicisms are inovations in form and content. They are made when a new form its new content are ta*en e.g. daunloudovati, dJogirati, se*si. b' translated anglicisms are made by ta*ing a new content from ,nglish and e.pressing it through already e.isting -erbian forms used in a new way e.g. veli*i prasa* $big bang', vruL *rompir $hot potato', br/a hrana $fast food'. c' mi.ed anglicisms are made by reshaping one part of a word and translating the other part e.g. pre.bu*irati $over.boo*', rado.holiIar $wor*.aholic'. - Eustification of use 4 a' completely un&ustified anglicism 4 when a domestic word or e.pression already e.ist for the given foreigh content e.g. implementaci&a $sprovoXen&e, reali/aci&a', harmoni/aci&a $us*laXivan&e, usaglaEavan&e', menadJment $poslovodstvo, ru*ovodstvo, uprava', fan $oboJavalac'. b' un&ustified anglicism 4 there is a posibility of translating a foreign content by using productive morphosyntactic and semantic means of -erbian language e.g. bilbord $re*lamni pano', spe&s-Eatl $svemirs*i avion', printer $EtampaI'. c' conditionally &ustified anglicism 4 there is a possibility for a shorter, more economic e.pression of a new or already e.isting content than the domestic word or e.pression e.g. pr $odnosi s &avnoELu or sluJba /a odnose s &avnoELu, osoba /aduJena /a odnose s &avnoELu', bandJidJamping $s*a*an&e s elastiInim *onopcem', afterEe&v $losion posle bri&an&a', d' &ustified anglicism 4 introduces a slight difference in meaning into the system of -erbian language e.g. hamburger $pl&es*avica', vo*men $*asetofon', *ambe* $povrata*', dil $dogovor, spora/um'. e' completely &ustified anglicism 4 introduces a completely new meaning into the system of -erbian language, thus fulfilling a le.ical andBor conceptual gap e.g. mil*Ee&*, fiEburger, dJetset, internet, mi*roIip, bestseler. - &tatus 4 a' segregation of anglicisms is an attempt to completely isolate and ignore foreigh words. b' integration of anglicisms 4 when foreign words are considered to enrich the potencial of -erbian language and they are fitted into its system in order t be gradually e.cepted by the lunguistic community. 4rototy!ical anglicis" is the one that is obvious according to its type, reshaped according to its formation, completely &ustified or &ustified according to &ustification of use and completely domesticated in the system of serbian language according to its status e.g. *omp&uter, tine&dJer, hamburger. 6hat does not count as anglicis"sH Kersonal and geographical names, names of institutions, organisations, clubs, companies, bands, buildings, television stations, newspapers

or brand names do not count as anglicisms. All these names ma*e up a special group of words coming from ,nglish language that is differen from anglicisms for the fact that they permanently *eep the status of foreign words and never become domesticated.

7. *nglicis" is a word or a bound morpheme that is ta*en over from the ,nglish language $@g' and integrated to a different e.tent into the -erbian language $@r' at several levels $phonological, morphological, semantic and orthographic level'. Anglicisms are also the phrases and clauses that follow the norms of the ,nglish language'# mil*Ee&*, processor, rebutovati, etc. and *rat*a priIa, podignuti san*ci&e, mogu li vam pomoLi. 'nglishis"s, however, are those words, phrases and clauses that are &ust ta*en over from ,nglish without any adaptation# they have not even started their integration into the linguistic system of -erbian. Those are occasional interpolations into a speech or a te.t, e.g. w or by the way, yes, best of.

9. The general precondition for words and names from any @g to be *44R,4R$*)'LB used in any @r is the adaptation of the words and names to the system of the @r $-erbain'.

11. There are three "ain res!elling rules for word anglicisms: ' ,very anglicism which denotes a whole in terms of content is being respelled as one word e.g. dJingl $simple words', *am*order $word coined by shortening combinations of words', overdo/ $words with prefi.es', re&ting $words with suffi.es', mil*Ee&* $compound words', hemende*s $le.icali/ed syntagms'. )' ,very anglicism which denotes a whole in terms of content but in which there is a connection between the elements in terms of meaning is being respelled with a hyphen e.g. big-bend, d&utifri-Eop, flopi-dis*, se*s-simbol, top-model. This connection between elements is most commonly based on hyponymy. 0' ,very noun-anglicism, including acronyms, which in singular nominative case appears before some other noun and has a function of an ad&ective $atributive or determinative' is respelled separated from that noun e.g. andergraund $pisac', *antri $pevaIica', fitnes $trener'. 0eneral rules In accordance with the rules of -erbian language orthography, graphological adaptation of anglicisms also depends upon these demands: - all anglicisms are being spelled with a small initial letter $e.cept when they are a part of a proper name' - a letter & is being inserted in the following letter combinations i-a, i-e and i-u e.g. seri&al, &api&evs*i, medi&um - Although &ednaIen&e suglasni*a po /vuInosti may e.ist in speech, it is not shown in writing e.g. be*graund, dragstor, saundtre* $older anglicisms e.g. fudbal are e.ceptions' - Although &ednaIen&e suglasni*a po mestu tvorbe may e.ist in speech, it is not shown in writing e.g. input Decommendations for respelling of acrony"s: ' @e.icali/ed acronym-anglicisms $51,-6>, 51IC,<, 1AT>', are being respelled either in capital letters $CIABCIA, AI!-BAI!-, 51,-C>B51,-6>' or in small letters transcribing the adapted pronunciation in small letters, and with an initial capital letter if it is a proper name $CIABCi&a, AI!-Be&ds'.

. ' Case and other suffi.es, being written in small letters, are added to le.icali/ed acronyms directly $without a hyphen' whether those acronyms are respelled in capital letters or not e.g. 5nicef, 5nicefa 5nicefov... 1asa, 1ase, 1asin... Ci&a, Ci&e, Ci&in... 51IC,<, 51IC,<a... 1AT>, 1AT>a... 51,-6>, 51,-6a... 1A-A, 1A-e... CIA, CI&e... )' -emi-le.icali/ed acronym-anglicisms $((C, C11, C!, !%!', are being respelled either in capital letters $C11BC11, !UB!U, C!BC!, =(AB%(A' or in small letters - transcribing ,nglish and so called @atin pronunciation in small letters, and with an initial capital letter if it is a proper name. =hen adapting names, every syllable should be written with an initial capital letter and the word is hyphenated $C11B-i-,n-,n, ((CB(i-(i--i', while when adapting common nouns, it is not the case $!UBdidJe&, KCBpisi'. ). ' Case and other suffi.es, being written in small letters, are added to semi-le.icali/ed acronyms directly $without a hyphen' when those acronyms are not respelled in capital letters $(i-(i--i&ev, pisi&a, cedea' and with a hyphen when they are $C11-a, !U-a, C!-ov'. ).)' -emi-le.icali/ed acronyms which are proper names should be pronounced according to ,nglish letter values $((CB (i-(i--i, 3T%B,m-Ti-%i' and those which are common nouns according to so called latin letter values $!%!B!e-%e-!e, S-3BSe-,s-,m'.

1>. )ranslated anglicis"s are made by ta*ing a new content from ,nglish and e.pressing it through already e.isting -erbian forms used in a new way. In the case of translated anglicisms we can tal* about domestic neologisms in -erbian coined using morphosyntactic and semantic means of -erbian language and are therefore considered less foreign, for e.ample neologisms li*e svemirs*i avion, re*lamni pano, putu&uLa diplomati&a, odbo&*a na pes*u, va/duEna vreLa, which are translations of ,nglish words spaceshuttle, billboard, shuttle diplomacy, beach volleyball, air bag can be, without a doubt, pronounced, written and understood much easier than transshaped anglicisms spe&s-Eatl, bilbord, Eatl-diplomati&a, biIvole& or raw anglicisms li*e beach volley or air bag. -ometimes we can find translated anglicisms which are not that acceptable since they can be translated in a wrong way still they have become more or less fi.ed in practice e.g. beJiIni telefon from cordless telephone instead of be/ga&tans*i telefon, pametna *artica from smart card instead of inteligentna *artica, se*sualno /lostavl&an&e, maltretiran&e ili u/nemiravan&e from se.ual harassment instead of se*sualno napastovan&e, siguran se*s from save se. instead of be/bedan se*s. -ome words are not possible to translate and in these cases we ta*e them $with the necessary transshaping' from the giving language. The translation can be too long e.g. s*a*an&e sa elastiInim *onopcem for ,nglish bungee &umping or completely imossible li*e reality show $televi/i&s*i program u *ome se, to*om duJeg vremens*og raspona, realistiIno i neulepEano pri*a/u&u a*tivnosti odabrane grupe l&udi'.

13. &tructural translation or calque applies e.clusively to polymorphemic words 4 derivatives, compounds and phrasal words# it implies literal translation of the elements of words in @ by the coresponding elements from @) e.g. print.er 4 Etamp.aI $suffi.ation', hand.out 4 i/.ruIa* $copmound'. +owever, we should point out that ,nglish compounds are sometimes transfered to -erbian as phrasal words e.g. user name 4 *orisniI*o ime, brain drain 4 odliv mo/gova, cold war 4 hladni rat, iron curtain 4 gvo/dena /avesa.

Kartial structural translation or partial calque 4 only one element $base or affi.' is translated by a corresponding native or nativi/ed FforeignF element, while the others are being borrowed e.g. over.dose 4 pr.do/irati se $prefi.', wor*.aholic 4 rado.holiIar $translated base'.

11. alse friends are pairs of words in two languages that loo* or sound similar, but differ in meaning. <alse friendship is one of the most common semantic and pragmatic phenomena $or, more precisely, anomalies' that are characteristic of rec*less Ffunctional styleF e.g. definitivno instead of /asigurno, /acelo, i/vesno# e*onomi&a instead of privreda# purpuran instead of l&ubiIast# *opi&a instead of primera*# petrole& instead of nafta# re/idencionalni instead of stambeni# originalni instead of prvobitni.

15. =hat is understood under the term !ro!er na"e in ,nglish language are peronal, geographical, institutional and other names from ,nglish spea*ing countries $Sreat (ritain, Ireland, 5-A, Canada, Australia and 1ew 7eland'. Kersonal names are names of people $=illiam', shortened names $=ill', nic*names $=illie', surnames $=illiams'. Seographical names are the names of administrative regions $Vor*shire', cities, towns and villages $1ew >rleans', rivers $Tyne', la*es $+uron', mountains $(en 1evis', islands $-hetland Island', streets, squares and other parts of towns $=all -treet, Trafalgar -quare, +yde Kar*'. Institutional names are names of institutions, organisations, sport and other clubs $<oreign >ffice, Associated Kress, 3anchester 5nited', companies $3icrosoft', orchestras, choirs, bands $@ondon -ymphony >rchestra, !ire -traits', buildings and halls $,mpire -tate (uilding, =estminster +all', television and radio stations $Cartoon 1etwor*, %irgin Dadio'. >ther names are names of newspapers and maga/ines $!aily telegraph, 1ewswee*' and brand names $Kalmolive, Deebo*'. There are some differences between ,nglish and -erbian when it comes to initial capitali/ation of proper names: In -erbian: - only the first word in the names of institutions, organi/ations, companies, art wor*s, television and television shows, names of newspapers and maga/ines, streets is capitali/ed e.g. 3atica srps*a, Uugoslovens*o drams*o po/oriEte, Koliti*in /abavni*, (ulevar osloboXen&a. - words derived from personal names and surnames are nor capitali/ed e.g. ovogodiEn&i nobelovci. =ords derived from geographical names and names of nations are not capitali/ed e.g. *urs Epans*og &e/i*a. - elements of foreign surnames $de, du, le, la, van', if they come after first names are not capitali/ed e.g. @uvig van (etoven. In ,nglish every element of all the mentioned names is capitali/ed.

O. All proper names, as well as the ma&ority of geographical, institutional and other names undergo adaptation at the level of form, and that means adapting original forms in accordance with standard -erbian pronunciation, orthography and grammar norms. +owever, there are e.ceptions: some geographical, institutional, and other names, especially the ones consisting of nouns, ad&ectivs or prepositional phrases that can be translated, can be adapted at the level of content - by translation. Translation can be complete e.g. Doc*y 3ountains - -tenovite

planine, ;th Avenue - Keta aveni&a, (ritish @ibrary - (ritans*a bibliote*a or partial $translation in combination with transcription' e.g. -tratford-on-Avon - -tratford na ,&vonu.

Q. 4rinci!les of res!elling !ro!er na"es from ,nglish in -erbian with regard to: - 'nglish stressed vowels: a' ,nglish short and long monophtongs are respelled as -erbian stressed short and long vowels usually with a falling intonation e.g. 3IllerB3iler, -h,IlaB]ila, b' ,nglish diphtongs are respelled as clusters of -erbian stressed short vowels $in monosylabic names they can be prolonged', usually with a falling intonation, as well as elements & and u e.g. (lA*eB(le&*, K>5ndBKaund, -t>neB-toun c' ,nglish latent consonantal element BrB as a part of some monophtongs and diphtongs is always respelled as -erbian consonant BrB e.g. =ADingB%ering, ClADeB6ler, (5DnsB(erns, <>DdB <ord, 3>>DeB3ur d' >ther combinations of ,nglish phonemes are treated as sequences of monophtongs and diphtongs. ) 4 'nglish unstressed vowels are respelled as -erbian unstressed short vowels with neutral intonation. They can only be adequately determined according to the relevant letter e.g. B^B $!er,* 4 !ere*, SoodmAn 4 Sudman, 6eat>n 4 6iton, ,dm5nd 4 ,dmund, ,dIson 4 ,dison' 0 4 'nglish consonants: a' ,nglish voiced consonants are respelled as -erbian voiced consonants b' ,nglish devoiced consonants are respelled as -erbian devoiced consonants -tressed vowels: BiB_BiB $Tim, 3iller, !ylan,3urray, +arvey, -way/e, (ridges, Ueffries, (abbage, ,therege' Bi:B_BIB $Sene, Cleese, =eaver, <ielding, -heila' BirB_BirB $@ear, Sreer, Sere, Kierce, !eirde' BeB_BeB $6en, (etty, Kleasence' BeiB_Be&, ,B $(la*e, 3ailer, Clay, 3ae, @e Carre, >livier' B^rB_Ber, orB $6ershaw, (urns, <irth, (yrd, -earle, =ordsworth, Salsworthy' BerB_BerB $<airley, =aring, Clare' B`B_BaB $Chaplin, !aniel, Addison, +arry' BaB_ BaB $(uc*, Dussel, -omerset, Voung' Ba:B_BA, alB $<rancis, Srant, 3cSrath, Kalmer' Ba:rB_ BarB $Sarland, ,lgar, Cler*' BaiB_Ba&B $3i*e, (yron, !wight' BauB_BauB $Kound, (rown, +owe' BoB_BoB $(ob, Tommy, =atson, Sough, @awrence' Bo:B_B>B $Kaul, -haw, =alter, 3augham, (roughton' Bo:rB_BorB $<ord, =arner, Dour*e' BoiB_Bo&B $3oira, Uoyce' BouB_Bou, >B $-tone, Coe, >ates, (owen, 3arlowe, <iona, (oulton, (eaumont' BuB_BuB $=ood, <uller' Bu:B_B5B $+oover, @ucas, (rewster, !ougal, Cruise' B&u:B_B&5B $+ume, !ewey, ,ugene' BurB_BurB $3oore, 3cClure' 5nstressed vowels: B^B_BeB $,laine, Carpenter, !ere*, !urrel, (urgess, <awcett, Chamberlain, 3adeleine' BaB $Astaire, %anessa, 3ontague, Kamela, 3c!onaldB3ac!onald,

=illiam, -ullivan, =yatt, (adham, Soodman, Cartland' BoB $Tobias, Christopher, 6eaton, 3ason, Sainsborough, ,dgecombe, Chisholm' BuB $Angus, ,dmund, <erguson, Sallup, Aldous' B^rB_ BirB $%irginia, +ampshire' BerB $,merson, +ester, Collier, !acre, 3cSuire' BarB $Dichard, +ayward, 3c6ellar' BorB $Kic*ford, 3a&or, Taylor, (arbour' BurB $Turturro, Arthur, =ilbur' BiB_ BiB $+amilton, ,dison, Colin'

19. Differece between the ada!tation of na"es and co""on words - ,very name from a foreign language $,nglish as well' is being addapted in accordance with -erbian norms of pronunciation, orthography and grammar. Apart from having to be fully integrated in the new system, foreign names must ma*e their foreign origin transperent, given the fact that foreign names predominantly carry the status of foreign words. This is not the case with loanwords $general nouns, ad&ectives and verbs' which in time gain the status of native words, losing or bluring their foreigh origin. This is particularly the case with proper names, which is why translation, as a way of addapting them, is e.cluded e.g. Seorge - aborXe. >A. &!ecial language users are those ho can systematically influence the formation of linguistic habits of the public. <or this reason they are responsible for the correctness of spo*en and written word. @inguistic e.perts are not the only ones who belong to this group, but also teachers, professors, &ournalists, announcers, editors, graphic and art designers, KDs and translators.

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