Hybrids Hybrids are the heart of the telephone system.

They allow two people to speak and listen simultaneously over a single pair of wires, with little or no interaction. This Application Note is not about producing a telephone system or even a part thereof, but is intended to introduce the concept of a hybrid, and explain how it works. In one form or another, hybrids have been used since the early telegraph days, and they are an essential part of the telecommunications system. ou can also build a pair ! not because it"s inherently useful for anything, but to experiment and learn. There"s nothing especially critical about the principle, but it does become a lot harder #and there is inevitable degradation$ when transformers are included. %hile these are not used in your home telephone, the vast ma&ority of exchanges #aka central offices$ use transformers to ensure complete isolation from the outside world and all the dangers it represents. 'sing the techni(ues shown here, you could build a nice intercom or similar, but they are so cheap that no!one would bother. )uch better to build it for the pure sake of doing so, and to learn about techni(ues used in signal processing systems. ou don"t need to physically build anything if you have a circuit simulator ! this lets you do lots of *what if* experiments without wasting any parts. +ne very common application of hybrids is in the radio broadcast system, where callers are broadcast during conversations or #generally one!sided$ debates with the on!air *personality*. There is a considerable amount of additional circuitry necessary to interface with an analogue telephone circuit, and this is not covered here. ,ecause it is an offence in many countries to connect non!approved e(uipment to the phone network, the information here is not intended to allow you to make any connection to your phone line. The material here is for your information only. The phone system has had a great deal of influence over the audio standards that have developed over the years. A huge number of things we use daily in audio are the result of inventions and standards developed by telephone research laboratories. ,ell -abs, which has been part of many different phone companies over the years, is preeminent amongst these. Negative feedback, the decibel system, transistors, and many other developments we take for granted all came from ,ell -abs. The idea of .// ohm balanced lines also came directly from the phone system ! these are the mainstay of all interconnects used in recording and 0A systems. 1or many years, radio stations have relied on phone lines for their live broadcasts, and even for connection between the studio and transmitter, as well as callers going to!air as described above. If any 2!wire full duplex #meaning that traffic can pass in both directions simultaneously$ analogue line re(uires amplification, this can only be done after separating the send and transmit pairs. This is shown in 1igure 3. If a single amplifier were used, one direction would be blocked. %ith two amplifiers but no hybrid, the amplifiers would simply oscillate, wiping out all communications.

1igure 3 ! Amplifying A ,idirectional #4uplex$ 0air 5ignal

The scheme shown above is very common. 6are is needed to ensure that the amplifier gain is not too high, otherwise the system will still oscillate. 7ain must be at least .d, lower than the worst!case transhybrid loss #see below for an explanation of this$. )ost digital signals are transmitted as 8!wire #separate send and receive pairs$. Amplification is not necessary, but the digital signal is *reconstituted* to produce clean transitions between the two digital levels. These may be a voltage signal, or light if a fibre!optic cable is used. 2-Wire & 4-Wire Systems The terms used should not be taken literally. A 2!wire system may only use 3 physical wire, with earth being used for the return. -ikewise, 8!wire systems may only have 9 physical wires ... earth #ground or common$, transmit and receive. The primary point of difference is that a 2!wire system is duplex ! traffic #voice or data$ can travel in both directions without interaction. 8!wire systems are simplex ! data travels in one direction only, and each direction #in or out$ has its own separate circuit. %hile the 8!wire circuit is much better, having :ero interaction regardless of termination impedances or other issues, it uses twice as much cable. This was not an option when telephones first became available, so the 2!wire system was used to minimise cable usage but still provide an acceptable service. )any early telegraph and telephone systems used a single wire, with the return path provided by the earth #as in the planet$. 2-Wire / 4-Wire Conversion The analogue telephone systems worldwide rely on a single pair of wires for both transmit and receive of speech or modem data. 46 #8;< nominal$ is also sent along the same pair, allowing the exchange to provide power to the telephone. This is important in case of blackouts #and even more so before even electric lighting was readily available$, since the phone can still be used. The standard wired analogue telephone system is probably one of the most reliable pieces of engineering on the planet, and although other methods for communication are becoming more popular, none can approach the reliability of the wired phone. The systems have been gradually changing for a long time, but the basic re(uirements have never changed. It is still possible to use a =/ year old rotary!dial telephone on the latest exchange e(uipment, and it will work &ust fine. This level of long!term compatibility has not been achieved with many products ! I can"t actually think of a single one that offers the same level of compliance as the humble telephone.

1igure 2 ! 4emonstration Hybrid 0air It might look complex, but it isn"t really. The section on the right is one *station*, and that on the left is another. >ach can transmit information to the other, with the level at the Out terminal of the sending station being suppressed by at least 8/d,. This is ad&ustable with <?3 on each section. The signal transmitted #via the In terminal$ arrives at the Out terminal of the other station, attenuated by .d, ! half the level. Needless to say, this isn"t an issue, since the transmit level simply needs to be increased #or the receive gain increased$ to compensate. The two stations are connected by a line, which may be ordinary twisted pair, and somewhere between a couple of metres to a kilometre or more in length.

If you look at the circuit closely, and ignore the send buffer #'3x!,$, you"ll see a modified version of the standard balanced input opamp stage. 5ignal is applied to both opamp inputs when sending a signal to the line. ,oth inputs will be at the same voltage #by ad&usting <?3$, so there will be no signal from the output. %hen a signal is received from the line, only the negative input has that signal present, and it is amplified #by !3$ and appears on the output terminal. +nce the system is installed, simply in&ect a tone into one of the hybrids, and ad&ust <?3 to get the minimum level from the Out terminal. 4o the same for the second hybrid. If you vary the fre(uency, you will find that the maximum re&ection changes, but with a short line the variation will not be great. Transhybrid & Return Loss It is customary to refer to impedance balance and unwanted signal re&ection in terms that cannot be considered intuitive unless you"ve worked within the industry. The telephone line is a complex impedance, and consists of resistance, inductance and capacitance. The '5 and a few other countries simply designate the impedance as .// ohms, but in most others the *official* impedance is an attempt to consolidate the cable and end!e(uipment parameters. In Australia, the impedance is 22/ ohms, in series with the parallel combination of ;2/ ohms and 32/n1. The '@ and >urope also use complex impedance networks, but all are different. %hile this is extremely pu::ling #after all, cables used for telephones are not all that different$, it"s simply a fact of life. In reality, it doesn"t make much difference ! all perform roughly e(ually, including .// ohms resistive #although this is commonly modified with extra resistance and the addition of some capacitance$. ,ecause the sending impedance is determined to be a particular value to match the cable, the receiving e(uipment #along with the connecting cable$ must have the same impedance. If this is done well, there is a minimum of echo returned to the phone line and exchange, and the minimum disruption to long distance calls. This is actually an extremely complex topic, and it will not be discussed in any further detail. 5uffice to say that the 60> #customer premises e(uipment$ needs to be able to satisfy a minimum impedance standard before it"s allowed to be connected to the phone system. This applies almost everywhere, world!wide. ?ather than attempt to state the impedance in terms of reactance, resistance or measured impedance, it is measured by a meter called a return loss bridge. This gives a reading of the impedance imbalance in d,. A perfectly matched impedance has a return loss of infinity, but even as little as 2/d, can be surprisingly difficult to achieve in the real world. 1igure 9 shows the Australian phone impedance as part of a return loss bridge, along with a graph showing the return loss when connected to a mismatched load. ?emember that the ideal case is a return loss of infinity, but even the relatively small mismatch shown #the artificial line$ is sufficient to reduce the return loss dramatically. A good design is expected to be able to meet the re(uirements with various line lengths ! including :ero. The return loss bridge is shown here with the Australian standard telephone impedance, but any other impedance #including a .// ohm resistor$ can be substituted.

1igure 9 ! ?eturn -oss ,ridge A 7raph )easurements are shown from 2//H: to 8kH:. The telephone bandwidth is deemed to be from 9//H: to 9.//H:, and this has been the standard for a very long time. The upper limit is now strictly enforced because so much of the network is digital. The sampling rate is only ;kH:, so 9..kH: gives an acceptable safety margin

before digital aliasing becomes a problem. It is extremely difficult to get a good return loss below 9//H:, because so much e(uipment uses transformers. %ith limited inductance imposed by small si:e, phase shift makes a good impedance balance almost impossible at low fre(uencies. 5ome countries impose return loss limits at fre(uencies below 9//H:, but they are usually fairly generous #perhaps 3/d, or so$. The next figure of merit is known by many names, but the most descriptive is simply *transhybrid loss*. This is a measurement of the amount of signal picked up at the receive port, while it is transmitting signals within the allowed fre(uency range. An ideal hybrid will have an infinite transhybrid loss, but this is influenced by the line impedance. A good hybrid will achieve around 2B!9/d,, but for telephones it is common to use a lower value. This gives the person speaking some of their own voice in the earpiece, so they can hear themselves at a low level. This is called *side tone* in telephony, and provides a level of confidence that the phone is working. Humans expect to hear themselves when speaking, and the phone system is designed to make sure this happens.

1igure 8 ! Transhybrid -oss A 7raph 1igure 8 shows the same hybrid and artificial line as used in 1igure 9 #terminated with the Australian standard impedance$, but this time measuring the transhybrid loss. Although the transhybrid loss was measured at over B/d, with a perfectly matched line impedance, this is degraded significantly by a comparatively small mismatch. 'nfortunately, but by necessity, the transhybrid loss is affected by the degree of line matching #return loss$. If there is a poor match, both return and transhybrid loss will be compromised. >xcellent results have been achieved by telephone systems the world over, despite the huge variations met in practice. 0hone lines can range from less than 3// metres to several kilometres, so will have dramatically different resistance, capacitance and inductance between the phone and the exchange. The impedance refuses to conform to legislation or standards bodies, and rather perversely chooses to obey the laws of physics instead. Transformer Hybrids ,efore we had any form of electronics, we had a phone system. >arly systems had to rely solely on their own ability to generate a high level signal from a microphone. 6arbon mics were the choice, because no other microphone is capable of producing such a high level, low impedance signal. 6arbon mics actually have gain ! enough to cause feedback if the mic is placed next to an earpiece. ,ecause of this, a basic hybrid was essential to prevent the phone from s(uealing. >arlier systems used a separate mouthpiece and earpiece, but to enable a single handset with both re(uired a system that provided electrical signal isolation. The earliest hybrids consisted of a coil with multiple windings ! it may be considered as a transformer or an inductor, but in many cases it"s really an autotransformer, with all windings &oined at some point. 1igure B shows one of the arrangements that were used ! the hookswitch and ringer circuits have been omitted for clarity. Note that in all cases, the resistance of the transformer windings must be considered when determining impedance matching.

1igure B ! 5ingle Transformer Hybrid The dots indicate the winding start, needed because the direction is important. %hile it may not look very impressive, the single transformer hybrid is capable of extremely good performance. In exactly the same way as an active hybrid #using opamps or digital signal processing$, the performance in both directions is degraded if the line impedance does not match the design value. The impedance matching network must be located in the position shown. Theoretical transhybrid loss #with a perfectly matched impedance$ is infinite, but this can never be achieved in practice. )aximum return loss is achieved with the load impedance #at the receive port$ as high as possible. This arrangement was used in huge numbers, as it was the heart of almost all non!electronic telephones. 5ee 1igure =, and you can see the exact same arrangement, although the matching impedance is different. No part of the circuit may be earthed, with the exception of the receive winding. %hile not a problem for a telephone, this makes it unsuitable for fixed e(uipment where an earth is re(uired for electrical safety.

1igure . ! 4ual Transformer Hybrid The dual transformer version has the benefit that all ports #line, transmit and receive$ are isolated from each other. This is of no conse(uence in a telephone, but may be important for some exchange e(uipment. %hile this version is still used #transformers are still available$, it is uncommon in general phone circuits. 0erformance can be extremely good, but compared to I6 replacements that are now very common, the space and expense make it unattractive. Termination impedance is rather interesting. The terminating impedance shown affects only the transhybrid loss, and has no influence at all on the impedance presented to the 2!wire port. The proper impedance is set by using a modified network in series with the transmit port, and in parallel with the receive port. In this respect, this hybrid is uni(ue, in that return loss and transhybrid loss are effectively independent of each other. However ! both are affected by the actual external impedance, so an artificial line will mess up both. This is in deference to the "no free lunch" principle

1igure = ! 5chematic of +ld ?otary 4ial Telephone The above is a scan of the little piece of paper that was inside an old telephone #as supplied by the Australian 0)7 #0ostmaster 7eneral, aka A0+ ! Australian 0ost +ffice$, and is the actual schematic #with options$ of this series of telephones. The phone itself is one of the old black ,akelite types ! very retro, and still functional despite the fact that it"s at least B/ years old. ?emember to add the winding resistance to any external resistances when determining impedances. The hybrid is a single transformer type as shown in 1igure B, but is wired somewhat differently.