HISTORY

OF

PHILOLOGY CLASSICAL

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%
A HISTORY
OF

CLASSICAL
FROM THE SEVENTH
TO

PHILOLOGY
CENTURY B.C.

THE

TWENTIETH

CENTURY

AJ).

BY

HARRY
MEMBER

THURSTON
OF THE NATIONAL

PECK,
INSTITUTE OF

Ph.D., LL.D.
ARTS
AND

LETTERS

NetD
THE MACMILLAN

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COMPANY

191
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right* reserved

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191

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Published

October,

1911.

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CARISSIMAE VXORI

PREFACE

Long

experience

has

convinced those

the who

author

that,

as

rule, classical
most

students,
courses, of the

even

are

pursuing
informed

the

advanced
the

are

very

imperfectly
upon which

as

to

history They

subjects
be

they
in

are

gaged. en-

may of

thoroughly Philology, Philology

as

trained while

various

ramifications

Classical

knowing
It

little

or

nothing
anomalous

of

Classical

whole. student

seems

an

thing
his

that
in

any

university
and
entire

should

proceed having
is

to

doctorate

Greek
of the

Latin
field

without
of

ever

had

conspectus
a

which should

he be

familiar
to

with

part;

that,

for

example,
of

he

able

give
that

no

intelligent significance
be
clear
to

account

the

Alexandrian
to

School;

the
not

of

the

Renaissance

sicist clas-

should

him;
and
that

that

Scaliger, Lipsius,
should have
text

Casaubon,
little
more

Bentley,
than
names;

Corssen,
and

Lachmann

be

he

should

learned

nothing
and

genetically

about

literary criticism,

criticism,

scientific Yet
such

linguistics.
is very

often

the

case;

and
for

though
censure.

it is to There

be

regretted,

it is not

reasonable

cause

Vlll

PREFACE

exist

no

manuals
in
a

at

the present time

to

give this general

and without

information

lucid,coherent
which
a

manner,

of losingsight and book in makes

the strand

unites

all classical studies

them

parts of

splendidwhole.
which

Grafenhan's
was

in four

of volumes, the publication

course,

begun

1843, is, of
de

quite obsolete

to-day.

Reinach's
as a

Manuel of

PhilologieClassique is

admirable

work

reference, but, with all its closely packed information,

not

it does

form

continuous
a

narrative. few years

The ago,

treatise is
a ment monu-

by

Dr.

Sandys, publishedonly
to

his

and scholarship

wide

reading; yet
volumes
be
a

the

plicity multi-

of details contained

in its three he

will not heroic

unnaturally deter
seeker
The after

student, unless

very

knowledge.
has, therefore,been
written with

present work
to

the

desire

give

comprehensive

and

comprehensible
first developed,
made

knowledge
and of that

of how

classical studies
evolution which

were

gradual

has the

Classical
time
some

Philology a
very

science, possessing at
aesthetic of

same

marked distinctly the

names

phases.

It has

seemed
as

best to mention

only such scholars

have
the

helped
sum

on

this

evolution

by adding something
The

to
a

of human made it

knowledge. possibleto
is

adoption of
into
a

such

plan
venient con-

has

compress

volume

of

size all that references any

while essential; the reader

to

the

bibliographical
more

will enable

pursue here

tively exhaustouched

particular subjectthat

has

been

PREFACE

IX

upon.

It

is

hoped
to

that

the

book

may

be

of

some

tical prac-

service

students

of

the

classics,
which in

in

helping
studies

them

to

see

and

understand

the

unity
of

their

is

too

often

obscured

by

matters

secondary
Harry

importance.
Thurston Peck.

New

York,

March

29,

191

1.

TABLE

OF

CONTENTS

PAGHS

Preface
. .
.

vii-ix

CHAPTER

I.

The

Genesis

of

Philological

Studies

in

Greece

5-27

II.

The

Pr^-Alexandrian

Period
. . .

28-87

III.

The

Alexandrian

Period
....

88-129

IV.

The

GrjECO-Roman

Period
....

130-191

V.

The

Middle

Ages

192-259

VI.

The

Renaissance

260-288

VII.

Division

into

Periods

289

VIII.

The

Age

of

Erasmus

290-300

IX.

The

Period

of

Nationalism
....

301-384

X.

The

German

Influence

385-455

XI.

The

Cosmopolitan

Period
....

456-458

Selected

Bibliographical

Index
....

461-476

General

Index

477-491

HISTORY

OF PHILOLOGY

CLASSICAL

INTRODUCTION

The

Definition Methods

of

Classical
of

Philology

Treatment

The whole

history of
intellectual

Classical

Philology
that
of

is the

history of the
from

development
of
the

springs
those

cal classiand
the
at

antiquity, and
sciences that have

growth

studies

interpreted and
of

thrown Rome.

light
It will

upon
trace

intellectual
once

history
evolution

Greece
the

and classical

the

of

literatures,
will chronicle

of

science

(especially linguistic science), and

of

the

tory his-

Epigraphy,

Palaeography,

Numismatics,
and

Criticism,

Philosophy, Archaeology, Mythology,

The
terms

Religion.
have been

"philology"
for many writer he
uses

and
centuries.
to

"philologist"
Plato the
in A
no

variously used
was

(428-347
words

B.C.)

the

first

Greek
but

employ
them

""t\o'\o7o?
sense,

and and

"f"i\o\oyia,

technical
in

only

in is
one

general
who

way. of

philologist
or

Plato's

dialogues
to

is fond

talk

who
not.

is much In

given

argument,

whether

philosophical

or

Aristotle,

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

is philology

love of

learning(Lat. studium). During

in

the Alexandrian
restricted There
so

period and
sense

Rome,

the word

was

often man."

to
a

the

of "a

scholar,""a
the

learned
was

is

in deep significance

fact that it

first
of the almost

applied to Eratosthenes

the head (276-196 B.C.),

was,

at Alexandria, who great library

in his

day,

the
was

supreme
not

since he type of the scientific investigator,

even

merely, or

a primarily,

student

of

language
a
amples ex-

and

but literature,
an

mathematician athlete.
Greece
to

and
one

astronomer,
of the best

geographer and
afforded

He

is

by

refute the
us

cheap gibes of
is versatility

petty

men,

who with

would sound

have

think

that

inconsistent The

scholarship.
word

general development of the

it, then, mean,

"philology"

makes
the

firstof all, a love of

speech; second,

research; and pursuitof linguistic

sense.

learningin finally,
of the

its widest
down
to

From

the

dawn it

Renaissance used of

the

eighteenthcentury
in the

was

oftenest

studies; but linguistic

an

period last named, Watts,

as

it of the time, explained English lexicographer

cluding in-

and history
Thus

criticism

as

well

as

the

humanities.

Classical

Philology is

the

philologywhich
and
Romans.

relates When
at

to the culture-studies

of the Greeks F. critic, A.

the

great Homeric

Wolf, matriculated
as

Gottingen,he
and made

inscribed

himself

studiosus
the

philologies,
gent, intelli-

it clear that he meant

by

phrase the

critical

study of the whole

traditional

learning of

INTRODUCTION

the past;

so

that the

day of

his matriculation

(April8, philology."

1777)has

been

"the birthdayof styled

modern

Classical Philology is of pedantry. spirit "does

an

opposed

in every

way

to

the

Otfried

Miiller well said of it that it facts particular

nor

not

strive to

establish

to

get
the

with acquaintance
in spirit

abstract

forms, but

to

grasp

ancient
reason,

its broadest

meaning,

in

its works

of

of

l and of imagination." feeling,

There

are

four

recognizedmethods

of

treatingthe

of Classical Philology. history

(1)The
with the

or Synchronistic

Annalistic

Method, which deals

by periods. history BiographicalMethod, which

treats

(2) The

of the history

in the persons
1

of great representative scholars.

led to
to

Since

the

study

of Sanskrit
as

the scientific
one

of investigation
new

the of

Indo-European

languages

related

another, the

science

the meaning Comparative Philology has arisen to complicatestill more of the word The Germans, therefore, "philology" when simply used. have
to

made

certain

distinctions

which

it will be

convenient

for us,

also,

is when modified by an adjective not adopt. Philology (Philologie) the general study of language; Comparative Philology is better styled logie Philowhile Classical Philology (Klassische Linguistics (Linguistik) ; Klassische is that comprehensive study Alterthumswissenschaft) or

of

antiquity which
of the word der

has

just now

been

defined.

For
see

the

various

ings mean-

"philology" at
to

different

times,

Grafenhan,

Ge-

schichte

Klassischen

Philologie im
Gudeman

Alterthum, vol. i (Bonn, 1843);

Tria

Lehrs, Appendix
the

Herodiani

Scripta

1857); (Berlin,
1-4

and

the

references interesting

given by

in pp.

of In

his Outlines
a

of
is

History of
acute

Classical

Philology (Boston, 1902).

Letters
v. (xviii.

remarkable there

passage
an a

contained

in Seneca's

30-34,

Haase)

comparison between the different ways in which a philologist, examine Cicero's grammarian, and a philosopherwould respectively Refublica.

treatise De

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

(3)
of

The

Eiodographic by

Method,

which

describes

the

tory his-

philology
The

subjects.
or

(4)

Ethnographic

Geographic
of

Method,

which

cusses dis-

the

philological

history

single

school

or

nation

separately.
In this book it is

proposed
exclusion

to

follow

no

single
but

one

of

these

methods

to

the

of

the

others;

to

give

general
mind the

survey

of

the

whole

subject,
symmetry
each

keeping
;

constantly emphasising
or

in

need

of

chronological
the

and

making
has

clear

part
at

which

nation

each

school

played;
individuals

and

the

same

time

bringing gains
an

into

relief

the

whose

life-work
of

added

meaning

from

knowledge

their

personality.1

See is

Fitz-Hugh,
a

Outlines skeleton in his

of

System
of

of

Classical

Pcedagogy by 1903)
See

(1900).
Professor and Kroll's his

There Alfred

valuable

history
etc.,
and

classical

philology (Boston, 1907).

Gudeman elaborate Geschichte

Outlines,

3d

ed.

more

Grundriss der Klassischen

(Leipzig

Berlin, (Leipzig,

also

brief

Philologie

1908).

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

horde
of

of virile conquerors
same

from

Thrace

is another

part

the

ethnic

theory.
their

These

conquerors, and

tracing

their descent

through

fathers

worshipping the
or
a

great male
true possibly

thundering deity, Bronton

Hellenes, and
in

Zeus,

were

they established they ruled

as

civilisation

of their

own

Asia, where
cities which
one

an

aristocracy

in the states Yet

as

and

they subsequentlyfounded.1
and theories, it presents it

this is

only

of many it

many

difficultiesas
fact that
we

explains. The
to

importance of
very
a

lies in the
into the of that

it

serves

show

how

far back

past

must

look for
came

anything like
to

beginning

culture

which

afterwards

be

regarded as
and

Hellenic. essentially

The

at Mycenae explorations

Tiryns and

of the antiquity elsewhere, though attesting

certain of the

arts, leave

us

still at

loss
One

regardingthe
is in justified became sections PelasA

racial affinitiesof the

early Greeks.
than
were

nothing more asserting subsequentlyHellenized

of the Mediterranean

that the lands which first

populated by

race

comprisingthe so-called
the

gians,the Iberians,the Ligurians,and

later

Libyans.2

migration from
the

the

north,moving slowlysouthward,
of what Greece.
was

overwhelmed
to

inhabitants original
as

destined
Professor

be

known

afterwards

Hellas, or
in
a

G. W.
1

Botsford
Ramsay,

has described
in the Journal

very

manner interesting

See

of

Hellenic

Studies, ix. 28-54 (New

351;

and and

Gardner, New

Chapters in Greek

History, pp.

York

London, 1892).
2

See

The Sergi,

Mediterranean

Race.

Eng.

trans.

(London, 1901).

GENESIS

OF

PHILOLOGICAL

STUDIES

IN

GREECE

7
bands

the which

nature
we

of

this

migration.1

"

They

came

in

each under call tribes,

on

its chief. and their

Their

warriors

travelled

foot, dressed
and
arrows,

in skins while
ox-carts.

armed
women

with and

pikes,
dren chil-

and

with rode

bows

in two-wheeled

They

found

Greece,

their
narrow

future

home,

rugged, mountainous only

a

country, with

valleysand
were

few

broad

plains. Everywhere

dense These

forests,haunted
Greeks

by lions,wild boars, Age they

were

and

wolves."

of the Tribal
at

semimere

nomadic huts and

in their and

habits; since

first

built

of brush

clay,which
have

they readilyabandoned,
shifted their uncertain
new

they

must

for centuries At the west

habitations.
was

of their with

country the
no

line coast"

nearly straightand
came

harbours.
found

But

those

who

to

the

eastern
near

coast

harbours
at

everywhere
once
"

and

islands
boats

at to

hand.

They began

to

make

small
must

and

push

off to the islands. when

But

they

have

been

astonished

they

saw

for the first time

their
own,

strange black

much vessels,

than larger Phoenician

enteringtheir bays.
Sidon,
'

These

were

ships from
them
1

an

ancient

commercial
men,

city,and

in
'

came

greedy merchant
the Orient

with

countless
York and

gauds

Botsford,A Historyof
See also E. The

and

Greece
zur

(New

London,
i. (Halle, and

1904).

Meyer, Forschungen
Oldest Civilisation Greece

alien Greece

vol. Geschichte,

1892); Hall, Ridgeway,

yet
out not

of
the

(London, 1901);

The

Early Age of

(Cambridge, 1901,
Pelasgians as
were

foil.).A recent,

fully accepted view, regards

the civilisation, invaders from

having

worked
true

this

fruits of which

appropriatedby the

Hellenic

the north.

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

for the

trading with
Greeks
were

the then
were

natives.
as

Though
as

in most the

respects
can Ameri-

barbarous
eager
to

North
to

Indians, they
ways
coast

learn and chieftains

imitate the
the
east

of

the

foreigners.The
Asiatic
arts

along

welcomed

and
to

artisans. make and

From
use

these bronze in

strangers they graduallylearned

tools and these weapons, and
to

build

in stone. fondness walled

Contented for

homes,

they outgrew
from the

their

roving.

Skilled workmen
the native

East

built

palaces for dwellings,

and

chiefs; artists
and

decorated

these
vases

new

painted,carved,
gems. Those

frescoed, made
who
were

polished
to

chieftains

wise well
as

enough
wealth

receive
means

this civilisation of it. With

gained power
bronze

as

by

their

weapons in

they conquered
course

their

uncivilised
small

neighbours, and,

of
a

time, formed

kingdoms, each

centring

in

strongly fortified

castle." The
contradictions make which any
an

meet

us

in

all accounts

of

early Greece
But

positive hypothesis untenable. insightinto

come

they

do

give us
as we

the know these

character it.

of the is

Greek
much

genius

have the

to

There
were

in plausibility

view

that

Hellenes that

connected racially
were

with

the
one

Celtic

peoples,and

they

not

of originally of

singlestock.
nomadic

Restless, brave,
life for many

mercurial, full
centuries made

their curiosity,
more
a

them

brilliant than
with parallel the

stable.

liticall Po-

they also afford

Celts,in that

GENESIS

OF

PHILOLOGICAL

STUDIES

IN

GREECE

9 Roman.

they lacked
Their Latins

the national

cohesiveness
a

which

was

seafaringgave
had. On It

them
for

larger outlook

than than

the for

made
other

separation rather
it stimulated

unity.
and

the

hand,

the

intellect,

enhanced
To the

the

of imagination and qualities

were

tion. specula-

the Greeks last,

ever

adventurous, ingenious,
and

and inquisitive,

seekingafter something new

interesting.
The
monument not
a

of antiquity

Greek

culture

why explains
Homeric

the oldest

of
rude

Hellenic

the literature,

epic, is
a

specimen

of the

poeticart,
out

but rather with

bit of

exquisite workmanship,
management
It is the of

wrought
colour

wonderful
sound.

lightand
final

and

melodious

climax, the
Homeric is
or

of epic poetry. masterpiece,

a

Although the

epicstell the story of nothing primitivein

the deftness
in them. of touch The

fairly primitive
the
mode of

people, there
their construction
to

that Iliad
a

is everywhere and the

be

discovered
very much

Odyssey,though
form
was

older, assume

definite fairly

somewhere

in the seventh

century B.C., when

among view

writing
Recent poems
as

introduced first generally

not

the Greeks.
these
two

is scholarship

indisposedto
an

each representing
may have been does

organic whole, changes

concern

however

numerous

the
not

which
us,
der

both

underwent
to

in

parts.1 It
1

indeed,

determine

See

Blass, Die
Mieux

Inter polationen in Connattre Hotnere

Odyssee (Halle, 1904); and

Br6al,Pour

(Paris,1906).

IO

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

whether
student
as
a

there
of

actuallylived

an

individual

Homer. Homeric

The

Classical

Philologyregards the
which
to trace

epic

from starting-point of intellectual

the the

opment gradual develGreeks be within

pursuitsamong
their the be

that

period of

time

when Before

can history

tested

by

undoubted could have

facts. been

generaluse
classed for

of

there writing,
the
name

little to

under

of there

formal
was an

although scholarship,
evolution and of the arts

fifteen

centuries

which the

endeavours scholarship Homeric

to
must

study
have

explain.

Before of

period there
masters

been

thousands
after that held Thrace

poets who

became We

of the

and lyric, tradition

of the
to

epic.
the

know

that
of of

Greek
this

be

earliest home with the

names

associated literature, semi-religious bards

mythical
and

such

as

Orpheus, Musaeus, Eumolpus,

know
to

Thamyris.

Finally,we
Thrace the

that the
more

the

centre

of

cultivation of

shifted from
came

genialshores
is
cribed as-

Ionia, whence
to

completed epic which

Homer.

The

chief is found

importance of
in its relation
a

the
to

epos

for

our

present purpose

literary study,to criticism,

scientific
to speculation,

and

even,

after
to

fashion, to

and religion, and the

philosophy.
in

The
the

part which

the of

Iliad

Odyssey played
was

early period
poems
not

Greek

education

extraordinary.
all

These
was

were,

indeed,

the
In

basis
the

of

trainingthat
we

purely physical.
existed
as

schools,which

know

to

have

early

GENESIS

OF

PHILOLOGICAL

STUDIES

IN

GREECE

II

as

700
as

B.C.,
an

Homer

was

read, not

so

much

as

literature,

but

ultimate

authorityon
and
even were
were

ethics, history, politics,

warfare, medicine,
involved Homeric titles to poems, their

religion. Questions that

settled

lands
which

by

an

appeal to the

consulted

according to the
this is
to

theory of theory is

plenary inspiration.In the Odyssey

stated. expressly
and the A

in fact

poet is

one

who
says

inspiredby the Muses; Odysseus:

breathed
A "I
am

bard
it

Phemius
was a

but self-taught; mind

all the is found

god that
of

into

my

various

ways

song."

touch of orientalism

in the notion

of Demo-

critus

(in the
are

fifth century, mad

"

to the effect that all B.C.),

great poets
sort

that is to
a

say, carried away

by

of

divine

frenzy. Such

belief accounts

for the

placewhich

Homer,

the greatest of all the

In the

poets, held in

the intellectual life of Hellas.

we

study of his epics,

Lists The
were were

find the

germs

of

many

other
contained

studies.
in them.
to

made

of the unusual

words
each

tions relaall

of the

gods
be

to

other

and

mankind
An
an

thought
from the

to

explained by
or

Homer.

apt quotation opponent

the in

Iliad
as

Odyssey
a

would

silence

debate,
would what
the

as effectually a

pointed text
the the

from

Bible

end
the

controversy among
Bible
is to

Puritans.

Indeed,

Hebrew
Testament what the

orthodox

Jews, what
tians, Chris-

New and

is to the Koran poems

orthodox

Protestant

is to orthodox
were

Muhammadans,

"

this the Homeric

to

the

early Greeks.

12

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

reverence

for
at

Homeric time when

learning was
their

entertained

among

them

the

authentic minds

historybegins.
of
men

Its strong influence

affected the

in later
to
see.

centuries,
Even in

as

we

shall

presentlyhave
its existence which
was

occasion

our

own

days

is discernible scholars

in the have

minutely
made upon
same

critical studies

modern
even

regardingevery topicthat by
Homer.1
It may
was

touched casually

be

added
to

that

much

of the of the

which inspiration

ascribed

the author
to

Iliad and

the

Odyssey, was
called
and

also attributed

the minor

poets, commonly
imitated round
one
a or

the

Cyclic Poets,
themselves
There
were

who
a

largely
certain

Homer

confined

within

cycleof

tradition.

two really

cycles,
the

to Mythic Cycle, relating

the

of genealogies and
to

gods
and

and

the other the

battles
a

of the

Titans

cosmogony; stories
nected con-

the

Trojan Cycle,based
War. The
at

upon

with

Trojan
the

most
one

celebrated of the
time

Cyclic poems
Homer,
but

were

Cypria,
or

ascribed

to

later to

Stasinus of

Hegesias,the Mthiopis
to

of Arctinus, and

the Nostoi

Agias, not

mention the

the

parodies by Pigres.2There
1

were

likewise

so-called

See,

for

example, Seymour, Life in

xiii-xvi (New

the Homeric and

Age, Adam,

with The

liography the bib-

pp.

York, 1908) ;

Religious
of

Teachers
2

of Greece, pp. 21-67 (Edinburgh, 1908).

chief

The

authority for

the

Cyclic poets is preserved by

The

the

Chrestomatheia
See

Proclus Der

(412-485a.d.)in
York, 1898);
B. Munro and

the extracts

Photius.

Welcker,

Epische Cyclus (Bonn, 1865); Lawton,

for the Journal

Successors word

of

Homer

(New by
D.

meaning

of the Studies

a cyclicus,

paper

in The

of Hellenic

(1883).

14

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

"

tyrant,"the
to

brilliant and
committed the

who sagaciousPisistratus, work Homeric followed

is
a

said

have

(about 530 B.C.) to

commission Pisistratus

of four

learned have

In this, specialists.1
out
a

is said to

plan
The

conceived tradition

by

his

relative and
to

predecessor,Solon.
tradition and
as

referred

is

merely a

is based

only

upon

the

authorityof

later writers

such

Cicero, Pausanias,
the

Josephus, Libanius, and

of this standard
accurate. necessarily

Tzetzes.
text

Therefore
to

tion ascripis not credit

Homeric
It

Pisistratus
custom to

has

been

the

Pisistratus
"

with

an

number extraordinary
artistic.

of

innovations,
he is said plied sup-

and social, political, literary, have enforced poor

a

Thus,
to

to

series of cattle betake

sumptuary
and
seed

laws;
so

have

the

with and

that

they might

leave have

Athens erected

themselves

to

to agriculture;

beautiful and
to

buildings;to
have
und

have the

regulatedthe superb
festival

rites religious
1

instituted

See

Flach, Peisistratos
The Greek

seine

litterarische

(Tubingen, Thtttigkeit
part in the
Herodotus

1885).
that work.
nor a

grammarian

Diomedes, quoted by Villoison, says

men

staff of seventy It has been

nor

(or seventy-two)
in
nor

of letters took that all neither

noticed Plato

modern

times

Thucydides
Homer and

Aristotle,who
any

frequently mention
whatever
to

both

makes Pisistratus, of the Homeric

text.

allusion So

this alleged

recension that modern

to

is this omission, significant

are

students

of the

subject (forexample, Wilamowitz)

Pisistratus has
any

posed disat
as

deny that the story about

may

basis of

fact

all.

One

hold

more

moderate for purposes

opinion and
of

regard Pisistratus
at

having rearranged the

festival, yet with
no

text

of recitation

the Panathenaic See

minute

consideration

lines. particular

infra, p.

20.

GENESIS

OF

PHILOLOGICAL

STUDIES

IN

GREECE

of the
to

Greater his

Panathenaea;

to

have

encouraged Thespis
thus moting proin

produce
the

primitivetragediesat Athens,
and open
to
a

Drama;

have

been

the

first person

Greece

to collect and

for publicuse. library of

a

Hence
Homeric
case

it is natural
text

that the establishment have

matter

standard

should
not

been

ascribed
he

to
or

Pisistratus.
some one

In any

it does

whether is
reason

else

brought
he
pelled com-

it into form.

There

for
to
a

supposing that

the
of the

publicdeclaimers according to
a

recite the different definite

portions
and is

poems that

arrangement;
in his time Homer made very few
text

indeed

recension the

was

undertaken

since highlyprobable, writers

quotationsfrom

by

priorto
The

the

Alexandrian

period exhibit
themselves made that

slight
portant imof
was

variations.

Alexandrians We may

changes.
Homer
read is five

be

confident
with the and

our

identical substantially
hundred years
one

that

which

before
hundred

beginning

of the

Christian from

era.

Thus,
are

fifty-two passages
after and four
a

Homer

cited

by twenty-ninewriters
amount to

cluding in-

Herodotus. and which

They

about

hundred
lines

but they eightylines,

are

contain

less than

dozen

not

in the
ever

ordinarytext.1
made of
an

If Pisistratus the also

1

Homeric
two
"

text, it

was

not
we

only
hear

official text of
"

the
"

great epics,since
civic

city editions
Die

or

editions," which
erwesen

See

Ludwich,

Homer-vidgata

als

voralexandrinisch

(Leipzig, 1898).

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

were

standards
at

each
so

in its

own

country.1 The
should
as

important
be
now,

fact is that

early a period there

Criticism
must

found
many upon
"

beginning
sources

of

Text

in have

which,
been
to
a

of

knowledge

drawn certain

chronology,history, geography, and,

aesthetics, more
It is of the especially remember

extent,

aesthetics of that

language.
was as

to interesting

Solon
Iliad
so

accused
to

a having interpolated

line in the

make

it appear

that the Athenians that Pisistratus had

had

taken
a

part in the Trojan

line in the the

War,
so as

and
to

inserted
of

Odyssey
hero

bring in
We

the

name

Theseus,

national
as

of

Athens.

have, therefore, as
of all the times
"

early

the sixth

century, indications
critics in modern

difficultieswhich

beset text
due
to

variant

editions,errors

others due carelessness,

to

to

and ignorance,

also conscious
Nor

teratio alwas

suit the

purpose whose the

of the transcriber.
text

Homer

the is in

only
a

author
to

suffered in this way;

Onomacritus and
was

for there

story

effect that

detected
was

alteringthe
for it.

oracles

of Musaeus

that he

punished
There is some

in the legendthat significance of Homer

was

the first carefully

prepared edition
1

made

in

Athens, rather

Seven

of these

"

city editions

"

are

noted

"

the

Massalotic, the Sithe Lesbian. these

nopic, the Chian, the Cyprian, the Argive,the Cretan, and

The first four
were were

Ionic, and
to

the

last three

were

jEolic. from Greek

All of the

editions

supposed

have

been

copies made
The

archetype
for

prepared under
editions
"

the direction

of Pisistratus.

term

"city

is ^86creis

/card ir6\"s.

GENESIS

OF

PHILOLOGICAL

STUDIES

IN

GREECE

than
a

among

the Asiatic Ionians, who

of culture. Athens of the
was

had

represented
to

higher form

destined

come be-

the intellectual centre

it had
not

Greek
Ionia

world,though
has

yet

won

supremacy.

the with

credit

of

having

first established of
we

regular schools
in Homer

paid

teachers for the purpose

The

education. impartinga general

read
was,

teachingof which

of course, music

trainingwith physical
medicine.
Doric The

some

instruction

in

and the

instruction given to youths in public

as

States such

Sparta
The

and

Crete

had

very much

the

same care

character.1 the

Bidiaei and
was

Paedonomi, under
age
use

whose
seven, arms,
as
a

Spartan boy
the young in

placed after the

of
of

trained and
man

gymnastics,in the

in choral
was

education singing. For such literary

only reading, expectedto possess (usually

he little arithmetic)
was

and writing, instruction

dependedchiefly upon
his parents.

the

which

givenby

It is stated

by Plutarch copies of

that

the

Lycurgus brought semi-mythical

poems
to

the

Homeric them
a

Sparta,and

made

knowledge of

requirementin the Spartan schools;

but if so, this must travelled in Asia

have been due to the fact that he had

Minor and

had

introduced abroad.

at

home

practicewhich

he

had

observed

Among

the is

Ionians, however, literary teachingin regular Schools

found
as

earlyas
were

the in

seventh
a

century

B.C., and

as

these and
and

schools
1

then
Source

very

prosperous

condition (Greek

See

Monroe,
c

Book

of the History of Education

Roman

Period) (New York, 1901).

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

very

largelyattended, they
Herodotus year 500

must

have mentions
at

been
a

established

long before.
in Chios

(vi. 27)
B.C.;

boys' school
of the
own

in the

and

the time left their first

vasion in-

of Xerxes, when and did took

was

the

Athenians
one

city

refuge at Trcezen,
to

of the school

thingsthey

arrange their

for their

system during the

period

of

temporary

exile.1 The

Mitylena^ans
of the

allies by deprivingthem punished disloyal maintain

rightto
state

schools.

Charondas, about 650

in

B.C., made

for literary instruction provision The

Sicily.2
to

teaching

of literature
an

appears

have

been

veloped, de-

firstof all, as The

adjunct to
of
to

instruction

in morals.

earliest intellectual exercise

boys

at

school, and
the the

probably before they had begun study of

the Homeric the poems.

attend

school,was

This the

even anticipated

of learning

alphabet; for

alphabetwas
the

first taught

by

the

while ypafifiaTi(TT^"i, recited

to

the Iliad and

Odyssey were urged

to

read learn

and them of the

growing boys, who

heart.
a

were

graduallyby epics was

the
not

But

the

earlyappreciation

at all; literary appreciation

and
must

to

understand

prominence given to
which
not
so

this

study,we
took

remember

the

view peculiar He
was

the

Greeks the
a

with

regard to
master

Homer. of heroic

much
rather

great
moral with

poet, the

verse.

He drew

was

teacher, an

ethical
1

guide, who

his characters

10. Plutarch,Themistocles,

Diodorus

xii. 12. Siculus,

GENESIS

OF

PHILOLOGICAL

STUDIES

IN

GREECE

19 the
as

conscious

purpose
men

of

exhibitingin
emulate
was or

their shun.

actions As late

that qualities
Horace

should

who,
we

like all find this

Romans,
same

great lover of the

concrete,
"

thought expressed.
he says
at
us

While

you

are
"

declaiming at Rome,"
I have

to

his

friend the
more

Lollius,

been

reading over
who

Praeneste and is is

writer

of the

Trojan War,
either is

tells
or

better
what

than clearly

Chrysippus
what is

Crantor

noble
not." And

and

what

base,

expedient and

what

farther
are

"

on,

Again,

as

to

what has

virtue
set

and

dom wisus a

able to

he effect, person

(Homer)
of
on

before

useful model The

Homer We

in the

Ulysses."
a

strenuous
was

insistence

thorough knowledge
his moral formal the
a

of

therefore
must

to due, first of all,

ing. teach-

remember
was

also that

the

education than of

given in
it is

school
us.

much says

less valued
in his Laws
so

by
that
to

Greeks

by

Plato necessary

knowledge
one

writingis
to

only
and range

far

as

enable
or

barely elegance
There

write

and

read;
of

that to write fast of

with

is outside may
even

the

ordinary

education.

have

existed,as

MaharTy suggests, a prejudice

it would recall

against clear
the
were

and

because regularscript,
which
was

writing in
slaves.
"

books
we

done
a

by copyistswho
writes
"

When

say that

person

clerkly

hand the

the remark Greek

is not

altogether complimentary. Hence,

with
more
or

average

probably wrote

less diffi-

20

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

and culty, the

most

did not

have,

as

rule, much
as

occasion he

to

use

accomplishment.
of it. it
came

But
was

inasmuch the
more

memorised

his

he learning,

deeply saturated

with So
Homer

about
in As
a

that
a

the very

universal

with familiarity criticism

"

resulted poems.

general

of It

the
was

Homeric

Mr.

Saintsburywell
acute

says,

that impossible

people so

and

so

philosophically
without

given as

the

Greeks, should
to

be soaked

in Homer

being tempted poems."

men *

exercise
was

their critical faculties upon

the

Such
to

indeed themselves

the

case;

and
a

thoughtful
great moral

began
who

ask

whether
as

teacher
and

the gods represented

faithless, deceitful,
at

debauched

could
and

be

reallya

moralist
were

wise, all. Likewhich

contradictions

statements to

pointedout
Then

knowledge showed practical

an

be

untrue.
a

began

attempt
of

to

give an

or allegorical

pretation rationalistic interhis

Homer,

which

should
the

preserve

authority
life. We

and

yet reconcile it with

of the

facts of human
at

find traces

Solar

Myth

about which

this

time, and

genious in-

like those interpretations writers have is

"

the

Rabbinical
Here
not

of the Hebrew given of portions of

Bible.
"

the

beginning
"

Literary

Criticism for

though
to do

literary
mere

in the

rightful sense,
and
not

it had

chiefly
other

with

words

the form
a

of Homeric

and

poetry.
1

Nevertheless, it was

beginning;and
10-12

in succeedYork, 1900).

Saintsbury, A

i. pp. History of Criticism,

(New

22

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

new

form the

of

and religion

of

philosophy, while
to

he
the

was

first great mathematician

In

arise among

Greeks.

fact,as earlyas the

to

seventh

matics century, mathewhich

began
the

be

studied, (mainly geometry)

the

Greeks
l
"

learned

from

Egyptians.
in
our

Dr. go to

marks: Cajori re-

Just as

Americans

time

Germany
of the all
sat

to

study, so early Greek

scholars

visited the
...

land

pyramids. Thales, (Enopides, Pythagoras

at the feet of the

for Egyptian priests

instruction.

While

Greek
our

culture

is,therefore,not
admiration.
once

it primitive,

commands of

enthusiastic Greek the

at

The

mind speculative

the

transcended of

questions pertaining
It

merely to

wants practical

everyday life.

pierced study

into the ideal relations of

of science
as

thingsand

revelled in the

science."

Thales
and with

introduced
him
to

the

study

of Geometry

into

Greece

begins the study

square

of scientific Astronomy.
as

The

attempt

the circle is

old

as

Anaxagoras.
matics. Mathethe it

All of the Ionic

pursued philosophers
stands

the

study of

Pythagoras,however,
life and
were,
'See
a

alone.

Around

of personality
mist

this great
as

genius there hangs,as envelopsall

to

of tradition such
Greek

of the most (Dublin, 1889);

Allmann,
La

Geometry from

Thales

Euclid

Tannery,

Geomelrie

Grecque (Paris,1887); (New York, 1907).

and

A History of Cajori,

Elementary Mathematics
2

An

abstract

of

of geometry history

in

Greece, written by Eudemus,

the first book

is

preservedin the commentaries

by Proclus (412 a.d.)on

of Euclid.

GENESIS

OF

PHILOLOGICAL

STUDIES

IN

GREECE

23

remarkable

characters of
was

from history, island

Moses of

to

Napoleon.
but after

Pythagoras

born and the

in the

Samos,

visiting Egypt
at

made East, he finally where Italy,

his residence

Crotona,

in

Southern
of

he

established
from the
to

cult the members

which, drawn
a

mainly
under

the

tocratic aris-

formed class, of

brotherhood
bound

leadership study his

of

Pythagoras. They
of

were

by

vow

theories
them

and religion
the

philosophy.
and

Three

hundred

formed

highest caste;

they

were

admitted

only by Pythagoras himself, who

judged

them
was

largely
thing some-

through his knowledge of physiognomy.

mystic
about the all this,for maxim

There
an
"

they took

oath

of secrecy

accordingto
not to

of their master:

Everything is
them

be

told to

everybody." Pythagoras taught

an

temperance,
which

and self-control,

ethical
"

righteousness
music of the of the

should

make
is to

their lives reflect

say, the order

the

spheres,"that
universe.

and
ran

harmony through

This

of harmony principle

all the
metic, arith-

Pythagorean teaching, which

geometry, and
tells how

comprised music,
There is
a

astronomy.
the

story which
scale

he discovered

relations of the musical

various sounds

by accidentally observing the by

and hammers of different

produced
an

weights striking upon

anvil,
those

suspending by stringsother
hammers. respective the so-called the Pons He

weights equal
is said to in have

to

of the

covered first disIn

Asinorum

geometry.
souls
"

Religion he taught

transmigrationof

doc-

24 trine which of all

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

he had

probably learned

in India. his

The

essence
no

thingsis Number, accordingto

name

teaching;but

works, bearing the existing

His among influence the among

of

Pythagoras,are Greeks, and

great;
so

uine. gen-

the
was

Italian very

wards afterthe

Athenians,

that

Pythagorean
in the
arose,

cult endured

for many

centuries.1
School of

Finally,

sixth

century, the Eleatic

among its most

philosophy

numbering

teachers, distinguished
as

Xenophanes, already mentioned

Homeric of whom but that idea of

having rejectedthe
and

God,
that

with the

Parmenides
senses

Zeno, both
us

asserted

cannot

teach

truth,

is apprehended only by verity

the mind.2
with

The

study

of

nature, which

began

the Homer

Ionian had his

School, led

to the

originof
of

another

science.

long

been

the

basis

geographicalknowledge.
the other

On

statements, Hesiod
It may

and

early poets had depended.

interest in of
tirely en-

be

said
far

without
as

exaggeration that
existed before

geography, so
the seventh

it had
was

the middle
the

century,
the

spread
of Homer.

among The

Greeks

through

poems

children in the
of the

schools,and the

elders who

heard

the declamations
the

rhapsodes,thus
1

became

acquainted with

cities, rivers,
et

Die Pytkagoreer (Posen, 1841); Chaignet, Pythagore Gleditsch, his so-called Golden

la

Philosophic Pythagorienne (Paris, 1873). For

see

Verses,

edition Gottling's

of

Hesiod

(Gotha, 1843); and

Schnee-

berger,Die goldenen Spriichedes Pythagoras (Munnerstadt, 1862).

'Windelband,
translation

History of Ancient

Philosophy, pp.

46-52. English

(New York, 1899).

GENESIS

OF

PHILOLOGICAL

STUDIES

IN

GREECE

2$ logue Catatribes.

and

mountains of

of

Greece, and
the
names

from (especially of the

the

Ships) with

Hellenic

But

after first-hand
men

knowledge
to
so

had
a

been
more

gained by travel,
exact

learned

began

formulate
that

view

of

physicalgeography,

with

them of

the

science
is said world
as

of
to

Geography began.1 Anaximander

have made upon be.
a

Miletus of the

largescale
His

map

he

supposed it to
constructed
a

Hecataeus compatriot,

(c. 500 B.C.),

2

bronze

a globe, on plaque or possibly

which

the
were

sphereof

the

the earth,
of

sea, and

the

courses

of the rivers
not

given. Maps

countries,however, had
were

come yet becollected

notes important; though descriptive

from
In

persons
manner

who

travelled
the data

on

business

or

from

curiosity.

this

necessary
were

for the

preparation

of
To who

Descriptive Geography
this the

gradually accumulated.
were

great contributors
western coast

Hanno

of

Carthage,

exploredthe
and

of

his countryman Africa,

as

Himilco,
contact

such the

of

the

Greeks
and

came

into

direct

with the

Persians

Egyptians.3 Hecataeus
adding
a

corrected of

chart of Anaximander,

tary commen-

which

fragments

are

preserved in quotations.4
written

This

is the firstgeographical work

by

any

Greek.

See Bunbury, A

History of Ancient

Geography (London, 1883).

de Dicouvertes des Anciens

aX"^f""" nlvaZ (Herod, v. 125).

JSee

Antichan,

Les

Grands 34-.35Th.

Voyages

(Paris,

1891); and
4

infra, pp.
by
on

Edited
Schaffer

C.

and

Miiller

(Paris,1841).

See

the

monograph

by

Hecataeus

(Berlin, 1885).

26

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Writers like Anaximander observations

to

and

Hecataeus

committed

their

Prose. in

Until

their time, poetry had

"

been

employed
followed But

even

discussion philosophical
in later times
cast

an

example
Romans. of

by

Lucretius

among the

the

descriptive geography
form, though

aside

restraints

metrical
character.

still maintaining a

highlypoetical
true

Only by degrees did

filled with

it become
turns

prose,

but

was

phrases and
writers.
x

of

rowed borexpression

from
were

the
as

epic

Those
and

who

employed

it

known

Logographi;
their

presently they began

to

mingle,with
remarks
not

of countries,anecdotes descriptions

and

geographical. In strictly

their works,
was

we therefore,

find the

which beginningsof History, annals very

at

first nothing more

true

than
comes

simply written.
Herodotus, who
with

Its fully skil-

development
combined

later with

descriptive geography
also with the
name

the

story of

nations, interwoven
that him he of
"

personalobservations, so
Grafenhan
has

deserves
the

which

given

Humboldt
seen

of

Antiquity."
of the

Thus

it will be

that out
the

study and
of many

criticism kinds of

of Homer

there

came

elements

learning. Homeric

study

fostered

mathematical,

graphical geo-

as and philosophical research,just astronomical,

it led other

poets

to

write

in

imitation

of

their

great
as

model.
a

Though

Homer

ceased gradually

to be

viewed

universal

teacher, yet the devotion

1

of the

Greeks,

so

"Koyoypdcpoi.

GENESIS

OF

PHILOLOGICAL

STUDIES

IN

GREECE

27

long given
it endure
a

to

his

poetry, exercised
the
time His

an

influence
he lines
was

which held

made
to

far

beyond

when

be
a

wholly inspired
man's

writer.

great

had
His
were

become

part of every
his

intellectual

equipment.
utterances,
of

phrases,
as

epithets, his
in the Bible the

many

gnomic

firmly
of
in

embedded

daily speech
and
of of

the

Greeks,
are

as

those

the
our

English
own.

Shakespeare
him
we

embedded
the
sources

In

study

are

to

find

of

Greek

learning.
and

Afterward,
in

while
men

forsaking
still turned

him
to

as

guide
a

in morals
master

science,

him

as

great strong

of

language

and

an

unconscious

model

of

yet harmonious
"

expression.
addition
to

[Bibliography.
chapter,
i
see

In

the works der de Essai

cited

in the

preceding Philologie,

also
;

Grafenhan, Reinach,
;

Geschichte Manuel

Classischen

(Bonn,
2

1843)

Philologie
sur

Classique,
de la

2d

ed.

vols.
chez

(Paris, 1885)
les Grecs
pp.

Egger,

VHistoire A

tique Cri-

(Paris, 1887);
1-51,

Sandys,

History

of

Classical Homer

Scholarship, i.

2d

ed.

(Cambridge,
Griechische

1908); Jebb,
AlterthUmer, Study (London,

(Glasgow,

1887);
;

Schdmann,
Handbook

4th

ed.
;

(Berlin,1897)
Cara,
Gli

Browne,

oj Homeric 1902);
York,

1005)

Hethei

Pelasgi
5

(Rome, (New

E.

Curtius, History 1872);

oj

Greece, Eng.
What and have
the

trans.,
Greeks

vols.

1868-

Mahaffy,
York

done

for

Modern

Civilisation?

(New

London,

1909).]

II

THE

PR^E-ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

(500-322
Throughout in the

B.C.)
seventh

sixth had

and

centuries,

acy suprem-

Greek

culture
To

been
due in the

held
the

by

the

Ionians

of

Asia
which Hellas

Minor. have

them

were

intellectual

efforts In had

been

described

preceding chapter.
and

proper,
a

however,

both
which
was

Athens

Sparta

achieved

prominence
wise and

full of rule of

latent

ties. possibiliand
at

The
tratus

temperate
and the

Solon
which

Pisis-

in

Athens,

institutions

Sparta
each of

were

ascribed
States best

to Lycurgus, had traditionally to

fitted

these
are

play
in

the

important
Athens

roles
and

by

which

they
were

known in almost

history.

Sparta

different

every

respect.

Athens

was

democratic,

brilliant, and

given

first of

all to
to

intellectual
a

activity. discipline,

Sparta
and States

was

aristocratic, subjected
of all for

strict

caring first
had

warlike

power.1
control
that

These
over

two

been which

gradually
touched

acquiring
own;
so

the sixth

territories

their

in

the

century
1

they
Jannet,

became

possessed
Sociales
.

of

civilisation
2d

based (Paris,

See

Les

Institutions

d
. .

Sparte,

ed.

1880).
28

30 Marathon under
ten
were
a

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

(490 B.C.).
Datis and

One

hundred
were

thousand

Persians

Artaphernes
under

pitted there
The

against
Asiatics

thousand routed

Athenians with

Miltiades. the Athenian

great loss,and

sent victory

thrill of Modern
was

triumph throughout all

historians

Hellas.
of exploit that F. nians the Athebeen says, for
a

believe that the

exaggeratedthen, and greatly

ever

it has

misunderstood
"

since.

Professor

K.

Geldner
battle

Probably

the

Greeks,
the

after

having
as

avoided

long time,
and

fell upon

Persians

they

were

departing, already
had have
was
manded com-

after especially
*

their

powerful cavalry had

and
Darius energetic

embarked."

If the able

in person, different. effect

a

the result would

all

doubtless

been in

Making

allowances, however, it
since the
to

victory for Athens,

and
to
a

Persians

abandoned

the

campaign
once

returned

Asia.

Therefore, Athens
influence
new

leaped at
enhanced

of great position years

which

was

when,

ten

later,the
An

Persian army and

to

king,
under

Xerxes, sought vengeance.

his command marched

enormous

through

Macedonia

Thrace,

and The

an

overwhelming

fleet sailed forth

Thessalonica. suffered Athenian the fleet

Spartans, who
of

now

rushed

to

arms,

glorious defeat
routed the

Thermopylae
off in

The while

Persians

Salamis;

both

Athenians

and

Spartans united
behind
also

the shattering fortifications at

disordered
Plataea.

troops

of Persia
1

their

Finally,

Sec

Schauer, Die Schlacht bei Marathon

(Berlin,1893).

THE

PR^-

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

the

Ionians,

on

the

same

day, being encouraged by

off
once more

the

sightof
of their who

Grecian
servitude
out

ships,shook
and

the

shackles
men

destroyedthe sixtythousand
been

remained Xerxes.1
two

of the great host that had

led forth

by

The

Persian

Wars

may

seem

to

have

had

no

direct
in

relation to the

historyof
Greeks

Classical
to

Philology;yet

fact,

by compelling the
these

put forth
them

all their power, into

dinary extraor-

splendid triumphs
wherever activity

stimulated
race was

the

Such represented.2

stimulation
serve
as

is the
a
so

result of every
of human Wars

great

war,

and

it may

well
which wasted

vindication
in heavily The Punic

many

historic in

struggles

have

cost

life and led at Rome The

Civil with

apparently
to the

treasure.

first

real

floweringof

Italian
a

genius.

Wars

which

ravaged Italy in triumphs

of the

later century ended

the

golden
so

Augustan Age.
the

France

was

never

in as glorious, intellectually,

under battle-years
Wars.

Louis

XIV,

and

again amid

the

Napoleonic

The

heroic

of England againstSpain struggle Period

made

the Elizabethan
of literature and

superblymemorable
so

in the annals

science; and
1

did her

contest stubborn, unrelenting

with

See

Cox, The
for in

Greeks

and the

the Persians remarkable

(New York, 1897).

'Note,
Athenians

example,

activity displayed by
Men the urgent advice of the

the

and rebuilding and

even

enlargingtheir city'swalls.
this

of every

station, women,

under children, in

mighty
even

Themistocles,engaged
tombs
to

work, tearing down

walls.

temples

and

afford

material

for the

32 the Corsican

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Emperor,
a

when

at

times in her

she stood ultimate

entirely
success.

alone, with
Warfare
of men,
on

haughty

confidence

great scale brings into play all the energies

and physical
and mental. its defeats. of
ease

both

It

them inspires It leads and the

alike
to

by
cast

its victories aside their of

by

nations

love inglorious
once

lets the fierce and intellect,

joy
the

conflict stir at

the

senses,

imagination.
it is that
a we

Hence
of

find in the

Persian

Wars for the had

the

ning begin-

great and
most

splendid career
Athens,
as

Hellenic
won

States, and

of all for in the

which
rouse

such

brilliant victories
and
to

field
the

to

Hellenic
the
centre
now

pride
of all for

make

the
arts
as

cityof
well
were

violet

crown

Hellas, in
the rise of

as

arms.

We

must

look

men

who

really great, and

which had

for the

ment develop-

of those

studies
two

been

only nebulously
Certain of the
tends ex-

visible in the
men

preceding centuries.
famous

who from

became

early in
of the

this

period,which
Wars
to the

the outbreak their had

come

Persian

death

of

Aristotle,won
which

chief distinction
to

through

the

spirati in-

them

because among

of the Persian these

was

assault
Theban

on

Greece.

Conspicuous

the The

Pindar, greatest of
were

all the

lyric poets.
was no

Thebans

of Athens; yet jealous

Pindar

local
his pour

poet, but the laureate of the whole

exultation
over

Hellenic

race;

and
to

the defeat of the

Persians

led him
of

forth vivid, joyous lines, ringingwith

the note

patriotic

THE

PILE-ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

33

pride.
him
a

Because

of

this,his fellow-Thebans
the Athenians

imposed
to

on

which heavy fine,

paid back

him

twofold
The

besides
mention
was

a erecting

statue

in his honour.
us

of

Pindar

leads
with The

to

note art

that
among

Lyric
the

Poetry
^olians
most

first cultivated and the Dorians. of

conscious

lyricin general is the

it must have existed in

form primitive

poetry, and
a

the earliest ages, at least in

utterance

rude form, for it is the spontaneous

"

of emotion

ual individat first absolutely

of the

a concomitant self-expression,

dance, a primitive

vocal
after

of expression

the

"

play instinct,"seekingnaturally
This
which Then which

rhythmic movement.1
measure,

itself originally expressed

is the
was

in the trochaic form among the all

metrical primitive

peoples.

developed very gradually

find in Homer.
the Side

hexameter dactylic
this

we

by

side with
was

hexameter, however,
in song.

lighter lyrical
Iambic

movement

cultivated
a

Elegiac and

Poetry
and Melic
was

forms
so

transition
to
was

from
the
verse

epic to lyric composition,

Ionians. intended
or Purely lyrical

known

Poetry, which

to

be

sung

to

musical
artistic

accompaniment, was shape

700
from

not

Ionic,but first received

Antissa in Lesbos
as

Terpander of
In the ^Eolic

earlyas

B.C.

Alcaeus of Mitylene lyric,

his

imitated by Horace),and (later

gave
'See

contemporary, Sappho,
So the

it

complete and
Scherer,Poetik

varied

form.

jovial poems

W.

(Berlin, 1888); and

Peck, Literature (New

York, 1908).
D

34

HISTORY

OP

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

of

Anacreon
time.

(550 B.C.)
Yet it
was

were

composed
a

earlier than raised

Pindar's

Pindar,
at

Dorian, who

choral poetry to its highestform with Wars, together ides.1

The

the time his

of the Persian

Simonides

and

nephew, Bacchyl-

splendid
led
Herodotus

victories of

of

Hellas

over

its

eastern to

foes
write which

Halicarnassus
in nine
must
B.C.

in

Asia books

Minor
at
a

his remarkable is

narrative

date the

uncertain,but
the keen
"

which

have

been

about
a

middle

of

fifth

century
a

Herodotus,

great

a traveller,

observer,
the Father
a

collector of
of
sort

facts, interesting
We have
seen,

has been

styled

History."
had who
a

however, that

history of
was

been
cast

written aside

by
the

the

Logographi.2 It
annalistic
once

Herodotus
wrote

dry

form

and

in

prose

style that

is at it

simple, attractive, and

a

highly picturesque,for
This

retains

deep tinge of poetic colouring.

yet pleasingwriter took
Persian Wars. It

genial,

learned, and
his

for the

subjectof
a

history the epic of

the

is, indeed,
Hellas shows: and
"

great East,

prose
as

conflict between of the first book the that

the

the first sentence

11

This

is

of publication
to

researches the that deeds the

of Herodotus of
men

of
not

Halicarnassus,
be obliterated Mattel,
to
2

the end

may
won-

by time, and

great and
the

See

Die

1892); and griechischen Lyriker (Berlin,

Melic Poets

duction intro-

Smyth's

Greek

(New York, 1900).

See p. 26.

THE

PRJS-

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

35 and
"

derful achievements
may
to
not

wrought
be

both

by

Greeks

by

barians bar-

divested
cause

of their

glory
to

and,
wage

over, more-

explain the

which

led them

war

upon

each other." with Herodotus

was

Contemporary
lene,of
lived to the
was

Hellanicus

of

Mityhe

whose
a

works

only fragments remain. dying

new

Though
none

very

old age,

in

406

B.C., he had

of

charm literary

of the

prose.

Nevertheless, he
like
a

the first writer to introduce

something

logical chrono-

arrangement
and

into the traditional records his views

a

of

history
cepted ac-

mythology;
for
more

and than

regarding them
after of his

were

century
student

death.

He His

likewise

was

profound

Genealogy.

records, though having littleliterary value, were

service
to

of much
notes

the made

later

historians; while
his extensive

the

of

Herodotus
mine

during
on

travels

were

rich

for writers

DescriptiveGeography.
Wars
War

Just as
so

the Persian

had

given Herodotus

theme,

the

Peloponnesian
who

(431-404 B.C.) inspiredthe

ever

greatesthistorian cydides (471-c.

of this 399

has

written. who

This
wrote

was

Thu-

an B.C.),

Athenian

history
two
"

epoch-making struggle waged

of Hellas for the supremacy

between

the

leadingStates
Athens allieson
and

of the race,

her allies on

the

one

side,and
was

Sparta and
of wealth

her
and

the other. His

Thucydides

man

character. became
an

fine intellect had

been

cultivated until it
and delicacy,

instrument

of remarkable

power,

36
finish. and
on

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

He

had

on

the
an

one

hand

the

scientific

spirit,

the other hand

almost

unrivalled out, he

giftof literary
was

expression. When
of age, with

the

war

broke

fortyyears highest; and produced

a

all his

faculties at

their very
he

thus, most

the naturally,
*

historywhich
what he

in

eightbooks
for written with

has become all time

desired it to be,

session poshad
was

e? {jcrrjixa

det).

Herodotus narrative

great charm
anecdote and

of

style. His

illumined
He
was
a

by

the narration
on

of curious the
a

facts.

prose

poet.

Thucydides,

other

hand,

combined

with judicialimpartiality
Lord that

manly, moving
was

eloquence.
finest prose and
to

Macaulay
has
ever

said that

his prose

the

yet been

written

by

any
seems

man;2
often
more

this in
be

spiteof

what

to the modern

mind

extreme

obscurity. His
in that

is impartiality

the

remarkable
and in

he

was

writingcontemporaneous
an

tory, his-

that

he To

was

himself
Dr.

Athenian B.

and
"

took There

part
is

the

war.

quote

F.

Jevons:

production of hardly a literary

a
more

which

has posterity estimate he

a

tained enter-

uniformly

favourable

than
owes

the
to

history of Thucydides.
his
to
1

This

high

distinction

and undeviating fidelity

as impartiality

narrator;
he
the

the
The of

masterly concentration
eighth book
is

of
is

his work, in which

by
some

incompleteand

regarded as

not

work
2

Thucydides himself.
also said of himself

Macaulay

that while he might

of any other

perhaps dare
never

to

believe that

he could

equal the

prose of

he would writer,

attempt

to rival the seventh

book

Thucydides.

38
also
to
an

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Athenian, is the

third

great historian

to
a

givelustre
mercenary

the Prse-Alexandrian
a

Period.

Serving as

in

Greek

force raised

by Cyrus

the Persian, he recorded

a

his
to

in experiences

the Anabasis,

work

which

continues plicity simfacts

be

read and

in

our

secondary schools
its

both

for the for

vivacityof

narrative, and

the
in

observed
seven

by Xenophon
which make

and
up

recorded faithfully

the
an

books

the work.
and

Xenophon

as

historian he
is
an

is inferior to

Herodotus
his

Thucydides, but

admirable
Besides

writer,as

persistent popularity
a

well shows. Greece

the Anabasis, he wrote

of history

which (Hellenica)
work of

practically completed
unlike whom with the

the

finished un-

Thucydides,

he

wrote

with

in violent strong bias, of his

contrast

stern

partiali im-

predecessor.1 Xenophon composed

did

not

confine

but himself to historical writing, had

to do

treatises which

with

Political Science On

(theLacedcemonian

Polity,
well

the
as

Cyropadia, and

the Athenian the

most

Finances) as
famous

quasi-ethical monographs,
Memorabilia is not

of which in
a

is the

of

Socrates.

Xenophon
to

writes

dialect which

purelyAttic,owing
from

the

fact of his

long and
In the introduced

frequentabsences
histories of
set

his native and

country.2
there
are

Thucydides

Xenophon

conventionally speeches, supposed to

to by generals

have

been
1 2

delivered

their

troops, by
trans.

statesmen

See A. See

Holm, Griechische Geschichte;Eng. Croiset,Xinophon,

son

(London, 1894-99).
et
son

Alfred

Caractere

Talent

(Paris,

1873).

THE

PR^E-ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

39 and be

to

deliberative assemblies, by ambassadors

These

by

gogues. dema-

speeches do
are

not

pretend to

authentic
narrative
more

records.

They

inserted
with

to partly

enliven the

it by interspersing
to
sum

personaltouches, and
within the
utter.
a

ticularly par-

up

and effectively which

to

short

compass have in

the been

opinionsor arguments supposed

to

speakersmight They
form.
are

hold
not

and

true
rence occur-

substance
in

though

authentic

in

Their

historical

writing shows
become
an

that, during the fifth

Of
course,
a

century, Oratory had

kind

art.

certain

of

oratory, rude
far
one

and
in

extemporaneous,
the

must

have

been

known

back

prehistoric period, since

which make for rangued ha-

oratory is

of the

accomplishments
chieftain primitive when
are

statesmanship. The
his followers

undoubtedly
Even

occasion

arose.

in the

poetry of Homer
verse.

there

speechesset
oratory
"

down
was,

in hexameter
as

But

this

untutored

Professor

Sears The

describes

it, merely

protoplasmic eloquence."
was

basis psychological
of external power
as

of it
were

not

understood.

The

graces

form

not
came

yet taught by precept.

from

Such
the

oratory had,
some

and strong feeling

the minds
to

giftwhich

possess

of

swaying

and
them

imaginationsof something of

their hearers
own

by communicating
the end
to

their

passion. By
men

of the

sixth

century, however, educated

the

began
of

that recognise is

gift of eloquence,the
be

end in
a

which

persuasion,

could

acquired;so

that

treatise by philosophical

40

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Diogenes

of

Apolloniathere

is found

embodied,

"

like

trilobite in limestone,"the
"

rhetorical injunction, following

one

It appears
to

to

me

that

every

who

begins a

discourse
to

ought
the who
account

state

the

and subjectwith distinctness, and

make

stylesimple
were

dignified."
nation
to
so

In

fact, the

Greeks,

a essentially

of be

talkers, expected the

of

man's

actions

accompanied
all Hence

and

plained ex-

by

his

spoken words,
moral

that

might judge of
it
was

his intellectual and the time valued and Greek the

character.

that at

of the Persian
as

Wars, eloquence came

the

to be

highly

to indispensable

statesman,

the

diplomat,
to
use

commander Rhetoric

of

armies.

Oratory,or,
arose,

the

term,
the

thus (pTjTopiKrj),

comprising

both

and practical

the theoretical art of that it came

to

speaking. So

was earnestly
"

it cultivated Its

be called at last
one

the art of arts."

developmentwas

of the the

steps

which prose.

accompanied the decline Just as

prose the

of poetry and

rise of

supplanted the epic,and lyric

was

esque pictur-

narrative

to poetry, so gradually preferred

remove

oratory

"

still further
"

from

purely imaginative practical spread

came bethe

composition
life. of Its

helped to

assimilate
was

literature with of course,

to

rapid growth
which

due,

the

democracy by
the of gift

the

government

of the To

State

the assembled the

people.

dominate

reason, at

the

and impulses,

of prejudices

the

peoplewere

last the chief functions

1

of the art of oratory.

i. (Chicago, 1003).

See

Sears,The History of Oratory,ch.

THE

PRjE-

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

Already for
a

the

of legal and training

judicial pleading,
been
were

definite
'

though imperfectsystem had

set

forth. famous

Cicero
in

ascribes it to the SicilianGreeks, who love of

for their ready wit,their antiquity

coloured highly
The

language,and
first manual

their

passion for subtle argument.

instruct have
men

to professing

in the art of persuasive written

speaking is
of

said to

been

by
B.C.

Corax With
art of

Syracusein Sicily earlyin beginsthe

the sixth century

this date then Rhetoric.

formal
a

development of the
at

Corax

opened

school
down

Syracuse in which
in his

he his

laid taught the principles

Te^i^; and
made of
some

pupil,Tisias,of
to

whom

little is known,

additions

the

rules of Corax.2

Gorgias

Leontini

carried the study of Tisias, (485-380b.c),probablya pupil

of rhetoric to
to

Hellas

proper, whither

he went

as

an

bassador am-

ask for
From

protection againstthe encroachments

that time he had
a

of and

Syracuse.
another

residence in Athens

in the

cityof
as a

Larissa

in

Thessaly,winning
as

widespreadfame
teacher the
to
1

both

and publicspeaker
as

cal practiof

of rhetoric.

So far

any

evidences remain

of Gorgias, it seems teaching

a

plainthat his

rules looked

highly artificialand
rules divided
an

meretricious

styleof oratory.8
(2) narrative,

Brutus,46.
These

oration into five parts: (1) proem,

(3) arguments, (4) subsidiary remarks, and

Corax and
to
an sense

(5) peroration.Both
they called ef*6s,
oration
possesses

Tisias
say,

made

much

of
to

the truth

value which

of what in
an

that is
whole of

the

semblance
appear

makes
an

the

argument
of what

and therefore plausible

appeal

to man's
3

is just and
to him

right.
are

Two

orations ascribed

extant.

See

Blass,pp. 44-72.

42 Studied

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

a profusionof antitheses,

simile

and
a

metaphor, carefully
quence elo-

apostrophe,and
balanced

other
must

figures, togetherwith
have
made his most of

rhythm,
resemble

finished

the

so-called

Euphuism
in

John Lyly and

his fellow-Elizabethans. in

It was,

fact, a foreshadowing style of eloquence

orators.

Greece

of

the

so-called

Asiatic

adopted

in later times
a

by

some

of the Roman

At

Athens, however,
There
were

less affected

mode
who

of
were

eloquence prevailed. conspicuous

and whose

great
of the

orators

during

the

middle

fifth century B.C.,

manly, noble eloquence (the Attic style) gained littlefrom

such teachings
The Greece
as

those

of
"

Gorgias.
the

Age

of

Pericles
"

noblest

statesman

whom

produced
and the

was

cles periodof great splendour. Perithe States.

adorned

enriched

city with
Athens

the
to

wealth
him

tributed con-

by
Greece

allied
to

meant

just as
Under

Paris his

the French

people has long meant

architecture

France.

patronage, Greek

and

reached sculpture the

perfection. He
the He
was

planned the Parthenon,

many

Erechtheum,

Odeon,

and

like
as

magnificent
well
as

public edifices.
other which
arts.
were

encouraged
the
centre

literature
of
a

the
in

He

splendid group,

Thucydides, /Eschylus, Sophocles,Euripides,

and the

Pindar, Anaxagoras, Zeno, Protagoras,

Phidias sculptors gorgeous and

great

Myron.
crowned

Athens with all

was

brilliant with

festivals and The noblest

the laurels of
was

military
himself.

glory.

figure of

Pericles

THE

PILE-ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

43

Though

Thucydides opposed him,

Pericles
never

he

records generously
of his

the fact that

did neither

anything unworthy
flattered the and
that with

that high position,

he

people nor
all his
limited un-

oppressed his privateenemies,

command of

public money,
is said
to

he have

was

corrupt inpersonally instructed

to

Gorgias
Pericles and

both

Thucydides, but

the first Athenian

apply public
.

the rules of rhetoric

in speakingbefore practically
was

the

assemblies and the courts

was

Antiphon (480-411 B.C.) He

models the for rhetorical woven inter-

also the firstto

as publishspeeches

study.
in exhibit
a

If

we

examine

these

and

orations find that

the

historyof Thucydides, we

they

certain self-consciousness which

is fatal to effective

378 B.C.)shows oratory. Lysias (458-c.

grace,

and purityof style

Isocrates

though

he is

lackingin

energy.

(436-338

B.C.)is rightly regarded as

and properlyso called,

the

father of artistic oratory,

by

his mastery of

stylehe

fluence has in-

oratorical diction 'Lloyd,

Pericles
2

throughout all succeeding ages.2

vols.

The

2 Age of Pericles,

(London, 1875);
and

and

Abbott,
of

(London, 1801). (Milton's "Old

was

Isocrates

Man well it.

Eloquent"
known He

Cicero's "Father

Eloquence")
for his

perhaps

as

for his rhetorical

wrote

teaching as
be delivered
or

practicalapplicationof
he gave of

speeches to
of
1000 a

by others,and
$250, for
a course

instruction

at

the rate often

drachmae,
hundred The

about
a

lessons,and

he

had

pupils at
of

time, yieldinga paid

him
20 were

revenue

equivalentto $25,000.
a

king
copied
he

Cyprus
set

talents (about $22,000) for

not
was

singleoration.
but
were

These
and

speeches
wherever

merely

delivered On

once,

read
times some-

Greek from

understood.
ten

the

other

hand,

would

spend

five to

years

in

one perfecting

of these show

pieces.

44

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

He

spoke with
own

ease, his

adapting the language of the people

were periods

to his

usage;
an

and rhythmical; flowing

and tends

he had
to

instinctive

which knowledge of everything

the

of harmonious possibilities
was a

language.

It is

said that Cicero It

was

deep
the

student

of Isocrates.1

not

until

near

close of the

Prae-Alexandrian

Period

that the most

arose

of Greek magnificent representative person of Demosthenes. He

bined com-

oratory

in the

the

of Lysias, the persuasiveness

animation well

and

boldness
of

of

Thucydides, and
in

he

understood

the art
go

speaking
like

short, terse
to the minds

sentences

which

would

home
His

arrows

of

an

assembled shows
not

multitude.

superb oration

On

the Crown
resources

only

an

absolute
with and upon

mastery of all the

of rhetoric

employed

great intellectual power,

that

but

also

fervour patriotic

sinceritywhich
Corax of the

to the el/cos belongs essentially

which much
we

had

insisted.2
Greece
was

So
that

teaching in

given orally
an

may
to

perhaps find why

the
to

in this circumstance rhetorical of

tion explananow

as

oldest

text-book the fourth

in

existence
B.C.

belongs

the

middle

century
the

Corax, alreadymentioned, had

of
an

merely discussed
of

divisions

oration

and

the

manner

presentingits
(who,

arguments.

In the manual
wrote

written

by

Anaximenes
on

by the
'See

way,

nine

books

of criticism

Homer), the

1898);and Blass, Aitische Beredsamkeit,2d ed.,3 vols. (Leipzig,

1-34,

Jebb, Attic Orators,ii. pp.

1

2d ed.

(London, 1893).
last ed.

See

Butcher, Demosthenes,preface to

(London, 1903).

46

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

possible means

of

persuasion. Hence,
the

rhetoric

is the into

counterpart of Logic, and

its laws
are : as

of logic enter principles The and

uses

an

essential
means

part of them.
which and
truth

of rhetoric rise of

(i) the

by

justice may
the
means

superiorto

falsehood
are

injustice;(2)
to

that persuasion
means

suited

popular assemblies; (3) the

a case

of

seeing both
the weakness

sides of
of
an

and

of

thus

covering disand

adversary's argument;
own

(4)

the

means

of

defending one's
can

case

against all
The
means

possibleattacks
of

that
sets

be
as

made

upon

it.

persuasionhe
"

forth
as

follows:
sworn

(1) natural, "

artific innesses, wit-

proofs,such

the
and

testimony

of

documents, etc.;
are

which (2) artificialproofs,

either
or

(a) logical, involvingdemonstration

else

by
a

ment; argu-

when (b) ethical,

the

weight of
in his

speaker's

own

character

inspiresconfidence
he works their upon

hearers,and
his listeners

emotional,when

the

of feelings
or

by appealing to proof,he
says,

sympathies
upon the

prejudices.Logical
"

depends

of giving principle

syllogism from

probability." Of
common

the

nature

of
or

such

he distinguishes the syllogisms

topic

general

and to all subjects, head, applicable from

or arts, gifts, special a

the

special topicdrawn

circumstances. of

Following

division

Anaximenes,

rhetoric

was

divided into three kinds:

has to do with

(1) Deliberative Rhetoric,which

or

with exhortation
as

and persuasion

is concerned

future time

to

expediencyor inexpediency;(2)Fo-

THE

PILE-ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

47 defence and

rensic Rhetoric, concerned

with

relatingto
past
as

accusation
to

or

time

and or injustice; justice

to Rhetoric, relating (3) Epideictic

eulogy

or

censure,

and

usuallyconcerned
or

with The

the

present time
books
of

and

as

to

honour rhetoric
means

distress.
with

first two

Aristotle's
the

deal of

invention, i.e. the discoveryof

third book relates to
he

persuasion.The
arrangement.
of

sion exprestreats

and of the
which
art

Under

the latter head

consideringverbal expressionin delivery,

the
use

is included

of

metaphor, simile,and
of sentences, and of

terse

of the rhythm gnomic sayings, As

to

Style.

he style

notes

four varieties:

(i) the purelyliterary,

forensic.

and (4) the (3)the political, (2) the controversial,

Aristotle's Rhetoric and scientific treatise

It

is the
on

most

exhaustive, analytical,
ever

the
as

subjectthat has
has than been

been

written.

is, however,

truly said,the
that

philosophyof
His

rhetoric rather
mind
was

rhetoric

he

cusses. diswas

intensely analyticaland
causes;
so

always seeking for ultimate

field he
is forever The

that

even

in this
physical. meta-

verging upon

the

sphere of

the

great importance of the treatise is that it

way for Aristotle's Dialectic many of the
to be
or

prepared the
in turn

Logic, which
tions, classifica-

furnished

distinctions and used

in
a

destined afterward
of by the originators

different relation

Formal

Grammar.
as

Aristotle himself side with

regarded rhetoric

standing side by
process of insur-

since each logic,

relates to the

48

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

ing

conviction.
reach

The

orator

must

be

dialectician if he
his

would

the

highestexcellence
other
a

in

art; and
his

the

on dialectician,

the

hand, will make

of
a really

logicmost
of

effective Hence his

through

command

the

arts

oratory.
In

Aristotle's rhetoric is after he methods

has

dialectic science. his system of

Organon,

set

forth
man

logic,

he

developsthe
He

by
laws

which of

edge. arrives at knowlthe

discloses the
a

thinking and

modes

of

from cognition
an

study

of man's the

facultyof cognition,
nature
course

to gain striving

into insight

and

formation

of evidence he tries to under famous

ten

and

conclusion.

In the

of this human drew

are:

inquiry
edge knowlup his

all possible classify objectsof definite heads. In

so

doing, he
.

These Categories (prcBdicamenta)

stance, (i)sub-

(4) relation,(5) place, (2) quantity,(3) quality,

ing, time, (7)situation, (8)possession, (6) (9)action,(10)sufferthat these is to say, The passivity.1
to
mere

enumeration

of
are

serves categories

show

how

intimately they
we

connected formal

with

the

classification that

find

in

our

grammar.

them Because, in setting

a

totle forth,Arisfor the

provided
Alexandrian

terminology and
other

framework in the

and

grammarians
of
as

following
in which

period,he
both
1

has

been

spoken

the

source

criticism and
ten
or

grammar

find their
to two:

origin.2
(1) substance, tribute; (2)atAristotle's Rhetoric

These

reducible are categories really

(1) being,(2) accident.

353;

sDio

Cassius, liii.p.
with separately

Reiske

(294 R).
and

is

edited

notes

by Cope

Sandys, 3 vols. (Cambridge,

THE

PILE-ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

49

Rhetoric, language study, criticism,literary training,

and who

philosophywere
became famous
name

all under

popularised by
the
name

class of teachers

of

Sophists{ao^iarai).
any
one

the Originally

Sophist was

given to
of
some

who

a particular knowledge professed

subject; special
wellwho

but

about
men

450

B.C.

it

was

primarilyapplied to giftof ready speech and

educated

who

had

the

travelled from
return

and place to place lecturing tuition made

was

teaching in
middlemen minds
a

for

fee.

They

were

the
untrained

of

learningand
of what

to intelligible set forth

more

good deal
writers

profoundly by original
in the

and

thinkers.

They have their counterpart

who traversed the United
"

lecturers peripatetic

States from in

1830
the

to

i860, making addresses

teachers

before of the

lyceums,"and
last two
as

extension university of them

were men

decades.

Some

of great

such ability,

Gorgias

of Leontini,already mentioned; and

teacher of rhetoric in

a brilliant Protagoras, was

Athens, who
motto
"

the

first scientific
measure

individualist, taking as his

all that things," of is to say,

Man
man

is the
must

of
own

every is

be

his

standard

truth, since
was

truth

only relative and

of

not

absolute.
on

There

also Prodicus

Ceos, who
on

lectured

(opOoeireia), literary laying style great stress

Zeller,Aristotle (London, 1897). On
Gros, Etude
sur

the

right
of the

1877); and Greeks, see

the

rhetoric

la

chez les Grecques(Paris,1835); Rhetorique

Perrot, Les Prlcurseurs

sur

de

Demosthene

(Paris,1873); Girard, Etudes Philosophy of Rhetoric

V Eloquence

(Paris, 1847); and

Bascom, The

(New York, 1888).

E

50
of

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

use

words
famous and that

(le

mot

juste). Hippias
He
was a man

of of

Elis

was

another
memory

Sophist.

prodigious
the

profoundlyversed
he

in all the every and

learningof
form rather

day, so
so

attempted literature in
He

that had shocked is do

an

far been audiences should

developed.

piqued
prove

his

by attemptingto
be

that
man

law
to

evil many
was

and

not
are

obeyed,since
contrary
to

it forces

thingswhich
one

his nature. the

In

this he

of the first representatives of what

higherslang of

our

day
Such

describes

as

"

the artistic temperament."

"

Sophistsas
"

these
an

brilliant, versatile, eloquent,

influence
on

and

ingenious
Their Even

had

immense courted

popular

thought.
of Athens.

societywas

by

the

leadingmen
their
sation. conver-

Pericles took
of them all

pleasurein
was

Greatest

Socrates, though he
a

to despisethe Sophistsas professed

class and he
a

believed took
no

himself money

to

be

other

than

Sophist because
were

for his

which teachings, fashion. From

given in

desultory, Gorgias

conversational
and

Protagoras
their

and

Hippias, the
stands of any his
an

Skeptics derived
as

doctrines; but

Socrates

forth
time.

the

most

inspiring philosophical

teacher
Plato

From

his

talk, immensely suggestive

did
to

drew gave

as inspiration, new entirely

Aristotle

from

Plato.

Socrates Before

turn

philosophic teaching.
Socrates

his time

had philosophy

been

after physical;

it became

metaphysical and
had

ethical.

Just

as

the

early

Ionians

sought

for

material

originof

the

universe,

THE

PR^E-

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

51
the
man

so

Socrates

thrust

aside

all

of speculations
How

kind

and
"

asked the
The Plato
answer

" epoch-making question,

shall
not

live?

to

this

question was

sought by

merely by Epicureans

and

but afterwards by Aristotle,

the

and

the the Stoics, be

Cynics and

the Eclectics. the

It should the The

remembered, however, that, on

a

whole,

Sophists as majority of

class them

were

held rightly
mere

in

disesteem.

were

smatterers,
for willing
reason. a

glib

and

the truth, and shallow, perverting make

price to
the

the

worse

appear

the

better

In

end,

the later

were Sophists
mere

nothing but smooth

times sometalkers,

in delighting them the

which technicalities,
so

took

with

place of
it
was

reason,

that

they fell wholly into ill

the fifth century who

repute.1But
gave
a

the

Sophistsof

impulseto special
the

the theoretical

study of language.
and the

Remembering

importance of rhetoric
men

quasi-

of philosophical principles

such

as

Protagoras and
have arisen

Hippias, it
an

is not
amount

strange that
of

there should

immense

discussion

regarding language, thought through

of expression
a

from

the desire to discover the

the laws of govern the

of discovery

laws which

that

thought in
The the

human

speech.
Language Study began
as an

fact that of

adjunct to
plaining ex-

study

philosophy is immensely important as

facts, interesting
"

two
1

the

fact that

the

pur-

On

the

see Sophists,

ch. ii. (London, 1883); Benn, Greek Philosophers,

Schanz, Die Sophislen (Gottingen, 1867); and

i. 9th ed. (Leipzig, 1007). Philosophic,

Ueberweg, Geschichte

der

52
suit

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

was

conducted

in the

way

so

unlike that
a

of the

tific scien-

and linguist;

other fact that

of

long time elapsed

The

before

the

development
were

scientific grammar.

losophe phi-

at

first concerned

only with the meanings

their

of words, and relations to in into

a

very

little with

forms,

their and
to

external ment governdown

each

other, or

their arrangement
strove

sentence.

They
of

rather find

dig
what

the

very

heart

language,to
to

out

lay

behind
the

the sounds, and that gave

them

penetrate into the working of

currency.

minds

Why

was

certain

combination
a

of letters the combination of

a

of representation

one

idea,while

certain

of other

letters stood
In

for the representation

was

different idea?
to

what general, These

the and the

most

relation others

of

sound

thought?

questions

like them
of

first attracted

the
the

philosopherto
very last and

study
remote

language,while they are

interest the had

problems to
if the
own

modern
to

scientific

linguist.

Hence,
for its
as

ancients

begun
have

language investigate
Grammar;
to

sake, they would

up the

created
as a

but

they took
and from

subjectmerely

means

another

end

the

they invented standpointof psychology,

Etymology.
It is, of
most course, to

be
the

understood
Greeks in the

also

that

even

the

enlightenedof
never

their most

earnest

researches

went

beyond

study

of

their

own

even language. They scarcely

recognisedthe speech
be called

of all.

other

peoples

as

entitled to

language

at

54 such
men.

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Herodotus

nowhere any he of

even implies

in the remotest the

way many

that he knew
countries of
as

of the

languagesspoken in
In in
one
x

that

visited.

passage

he
the

speaks Volga
seven

caravans

merchants

the

region of

needing

seven

(ep/jLrjvels) speaking interpreters

a

languages.
the
on

At

very

much

later
and

period, when
the questioned
tion conversa-

Alexander
Brahmins had The
to

Great the

India penetrated

the subjectof their religion,

on

be carried

through a

series of

interpreters.
in their knew
so no

an Greeks, in fact,displayed

amusing

naivete

astonishment

at

findingso

many

people who
tongues with

Greek, but
ease.

who
were,

spoke barbarian
in

much tical prac-

They

fact,apparentlynot
after Latin
learned
was

giftedas
the

for linguists; of their

own

even

language
it well.

rulers, they seldom

2

to

speak

Thus

Plutarch

says
one

that he found needs that

to

it impossible to master very

Latin, and
young. in

that

begin its study when

Strabo

notes

historical treatises

composed
and

foreign languageswere
read

inaccessible to the

Greeks

never

by them.3
hand,
and
at
an

On of

the other

earlyperiodthere acquired an
the

is mention excellent

foreignscholars
of

writers who like Berosus

command fourth

Greek, men

the Babylonian (in

wrote

century B.C.)and Manetho

the records
1 2

the

who Egyptian,
"

in Greek

of their

countries respective
24.
2.

annals

Herodotus, iv. Strabo,ii.4,

Plutarch,Demosth.
19.

THE

PILE-

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

55

which There

the Greeks
is

regardedwith
hint

indifference. supercilious
ancient writer that any

no absolutely

in any

of these

languagesmight be foreign
The

related to the Hellenic

seemed The idea

dialects.
even

idea
most

would

have

preposterous
nearest

to

the
to

enlightenedGreek.
such
an

proach apin

the

suggestionof

is found
notes
names

Plato's

where the Cratylus, dialogue, the Greek and

Socrates

the
for

between similarity certain

common

Phrygian
Plato
was

objects. But
verge of
a

though

is

evidently only
the

here

upon

the

discoverythat
to
see

made

in the last

century, he failed
he had
set

the
chose had

importance of

fact which
for it words
on

down,

and

rather to account borrowed

a

the

theory that

the Greeks That

few

from of
"

the

Phrygians.
"

his had

own a

language
common

and

that
seems an

barbarian
to
as

people
to

source

never

have

occurred

him;

nor

did
"

so

keen

observer order

Aristotle
he

perceivein languages
discover
in every

the law
of

and

which

tried to
came

realm

nature."

Hence, it
in

about

that, as the Greeks

as

were
a

slow naturally supreme

as

acquiringforeign tongues,

they had

contempt for other languagesthan

on

their own,

and
a

they entered

the

of investigation

the

subjectfrom

and purely philosophical

psychological point of view, the by

them
was

first stage of language study reached

theoretical

the

rather than word

the

empirical.
at
once

The
and the

Greek
reason

Xo'70?means

the

spoken word,
of that

which

prompts the

utterance

word.

56
This
the

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

dualityof meaning
in spirit which

both

symbolisesand

illustrates
the

the Greek

philosophers approached
to
a

study of language. They

the word
if so, and the

wished
had
was.

determine

(i)whether
relation; and

thought

necessary

(2)what

that
were

relation
soon

Naturally enough, two by

two

opposing views
schools. truth The

formulated
!

philosophical
because upon all
an

Heracliteans
from

believed

that

is derived basis.

language, language
are

rests

immutable
of

Words
are

either

perfect expressions
sounds.
or

thingsor
a

else
name

they
must

only inarticulate
be either
a

That it is
no

is to say,
name

true

name

at

all.
it

Between

every

name,

therefore,and
natural

the

thing
virtue the

which
of

there signifies,

is

harmony by

which

each
nature

word of the

in itself

inevitably expresses
The

innermost thus

thing named.
arose

teans Heraclior {fyvaei,

held that

language

by

nature

The vo/jlg)).
as

Eleatics,2 on

the other

hand, regarded words

the
names

that given to things arbitrarily;

names

of

things,

like the and

of

slaves,might
no

be

altered at
to

pleasure;
on

that, in consequence,
processes
or on

lightis
of

be

thrown

mental

the it is

nature

thought,by studying
of the after

the forms
a

in which

expressed. One
his slaves the

Eleatics,
the
junctions, con-

Megarian, Diodorus, thinkingto

named

show
"

thereby

absurdity of
Dr.
about
500

the

Heraclitean
1

doctrine,

which
of

recalls Ephesus,
and

Johnson's
B.C.

I.e. the followers I.e. the followers

of Heraclitus of

Xenophanes

Parmenides

of Elea.

THE

PR.E-ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

57

famous

refutation

of

Berkeley's idealism.
the

Language,
convention

therefore,according to (Oeaetor awO-qicy).

This

Eleatics,arose

by

controversy has

an

interest

far

greater than
It

any

discussion merely linguistic strikes down mind. into the It grazes has
most

could

possess.
recesses

really
man hu-

profound
borderland

of the

the

of

philosophical
since
men

questionthat began
to

puzzled metaphysiciansever
the

reflect upon has

never

mystery
solved

of and

their

being,
"

questionthat

been
solution. the

that, humanly

admits speaking, in the

as

of

no

It is the Middle

questionwhich
was

scholastic

period of
Realism

Ages

known It is the

the

question of

and

Nominalism.
as

questionwhich,
of the the Freedom

in after of the

times, appeared
Human
to

the

question by
guage. lan-

Will. the

Its discussion

ancient As

led philosophers
it
was

of investigation

claimed the

that

language corresponds
sensation

and naturally

to inevitably

thought,just as
excites

correspondsto
which What is

the

object which

quiry it, the first inwas

philosophersset

before

themselves

this:

language?
asserted
a

Heraclitus

that power
a

language
which

is the

immediate each

product of
its proper existence.

natural

assignsto
element

thing thing's
the
the

as designation

necessary

of the

Names,
of

he

said, are

like the

natural,not
resemble in

artificial images
shadows
cast

visible

things,i.e. they

by

solid

the images seen objects,

mirrors,

58
the
true

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

reflected
word do do

sun

in

still water.

"

Those

who

use

the those That

and trulyname really

the

while object,
noise."

who

not,
are

merely
the

make

an

unmeaning

is,words
nature

immediate

produced by copiesof things,

to

herself,not
but caprice,

due

any

subjectiveinfluence
realities

or

human

correspondingto
have
an

by objective
ness fitThis

necessity; they
and (opOorr)?) is the extreme
was an

abstract

proprietyand meaning.

intrinsic force and of the Heraclitean

statement

doctrine which
as

afterward

modified

by Epicurus
to

so

to

make

the

referred objective necessity,

above,

physical, organic

necessity. Against
thesis that
the
names

Heracliteans,the
are

Eleatics
were

defended

their

given and might

with

trarily always given arbi-

by
them

men

who

perfectproprietychange
four

about.

Democritus Heraclitean For Now

propounded
view,

arguments
of

against the
Homonymy.
a

(i)
means

The

argument
both
a

instance, /cXet?
a

key

and

collar-bone.
no

key
each
name

and

collar-bone

have be

lutely absothe

relation to
and natural

other; hence,
for
one

if "Xe"

inevitable
cannot

of

them, it certainly
natural A
name

be

equally the
(2) The

inevitable of

and

of is
are

the

other.

argument

Polyonymy.

man

called in
no

These or or fiporot;. avOpairos, fiepoyfr, way

names

terms

alike; how
of the when

then
one

can

they

all three

be

the

essary nec-

object? (3) The

comes

argument
called

of

Change,

as

Aristocles

to

be

Plato.

THE

PILE-ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

59 have

(4) The
the verb
we

argument

of

Missing Analogy,as when

from
as

we

formed "f"povelv
no

while ^/aoV^o-t?,

from

8iicaio"rvvr

find In

such

verb
may

Bucaioawelv.
said that
the

general it
among

be

the Heracliteans

bered num-

their

followers

majority of
out
as

the
a

ancient
ception. ex-

philosophers, though Aristotle stands

He, with
with his his dislike of
on

great

and anything mystical,

an

hold practical

the real,was

ing uncompromis-

and held that language opponent of the natural theory,

depends
men,
"

on

the

common

argument
no

and

conviction

of

words

having

meaning

at

all in

themselves,

but
use

having all their meaning put

them.

into them

by those who
value

They
the

are

mere

counters, whose

depends

wholly upon
It
was

assent

of mankind.
course,
to

evident, of
a

the

Heracliteans

selves, themnot

after made

little

study,that their claims could

as

be

good
not

in

language
in the the

it

existed; for they actually

words
any

could

show
with

case

of many

essential
and

connection
was

objectsdescribed
words had

by them;

it

also time

evident when

that

greatly changed
Hence,
the

since

the

they

were

first coined. words and

as

cussion dis-

was

put back
had
once

from

they

were

then, to

words
as

as

they

been;

this led to

speculation
the

to

the

originof language. Settingaside

it
was

original

notion

that

created directly
manner

by

the

Deity, men

sought to show
If word

in what

it firstcame is the

into existence.
nature

and

what object be related,

of the

60

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

relation?

If the
in of

name original

was
was

to appropriate

the
The

thing named,
drift general of the
"

what

way

it this

appropriate?

opinion answered
"

question in favour
in its crudest

onomatopoetic theory,not
in which like it has and been his

form,

but in the form

times

defended

in modern

by

men

Heyse
and

and pupil Steinthal, A passage of

cautiouslyby Whitney Epicurus

fairest and
meant:
"

by

Paul.1

cited
most

by Diogenes

Laertius

(x. 75) gives the

this view

of what temperate expression

Words

in the

beginning did
the very nature

not

by originate
of men, in the

express
case

agreement; but
each

by

of

and people,experiencingpeculiarfeelings air ideas

hearing
pressing ex-

the ideas, they expelled peculiar different and feelings and

thus accordingly,

just as differently,

people differed
This argues
as

in location

surroundings."
So

is in that

the theory of Heyse. reality from

Lucretius2

speech arose
who
cannot

the

impulse of things, just

to

children
wonder

speak, begin
men

gesture. And
different

what

is it,he says, that

mark

ings feeland

by
horses

different

sounds
crows

of the

voice?
same

Even way

dogs

and

gullsand
and

in the

express varying

moods
1

passions.
der bei Sprachwissenschaft den Greichen und

edited by Steinthal (Berlin, Heyse, System der Sprachwissenschaft,

Geschichte 1856); Steinthal,

Rbmern,

vols. 2d ed.

(Berlin, 1891); and Whitney, The Life and Growth

the guage, Study of Lan-

of Language (New
2

York, 1880); id. Language and

4th ed. (New York, 1884).

v. Lucretius,

1028

foil.

62

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

unexplained,too
to refrain prefers

many from

lacunae in his fabric.

Hence, he
He will not

dogmatic
and

statement.

claim

to

have

well-rounded
to treat

complete system; and,

a

he elects therefore,
to

the

with subject

touch, light
let his
own

speak modestly and

with

caution, and
mind

to

observations

into the fall casually incentives toward

of his reader

as

suggestionsand
His

further

speculation.
to
a

is, therefore,subordinated reallyserious spirit

treatment,
a
so

humorous
as

that

in
It

the

Cratylus we
in
a

have,
the

it were,

giant at play.

gives us,

way,

chips and
and
more

shavingsof
those

his mental of
one

workshop, yet the chips dust-heap contains

men.

shavings are
pure

whose

gold than
a

the treasuries

of other

The
enes,

Cratylus is
and

dialoguebetween
is

Socrates, Hermoga

Cratylus. Hermogenes Cratylus a They

sincere

of disciple

the

later Eleatics, and

of
names,

believer in the been

losophy phi-

Heraclitus.
as

have

arguing

about

and
to

each

represents a pointof view diametrically other, they call upon He,

as

opposed

that

of the

Socrates

to

share in the discussion.

of the of
to

usual, professes ignorance

out

and subject,

then

draws by questions

from

each

his friends

their

theories. respective

Having
his turn

listened
enters

them,
some

Socrates

criticises

each, and
his
own

in in
a

upon
most

of speculations

half-playful yet
Realism and and

discourse. suggestive

Just as

between
as

Nominalism, Conceptualism stands

compromise,
and

justas

between

the

doctrine

of

Predestination

that

THE

PILE-ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

63
so

of the Freedom
views
"

of the Will stands out

Determinism,
mean
"

the the
"

advanced
"

by

Socrates

represent a
and

between

natural

theory
the

of Heraclitus

the

conventional

theory of

Eleatics. and he says, is natural,

that
are

Language,

it is also

conventional,
are

for it has in it elements

natural and those that

of art, for
names

conventional.
firstof

It is originally a work of

are,

imitations all,
any

sounds, vocal imitations.

Yet

vocal

like imitations,

other

copying,may

be most

imperfectly
of

executed,and
chance. in

this

imperfection may

involve the element

or

For there is much Some words have

that is accidental have

to

exceptional
so

language.
that

had

their

earlymeaning by

obscured

they
name

be

helped out
has
a

convention.

the Yet, still,

true

is that which

natural

meaning.

Thus, nature, art, and

of

chance, all enter

so

into the formation

as

and they are language,

intertwined closely
them. So far

to
we

make may

it often

to separate impossible to

as

hope, however,
of it
as

discover the natural

art and
a

element
can

and

judge
so

derived from
words

accident,we

do

only

by applyingto
many

strict
most

analysis. In
words,
even

the first place,

words, perhaps
not

are

in their

present
pound. com-

form,

primary words, nor

These
we

simple words, but

until
we

must

first resolve

reach
are

the
the

simpleforms. primary ones,

we

But

the

simpleforms themselves
been
altered into rather

not

for these have end

by
the

time.

Hence,

must

in the

resolve words

letters which which

compose

them, because

these,or

the sounds

64

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

they denote, must

to

have of

meaning.

This

was

well known that the

the first makers

of
as
a

language. They
and

observed
p

sound
motion in

denoted

vastness

length;that

expressed

in peco, porf, rponos, sound

pvp,^"w (" whirl,")because

was

that uttering

the tongue and

most

agitatedand

least at rest; that of breath such

as

ty, "f", "r,

were

f requireda great expenditure

used in imitative words the of

and

therefore

and in generalwhen "ea"("seethe"), creicr/io'?, of air is

thought

involved; that

the

limpid

movement

X, in whose
that

the tongue slips pronunciation along,enables express

letter to

smoothness
that the sound

as

in Xeto?, of
7

\nrap6v,
the

Ko\\S)he"i (" gluey ") ;

detained there is
as

slipping tongue
an

so

that when what is

united

with

X,

given
in \t

impressionof

and clammy, glutinous

v,

y\oi(b8r)"i ; that crxpot-, 7A.U/CU9,

the gives notion of

being "sounded
o

within,"

inwardness;

while

suggests roundness.
names

Thus

the firstlanguagemakers of imitation. principle and dumb person is

impressedthought on
Gesture
use

by
a

is the method
to

which

deaf

would

make

his

meaning
of in

clear,and
the tongue.

language
Yet

only vocal gesture, the gesture stamped

learn
use on

though thought was

lesson
that
we

words

their
is not

the genesis,

may

from

words
varies

or moral; philosophical

for the

of words

It indefinitely.
or no

may

be

accidental,conventional, metaphysical,
way

in

some

other

secondary,and

so

may

have

real relation to the

of thought or feeling

the

speaker at

the time.

THE

PR^E-ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

65
on

Such
set

is

an

outline of the Platonic

views

language as
was

forth
most

in the

Cratylus.They embody

all that

best

and

rational in ancient

and linguistic speculation,

not to

contain

have that philologists principles

yet rejected.
the distinction In his
tion men-

Plato, in fact,is the first to draw

between
of the in the

attention words.
an

simple and

compound
makes and

he Lautgeberden,

immense in

advance the

physiologyof language;
certain

speaking of

of similarity
terms

foreignwords

to

the

corresponding
of
a

in

Greek, he approaches the very verge

great

discovery. His
is very much

classification of the letters of the

alphabet

that
He

which

the

most

modern

phoneticians
into voiceful
nants conso-

agree to follow.

it is who
,

them separated

and voiceless letters, vowels ((fxovqevra) or or letters,

The (d(f"cova). X, (riufyava, The

humorous really

letters he
p,

subdivides
true mutes

into

vowels semi-

fi, v,

a)

and

(a(f"0oyya).

part of the Cratylusis that in which

the

Socrates

burlesquesthe extraordinary etymologiesof

a

Sophists, pouring forth

of the words and
"

flood of

on conjectures

the
to

position com-

which

his listeners

suggest
and

him,

playing havoc
know,"
is

with
"

all

phonetic order
the and

system.
of the

You

he

says,

that

form original

word

always being
and

overlaid

bedizened

by people
of

on sticking

off stripping

letters for the sake in all sorts

or

euphony,
and

and

and turning them twisting be And done

so

of ways;

this may
time."

for ornament in

it may

be the result of he

the original form, restoring

gives

66

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

himself

free hand extends

and
and

alters and

syncopates and

pates apocoin
a

and
sort

stretches until

Hermogenes
"

of

admiration half-skeptical

cries out,

Well, Socrates,

you is

have

knocked

them
it is " from

to

piecesmanfully." KWrjp
"

because aeiOerjp
derives
"

alwaysrunning

about

the

earth;

he rfyvr) and says

of ixovorj ("possession take away

o

mind
o

")
tween beand

you

have

only to

the t, insert between the

"

the x the v," upon

is
a

and
which

the v, and

another very

Hermogenes

naturally says,

That

pretty tough etymology."

should in read the

Every one

because Cratylus

in its serious in

parts it abounds
its lighter passages

acute singularly
us an

and speculations;

it affords

excellent notion
of

of the

absurdities

of the

word-mongers
the

the

fifth

century.1
their

Many,
guesses

in fact,were
at

of vagaries
at

the

in Sophists

etymology and
it was
not

the

of languageprinciples the

making;

and

only among
this sort of

and philosophers it

that quasi-philosophers is
seen

but thingprevailed, who literature,

a

in the equally the

writers of pure As this

in this

followed

fashion. prevailing should

note

matter

of

general

interest,one
was

that
a

craze etymologising

something more
of
a

than very

mere

fad.
"

It

was
a

simplyone quickness of
reveals itself
for

manifestation

Greek
the

trait,

imaginationwhich
in an linguistically upon
1

from
almost

earliest times
fondness

childish for

playing
is, in

words,

for

paronomasia,

punning.

This

See

Jowett's translation of the Cratylusin his Plato,and especially

to the

the Introduction

Dialogue in question (2d ed.,Oxford, 1893).

THE

PILE-ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

67

an reality,

oriental trait, as the Hebrew

attest, Scriptures

and

was

never

Hence, or trifling. regardedas undignified

of Genesis alone
we

justas
these
names,

in the book

find

some

of fifty proper

chieflyin plays pseudo-etymologies,

so we

upon

find the Greek

poets, from Homer

ing down, seekand

names.

and analogies Observe

Homer's

hidden

meanings

in words from

of Odysseus explanation
trama? aarcu

oSva-aofiai

(Od.

xix.

406); of Ate\ v

(II.xix. 91); of
great

and e\e"t/9 pun

(Od. eXe^aipofiaL
the
name

xix.

The 562 foil.).

of

iEschylus on

of Helen, become

'EXeV^ eXeVa?
classic in

eXavSpateXeTrroXis, (Ag. 689) has

through
Peele's imitation

lish Eng-

(in Edward
"

I.)

Sweet

Helen,
in her

Hell in her name,

but heaven

looks;"

and
two

in the most puns

are

scene tragic

of the

same

play (1040, 1049) probablethat

this

found
proper

together.1 It
names

is

playing upon
upon the

and
the

also its dignity depended

generalbelief in
of
omens

so-called
which

Onomantia, or
both

duction deand

from
so

names,

Greeks

Romans the
a

believed in

devoutlythat Leotychidespledged
a

Samian

people to
who

merely because great expedition urged

it

perfect stranger

happened

to

be

called

Hegesistratus.2
1

Euripides was

called

rpa-yiKbsirvfu"\6yos. Cf.
and in

yEsch.

Prom.

86,

875,

742, iii. 11-17

p.

German, Lersch, Sprachphilosophie, 718; Ajax, 574 De Nominibus Graecis,in his Opusc. (Bonn, 1841) ; Sturz,
seem

of

1825). Myths 78 (Leipzig, Xa6s and false etymologies, as

1

to

have

been

built upon

the basis

XSoj.

Herod,

ix. 91.

68

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Much

as

the

Greeks

of this

ever, howperiod etymologised,

there deal with Such

is little evidence

that

they

went

so

far

as

to

the

generalsubject by
as

itself and On the

more

for its own of

sake.

treatises On

those

of

Gorgias
On
are

Names,

oras Protag-

Elocution,of Prodicus

Propriety of Names, properlyreferred

these
men

and
to

of the

Licymnius

On

Phrases

rhetorical and

oratorical

teachings of

regardingwhich

something has alreadybeen

note

said. and

nius,1 Licymclassify
This of

however, did
synonyms, may the be

and

partlydiscuss

root-words, compounds, and

taken

cognates.

roughly as standing on periodsin

shown the

the

border-land

first two
as

historyof

Classical

Philology,
mar. gram-

and

having

some

of appreciation

formal

So far

as

the

Prae-Alexandrians
it
was

came

to

any

ical etymologthree

agreement,
are principles

in

generally admittingthat development

of words:

involved
Imitation

in the

(i)

the the

of principle

discussed;(2) already (Mi/i^o-t?),

which words
f

of Metaphor (MeTa(f"opd) by principle

lose their
in their is

meaning primitive
when
or

and

are

graduallyextended
"

as application,
a

the word when

"

head

"

or" of
a

foot man's

"

appliedto

mountain,

we

speak

of thought as "bitter,"
of made
"A See

his voice

as

sweet

the prin"; (3) ciple the ancients

Antiphrasis (Kvrfypaais)
and

of

which the

much,

which
of Polus

they
who

also

called
a

making
on

of

Sicilian teacher in the

also wrote

treatise

rhetoric.

Schneidewin

GottingerGel. Anzeiger for 1845.

70
tile found

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

in Attica1 has the

scratched syllables show the

we

upon

it

(a/",

y3ap, "yap, 8ep and

which like, But

that word
are

was spelling

taught and, later,reading.

at (ypafifAaTiKos)
,

grammaticus
did speaking, of

the time

of which but

not

mean

grammarian,
that

simply a
was

person
to

ordinary
write.

education,
"

is,one

who

able

read

and had
our

Nevertheless,as
formed of the around word
was

a alreadysuggested,

nucleus

been
sense

which
soon

grammatical teaching in
to

be

developed. Etymology
Protagoras
of

was

favourite

subject of

discussion.

Abdera

was (c. 411 B.C.)

the first to

grammatical moods distinguish

of Ceos had written
a

and

also
on

genders.2 Prodicus
while

tise trea-

synonyms;
two

Plato is regardedas

having recognised
and (ovofia)
it draws
a

distinct parts of

speech,the
distinction

noun

the

verb them

(prjfta) ; but
is not

the

which

tween be-

but a grammatical, strictly

the difference

tinction dislogical,

correspondingto
and who

between

subject

predicate.The
also goes

true

distinction and

is made mentions

by Aristotle, conjunctions

much

further

a term (a-vvBeafiot),

used by him, loosely

since it includes
term

every
1

kind

of

connecting particle.The
170

apOpa

he

Roberts, Greek Epigraphy, p. Protagoras classified modes

command. In the
matter

(Cambridge, 1887-1905).
prayer,
as our

of

as question, expression answer,

and

of

gender,

he

divided

nouns

either
own,

masculine, feminine, and

natural and
not

neuter, this classification being, like

creatures
were

artificial. All male

as

regardedas masculine,
things
the
as

all female He
uses

creatures

feminine, and
was

all inanimate

neuter.

the term
sense

7"?k"s which
of

afterward

adopted by

ans grammari-

in the

"gender" (Lat.genus).

THE

PILE-ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

71 and articles.
as

used He
not

in

an

indefinite way

of both

pronouns

between distinguished

tenses, and

classifies verbs
those which He

only
to

"active"
us as

and "neuter"

"passive,"but
and

are

known

"deponent."

has

something to
one

say of

though punctuation,
"

he mentions

only
the
he

punctuationmark
of the

short

mark
a

placed beneath
sentence.
our

first word called

line which

ends

This
"

and Trapaypafyrj,

it is the

of origin
or

word
a

graph," paraof

applied to
connected
sentences. to
no

long

sentence to

to

number that these

It is further

be

noted

totle Aris-

givesnames
form did
not
as

subjectand

predicate. All

tinction dis-

part of grammatical doctrine,since this

were

yet exist; but they

their
essence.

at

the time

or logical

metaphysicalin
Alexandrian

Later, the
the

Stoics

and

the

scholars

narrowed

definition of grammar

and our ypa/jL/xciTi/crj), t4xvt) (17 word

modern its wider

meaning

of the

became

familiar

even

while

still significance

survived.

Literary Study
of scientific. Persian

was

now

undertaken

from

the

point standmore

and aesthetics, The

Literary Criticism
which

became

period
was

immediately
most

followed

the

Wars

the

richest and
The

fruitful in the
of Homer had

intellectual been

of history

Greece.

poems

in regarded as containing and almost But

their lines
this

something supernatural
set

divine; and

is feeling

forth in

the Ion of Plato.

was inspiration

popularbelief also
from him

held that Homer's

passed on

to the

great poets who

72

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

were

his successors,

just as

certain of
an

branches

of the Christian

Church
Thus the the

assert

the doctrine shared

were
some

ApostolicSuccession. generalreverence,
and

lyric poets

in this

great dramatic
We have
seen

poets
that

ennobled rude

tion. by popular tradiof

was

form

tragedy was encouraged

The

said to have

with Thespis,who originated

to

by

Pisistratus

present his plays at Athens.

great

and iEschylus, Sophocles, tragedians, their

Euripides, produced

masterpieces almost

contemporaneously. Comedy
to

(invented by Susarion) began

brilliant
newer

thrive and

found

its most A

exponent
of its

in

Aristophanes (444-388 B.C.).

less harsh in its criticism and

form

comedy,

less

personalin

was allusions,

presently developed first by

Comedy)
the and New
was

Aristophanes

himself

(Middle

fected per-

by Menander
All these
at
were

(b. 342 B.C.)in

Comedy.
were

plays,both
the

tragediesand

comedies,

duced pro-

great festivals of the Athenians, and

the decision of the

prizes

given accordingto
rhetoric and

people.1 The

study of
and

of the Drama, oratory, the popularity the

the

of exceedingly great intelligence

to
as a

Greek
famous

mind works

led at

once

careful
as

study of
Such

the

most

in prose the form

well

poetry.
when

took study inevitably discusses the

a

of

as exegesis,

Plato

poem

of
to

Simonides the

in the

Protagoras, taking up

as questions

meaning
So at first.

of certain words

in the poem;
awarded

then

as

to the

were Afterwards, the prizes

by

committee

of

five

judges chosen

by

lot.

THE

PRjE-ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

73

of Simonides; consistency
on

and
Thus

a finally, long disquisition

the

poem

as

whole. in

says the

Socrates

"

great

deal which

might
is
a

be

said

praiseof

details of the poem,

and very

charming piece of workmanship,

that
out

but finished,
to

would the

be

tedious.

I should

ever, howlike,

point
he

general intention
do
so

of the

poem." length.
the

And

then
is

proceeds to

at

considerable and

This

treatment essentially exegetical

belongsto
the

science
we

of

Hermeneutics,

or

exposition.In
But it was

Republic

have

^Esthetic who

Criticism.
a

Aristotle in his

Poetica

produced
brief and

work

of true

aesthetic criticism,

which, though
and

is so full of suggestion unfinished,

to make
numerous one

profoundthought as
of

it to-dayperhapsthe most

widely studied
Butcher

all his
to

writings.1Professor

calls attention

feature of the treatise which

in the

emphasises an
He
"

important fact

study of

Greek

art.

says: The

"

distinction between
out

fine and
In

useful art the

was

first

brought
art
we

fullyby
struck than

Aristotle.

historyof
between
It
was

Greek
two

are

rather

by

the

union

the
a

forms

of art

by

their
use

independence.
and

loss

for art when

to be

the

of spheres

beauty came objectceased

life no
user.

in

practice

when dissevered, and

to

the useful
common

rative, to be decolight de-

the

things of
and

longer gave
But

the

maker

to

the

the

theoretic

See

Butcher, Aristotle's Theory of Poetry and

contains
a

Fine

Art

(London, 1902).
with Poetics,

This
a

volume

critical text

and

translation their

of the

most

admirable

discussion of its teachings and

meaning.

74
distinction

HISTORY

OP

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

between

fine and
we owe

useful art

needed

to

be

laid

down, and
fine art outside
an as

to Aristotle
a

the firstclear

conceptionof
the

free and both

of independent activity of and religion of

or

mind,

the domain distinct from

politics, having
moral

end

that

of education

ment." improve-

A famous doctrine of

passage

in the Poetics is that which

refers to the said

sorrow

Plato had "purgation" (icci0apo-i";). it satisfies "the that natural

of

tragedy that
and

hunger
and

for

weeping,"1 and
of

"poetry

feeds

waters

the ish ban-

passionsinstead

them." starving
his ideal State. desirable

Thus

he would

the poets from

on Aristotle,

the other
the

hand,

"

held that it is not

to

kill the

or

to starve

emotional

part of the soul; and

serves feelings

that

gence regulatedindulof
our

of the nature."

to

maintain

the balance
an

Professor

Butcher, summarising

explanation
a

put forth in 1857 by J. Bernays, says that katliarsis is

medical the The

metaphor

and

"denotes

effect pathological
on

on

soul,analogous to

the effect of medicine be

the

body."

thought,as

he

it,may interprets
emotions of

expressedthus:
fear
" "

Tragedy
emotions
act

excites the that

are

pity and
men

kindred

in the breasts of all affords

a

and
The

by

the

of excitation

relief. pleasurable

feelings

called forth

by

the

are tragicspectacle
are

not, indeed, permanently

The
. . .

removed, but

quietedfor
and

the time.

stage, in fact, providesa harmless

1

outlet pleasurable

Republic,x.

606.

THE

PR^-

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

75 which

for instincts which be

demand

and satisfaction,

can

indulgedhere
It is

more

than fearlessly the

in real life.1 doctrine Poetica of the Three

popularlysupposed that
Unities is set forth

Dramatic This

in the

of Aristotle.

is not

true, however, strictly

since Aristotle
"

definitely
"

demands the of
a

only the unityof action,

which

namely, that

within

and complete action single

constitutes the be

unity

play," the
the

successive law

incidents should
and

connected

togetherby
One
time may

of necessary
a

probablesequence.
the
not

read into the treatise the

of suggestion

unityof

and

unity of place; yet

these

were

actually

formulated

until the sixteenth

an century by Castelvetro,

Italian editor of Aristotle.2

The

Greeks

of Aristotle's time
of and literature.
more

regardedtragedyas
them it

the
was

highest form
more

Certainly to
in its

moving
even

profound
We
must

of interpretation

life than

the
is

epic.
than

remember, however,

that the drama

more

since it is literature literature, The

blended

with

all the other

arts.

dance, the song, the

painter'scolouring,and
there,and
men living

instrumental

music, too,
found

are

the effect of animated and

women

is sculpture

in the

who is not

impersonate the
literature pure

characters.

Hence

the
a

acted

drama

and

simple,

but it is
1

melange
cit.pp.

of all the arts.3 227-228.

Criticism in the

Butcher, op.
See

Spingarn, Literary

Renaissance,

pp.

90-101

(New York, 1908). JPeck, Literature, pp.

22, 28

(New

York, 1908).

76
One
most
now

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

dwells
remarkable possess. in other

upon

Aristotle's Poetica,because

it is the
we

specimen of
But criticism

aesthetic criticism which of various kinds

was

to

be

found
cus

and writers,
came

in especially
to

Heraclides he

Pontistudied jects sub-

(fl. 340 B.C.),who

Plato.
"

Athens, where
written upon

under

He

is said to have

many

mathematics, music, history, philosophy, politics,

poetry.
we

language,and

Only fragments of
a

these of
was

treatises his books

remain, though
on

have

synopsis of
There
has

one

the

science. subjectof political Lesbos

one

also Theo-

phrastus of
two

(b. 372 B.C.)who

left

fragments of Style.
and In of

works,
second

On

Comedy
to

and

the other treated

On

the

he

is said

have

of metres

solecisms.1
Much criticism their
must

have

been

given orallyby
dramas another.

the

Sophistsin by
the

lectures;and

in the
one

themselves
This
was

in playwrights
case

their hits at comic of

the especially
who

with fond

poets, above

tophanes, all,Aris-

was

gibing at Euripides and

a

of

^Eschylus. praising

It is said that

whole

passage

of the because form of

was Telephus, by Euripides,

omitted subsequently game of it.2 Another

Aristophaneshad
criticism is to
'See

made found

such

be

in the
Pontici
on

parodiesof
Vita
et

serious works.

Voss,

De

Heradidis

Scriptis (Rostock, 1897);

and
2

the dissertation See

by

Rabe de
on

Theophrastus (Bonn, 1890).

Critique, pp.
45-70.
were

Egger,
wrote

Histoire
a

la

Later

Antiochus

of

Alexandria

book

the poets who

p. 232.

criticised in the Middle

Comedy.

See

Athenaeus, xi.

78
known the The
as

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

the

whose Sillographer,
the

silli

{aiXkoi) guyed
1

teaching of
classic

in epic verse. dogmatic philosophers

was

tragedy

burlesqued,though

at

later

period, by Rhinthon
gave
or

of Tarentum so-called rire. in mock

in plays which (orSyracuse)

rise to

the

tragedy (IXaporpaycpSia)
be said also that
a

la

tragUie pour

It must
a

certain

ironical

spirit appears
to

collection
some

by

Aristotle of questions inconsistencies

or

intended

point out

of the

absurdities in Homer
There
are

(UpofiXr/fAciTa).
that

evidences

duringthe

latter part of this

of standard

perioda good
authors.
edition special the

deal of confusion It is known of Homer

an

existed in the texts

that for the known

Aristotle himself
use
as

edited

of his
"

Alexander pupil,
edition."

Great,
also

"

edition

the casket

It is

tradition

that

Lycurgus
with

(c. 350

B.C.), the
the

Athenian

(not to

be confounded

Lycurgus
statues

cal mythi-

erected Spartan legislator),

bronze

to

the three

and great tragic poets, ^Eschylus,Sophocles, and caused

Euripides,
and
made

authentic
the

copiesof

their

playsto

be made

preservedin
after this
a

publicarchives.

These

were copies

careful collation of the actors'

copies. Concerning

recension,however, very littleis known, though the fact

Even significant.2
Cf.
our

itselfis

if the

State

codex

prepared by
a

"Squints." 'Literally
See
etc.
2

theatrical

slang,

"It's

scream!"

Paul, Be

Sillis

(Berlin, 1821); Delapierre,La

Parodie

chez les

Grecs,

Aristotle's Poetics, etc. (Baltimore, (London, 1871),and Carroll, 1895).

Wilamowitz,

in Hermes,

xiv. 151; and

id.,Introduction

to the Hera-

kles of

Euripides (Berlin, 1889).

THE

PILE-ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

79
not

Lycurgus

was

only a careful exemplar and

a

very

cally criti-

made, it still remains

the the held of history Text

work

of

great importance in
down
to

because Criticism, remained It

a seems a

the time

of

Alexandrians, it
in

standard

edition and

was

great

esteem.

probable,however,

that

it
no

did really
lack of

rest

upon

critical basis,since there

an

was

editions,nor
to
so

could

chosen arbitrarily

text

have

attained

much

authority. Granting also manuscripts had

not

that

the

critical comparison of there of

were

long existed,
the

certainly autographa preservedin

Furthermore,
there
was

families
an

the

tragic poets.
in each

inal origbe

codex made

instance,an
Homeric

assertion The

that

cannot

regarding the

text.

codex, original
contained
notes

however
and may

carefully copied,must
have

stillhave

errors, after in the say;

been
with

supplied with
the version
used

marginal by

being compared
theatre. More

the actors

than

this,however,
of

it is

to impossible

for,regardingthe
survives. Attention other
was

methods

recension,no

actual evidence

much
the
are

earlier

given to
a

Music

than

to

the

arts, and
treatises
none

study of spoken of
have
on

it had with

scientific character.
,

Many

the title Tlepl Movo-i/crjs

to
our

though

of them writer

descended
music
was

times. of

The

earliest known
a

Lasus

Hermione,
said

contemporary
have

of

Xenophanes and
teacher of
Pindar.

Simonides, and
He is
a

to

been

the
the

figureof

importance in

of Greek history

music,

introducingin

80

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

the

dithyramb
it
an

much

greater freedom
of

of

rhythm

in

music,
the the cially espe-

givingto
number Seven

accompaniment By
some

and flutes,

adding to
among
were

of voices.

he The

was

numbered

Sages
devoted

of
to

Greece.1

Pythagoreans
them,
the

music, among
wrote
a

famous

Archytas

of

Tarentum,
case

who

treatise with the title 'ApfioviKov.

In the
us

of many

of the is
as

that writings

have

descended

to

by report only, it
inasmuch subject,
name

impossibleto be
poetry and music
used

certain
were
so

of their

exact

closely

alliedthat the The

Movai/crj was

of either. indifferently

written only important treatise,

perhaps
any

in the

andrian Alexthat

Age, by Aristoxenus
still remain The ascribed

of which

now

we

have

is portion, which

of 'Ap/j.ovitca styled Iroixeia,

there

some

fragments,edited by Saran.2
of classical music
to

foundation

among vEolian

the Greeks Greek

was

by

them

Terpander, an
is said
to

of Lesbos

(c. 675 B.C.),who

instead strings of

have

given the lyre seven

is inaccurate. certainly

four; but
says
seven

this statement that

Pausanius3 four
to strings

Terpander merely added alreadyexisted

was on

the

that

the

lyre.

was Flute-playing

still older, but of Sacadas

not

scientifically

studied
The

until the time vocal in that music

of

Argos (c. 580 B.C.).

differed from

of the

ancients

modern

music

was part-singing

unknown,

there

beingonly

See

Athenaeus, viii. p. 338, and by Saran

10.

Diog. Laert.

i. 42.

'Edited

(Leipzig, 1893).
to music.

'iii.12.

Terpander first set poetry

THE

PR^E-

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

difference of octaves,
chorus. Another

as

when

men
was

and

boys

sang

in the which

same were

difference

in the

modes,

from distinguished in the octave.

each

other

by the place of the

had
seven

semitones

Greek
two

music

modes,

therefore,as
with which
names we

againstthe
are

modes These

(major
seven

and

minor)
got

acquainted.

modes

their

from

the three great divisions of the Greeks

from the Asiatic

(Dorian,^Eolian,and Ionian) and

peoples

(Phrygian, Lydian, Mixolydian,and

The musical
notation

Hypolydian).1
had
two

used

by

the Greeks

tinct dis-

one systems of signs,

for the voice and for the voice

were

the other taken from

was

for the instrument. the Ionic

Those

alphabet; while the instrumental

the firstfourteen lettersof the forms
an
an

notation older

derived from
which of

alphabet
form

retained
two

digamma,

besides

ancient

and iota,

of lambda.

Only
come

few

specimens
to us, the

of Greek

musical
a

notation
to

have

down
at

last

being
upon

hymn
the

Apollo found
a

Delphi

in

1893
been

carved

fragments of
Oscar

stone.

It has

reconstructed
"

by

whose Fleischer, from

Most

theory is that rhythm

Greek
1

melody emanated
Engel,
The Music

the words, while

Ancient dans Nations

See

of the
de la

(London, 1866);

Gevaert, Histoire Westphal, Die

Modes

et Theorie

Musique

VAntiquiU (Ghent, 1881); 1887); Monro, (Leipzig,

How Music in Iwan ed. Miiller's Hand-

Musik

des

Alterthums griechischen Music

oj Ancient

Greek

(Oxford, 1894); Henderson,

and Gleditsch

Developed (New
buch For
a

York, 1898);

der classischen

ii.3, 3d Allerthumswissenschaft, of

(Munich, 1901).

simple account
pp.
O

earlymusic, see

Untersteiner,A Short History of

Music,

13-45

(New York, 1902).

82

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

and

metre

were

given by
music Nero
was

the

musical
at

accents

of and

the
was

words."1

Greek admired.

introduced
gave

Rome

greatly

public
Domitian the

entertainments

resembling modern
a

concerts, and
which
were

(86 a.d.) built

Odeum,
for the

large structure,

he

called

musical Greek
same

exercises that

held

there under

his direction.2

painting reached
with

its highestdevelopment at the

earlier

time been which

sculpture. Even
from
trace
was

fresco-painting
ing vase-paintus

had

borrowed
we can

the

Egyptians,and

remains, shows through existing

the

how

continuous

development. began
Athens
as

One

may the

believe

that the

graphicart

in Greece

earlyas began
the
to
use

eighth

century B.C.; and

the
sexes

Eumaresof

distinguish
of various in
chrome mono-

in his

paintings, probably by
heretofore
or

colours, since
on

artists had tablets of

worked

walls

whitened

clay.
who

But
soon

the after

greatest painterswere
the Persian
wars.

those

appeared
was

Polygnotus
the art,

of Thasos

called

the

discoverer

of

taking subjects from

events

treated mythology (460 B.C.). His contemporaries

recent

of

and temples. the publicbuildings history, decorating

Polygnotus used only

and

four colours
his

"

black,white, yellow, paintingby

the the difference

red
in

"

yet gave

varietyto
Soon

shading.
be learned
and

afterward

scene-painter,
1900). (Leipzig,
writers,such
copy what
as

JSee
2

Fleischer, Die
can

Reste der

Tonkunsi altgriechischen music since from

Roman

Little

about

Martianus learned from

Capella

Boethius,

they merely

they

the Greeks.

THE

PR.E-ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

83
spective per-

Agatharchusof Samos,
and His

discovered
which
on

new

of principles
wrote
a

shading,on
were

subjectshe

book.

methods and

followed
The

panels by Apollodorus of
which he

Athens

others.

school

founded

was

usuallycalled the Ionic School,and it comprised the

Zeuxis, who great rivals, truth, and
was

two

copied

nature

with

wonderful

Parrhasius

of

Ephesus.

Encaustic

painting
his

perfectedby Pausias, in the fourth century, and

Ox" in
was as

"Black bull

famous

in

Potter's as Paul antiquity

skill
was was

modern

times.

Great

attained

by

Apelles of Ephesus, whose

have

work
of

very

graceful. We

scarcelyany

remains

Grecian
are

paintingsof the
upon

classical age except those which

found

the tombs, models.1

the

usuallyEtruscan, and often copied from

Gem-cutting
but
was

Greek

learned from
be

the Greeks

by

tians, Egyp-

it cannot

said that the Greeks

For
a

proved greatlyim-

upon

their models.
or (obsidian)

cutting gems
metal

they used by

sharp stone
drill which
were

minute

disk worked

cut

the

deeper parts
a

of the pattern.

The

tools

charged with
little for made

sort

of emery

powder.2
and

The

Greeks

cared
cameos
a

the

Egyptian scarabs,
the The

preferred

of onyx,

on figures standing out vividly

dark
xSee

background.
Woltmann
and

oldest
A

Greek

jewellerwhose
trans.

Woermann,

Historyof Painting. Eng.

Antique (Paris,1S95) ; Bockler,
Die

(New

York, 1901); Girard, La Peinture

Cros

and

Henri, UEncaustique (Paris, 1884); and

der antiken
2

Polychromie in

Sculptur (Aschersleben,1882).
N. xxvii.

Pliny,H.

76.

84
name

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

has

come

down

to

us

is Mnesarchus, the
600

father of
most

the

philosopher Pythagoras (c.

master

B.C.). The
times
was was

famous

of fourth

gem-cutting in
century
the Great
B.C.

Greek He

Pyrgo-

teles in the

the

only artist
his did

whom

Alexander
It may

would

allow to cut until later times

ness. likethe

be added
stones

that not
such

love
become

of
a

precious

as

pearls and

emeralds

passion.1
Period may

The
with

Prae-Alexandrian
the death of of

be viewed
the

as

ing end-

of Aristotle

and (322 B.C.)

complete
The of

domination supremacy what had

Greece

by

the

Macedonian
the

kings.
decadence the

Macedon,
most

in fact, marks

been

and original

in striking

genius of

the
The

Greeks,

whether this

or political, literary,

philosophical.
the

historyof

periodreveals
have

in Greece

gradual
the

development
of history that

and

decline that
other nation

been

repeated in

every

since the world

over

ever began, whento

history has
the in
same

extended creative
we

sufficient time
same

giveplay to
forces. So

and

the

destructive

Greece

find

at first

vigorous and

quick-wittedpeople,in comparativelysimple
literature that
art
1

its formative

a period,cherishing

and

and faith, intelligible less

as

with

springsup

the

result of conscious
native

than
See

as

the spontaneous
The

outpouring of

genius,

Middleton,

Engraved Gems of Greek

and

of Classical Times Archeology, pp.

Handbook

(Cambridge, 146-173
Arch'

1891); Murray, A (London, 1892); and

ch. ecology,
vii

Handbook Fowler

40-50,

Wheeler, A

of Greek

(New York, 1909).

86

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

There

is some

truth in the belief that is fatal to

and highly general it inevitably thing everythe

developed culture

because originality,
and thus makes

leads to established conventional.

A

standards
dead

level of excellence

takes

place of
The
man

few
man

manifestations striking
is
more

of creative the

power.

average is less

but intelligent,
at

exceptional
no more

until original,

last

men exceptional

exist.

Society becomes
formulas.

blast intellectually Creators

"

and

reduces

to everything
are

giveplaceto
form."

critics who it is not

slaves to what
with

they call
form
to

good
be

But

consistent

good

imaginativeand
be eccentric.

astic enthusiThus in

and
a

original.This

is held to

highlycivilised community
the

the whole

drift of

thought is

toward the mild

commonplace;

and

thus in the later philosophy,

and speculative

idealistic systems
not

give way

to

sort

of

eclecticism that does

which questions

go very far

beyond

the practical The

relate to the life of every the

day.

epic

is

supplanted by
In

drama

with

its many

cious meretri-

allurements.

the drama

itself the

intense

and
first

powerful tragediesof ^Eschylus and

thrust aside

Sophocles are

by

the rationalistic and

rather

cynical plays of
ing amus-

until tragedygives Euripides,1 way

to the

and elegant

comedy

of

Menander,
takes it out

with

its urbane

dialogueand
of pure
and

its

which realism,
1

of the

realm

poetry.2
pp.

See

introduction Verrall, Euripides the Rationalist, and

257-60
his

(Cambridge, 1895) ;
Dramas,
2

Decharme,
trans.

Euripides

and

the

Spirit of

pp. 74-92.

Eng.

(New

York, 1906).

Horace,

Sat. i. 4,

46-47.

THE

PR^E-

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

87

The

Prae-

Alexandrian

Age yielded
to

ends,
the

then,
critical.

when

the

creative

impulse
for serious

had

largely
men,

What

remained

therefore,
to

was

not

to

attempt
been

anything produced
Thus

new,

but

rather

study
criticise,

what

had

already
to

"

to

analyse,
into

to

and

classify.
sciences

there

came

especial

prominence
to

the

that

are

lateral col-

and

subsidiary

literature

and

linguistic
and

study
formal

"

hermeneutics,

lexicography,

text

criticism,

grammar.

[Bibliography. chapter,
translation
see

In
"

addition works and

to

the of

books

already

cited

in

this

the

anecdotal

Diogenes

Laertius, English

English
translation

(London, 1854);
3-59

1853),
with

Athenaeus, Saintsbury, Jebb, 1893)

The
A

(London, i-"
PP-

together York, Poetry

History
and
Tlie

0/ Criticism,

(New
Greek

1900);
(London,

Growth

Influence
Tragic
Drama

of

Classical

Haigh,
Comidie

of

the

Greeks

(Oxford,
Croiset,

1896);
An

Denis, Abridged

La

Grecque, of
Greek

vols.

(Paris, English Poetry:

1886);
translation Law in

History

Literature,

(New
Taste,
pp.

York,
37-221

1904);
(London,

and

Courthope, 1901).]

Life

in

Ill

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

A.

The

Alexandrian

School

In

the

year

306

B.C.,

Demetrius

Phalereus,
been
over

statesman,
to to

poet, philosopher, and

death
at

orator,

having
and in time

sentenced the
was sea

Athens,

left Greece Alexandria from his

own

passed Egypt.
when traced
name

the

infant

city

of

It

exactly
the

twenty-five
Great,
of

years with

the

Alexander

had,

hand,
gave his

the
and that The
to

general plan
as

the

city to which
the
most

he

to

which

he issued
made of
a

peremptory
the entire

orders world.

it should commands
a

be

the

metropolis of
cannot

king
natural

give enduring greatness

of

city; but
that
a

the

advantages

Alexandria
when

were

such

great
sure

commercial
to

community,
flourish upon

planted there, was

ages.

live and

throughout succeeding
a

Alexandria
situated in it. that Down of

lay
the

projecting tongue
of the Mediterranean
to
came

of

land,

so

whole Nile

trade there

centred the

the

floated it also spaces from lands

its wharves

wealth of the from

masses

barbaric

Africa.
over

To
vast

the treasures
caravans
"

East, carried China,

of

by

silks

spices and
and

jewels
from
to
88

India, and
of which

enormous

gold

silver
even

the

names

were

scarcely known

contemporary

geographers.

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

89
country, from
even

In Asia

its harbour in the

were

the

vessels of
and

every and

East, to Spain

Gaul

Britain

in

the West.
To the outward eye, Alexandria
was

extremelybeautiful.
great boulevards,

Through
shaded

its entire

length
trees, and
amid

ran

two

by mighty

diversified

by parterres

of

multicoloured marbles costly reserved

flowers

which One-fifth

fountains of the

splashedand
whole

gleamed.
Greek
as

city was

for the known the

kings

who

succeeded In

Alexander,
it, before
there

and

was

the

Royal
the

Residence.

long,were
were,

palacesof

reigningfamily; and
with

besides, parks and

adorned with and

gardens, brilliant masterpiecesof

obelisks gave
one a

tropical ture, sculp-

and foliage
while

Grecian

sphinxes

suggestionof
eye

oriental

strangeness. As
the
on

looked
the rocks

seaward, his
of the
a

beheld, over

blue

water,

sheltering pyramidal
a

island,Pharos,

which

Ptolemy
hundred

II. reared feet in

lighthouseof
cost

marble

four

height at

of

eighthundred
among when the

silver talents
seven

and ($940,000), of the

justly
At

numbered the time

wonders took

world.

Demetrius than
one

tained refugethere,the citycon-

more

hundred life. Its

thousand

and inhabitants,

was

humming

with

people were

alert,energetic,
ambitious
for its
a

proud
future. sublime
more

of Alexandria's

and distinction,

had Dinocrates, its designer, belief in its

fifteen

planned
a

it with

destiny, giving it

circumference

of

than

miles, and

foreseeing alreadyits coming

90

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

splendour. Ptolemy Soter, who

the

was
a

justabout
man

to

assume

styleand
and of

title of

king, was
His
so

of

largeconceptions
been
was a cubine con-

liberal

ideas.

mother that

had

Philipof Macedon,
to

Ptolemy

believed
whom A
a

to

be had

half-brother served
a

the

great Alexander, under

in Asia. he and
was

he

with

conspicuous success
statesman,
and science
a

great
true

soldier and

consummate

also

Greek

in his love of art himself He

was

literature.
of the
wars

In of

fact, he had
Alexander.1

written

narrative
a

still carrying on
contest
was

campaign against
and ready al-

Antigonus; but Ptolemy

the
was

nearing its end, thoughts

and
to

turning
the

his

magnificent
of his

designs for enhancing capital.

It
was

glory

splendour

the

moment psychological

for
were

some

remarkable

achievement. Here

All the
was
a

conditions

able. favourabsolutely and

rich, populous,

youthful city,

the possessing

Hellenic in
a

traditions of intellectual greatness,

world that
was

yet growing up
Hellas.
Its

broader
new

than

little

people were
with
a

receptiveto

ised ideas, liberalthan that of

at

by
Greece
once,

contact

civilisation far older

an

and itself,
not

filled with

intense but the

desire to

gain

only
of the

the

commercial,
The

intellectual

premacy su-

world.

first Greek

king

of

Egypt

JThis

narrative Anabasis

was

largely used

by Arrian
The

in

preparing his chief

work, the
can

of Alexander.

fragments of Ptolemy's work 1848). (Paris,

be found

in the Didot

edition of Arrian

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

unlimited practically possessed

with
a

resources.

He

was

gifted
a

trained

and intelligence for all that

was

taste, and
was

with inspired and

splendidenthusiasm
The alone suggestion
a

noble

refining.

needed

to

employ these unusual

be

in opportunities

way

that
a

should

worthy of
from

their the

inherent

Such possibilities.

suggestioncame

exiled Athenian, Demetrius

Demetrius
even so

Phalereus.
a man as

himself

was
a

well fitted to

influence
was

independent
the

ruler
Attic

King Ptolemy. He
of

among

last of the
his native

orators

distinction.
three

He

had
and

governed

city so
been
a

ably that

hundred
in

ninety statues
He of
was

had

erected

by the Athenians

his honour. schoolmate who

also

highly cultivated scholar,the

a

Menander,

and

pupil
head

of

Theophrastus,
the

succeeded
To the him

Aristotle at
was

the

of

Peripatetic
tion recita-

School.

due

the revival of Homeric

these of two

by
He
was

Rhapsodes, after
the author

had

fallen into disuse.

to relating
to

himself

books

the have

Iliad

and

four
text

to the Odyssey,supposed relating

dealt with fitted than

any

criticism.
to

No the

one

could

have

been

better
to

he

advise
the

king

in whatever of

related

project for
one

advancement
to

fore, learning. Therethe gestion sug-

is not which

that surprised
soon

him

is ascribed the

rendered and

Alexandria

intellectual
the sequent submediate im-

capitalof

the

world

profoundly influenced
and Roman
were

historyof Greek
fruits of his wise

learning. The
two
"

counsel

the estab-

92 lishment

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

of

great Museum

(to Mvaelov),

and

also the

foundation
An
was

of the famous of the

to

Alexandrian is

Library.1 given by Strabo.2

most

account

Museum

It

attached

the

royal palace in the

beautiful
rounded sur-

quarter of the

city,overlookingthe

harbour, and
of

and by lawns, porticos,

art.

marvels

decorative

It

contained

an

observatory for
a

its astronomers,
was

and a selected library, laboratories,

great hall which

theatre of magnificent a arranged proportions practically

as a

publiclecture
were

room.

In

second

the scholars hall, from

who

drawn

to

the

Museum and

all countries
an

dined

like together,

the master
to

fellows of
were

English
and

college.Attached

the

Museum

botanical
whole At

gardens. zoological
was

The

object of the

institution first
a

to
no

encourage
so teaching,

original research.
that the Museum

there ing strik-

was

bore
in

resemblance
Later which
to

to

the

Carnegie Institution
in
essence
a

ton. Washing-

it became

great universityin
his
as own

the

each lectured, professors

who

on

specialty,
as

students

numbered
The

at

one

time

many

teen fourthe

thousand.

were professors
we

under primarily may

whom of principals supervision

call deans, chosen of the

by
1

the

whole

body; while
p. 203.

the

administration

Athenaeus,v.

Strabo,xviii. p. 794.

See also

Parthey, Das Alexandrinische

1-70, 123-172,

Museum

(Berlin, 1838);Ritschl, Opuscula,i. pp.

Das Alexandrinische Museum

197-237;

Weniger,

(1895);Walden,

The A

Universities

of Ancient
Education

Greece,pp.
the before

48-50 (New York,

1909); Graves,

History of

Middle

Ages (New York, 1909).

94 have been

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

thus
or

made.

Galen

mentions of

the

fact that the

autographa
and

originalcopies purchased
of its

^Eschylus, Sophocles,
which Library,
to

Euripides were
at the

for the

is

believed

time

greatest fame
and death
on

have

contained

between
volumes.1
were some

five hundred Even

thousand the

six hundred of

thousand
there Private

before

Demetrius

thousand fifty such

as

volumes of

its shelves.
were

collections

that and
seen

Aristotle

purchased,as copies.
endowed

well
It

as

rare

editions

authoritative especially how

a

can

be readily
side

the existence such

of

an

school

by

side with

of library the had

magnificent portions proorderly

taken

would

quickly foster subjectsthat

systematic and
been previously

study
up
at

of many random with

and by individuals,working independently and unsatisfactory

often At

very every

inadequate materials.
of

in last,

a largebody sphere of learning,

highly

trained
and

men,

provided
any

with

every

for facility

research out withso

freed

from and

could pecuniaryanxiety,

labour

haste
as

without

rest,
the
mass

apportioningtheir
of

work

to

bring

into
a

play
great

peculiartalents
of data
"

each, and

accumulating
and

of

facts, results,

which principles, and

each

succeedinggenerationfound
in turn it added.

classified for its use

at
1

to which

Hence,
in spirit

once

great development of the

scientific

See

Die Alexandritiischen Bibliotheken Ritschl, Buchwesen

(Breslau,1838); Birt,
Livres dans

Das ch.
x

Antike

1882); Geraud, (Berlin,

Les

I'Antiquite,

Delle (Paris,1840); Castellani,

Biblioteche nell' Antichita

(Bologna,

1884).

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

95
the is

every

direction

followed
of the

almost and

immediately Library
and

upon what

establishment

Museum

roughly

and

somewhat
There the
"

inaccurately styled the

were,

drian Alexangrowths out-

School.
from

in

fact, several distinct

researches all in the the Ionic

Alexandrian school
"

and
sense

training, given to
or

but
that

there
word

was

no

at

when

we

speak
or

of

School,
In

the of
tain cer-

Pythagorean School,
these
a

the
men

Stoic
were

School.

each

number

of able

all dominated

by
ideas

common

philosophical principlesand
a
common

and

holding
such
was

fast to
not

theory.
The had
no

But
men

at

Alexandria
who

the

case.

learned

lived and
the

together in
held
most
no

the

Museum in
common.

singlephilosophy
activities

theory

Their

took

diverse

direction.
a

The

only thing that

and
to

all of them of scientific

possessedtogetherwas
methods.
"

love of science
far
more

It would
"

be

proper
were

speak

of the

schools
a

at

Alexandria, since there

mathematics,
a a

reallymany,
astronomy,
school
a

"

school
of

of

school

of

school

medicine,

school

of

philosophy,a

of

a school literature,

of grammar

and

and finally, linguistics,

school Yet
'See

of textual criticism.1

these
St.

different schools
VEcole

had

one

characteristic

so

Hilaire,De
I'Ecole Schools

d'Alexandrie

(Paris,1845); Simon,
Vacherot,

Histoire Histoire

de I'Ecole de Critique

d'Alexandrie,2 vols. (Paris,1844-45); aQd

d'Alexandrie, 3 vols. (Paris,1846-51).

Kingslates re-

ley's Alexandrian only to

the

(Cambridge, 1854)

is

and disappointing

side. philosophical

96
far in the
some common

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

as

to

give a

sort

of

family likeness
and scholars,

to

all
in

productionsof
measure

the

Alexandrian in

thus

to

us justify as

speaking of
the

the Alexandrian earlier Greeks of

"school." exhibit
a

Just
certain the

the

writings of

instinctive

and originality the

freshness
are

thought, so
in erudition.

writingsof
smell

Alexandrians

steeped
all

They

of the

lamp.
this

Before is the from in

"

else,

they

are

learned every
no

productions; and
work single that
came

trait that

belongsto
It is A the
seen

their hands. their science.

as

less in their literature than writer has very

to
we

German

aptly said:

It is

though
vidual indi-

strove great library

reproduce itself

in each

work." such
as

Therefore
of the

find the Alexandrian

Poetry,

that

Callimachus,
reader
at

Aratus, and
turn
a

Apollonius,
treatise.

suggestingto
So Philetas died from who

every

learned
writer It
was

of Cos overwork made

though (c.300 B.C.),

in

of

elegies,
deed, he, inlexicon

scientific

study.
an

the first attempt at

astronomers

Homeric and

The CAra/cra, TXaxra-ai).1

were

the mathematicians and

morbidly anxious
of the the

about

the rhetorical

grammaticalmerits
of the

language
or ecliptic,

in which the

they

wrote

equinoxesand

solution

of the

quadraticequation. So, again,the geographers and suppliedtheir

And treatises the
an

torians his-

with

notes. archaeological

thus,
in

at

even first,

most

abstract

lectures

were

given
1

verse.

It

was

age

of

scholarencyclopaedic

See Couat, La

Poesie Alexandrine,pp. 68 foil. (Paris, 1882).

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

97

ship; and
no

it

tingesthe
the treatises

Alexandrian
on

epics
and

and

dramas

less than
is what influence

grammar the

lexicography.
Influence,
"

This
an

is meant that it
was

by

Alexandrian
so

afterward

powerfully felt

at

Rome, where
the

reproduced itself in
less than

the

of Varro, writings the Vergil,

most

polymath, no

in the lines of

learned
It is

of all the Latin because precisely

was

poets.
the

whole

tendency

of the that

andrians Alextheir

toward

reflection
was

and

research

work

in pure

literature

of of
a

aesthetic value, being slight and imagination, learned that their

and formal, pedantic,

void

philosophy was

marked

by
the

eclecticism.

The

highest philosophy,like
in addition
to
mere

noblest literature, demands, intellectual

an learning,

subtletyand

But genuine inspiration.

the

study
now

of

mathematics, of
in many

mechanics,
respects
so

and
sure

of

physicswas

and fruitful,
to

in its results

as

be the
can

admiration

of
the of

scientific men

to-day; while
of that

no

one

overestimate in the

enduring value

systematiclabour
and

study

and grammar) language (lexicography of texts. So

at

in the criticism

far

as

literature is concerned, the Alexandrians

and collecting from
own

were

their best in
to

what preserving

had What

come

down added any the

them

the
was

preceding centuries.
vast

they
of of

of

their

in amount
more

and
than the

devoid
names

great aesthetic merit.

Alexandrian writers of

Little

epics and

and lyrics

dramas

98
are

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

known

to-day.
volumes
but
so

Here

and
were

there read either

few
even

fragments tell
admired
at

of vast

which which

and
so

Alexandria,
treatment
or

were

obscure
as

in their deserve

technical
has
come

in their themes upon them.

to

the oblivion that On

and the other

hand, the Alexandrians

an

reduced
The

criticism first librarian, the

the

to study of style

exact

science.

Zenodotus and and

of

collected Ephesus (c. 300 B.C.), of

epic
;

lyricpoets ; Lycophron
Alexander
of

Colchis,the

comic

poets
second

^Etolus,the tragic poets.

of

The

Callimachus librarian,

Cyrene (c.
one

275 and

made B.C.),

catalogueof
which
may

the

Library in
said
to

hundred laid the

The

twenty books
for
a

be

have

foundation third
an

scientific

study
of

of Greek

literature.

librarian,
admirable

Eratosthenes

Cyrene (c. 200

and

wrote B.C.),
on

treatise
in at
a

on

geography

another

the bear

Old
upon

Comedy,
the

least twelve wealth

of

books, bringingto

ject subThe

knowledge and

excellent

taste.

fourth has

librarian, Aristophanes of Byzantium

(c. 200

B.C.),

been

styled "the
who is said to in

of antiquity." greatest philologist have

It is he
are
now

invented

the and

accents

which

employed

writing Greek,
he

also

system

of

punctuation.
used

Likewise them

suggested

critical

signs

and (arj/xela) of the three It is claimed

in his editions

of Homer, famous

Hesiod,
writers.
or

great tragic poets, and

also that the he
wrote

other

the

Hypotheses

densed con-

plots to

greater dramatists, with

notes

and

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

99

aesthetic criticisms.1 of what

or

Most

important of
known
as

all is his establishment

have

become

"the

"

canons

listsof the very best authors Canon2

was

of Greek

antiquity. The
the

Alexandrian and it

prepared with
and

greatest care,
of the

represents the matured

students whose of

final
as

judgment
those
names

Alexandrian
Greek

literature

to

of

writers

works

embodied

the

very
were

highest
thought

excellence in their
to

and who especial spheres,

be models The

for all future authors.

details of

the

Canon

are

as

follows:

(i) Epic

Poets, Homer,

Hesiod, Pisander, Panyasis,Antimachus.

(2)

Iambic

Poets, Archilochus, Simonides,

Hipponax.

(3) Lyric Poets, Alcman,

Alcaeus, Sappho, Stesichorus,

giac (4)Ele-

Pindar, Bacchylides, Ibycus,Anacreon, Simonides.

Poets, Callinus, Minnermus,

Philetas,Callimachus.

(5) Tragic

Poets

(First Class), ^Eschylus, Sophocles,

(Second Class,
or

Euripides, Ion, Achaeus, Agathon. Tragic Pleiades), Alexander Corcyra, Sositheus, Homer phanes
or

the

Philiscus of -/Etolian,

the

Younger, ^Eantides, Sosi(6) Comic

Poets

Sosicles,Lycophron.

(Old

Comedy),

Epicharmus, Cratinus, Eupolis,Aristophanes,

(Middle

Pherecrates, Plato.
1

Comedy),
Classical

Antiphanes,
Philology, 3d ed.,

See
11-13

Gudeman,

Outlines

of the Historyof infra, pp.

100-102.

pp.
2

(Boston, 1902), and

word
canon so

The

meant (Kavdbv)

a reed, and originally

then
to

penter's car-

rule;
whatever made really

that, in
as a

figurative sense,
or as norm.

the

word

came

denote

served up

model
canons

The

Canon

Alexandrinus above.

is

of several

may

be

seen

in the text

IOO

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Alexis.

(New

Comedy),

Menander,

Philippides, Diphi-

lus, Philemon,

Apollodorus. (7) Historians,Herodotus,

Thucydides, Xenophon, Theopompus, Ephorus, Philistus,

Anaximenes,
Callisthenes.

(8)

Orators

(the

ten

Attic

Orators), Antiphon, Andocides, Lysias,Isocrates, Isaeus,

iEschines, Lycurgus, Demosthenes,

Hyperides, Dinarchus.

(9) Philosophers, Plato, Xenophon, ^Eschines, Aristotle,

Theophrastus.
the
same

(10)
with

Poetic
one

Pleiades

(seven poets

of

epoch

another), ApolloniusRhodius,
the

Aratus, Philiscus, Homer cander, Theocritus.

This Canon
was

Younger, Lycophron,

Ni-

felt to be necessary
that
a

owing

to

the great

multitude

of books
was

began

to appear

in the Alexandrian the

Age.
of

There

certain

apprehension lest

weight
of
a

numbers

should

prevail against the

claims

real
flood

merit, and

lest the great classics should

The
a

be lost in
to
serve

of innovation. did
serve
as

Canon of be
some

was

intended

and

it

standard

comparison by judged;
and

which it

all literary

productionsmust purity of styleand

From the

thus of

preserved

definite
our

laws
own

literary expression.
the lishment estab-

standpoint of
Alexandrian

times

of the and
some

Canon
led
to

wrought
the

both

good

harm. of the

It

undoubtedly

of preservation it also led

greatest works
works

of that

antiquity;but
would be

to

the

loss of other
to
were

of inestimable latter
not

value

the

modern allowed
to

classical

These philologist.

works

perishjust because

they

were

102

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

heavilycharged
parts like
its
a

with

and ponderous learning,

to

reading in
the

As dictionaryof antiquities.
a

second,
times.1

obscurity passed into

of trulytypical Aratus
on

proverb even
age
are

in ancient

More

the

the and

so-called "didactic

epics" of

astronomy

wards meteorology (afterthat the of Nibites of

translated cander
venomous

into Latin
on cures

by Cicero),and
for
went
more

of

Colophon
creatures.

poison and
on,

As

time

the

work literary

of and

the far

Alexandrians less imbued

came

became with end

not

and

more

pedantic
literature,
the

the

of spirit the

pure

until it

to

an

far from

beginningof

Christian The

era.2

Alexandrian

Philosophy
It that
was

was

always

characterised The
most

by

eclecticism.

originated nothing.
arose

school interesting

in

Egypt
or

after the
at

Library
rate,

became
due
to

established
the

Jewish
of

was,

any who admit the

to largely

influence

Jewish

rabbis
to

began
into earlier

widen
some

their of The the

so religious teaching,

as

it

philosophical conceptionsof
was a

Greeks.
in which

result

body

of

doctrine semi-religious monised. harsuperficially of this mony har-

philosophy and
The
most

theology were

elaborate

expounder

was

Aristobulus,an
on

Alexandrian Mosaic show

Jew {c. 180 B.C.)

Books, dedicated
that the main
to

whose

commentaries

the

Ptolemy Philometor, sought to

1

teachare

Suidas

called it
very

"poem

of shadows."

The

scholia

by

Tzetzes

however,
3

valuable. La Poesie Alexandrine

See

Couat,

1882). (Paris,

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

103 of Plato and

turies cen-

ings of

Greek
were

those especially philosophers, derived the from the

Aristotle,

Pentateuch.
of

Three

later,when
be

influence
was

Christianity began
but

to

felt,Neo-Platonism
were

thereby modified;
hostile
to

the

later Neo-Platonists their system, in the

and Christianity;
and

hands forth
as

of Iamblichus
a

Julian the
for

Apostate, was
and In the the the

set

substitute

both

tianity Chris-

older and

pagan

faith.1
of

Pure

Applied Sciences, the achievements

lie somewhat may,

Alexandrians

beyond

the

strict limits of

classical

philology. It

however, be
which
were
sun

well

to

merate enu-

some

results striking
measurement

attained.

These

comprise the
tarchus treatise of
on

of the

and the

moon

by

Aris-

Samos

(310-250 B.C.);
(c.300

first

systematic ment develop-

geometry by Euclid

B.C.) ;

the

of the

geometry of three dimensions

well
as

by

Archimedes
matics mathe-

(287-212 B.C.),as
to

the first
the
same

of application

hydrostaticsby
on

scholar;

the

first

scientific treatise

conic

sections
out

by Apolloniusof Perga
Eratosthenes

(260-200 B.C.);the working B.C.)of

what
was

by
the

(275-194
the

later called

Julian Calendar;
the solar year

determination
six

of the true

length of

(within
no

after minutes) by Hipparchus (c. 160 B.C.), in

some

whom time

real advance

astronomy
sixteen

was

made

until years

the

of
the

Copernicus,
1

hundred

later;

See

and Whittaker, The Neo-Platonists (Cambridge, Kingsley, op. cit.;

1901).

104

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

invention of the

also by Hipparchus; and trigonometry, of the

finaly,

construction

the steam-engine, the fire-engine, and many curious have mechanical

nickel-in-the-slot machine,

toys by Hero

to (c.125 B.C.),

whom

also been

ascribed

writings on

the

solution
of

of

the

quadratic equation and

the introduction As
among the he

algebra.1
the essentially
so

Aristophanes was
the

great (fu\6\oyo";
was

Alexandrians,

Aristarchus

essentially

of all antiquity. Born great /cpiTiic6";

was a

in Samothrace, his

pupil of Aristophanesat Alexandria, where

as a

stupendous labours
afterwards,and
him that
text
even

critic of literature made this

his

name

to

day, proverbial. It
its

is with

criticism

reached

highestdevelopment

until recent

times. that the and

It is evident in in
a

literary study

of

an

author, pursued
soon

thorough

systematic way,
the of integrity

will

result

to questionsrelating

the text, when

especially
exist

when

the author versions

has from

been

long dead
one

and
to

there

variant

which that

has

choose. been
texts

It has viously prealso

now

already been
toward

shown

something had

done and
was

the criticism of the Homeric

the
taken with

texts

of the

great dramatists.
in
a

This

work

up at Alexandria

of spirit

scientific

and inquiry
went on,

ample

means

for its

prosecution. As
of

time

See

Berry,

Short

History
York,

Astronomy

(London, 1899); Ball, History of (New

Mathematics

Great

Astronomers

(New

1899); Ball,A

(London, 1901); Cajori, A

History of

Mathematics

York, 1906);

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

05

definite School

of Criticism

was

established. be

The

first the
were

Zenodotus librarian, founder of this of with

a

of

Ephesus, may
The

regarded as
his duties

school.

fact that

partlythose
him
to

cataloguer, purchaser,and
interest especial that
one

classifierled
work of making
sort

look

upon

the

so collections,

finds him

preparing a
and

of

corpus of the
Homeric He also

epic

and

lyricpoets
into
a

elaboratingthe
ambitious work.

of glossary

Philetas
an

more

put forth

edition

which

may

be

called the

very first scientificedition of both the Iliad and

the
b.c.

Odyssey.
Hence

It

was

before publishedshortly
is called

the

year

274

Zenodotus
or

and his SiopdcoTi]*;,

work

the

8t,6p6eo"n"

Recension. In

preparingthe
kinds

text

of Homer,

Zenodotus

introduced
the
as

four

of corrections:

(1) Elimination,
he

complete absolutely
as

omission

of certain

lines that the

regarded
of certain
as

spurious; (2) Query,

marking
so

lines

very

doubtful, though still not

omission

doubtful

to

their justify

the rearrangement altogether; (3)Transposition,

of the
Fink,
der A

order

of certain
Mathematics Allerthum

lines; (4) Emendation, the sub(Chicago,1900); Hankel, Zur

und Mitlelalter Geschichte and the

History of
im

Mathematik
on

(Leipzig, 1874); drawings to

As
to

treatise them
was

Hiero's

ingeniousmechanical
Pneumatics of
year

toys with

illustrate

in in

Greenwood,

(London, 1851).
the
1700

algebra, this
on

realityan
back

invention
to

Egyptians.
B.C.,

The

first treatise
an

algebra dates
before
his

the
an

when written

Ahmes, eight
edited

Egyptian
years

scribe,copied part
time.

of

algebraic work
of Ahmes

hundred

The

book

has

been

by

Eisenlohr

(Leipzig, 1877).

106

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

stitution of
a

new

readingsfor

the old.1
attention appear His

As
to to

was

natural in

he paid great lexicographer, and his corrections side.

the

vocabulary
been
made

of Homer,

have

chiefly upon
done
era

the verbal minute

proof of
and

what

could be
a new

by
of

study

of word
one

phrase began

philological study,and
received style, criticism those of
a

in which

language,

as

distinct from processes other

very

close attention.
to

The
to

of text than

now

began

be

extended

texts

Homer. of the of

We

have

already
ander Alex-

mentioned

the great edition

the

tragicpoets by
the comic

iEtolus, and

edition of than

poets by

Lycophron. spoken of, were

in the

The

ntW/ce?

Callimachus, previously
a

more really

of catalogue

the books

Alexandrian
on

Library,since they contained genuinenessof

last word each

critical
an

observations

the

volume,
a

cation indi-

of the first and its size.2 in the The studies treatise In it he This
was

of each, and

note

ing regard-

Bibliography employed essentially

service of criticism. third

librarian, Eratosthenes, of
has

whose

scientific
a

something
on

been

already said, compiled

less than twelve

the Old

Comedy

in not

books.

seems

to have

given for

the

first time, not

only a
ject sub-

complete and
of
excursus
1

critical treatment

of the
an

language and

the
on

comedies,
such themes

but
as

also
were

exhaustive

series of

of collateral interest and

found in H. F. Clinton's

Examples of his corrections

491

may

be

Fasti

iii. Hettenici, pp.

2

foil. (Oxford,1824-1834).

See

de la Bibliographic no date). (Paris, Egger, Callimaque et I'Origine

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

107 scenic kinds

importance,
"

e.g. the structure

of

theatres,the
the different

apparatus, the actors, the

of

costumes,

to elocution, and, in fact, everythingpertaining

the

generalsubject.1
His
successor,

of Byzantium, availed Aristophanes material which

was now

self himThe
tury, cen-

of fully Alexandrian and

the

at

hand.
entire

Library had alreadyexisted

it had that best the been there

for

an

thoroughly sifted, arranged, and

was

so classified,

needed

only a great
had
some

mind

to

put it
done

to

the

use. possible

Much
of

alreadybeen
of principles and
a

toward

establishment

but criticism;
were now

the results of be

previoussuccesses
and full, in

failures

to

utilised to the
whole

broad

and

liberal
a

spirit.The

sphere of
of
a

Greek

literature became
in in
a

field for the

himself
so

labours

Aristophanes; and
set to

taking upon

heavy

task, he
was

work

of catholicity. His spirit

nor was

criticism

not
"

wholly verbal,
is, criticism
It
was

it upon

even

wholly diplomatic,
comparison
was

that

based

the it

of

manuscripts.

both ment sentiTen of

of these, and

and inspired

tempered by
sorts.

the

critique.His o-qyL"a were

them of
were

of various

known

as

the 8e/ca TrpocrcpSiai, ten or

were

markings
three

Aristophanes. These
two

the two

the breathings, the

the accents,2
1

quantitymarks

(the long and

in

short),

The

fragments of his writingswill be found 1822). (Berlin,

accents,

Berhardy, Eratosin

thenica

'Breathings and
Greek

however,

were

not

regularlywritten
a.d.

manuscripts earlier than

the seventh

century

108

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

the mark

of

inserted separation
not

between

words

where

the

might point of separation

curved
as

be obvious,the
the

hyphen (a
connection,

line drawn

under

the letters to show

in

compound
mark

words), and
elision
or

the apostropheused finally, end of

a

either to
was

the
a

foreignname.
/c,

It
,

written regularly When

a a

after

word

ending in
was

%,

or f i/r,

p.

double
an

consonant

found

in the the

middle

of

word,

apostrophe was
letters.

placed

above

first or

between
Besides

the two

these, Aristophanesalso made

value
a

use

of the its

full

whose point or period, The

was

depended

upon

position.
the

high point was

a

full

stop. The
a

point on

line
a

semicolon.
The last

The

point in

middle
use

was position

comma.

disappeared from
it was

in

the

ninth
we

century a.d., when

now

replacedby

the mark

which

call

comma.

Aristophanes also
texts.

edited
a

a critically great

number

of

He

prepared
he
a

supplement
compose
on

to

the

catalogue of already
the
one

Callimachus;

helped
treatise

the and

Canon also about

given; he

wrote
on

metres,

first dred hun-

scientific work

lexicography,of which
stillpreserved.1
in detail upon
can

fragments are
We of need
not

dwell

the much

critical methods
better
seen

since they Aristophanes, of his remarkable

of

be

in

the work
1

pupiland
are

associate,Aristarby Nauck, Aristophanis

The

fragments

Aristophanes

edited

ByzantiiFragmenta (Halle,1848).

IIO

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

v.

7).1 It

was

probably because
of the the
reasons

of his for

knowledge

of these

and interpolations chus

them, that Aristarin

a

approached
that
to

work A. Wolf

of

recension

sceptical
His main

like spirit purpose

was

of F.

in later times. additions

rid the text

of the

and

tions corrup-

of the
to note

three

preceding centuries.

It is
can

interesting
be
seen

the

details of his system, which

some

best

by taking up
us

of the concrete

examples preserved for

in the Venetian The examination

scholia.
of
an

author

by Aristarchus involved
of the

five processes:

(1) the arrangement

of the

text; (2) the

of

determination

accents;

(3) the
the

determination

forms; (4)
and of

an

explanationof
criticism the final his work

words, allusions, etc.;

all questions including that is to be

(5)/cpto-ts,or
and authenticity the author

proper,

judgment
as a

passed

upon In

and

whole.
text

carrying out
all the but

his work

as

Aristarchus critic, used

employs

sources

of information in
a

by

his

ecessors pred-

always

far spirit

more

scientific than he
a

theirs Homeric of the

had
use

been. of

Thus,

like

Zenodotus,

studies

the

words, holding with him

must

that

knowledge
of the

substance
Yet

be

based

upon

knowledge
to the

language.
rare,
1

he does

not

confine himself
as an

archaic,
considers

or

words. foreign Lehrs, De

Aristarchi

He,

2 "analogist,"

See

Studiis

Homericis

(Konigsberg, 1833 ; 3d
Textkritik

ed.

1882); Ludwich,

Aristarchs pp.

Homerische

1884(Leipzig,

1885); Jebb, Homer,

2

91-98 (Glasgow,1887).

Infra, pp.

19-120.

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

III

these

as

being

less

important,from
and
as

the

very

fact of their colour

since

than rarity,

the words
the work

phrases that
a

lend

and

to individuality
are

whole

and

which,
sense.

they
ample, ex-

familiar, give a clue

Aristarchus

to

the Homeric

So, for
eoSe
"

remarks

that
never

in
"

Homer,
here
"

always
";

has the

meaning

"

thus

"

and

or

thither

that
while

fidWetv

refers

always
of

to

the

hurling of missiles, wounding

at

ovrd^etv

is used

or striking sense

close
7roVo"? that and usage

has the quarters ; that "f)6fio";

of

"flight";that
to

is

employed especiallyin
the Iliad
means

reference
the him

combat;
mountain,
of

'O\vfnro"; in
so on.

actual
a

This

careful
to

study gave
decide

standard

when

called upon
in two

between

two-

ings readconflicting for in

manuscripts of equal value;

the
to preference

such
was

case

he

gave

the

reading that
of the

the

more

consistent

with

the

general usage

poet (to

WlfJLOV TOV

TTOlrjTOV),
text, he ascribed
as

his Again, in establishing

to

great weight
and tophanes Aris-

manuscript authority,just
had done and
to
seems

Zenodotus Aristarchus

before

him; but

exhibits
scripts manu-

an

acuteness not

system in his classification of the

be
to to

found have have

in

the

work them

of his

sors. predeces-

He
"

grouped
determined

generallyin
by comparison
its value find
"

and families," and

both
a

by

the

internal of
a

evidence
canon.

of Thus

codex
we

in

the

establishment

private

editions,"the work

of individual

editors; "city editions,"

112

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

made among

under
which and

State he

* supervision;

and

"

popular editions,"
are more

those distinguishes which

are

that

rate inaccu-

those

accurate. fairly
no

That

Aristarchus of
as are

made

such in

minute their
"

divisions families
"

and and

subdivisions
"
"

manuscripts
found in the

groups
texts

work

of modern

critics in

like that fact that

of

Horace, for example, is due

in his time and the variants

to the

tant imporwere

in Homer while the and kind. in

a

variants of

of words

particular verses;
narrow,

limits
tions addiThis

divergencebeing very
were

the

omissions

of
common

comparativelyunimportant
basis of of the

a implies

embodied tradition,
Pisistratidean

vulgate
The
Zenod-

text, better otus,

possiblythat judgment
is
seen

recension. with

of

Aristarchus,as contrasted
of the for

in

his treatment

so-called formulaic
too

lines.

This

line repetition,

line,was

much of
"

for

Zenodotus, who

rejectedthe frequent appearance

the
"

it,
of

for instance, in the Iliad,where

Zeus
to

baneful in

dream the in

Agamemnon

occurs

three

times

second the let

book.

Aristarchus, however,
of the

rightly saw

this
so

naif redundacy
it stand. he
was

and story-teller, primitive

was

he

On

the

whole, though Aristarchus

averse

sceptical,
for this

very much he

to

his altering

text

; and

conservatism

has and

been

censured

in modern

times, for

by Wolf instance,

Lehrs. often
1

Aristarchus introduce
an

questionedand
emendation.

doubted, but he did

not

See p. 15.

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

113

In his critical work

he

employed various signs(a-rj/jLela

.

The

most

important of

these

were

(1) The

6/3e\6"; or spit, -,
lines
were

to

indicate that
"

a
"

line

was

spurious. Such
This

said to be

athetised

(aOerelv).
scholars. either for
to

obelus is stillused

in critical texts
or

by

German

(2) The

SlttXtj, S-,

"

"J
to

or

-$, used

to exposition,

call attention which

is used
same

some

especial point,or
or

mark

word

only once,
as

to

indicate that

the construction

is the

in Attic denote

Greek.
that the

(3) The adopted by

(4) The
as

dotted

to diplS, "-,

reading

Aristarchus

differed from
to

that

of Zenodotus.
verse

asterisk, *,
one

mark

genuine formulaic
him
as

distinct from

regardedby
it was spurious, it

spurious. If
in
one

the

repeatedverse
two

was

marked
the

of the
or

places where
to prefixed

occurred, with

asterisk

the

obelus

the line.

(5) The togetherto

D, antisigma, denote

and

the

stigma, r,
the
same

were

used
The is

of repetitions

idea.1

alone,denoted stigma,
to interesting

onlysuspectedspuriousness.It
that out
60

know

of
were

the

15,600 lines

of

the

Iliad and The

the

Odyssey, 11
of
one

athetised.
were

criticisms in any

Aristarchus

not,

apparently,
were

embodied
1

great standard work, but

was verses

spread
passage
sense

For

instance,Iliad,viii. 535-537,
the For last-named
account

marked, and
seemed
to

so

was

538-541, because
of the former.

repeat the

the best

of these

critical

signs see

Gardt-

1899) and hausen, Paldographie,p. 288 foil. (Leipzig, ip.432

foil.
I

Susemihl, op. cit.

114

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

over

great quantity of monographs, marking each

of
a new

the

development
of
never a new

line of research it is that

or

the

statement

principle. Hence
canonised
so

his

critical work
text.

was

in

one

singlestandard

Hence,
work
to

also, it is
Aristarchus Aristarchean and in

difficult to himself
from
"

what distinguish
that the
out

is the

of the

which

belonged
of This in the

School,
who felt
we
even

to

great number
his ideas.
as

students

scholars

carried

difficulty,
Augustan
tain ascer-

fact,was
and

in ancient

times,

Age;

find

Didymus
Homer
a

Chalcenteros
were

tryingto

what
"

readingsof

approved by

Aristarchus

and The

this

only about

century after his death.

that
we

imperfectknowledge
of

have
to

of the
to

the critical
roundabout
us.

work way

Aristarchus
notices

as

whole

is due
come

in which

of it have

down Homeric

mus, Didy-

just mentioned, collected

Aristarchus. of Aristonicus
wrote
a

the

writingsof

of

Alexandria, a contemporary
on

Didymus,

treatise

the critical signsemployed and the in connection with

by Aristarchus
this matter,
to
B.C.

in his text

work;

incidentally quoted
marked with
wrote

arguments
About

relating
the year

the

verses

these
a

signs.
on

160, Herodianus

treatise poems.
on

the accentuation
Nicanor about the

and
same

prosody
time between made

of the

Homeric
a

improved
the
an

work
200

Homeric 250
a.d.

punctuation.
some

Now

years

and

unknown

scholar

epitome

of these and

four writers
"

"

Didymus,
such
a

Aristonicus, Herodianus,

Nicanor

in

way

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

115
the Homeric

as

to form

continuous

criticalcommentary
of the Four Treatises

on

text.

The

Epitome
"

spoken (usually Germany

as

of

simply

as

the

Epitome,"

and the

in

the
a.d.

Viermanner

Scholien),1 was
the

in
a

tenth of the A

century
Iliad. of the

copied
Codex
No.

into is the

margin
famous

of

codex

This

very

Codex

Venetus

Iliad,
tains con-

454,

in the the

Library of

St. Mark

in Venice. somewhat

It

(1)
from its

Epitome, undoubtedly
as

altered

form, original
scholia.
we

the MS.

language,etc., shows;
is almost the

and

(2) other
from
of the which

This

only

source

can

get any

definite

knowledge

in detail served preployed. em-

views

of Aristarchus. the

It is also the

only MS.
are

in which The

critical

signs of

Aristarchus
were

scholia of this Codex

first edited

by

Villoison in
Text

1788.1
reached antiquity
followers
were

criticism in His

its

highest point with

men

Aristarchus.

often

of

great
seems

but and indefatigable industry, ability

to

their attention

have

been

directed

more

minutely to verbal,i.e. grammatical

have

and criticism,

to

become The
of

narrower

and

more

pedanticas
in

time

went

on.

Alexandian

School

was,

school a fact, essentially

grammatical scholarship,
with

accurate,
too sort

careful,and
a

deeply learned, but

for for regularity,
secure

perhaps
a

great

fondness

strict

rules, and
ity uniformthat

of Procrustean in

to willingness

absolute

language and

in its laws

by crushingout
in the second ed.

idio-

See Hiibner's

Encyclopddie,pp. 37-40

(Berlin, 1892).

Il6

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

matic

freedom

of both of
a

form

and

which expression

is the

essential After studies among writer

attribute

living language.
died
at

Aristarchus, who
were

about

143

B.C.,

critical

continued may be

Alexandria

by

his of

successors,

whom of

noted

Hermippus
drawn upon

Smyrna,

much biographies,
who

by Plutarch;
on

Apollodorusof Athens, chronologyfrom

on

wrote

in
to

trimeters,a work
B.C., and
a

the fall of

Troy

1444

mentary com-

the Homeric
a

catalogueof
the Gods

the
in

ships.

He

wise like-

composed
which
"

treatise On

books twenty-four
information The been

was

treasury of minute

and

curious

freelyand
of

extensively piratedby
Aristarchus after him
B.C. was

later writers." who

had

successor

Ammonius,
came
-c.

his of
to

pupil;and
Alexandria
have written

Didymus
10

Chalcenteros

(c. 65

a.d.),

who

is

said

nearlyfour

thousand

books, lexicographical,

and critical, grammatical,exegetical, About the

manual

archaeological.1
a

year of

75

B.C.

there
"

appeared anonymously
the first of its kind drew
"

great
which

mythology

from

many

of the

later writers the

extensively.One
and the
mentator com-

should also

speak of

grammarian Tryphon,
lived in the less and
B.C.

Theon Alexandrian

who

first less

century

a.d.

The the

School grew

important after
the

middle
was

of the first century

the

good part of
Alexandria

Library Julius
of

destroyed during
1

siege of

by

See

Blau,

De of

Aristarchi

Discipulis(Jena, 1883); by
Moritz

and

the edition

the

fragments

Didymus

Schmidt

1854). (Leipzig,

Il8

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

which gamum,

was

organisedat last
which
arose

in the and

famous

School

at Per-

to

meet
was

assail the theories of the

ancient

Alexandrians. miles from ruled

in

Pergamum
the coast

an

town,

about It

teen fifwas

of

Mysia

in Asia Minor.1

by

dynasty founded
Eumenes

in the Alexandrian
a

Age; and
arts

263

B.C.

I became

patron of the
to sculptors

and

and sciences, inviting philosophers among them

his court,

being Arcesilaus,who Academy

The the
at

had

first presided over

the Middle

Athens, and
successor

the

Peripatetic philosophe
was

Lycon.
I, who
assumed

of Eumenes

Attalus
over

title of
then

king, won
to

victories books

the

invadingGauls,and

began
was

gatherthe

for the

Pergamene Library that

He laid out

andria. to rival the collection at Alexfor

an

grounds
the

academy

like that

in

Athens,

and

sought

rians, histoof philosophers, friendship

and
to

mathematicians.2

The
his

king himself
taste
was

scended condefor

authorship,though
victories of
over

more rated commemo-

sculpture. His
in
a

the Gauls
A

were

set

magnificentbronzes.

copy
as

of "the

one

of

these in marble

is the famous
more

known figure the

Dying
and

Gladiator," but
now

properly "

Dying Gaul,"
at

preserved in
artists whom of
for

the he

Museum Capitoline

Rome.

Of

the

patronised,one
who
wrote
on

recalls
art

especially
likewise Pergamum,

Antigonus
1

Carystos,

and
from

The it
was

name was

parchment {pergamena)is

derived

where
2

first made.
to

It

of Perga dedicated King Attalus that Apollonius

his work

on

Conic

Sections.

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

119 adorned with

on

natural

phenomena.

Pergamum
which
sea rose

was

above splendid buildings,

the

Acropolis,a
it

thousand
were,

feet above of the

the

level,and
a

as protecting,

the court

goddess Athena,
and adorned

vast

quadrangle

bounded
of

by

colonnades

by majesticstatues
other
were

Homer,

and Herodotus, Alcasus, These of

great writers
carried
B.C.

of

the past.
the

and

similar works
until
to

out

by
III

kings

Pergamum

in 133

Attalus

bequeathed
The varied Stoics
was

his entire realm of

the Roman
were,
on

people.
the

scholars in their

Pergamum
than

whole,

more

interest the

those

of

Alexandria.
the

The

controlled

teachings,and
who (c.168 B.C.), Aristarchus rule in
was

real
to

founder the Per-

Crates

of Mallos what

became
to

gamene

School

the Alexandrian. Crates

Aristarchus his

reverenced

while language,

based
which

teachings upon

exception;and
were

the catchwords

the represented Crates and

distinction

avaXoyta and
mere

avcofxaXia.1
verbalists of

his followers with

a

regarded the

Alexandria
text

speciesof contempt.
the especially
text

He

held
of

that

and criticism,
Crates derived
On the The in

criticism

Homer,
Chrysipon

ivu/xaXla expression

from

the treatise of with

a

pus,

Anomaly.
found

fragments Wachsmuth,
School
see

of De

Crates Cratete De

commentary

them and
on

will be the

Mallota Aula

i860); (Leipzig,
Attalica

Pergamene
For

Wegener,
on

hagen, (Copensee

1836).
Aulus
Crates.
'

some

discussion reference is

Analogy

and
to

Anomaly,
Aristarchus

ii. 5, Gellius,
"

where
a

directlymade

and
la est

v "

7 /

est similium

similis dedinatio;

.dvufiaX

inaqualitas Anomaly,
see

declinationum also

consuetudinem cit. i. pp.

sequens." 156-158.

On

Analogy

and

Sandys, op.

120

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

ought to embrace

the whole

mass

of

problems
"

"

historical,
in

and physical, mythological,

philosophical suggested
saw

the

Homeric

poems.

He

in the

and text, allegories

theories
as a

allusions to the

cosmical

and

astronomical Homer
more

of the teacher

Stoics.
than The
as a

In

fact, he regarded

his 8i8aa/ca\ia before hisyfrv^aycoyta. poet,placing this view of Crates read

was

importance of

is found
text

in the fact the

a

that because which

number of of

of his desire to he
saw

into the led to

gories alle-

there, he

propose the

large

emendations conjectural gave

in which

principle
Thus,

anomaly

full

play to

his

ingeniousmind.

while Aristarchus of the text and

Crates is the

represents cautious
a

tion examinadiplomatic he finds in

reluctance

to alter what

it,

emendator, type of the brilliant conjectural

of

the
down

Bentley
to
on us

antiquity. Only fragments writings;but they include epics,on

the

have
a

come

of his Homeric

tary commen-

the

Hesiod, Euripides,and Pergamene Library like Library of Alexandria;

It

Aristophanes; a catalogueof
that which
and may
a

Callimachus
on

made

of the

work

the Attic dialect in at least five books.

be noted, en

passant, that Crates

at

laid the foundation

to

of the
sent
as

study
an

of grammar

Rome,
B.C.1

which His
most

city he

was

ambassador
was

in 157

important
in the

successor

Demetrius
B.C.

Magnes,
who
wrote

who
on

flourished synonyms

first century with

some

and

together

biographies.
1See

infra, p.

157.

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

121

It the

might
seat

well be assumed
a

that Athens

should

have

been
was

of

great institution of learning;and

So far back school
as

such

indeed it had

the
been

case.

the of

time

of

Pericles,
even

called it

"the

Greece," and

in its decadence Both

long kept

the

fire of the

learningbright. beginning of
the

before

and

immediately after
an

Christian

Era, it contained

of organisedfaculty from Athens

"

plished accom-

who professors of the civilised world.

lectured to students
The

all
was

parts
the

Universityat

result of two
of the

institutions previously existing and ""f"r)poi, The the

the

isation organ-

schools of the free Athenian

corps that

philosophers youths,were

and
in

Sophists. early times

Ephebi, or
into
a

enrolled

was

primarily
educated

intended both of
Two way

for the defense

of the State.

They

were

and mentally, and they formed physically became the student

the nucleus

what

body
of this
a

of

the

university.

changes in

the constitution from

body prepared the

for its transformation

to
a

quasi-military tion organisawere:

"

university.These neglectof
the

changes

(i) The
all
were

of compulsion. principle chose.

to

Not

enrolled,but only those who

was no

(2) Membership
or
even

longer confined

Athenians

Greeks.

These

changes left a body

to

of young

men,
a

organisedand
of

enrolled,free regularly
as

follow such

course

training

best suited be turned

their inclinations and

to

and ready capacities,

that had the

to

any

line of

study

advocacy

122

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

of the

and brilliant, energetic,

popular men.
the
a

The

schools

of
for

philosophers supplied
from

influence

necessary
a

completing the change university.

Four

to military college

great

schools
wars

of

philosophy had
been
or

since

the

time

of the

Macedonian
were

at flourishing

Athens. the the

These

the

Academic

Platonic

School,

Peripatetic
Epicurean.
had petuate perthe

or

Aristotelian

School,the
from

Stoic School, and the time

Each

of these schools
an

of its foundation maintain and

near

received

endowment

sufficient to

it.

Plato

had

purchased a

small

garden

Eleusinian

Way,

in the grove His

of Academe,

for three thousand Xenocrates

drachmas.
and

philosophicsuccessors,
to

Polemon,

continued the

teach

in the of

same

spot; their
to

wealthy pupils and grounds

of the and

friends

learningadded
for the

the

bequeathed

sufficient funds

support
an demic aca-

and philosopher,
chair.

thus

endowed practically

In like manner, the

Aristotle left to his successor,

Theophrastus,
and
us

valuable

property
text

near

the
come

Ilyssus;
down
to

Theophrastus,in
in

the will whose

has

completed the permanent Diogenes Laertius,1

of the in the chair. Peripatetic Ceramicus
to be the
were

ment endow-

So

Epicurus left
of
an

his property

nucleus

endowment
like
manner

for his school,2 and

the Stoics Around

probably in
four

made

independent.
1

these

schools

of

phi-

v.

2.

14.
xx. 10.

Diog. Laert.

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

23

losophy, which, being endowed,

multitude of

a taught gratuitously,

teachers

of

rhetoric,grammar,
clustered.
as a

literature,
The of

logic,physics,and
soon

mathematics of Athens

world

learned

to

think

great

seat

learning

and her been

culture, brilliant and

from every

renowned.

Students It appears among their the

own

flocked to
to

quarter and
to

country.
enrolled

have

necessary

become

Ephebi,
tors, instrucThe

but the scholars

and

selected for themselves

such

attended of these lectured the

lectures became
as

as

they

chose.

number
tus

students
to
names as

enormous.

Theophrasmen.

alone

many

two

thousand

The of
we

records show
them

of many
race.

students, some foreign

From

being

of the

Semitic took

later

sources

learn that the

matriculation
wore a

placeearlyin
of the

the year;

that

students

gown

like that

undergraduates

at the

that theypursued athletic sports Englishuniversities; much

with
was

ardour;
for

that

at

the theatre

specialgallery
at

reserved
courses

them;
were
a

that certificates of attendance

the the in

of lectures

required;that they were

that president; contribution fees
to
were

under exacted

generaldirection
the

of

shape
that

of

an

annual of

the

university

Library;
at

breaches

were discipline

punished,as
student
to
cease

Oxford, by fines;that the relation between

very
was
"

and
to

was professor

so close,

that

for

student that
"

take

course

very
"

cutting; and

the
Most

students
of the

themselves
young

touted

for the

professors.

enthusiasts

for

learning," says Gregory Nazianzen,

124

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

11

became

mere

partisansof their professors.They

their

are

all

anxiety to get
This

audiences
to

larger and

their

fees

increased.

they
over

carry

portentous lengths. They

the he

post themselves
as

the

cityat

beginningof

the year;

each

newcomer

disembarks
off at is best
once

falls into their of

some

hands;

they
or

carry him

to the house

countryman
his
own

friend who

at

of trumpeting the praises

professor."
Private
tutors
were ("f"v\afce";)

often

employed. They
them
on

looked

over

the

students'

notes, "coached"
most

the

subjectsin which
them
seems

they

were

and interested, end of the year

helped
there

at to

their exercises.
have

At

the

been
to

an

examination.

Freshmen

seem
a

have

been

to subject
over

sort

of

hazing.

Gregory, in
some

funeral address

his friend

Basil,recalls
We

of the
one

memories the
a new

of their sport with

freshmen.

find
not

of haze

Proaeresius,asking professors, student, Eunaphius, because

the
inferior

his class of his the

to

feeble

health.

Sometimes

officers of
and in
a

were university

subjectto similar
of the tutors who

annoyances, tossed

Liba-

nius tellsof There the

were

one

was

blanket.
to

likewise other
in the

famous East

schools
and

given over

higher education

in the West. is said

to

JEshave

chines, the great rival of Demosthenes,

founded there
were
a

school for oratory in the island of Rhodes, and

famous teachers in Lesbos.

Tarsus, in
the

Asia

Minor,

had

faculties

representingall

branches

of

126

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

A and that

gloss (yXaxraa)was,

in the
name

of language

the Greek

critics
text

grammarians, the

given to

word

in the

in required explanation,e.g. KopeacnfyoprjTow; In

or

II.

viii. 527. obsolete be

course

of

time,ordinary words
new

may

become
may

may in

acquirea
a

shade

of

meaning, or
As the

employed
would

technical

and

sense. peculiar

these
benefit all

words

requirea special explanationfor

name

of the
such.
to

generalreader, the
Thus, Plutarch

yXSxra-awas
the words those

given to
which

speaks of

belong purely applies

the

purelypoetical language,and
Audiendis

that

are

as yX"rrai (De local,

Poetis, " 6). Galen

the term Aristotle

to the
uses

obsolete medical it of

of Hipparchus. expressions
21.
* 4-6).

provincialisms (Poet.
synonymous 8. (i. 15;
term

Quintilianemploys
to
voces

the

yXaxra-rnxara

minus that

usitatas needed

cf. i. 1. 35).

Originally
defined
use

the

word

explanation was
the word

simply
in
common

by writingits simplersynonym,
(ovofia Kvpiov,
Then word the term in the

Arist), in
yXaxraa
and

the
meant

margin
the

of the text

beside

it.

pair of words,
in the

i.e. the

text

its
as

word explanatory

margin,

the two

being viewed

a whole. constituting was

Ultimately
With
these

the

explanationalone
ceased be

called

yXcaaaa.

of lexicography; glosses beginsthe history

soon

but the

glosses

to
"

purelylexical and

became

encyclopaedic

in
1

character,
Cf. id. Rhet.

or historical, biographical, geographical,

iii. 3. since

2.

As

early as
of

the

fifth century

B.C.,

we

find
a

glosses spoken of,

treatise
on

Democritus

Abdera

(c. 410

B.C.) wrote

them

(Uepl T\u"r"rt"ov).

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

127 the tastes

of the

philological, accordingto glossographer. The

have

the

purpose

or

chief
"

of

these

glossographerswe
of

already mentioned,
of In

Philetas

Cos,

Zenodotus,
and

Aristophanes
Herodianus.1
collected and

Byzantium,
later

Aristarchus, Crates,
were glosses

times, the
as

regularly
on

arranged
"

running

commentaries

the

language of

the text,

the best-known

collectors of these
and its the
piler com-

being Hesychius,Photius, Zonaras, Suidas,

of

the
the
as

Etymologicum Magnum.
word
"

In

developed
in the

meaning,
same sense

gloss
Very
name

"

is to few

be

understood
come
as

scholium. author's upon

scholia have but

down
exist

to
are

us

with the

attached;

such

usuallywritten
a

the

margin

or

between

the

lines

of

codex

and

copiedfrom

the work
evidence

of the earlier scholiasts. of

The much

scholia

bear generally the date

having been
itselfwas

written
written.

later than in the

when
are

the codex
as

Scholia
those

margin
between

known

glossa marginales;
called
interglossce

written

the

lines

are

lineares.2

Something
among

must

be

said
as

here
any
must

of

the

study

of

Art

the Greeks.

So far this theme

as

evidence
have been

remains, their
very

on earlywritings

limited is

in extent

so

far

they
the

concern

aesthetics.
A.D., alluded

There

'Athenasus, writing about

year

250

to

thirty-five
list of the

glossographers.
2

See

Mat

thai, Glossaria

Graeca is

(Moscow, 1774-1775); given by Gudeman,

2d ed.

most

important (Gk.)

scholia

op. cit. pp.

20-21.

Cf. also

Hiibner, Encyclop. pp.

37-40,

(Berlin,1892).

128

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

a scarcely

mention

of any

formal

discussion

on

the

history
The
an

of

architecture, sculpture,painting, or
also the

music.

historians,and
incidental way,
and art, artists,

philosophers, merely give,in

and
as inadequatesuggestions

detached
works the

to

of art.

As

in

literature, so

in

music,
selves them-

the

Greeks
more

of
to

Prae-Alexandrian
than
to

Age

devoted

creation

criticism. of his

Philostratus Lives
was

remarks, however, in the first book

of

the
to

Sophists,that

Hippias (c. 420

B.C.) of Elis

wont

disputeon
Democritus model living
we

the

and sculpture; and subjectof painting

wrote
a

that the

of Abdera

work

on

from painting of treatises, and

were

(Hepl ZcoypaQias).
in practical

Other

which ten writ-

know,

were

their character

by

artists for

artists, regardingthe "canon"

of those form.1 which proportions There
are,

or

matical mathe-

demonstration

produce
acute

beauty

in the

human

however,

criticisms of

of paintingscattered throughout the writings

Aristotle ; and
we come

by

the

beginningof
are

the Alexandrian technical but

Period,
aesthetic.
dotes anec-

to criticisms which

not

Thus, Duris
and

of Samos

was

among

the first to collect

to

aphorisms
the

with

regard

painting. Many
busied themselves

of representatives
1

School Peripatetic

The

first of these

canons

was

that of Polyclitus in the

to

fifth century side of

on

B.C.

After

came Polyclitus,

many

write
was

upon there

the much

technical written

sculpture;

but

not

until after Aristotle

the his

aesthetics of the seventh the book

and graphic arts. plastic

a

Vitruvius who

in the

preface to

names

number

of writers

concerned

themselves

with

of artistic symmetry. principles

THE

ALEXANDRIAN

PERIOD

20

in

the

same

way.

As

rule,

the

artists

themselves
"

men

who

understood

sculpture
treatises.

and

bronze

casting
in

"

were

the

authors

of

these

At

Pergamum, sculpture,
the Canon

lar, particuhave

much

attention

was

paid
there

to

as

we

already
Sculptors

seen,

and

it

was

that

of

Ten

'

was

probably
of the Ten

drawn

up

to

match

the

drian Alexan-

Canon

Orators.

Most

of

our

tion informa-

with

regard

to

these

early Pliny

writers

comes

from

Roman

scholars,
late
Greek

especially
writers

from

the

Elder;
and

or

else

from

such

as

Strabo

Pausanius

and

Lucian.2

Quintilian,
See

xii.

10.

7.

Jones,
Greek

Select

Passages (London,

from

Ancient

Writers

Illustrative

of
der

the

tory His-

of
ischen

Sculpture

1895)
and Fowler

Overbeck,
and

Geschichte

griech-

Plastik

(Leipzig, 1909).

1894)

Wheeler,

Greek

Archaeology

(New

York,

IV

THE

GR^CO-ROMAN

PERIOD

Tradition
to the

ascribes
B.C.

the

date It
was

of

the

founding

of

Rome the that

eighth century people

the
either

long,however,
or

before

Roman deserves

acquired
of

attained

anything

name

culture,politelearning,or literary
the
race,

philological study.
a

Unlike inland
sea.

Greeks, the
apart
small from

Romans

were

rugged

race,

an

the

magic along

and the

the

mystery
was

of the

The

settlement
many

Tiber

pastoral
commerce

and

agriculturalfor
with external

centuries,

having little
in whom
constant

peoples, dwelling neighbours, against

danger

from

formidable

it could intensest
came

prevail only by the

concentration of

strictest

and discipline

the

interest.

Thus,
in
a

the

mans Ro-

to

possess

the
was

civic virtues

high degree.

Primarily, their
and formed
to
a

ideal
of

intelligent efficiency, tion, cooperaconcrete.

love

the

Their
arts
were

patriciate was
arts

of the

fightingmen.
and

Their

relating

military science

statesmanship

and
was

religion. One
a

distinctive

quality which
purpose.

they possessed
when and had effort

wonderful

tenacity of
their enemies

Later,

they
had

had

vanquished
a

throughout Italy
characteristics
centuries which

builded

great
out not

nation, the
in them

been
were

wrought
to

by

of toil and
130

be

seen

THE

GJLECO-ROMAN

PERIOD

131

only
others

in what and

they created,but
into

in what

they

took

from

transmuted

something that

became

almost

purely Roman.1 By
where
an

the fourth
a

century

B.C.

they were
own was

reaching the point beginning to display impulse from simple prose.

clearness.
out. with-

literature of their

evolution
Their

quiteindependent of
annals
were

any in

set down

Their
It

laws

were

and expressedprecisely of the that

with

is,
the

indeed, quite characteristic

Greeks and the
set to

difference between Greek

children passages
were

Romans

should from

have

been

learn
while Laws

by

heart

long

the

Homeric
to
were

poems, the

Roman

children

compelled
Yet there

memorise
at

of the Twelve

Tables.

Rome in

at

least the

position beginnings of poeticalcom-

lyrics sung
first

in artless
not
as

rhythms.
an

Lyric Poetry
in the
were were

at

Rome

was

found,

exotic, but
lullabies that
songs

nenicBj the
crooned
chanted Drama unknown. away
1
"

the spells,

charms, the

over

and little children,

in other of the

that
A
"

to
a

the
sort

accompaniment
of find

dance.2

native
not

extemporaneous
even

comedy
of
a

was

We

the

traces

gradual
more

drift

from

the ancient

versus

Italicus to the

regular
pp. 1-59

See

Pais, Ancient

Legends of Roman

History, Eng. trans.,

Latin

(New York, 1905) ; Michaut, Le Genie

Charakteristik
2

(Paris,1900) ; and Weise,

der lateinischen
on

Sprache (Leipzig,1905).
"

See the pages

very

early Latin

the

the folkhymns, the litanies,

"

and the legalwritings literature, poetry, the priestly

in

Duff, A Literary

History of Rome,

pp.

63-89 (London and

39-79

Leipzig, 1909). See also De-

douvres, Les Latins, pp.

(Paris, 1903).

132 form often and

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

of the Saturnian

measure.

This
a

last, though

it

was

rude,
it
was

was

capable

of

reallyartistic treatment,
what Nor the ameter dactylichexdoubt
as

to to

the

earlyRomans earlyGreeks.

was

the

is there any

that Oratory
has been
to

was

well developed,since oratory, fairly "the

was

said,belongsto rightly

literature that tends necessary it

was

statesmanship."1 Eloquence
or

for

the also

senator,
for
we

the

popular leader, and

of
an

necessary field. Rome

the
can

commander

army

in the
even

Therefore
not
come

reasonablyassert
with

that

had

into have

contact

Hellenic

influences,there

would

still

been

created, slowly,but
a

not quite surely,

only
in form

literature but
and

Roman absolutely learning,

both

content.2
had and

There
Romans authentic the the
1

been

some

desultoryrelations
farther back than

between

the

the Greeks

is recorded

by

history. From
Romans had

the Chalcidian borrowed

Romans
out

Greeks

of Campania

their Alphabet.3 From

had
for

Etruscans
The

also the

acquired certain
almost publication in
280
B.C.
was

earliest Roman Roman

oration written poetry.

terms

dates ante-

formal

It

was

delivered

by Appius
read and
94.

Claudius
studied
2

against the
at

of peace

offered

by Pyrrhus, and
See

Rome

for at least two

centuries.

Sears,op. cit., p.
A

See

Ihne, Early Rome

(New York, 1902); Mommsen,

23-315

History of
the

Rome

(Eng. trans.)vol. ii, pp.

(New

York, 1903-05); and

earlychapters of Bernhardy, Grundriss (Brunswick, 1875).

3

der romischen

5th ed., Litteratur,

See

Lindsay, The Latin

Theories of the

Language,

pp.

1-12

(Oxford, 1894); Peters, of the Oriental

"Recent

Alphabet," in vol. xxi,Journal

Society(1901);and

Clodd, The

Story of the Alphabet (New York, 1903).

134 Rome

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

the treasures
The

which

she

had

been

garnering for

centuries. of

effect upon

the whole
was

ment subsequentdevelopand

the

Roman among Men of which and

people
them

profound

lasting.

The

ablest minds

of grasped the significance and the Metelli Scipios this time comed wela so-

the revelation.

like the life. grew

the graces called Greek and

j
sneers

By

there

was

set

in influence, the despite of the partisans ancient

gibes
order.

of Cato

other
of

In

time, thousands

captive Greeks, including men

were

of the

highest attainments,
and

scattered

over

Italy as

hostages,ambassadors,
The be found first evidence

teachers.
Influence Andronicus
as a

of Hellenic
Livius

is

probably to
(c.250 B.C.),

in literature when
a

by birth
after

Greek,

was

brought

slave to Rome,
a

and,

his freedom, made receiving

livingby teaching Odyssey

his native

language.
verse.

It

was

he who
a

translated the
and
a

into Saturnian

It

was

rude

uninspired piece
schoolbook for

of work, yet for Roman

it remained generations

boys

and

girls. In
dramas He

240

B.C.

he set upon

the stage

the first of many

after Grecian

which

he

constructed laboriously

models.

likewise

attempted lyric poetry,

a

being commissioned
of
1

by

the State to write

was

hymn
and

in honour the citi15

Juno.1
See

Gnaeus

Naevius, who
der romischen

freeborn

Ribbeck,

Geschichte

Dichtung, 2d ed.,i,p.

foil.

1 897-1900); and (Leipzig,

Mommsen,

History of Rome, Eng. trans., ii,

Mackail's Italian Latin Literature

p.

498 (New York, 1903); the chapter in

that
on

(New

York, 1907); and

"The

Earliest

Literature"

in Nettle-

ship,Essays

in Latin

Literature

(Oxford, 1885).

THE

GP^ECO-ROMAN

PERIOD

135 the

zen

of

Latin

town

in

marks Campania, really He

was no

ning begin-

of Latin

literature.

but foreign sycophant,

race.

had

the

of independent spirit from the

his

He

wrote

much,

adapting often
based
did
not

Greek, but also producingdramas

In

upon

Roman

history.
attack
For

these

and

elsewhere

he

hesitate to

the most

powerful patricians,
was

the especially
and
a

Metelli. and

this,in the end, he

He

oned imprisin

banished

died in exile.
He

was,

truth,
Satur-

Roman
verse,

of the Romans. and in his

clung to

the native

nian

Punka,

writingof
which

the First Punic

War, he
/Eneas of

introduced
Roman

that

legend

links the
was

Trojan

with

history. Thus,
was

he

the precursor

for Vergil,

his Epic

long read,
To Naevius

and
are

parts of it
also due

are

embedded

in the JEneid}

the

beginnings of Satire, whereof

remarked did that
use
"

Quintilian long

afterward Not

indeed, is wholly ours." satire,

the
native Saturnian
verse,

only

Naevius

but he held

fast to the Roman

were

love of alliteration and

which repetition

distasteful to the Greek

him
a

poets;

so

that when
was

he died neither

he left behind
Greek in
nor

mass

of literature which

imitated

from

the Greek, but

He and

was

rather Roman followed him of the

and spirit that

in form. if Rome

those who
felt the

prove
1

had
Also, on

never

deft touch

Quintilian, x,

1, 93.

the

Roman

Lectures Nettleship, satire,

and
2

Essays (second series), pp.

On
see alliteration,

24-43

(Oxford, 1895).
Alliterationis

Botticher,De
and
on

apud

Romano* The Use

Vi

et Usu

(Berlin,1884);
Latin

dynamic

repetition, Abbott,

of

in Repetition

(Chicago, 1902).

136

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Hellene, it would

stillhave

given birth
Professor

to

prose

and

verse

worthy of
in

great nation.
this Roman

Duff

has

said, rightly

speakingof
This native

which is never strain,

missing:
"

literature, then, is often cumbersome, and

of

as

yet

lacks the
solemn

highestdistinction
dignified
"

styleand

grace,

but is

no

less often
ful power-

and

it is

always masculine.
disdained
to

However

and brilliant the

these pre-Hellenic incoming Hellenic influence,

must not

products

of

Rome

be
was

as

feeble and

nected disconcannot

with

the literature that this

follow.

Impotence
the be it

create; and
of later
and
own.

early work
Genius
it all,

had

issue.

It contained
can

germs

success.

cannot
can

be borrowed:

modified

developed. Above
That
was

borrow, and
Rome.

make

the loan its

the

case

with

In endued remain

truth, no
with

nation

the possessing
able
a mere

power

of

growth, long

energy,

and

to

make

can history,

in its literature it must

imitator. for

In

thousand
its

directions
own

strike

out

itself, conquering

its own difficulties, fulfilling

ambitions, and
character.

achieving

great thingswhich
literature is
a

alter its
to

own

Since, then,
and the

mirror

reflect

this character

achievements

that

are

allied with

it, it will
presence

soon

reflect

the

of myriad forces,the interplay cross-currents, the of

of innumerable

and perpetual shifting

changing
it remains its
own

of the in

golden sands

thought.
after
a

For

while

but leading-strings,

time
out

it will evolve in its own times and

and masterpieces
us

will work from

them

way.

Let

take

an

example

modern with

compare States.

the literature of

England
1

that of the United

91.

Duff, op. cit., p.

THE

GR/ECO-ROMAN

PERIOD

137

The
were

languageof
at

the two much

nations

is the same, with

but Americans material

affairs read

first too

cumbered
the

to

attempt in any
books
or

serious way

art. literary

They

English
humble shaken

they
But

imitated

them

in

pathetically
had
new

fashion. off its

in time, after the and

Republic developed

bonds political

had

interests of its own, too,

was

its literature

began

to

show
new

that

it,

attainingindependence.
new

It found

themes
sees

and

it had

modes the

of

treatingthem.
model in

One

the
in

first departure from

English

Irvingand
had grown such

Cooper.
conscious Emerson

After

that,and when
own

the young

nation

of his

power,

there

arose

authors
Bret

as

and

Thoreau, Walt
and
a

Whitman,
others

ens, Harte, Clem-

Howells
to

score

of

who

were

American

the very

core

in all

they

wrote.

And

so

in Rome In

the imitative the

period lasted only a

very it

little time.
ends with

feeble, creeping, childish

Naevius, and
soon

sense,

Gnaeus

afterward

there

bursts forth into

came

full flower whose

literature whose

technique
were

from

Hellas, but
Latin

and spirit

character

Roman.

literature,in
of Italian

fact,

was

revolutionised

by

two to

men,

both the

birth, who
which

by,theirgenius
freed it forever earlier

gave from

Latin

initial

impulse
to

any

slavish subservience

the

Greek.
wrote

The his

language in
measures,

which

Livius
even

Andronicus

stumbling

and

which
that

Naevius

used

clumsily, though
would

with

force,lacked

and mobility which lightness

138
make also
an

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

it fit for

poetry and
and fuller
to

for the finest prose.

It lacked should

ampler
the

vocabulary which
prose
was

give
varied

both

to

poet and
of

the

writer

more

instrument
c.

expression. It
made Titus of

Quintus

Ennius

(230-

172

B.C.)who

the Latin
Maccius
new

language
Plautus

fit for noble

poetry; and it was

who gave

(c.254-184 B.C.)
to

it

wealth

words, which,

be

sure,

in

his time in
a

did not

all win

general acceptance,
the

but

which

later

century

received

approval

of

the

still

greater master,
Like like Livius

Cicero.

Andronicus,

Ennius

was

teacher;
to

and his

Livius, his personal influence

helped

make

innovations literary
to the tact

successful,
"

circumstance in

also due did.

and

skill shown linguistic

he everything the Roman He

Ennius
to

held

the positionin precisely

to

world

give weight

his in

teaching
letters many

and

example.
of the young

had
nobles State.

trained personally who He he

were

taking their places at

the intimate friend

the

head

of the

was

of several of the
even

and Scipios,
to the

has

been
who

said to have
was

taught Greek
for his
a

Elder
was

Cato,
Greek.

famous
was

hatred
man

of of

all that

Ennius

himself

most

engaging
and

well-read, courteous, qualities, genial, personal

and with

refined;

these natural
the

and gifts of

artificial advantages,he His sensitive

ear

carried forward and

verses

work

Nasvius.

correct

taste
were

rebelled
at

againstthe heavy and lumbering

and

which

first his models

which

were

the

THE

GILECO-ROMAN

PERIOD

39

best that

could
it had

be

written

under
been

the

limitations

of the

languageas
He
set

hitherto

used

for

literary purposes.
of the Greek

himself the task of Greek

into infusing

it some the
were

the lightness,
The

smoothness, and

Greek
two

grace.
:

greatest obstacles in the way

adherence

of this

first,

the obstinate
or

by

his

to predecessors
verse
on

the natural

word-accent, which
second

kept the

the level of prose;

and the

because (partly

of this accentual of that

limitation),
now

number extraordinary
an

He long syllables.1
was

attempted
Roman much

experiment

destined

to

give to

literature not he sagacity and

only

stateliness but

style. With
innovations

refrained

from

making
There,
he

any

in

iambic

trochaic
a

poetry.
which

tradition
not
care

had
to
verse

already
combat;
and
a

established
but
new

usage
to
an

did

he

turned which

new entirely

kind render

of

to

theme,
of
a

and might justify

natural

new

system
been
had

Prosody.
mooted used
exist
no

It has

question whether
at

the

dactylic
the time
verse

hexameter
of Ennius. that
can

been

all in Latin

before

There

remains literary

of such

be

called confidently
wrote

genuine. According

to

Varro, Plautus
it cannot

his that

own

epitaph in hexameters,
the

but

be shown

he did it earlier than

"

tion composiThe
so-

of the

great epic of Ennius

Oracles
were

the Annates.

called Marcian
the

in hexameters,though possibly
not

quotationsgivenby Livy do
1

this justify

view.

Yet

Horace,

Ars

Poetica,250-260.

140

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

even

if some

few

strayattempts had been made

upon
ever
no Latin, certainly

at

imposing
extended

this metrical
work literary in

form

had

been

written
the field

in

it; and

Ennius,

writingthe Annates, had

was
a new distinctly

to himself. entirely

As it
make

such changes as he might field, and

measures

in the matter
arouse

of forms

and

quantities
a

would
familiar
own

less criticism than

The

like

changes in
he effected
as

more

sphere.
may

alterations that

by
"

his

example

be

roughlysummarised
of
a

follows:
as

(i) A fairly frequentuse

from

metrical accent
of
a

guished distin-

the natural, colloquial accent

in the number of

word.

(2)A diminution
Ennius

varyingquantities.
the
as syllables

regarded as

short

nearlyall
any

to

which there had

been previously
were dactyls

doubt,

as, for

instance,
easy. vowels

musa", palrS. Thus

made he

and possible

(3)By

way

of

compensation
consonants

regarded all
mute

that stood before two

as

(nota

and

liquid)

after beinglongby position,

the rule of the Greek. of

a

(4)The
in
m

elision of
a

final

vowel, or

syllable ending
made
little

before
of
a

vowel.

Ennius

himself

also

account

final s, in this

the pronunciation following

prevalentat that period and

1

long after.1
Greek (Bonn, 1876); Miiller, and

Birt, Historia

Hexametri

Latini

Latin

Versification, Eng.
Metrik

trans.

(Boston, 1895); Klotz, Grundzilge der

et Latine

altromischen

(Leipzig, Metrique Grecque 1890); Plessis,

M filler's Handbuch, ii.

(Paris, 1889); Westphal, Allgemeine Metrik

treatise De

(Berlin,1892); and

the

by Gleditsch in Iwan
Latinorum du

Compare also Havet,

Saturnio

Versu

1880); Thurneysen, Der Saturnier (Paris,

in Latin

(Halle,1885); and (New

Bois, Stress Accent

Poetry, pp.

24-74

York, 1906).

142

HISTORY

OP

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

ably added
verbal
source,
most

to

the

vocabulary
which

of

the
came

language.
from

The

enrichment and
one

it needed
at

another seemed
a

which

would

first sighthave

one. unlikely

It is in Titus

Maccius

Plautus and

that

one

finds,after
the

ancient surveying all literature,

to Shakespeare, parallel
"

modern,
course,

closest
many
to

modified, of
on

by

but essential differences, very

the

whole

true

enough
was

be

striking. Like
the

Shakespeare,Plautus
of
a

of humble

originand

native

country
to

town.

Like

speare's, Shakethat than

his education
sort

seems

have

been
men

of chiefly rather

which
books.

comes

from

association

with
was

with

Like
to
a

he Shakespeare,

at

firsta subordinate,
ised modern-

attached old
wrote

theatre;then

hack

writer who who the The

plays; and
little care

dramatist a finally,
for fame, but his with

apparently
his

with

thought of
age

audience

always
wrote

before

mind.
ways

in which of Elizabeth
an

Plautus
and

resembles There

in many
was

the age

James.

in the
was

air the

of stirring
to
a

adventurous of its and

own

spirit. The
power,

nation

awakening
an era

sense

and
Rome of

entering
was

upon

of

conquest

supremacy.

touched

by something of the
as

mercurial

temper

Greece, just
of the
was

the

England

of

Shakespeare displayedmuch
of France. in

gayety and

ness reckless-

Rome,

too,
was

facingthe Carthaginians
armies

battle, justas England

the confronting
off

and
the

fleets of

Spain.

The

of Duilius victory

Mylae,and

THE

GR^CO-ROMAN

PERIOD

I43

defeat
and

of the

Armada

by Drake,
of the New
own

the

conquest of Sicily,
"

the colonisation
own

World,

these,each
and

in

its

time
to

and

in its

way,
was

stirred Rome
an

land Englitical poand

their

depths.

There

intellectual and
both the Roman

quickening which
the
was

stimulated
look

English people
new,

to

with

favour

upon

whatever

and original,

strong.
whom

If the
wrote
not
were

people
much

for

Plautus

and

Shakespeare
they lived
were

alike; if the
the
cast

ages in which and

so dissimilar,

of mind

the

richness
masters

of of

intellectual endowment

of

these

two

great
The

language have
of In
course,
are

kinship of
all is

their own.1
in

differences,

immensely nothing of

Shakespeare's favour.
of spirit pure

Plautus

there

the

poetry

which
wrote.

breathes
His

that Shakespeare through almost everything

is many

tone

degrees lower.

The

fact that

he

wrote

comedy

alone, while
the

Shakespeare composed
occurrence

immortal

tragediesas well;
the foolish

of the old
man;

same

types

"

old man,

the

austere

the
man,

swindlingslave,the
and the

faithful slave; the loose young

man;

precise young
and the
the

the

lying, foul-mouthed

courtesan, the

affectionate meretrix; inexperienced,

and parasite,

bullying soldier,
"

all this

repetition, vigour,
we

the despite

writer's

inventiveness extraordinary

and

becomes
1

monotonous

and

perhaps

makes

us

feel that

Ribbeck's See,in general,

comments

in the firstvolume

of his Romische

i (Leipzig, Dichtung, 189 7-1 000).

144

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

have

been

too long among tarrying

the slums

of the ancient of what is

world.

Very much, however,

of this absence and

and refined, much elevating

were

of its coarseness

vulgarity,
which

imposed

on

Plautus
to

by

the

conditions
upon
an

under

he wrote. warned
not

Forbidden

touch

Roman

and topics,
that did

by

the

fate of the

Naevius, with

audience the

yet contain

well-bred

portionof
to

community,
his
not
a

and
upon

being

thus

forced practically
of the

model
must

plays
cise criti-

the New him

too

Comedy

Greeks, one
was

severely. Plautus
him. had

working
his
a

in
own

harness ities sensibilhe

which

hampered sorely
were

Then, too,
been

not

nice. with and

He other

himself

slave and

had and

consorted Terence
saw
on

slaves;and
he

never,
a

like Ennius the side

Shakespeare,was only one

of protege" that the

great. He
which verges

and side of life, And it was

see

the gutter.
of all
we

this side that his

audiences the

most

delightedto
must

reproduced
Plautus
not

upon with

stage. Hence
a

compare

Shakespeare as
where dramatists said that and
are

speare of Shakewhole, but with those portions themes and the motives of the
two

the

similar.

Judged

in this way,

it cannot

be

Plautus

is inferior.

His

buffoons, his hypocrites

are as

sharpers and
and whom

slaves

and

courtesans true to

richly

humorous
as

doubtless

quiteas

life in their way

those

Shakespeare
Falstaff

drew. into

Pyrgopolinicesis
Latin. of

merely

Sir

John

turned is the twin

MegarPolonius,

onides in the

Trinummus

brother

THE

GR^ECO-ROMAN

PERIOD

45

while the Dromios

the Mencschmi it is not

of

taken Shakespeareare actually

from

of Plautus. from
we

But

the

but literary,
now

from
at

the

linguistic,
and it his

that standpoint is in his rival.

more

have

to

look

Plautus;

if anywhere, that Shakespearefinds language,

we studyingPlautus carefully, are

After

conscious the Latin and

and

more
owes

of the him.

enormous

debt

which

language
unaided

He

alone, by his individual

it from
an

transformed genius, into range

an

awkward, cramped,
of

ungracefuldialect
a wide expressing

instrument

speech fit
ease

for

of human

thought with
was
a

and

clearness and

precision.Plautus

great language-

maker, and

not

merely an improver.
at

His
once

fancy not merely

into
an

caught at

an

idea,but flungit out

If he

priate appro-

verbal form.
then
was,

had
and

not

the word
he had

he made

wished,
it, it

he
in

made

the word;

when
a

cases ninety-nine

out

of

hundred, the

very word

which the
it

the

languagelacked,so

that it fixed itself firmly in remained

as
a

and vocabularyof the people,

was an

there because word-maker

as

actual

necessity.Plautus
His

seems

inexhaustible.
No Latin writer coined

is as boundless fertility

his

wit.

except Apuleius,three centuries

so

afterward,ever
of Plautus with

many

words.

The

comparison
the from

Apuleius shows
lies.

exactlywhere
words

ness greatmere

of the former
or eccentricity

Apuleius coins
take
out

because

he will not strikes

the trouble to find

a new

the

ones. fitting L

Plautus

phrase, a

146

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

because combination, a picturesqueepithet, striking

the

existing vocabulary is
To the
sum

too

poor

to furnish

an

equivalent.
proves

it up in

sentence, the invention

of Plautus of

poverty of the
the

language;

the

invention

Apuleius

proves

poverty of the writer.

is the
one

Plautus

who,
the

in this Latin

period of transition,
The words

doubled
that he
to

the

capacity of
were

language.

invented the various

so

made

by

him

ing accordinstinctively, Horace afterward

formulae
much

which

scribed1 dehe
:
"

with
made
to the

insight. The

additions various

which
heads

Latin

vocabulary fall under

from directly the

(1) Words

borrowed

Greek:

e.g. dica

(Sikt)), dapsilis {Jkvtyfcffi) ; dulice (Sot/\i/e"w?) ; euscheme

{eva-'xr}^^) logos (\0709) (a-VKocfjavTeco) ; sycophantio ; tar',

pessita(TpaTre^iTrj^) ; etc. (2) Comic

e.g.

words, chiefly patronymics

the Virginesvendonides,
"

and of

long
a

pounds: com-

son

pander,
"

and, comicallyagain, pernonides,

the as majestically There talosagittipelliger. here
in
a son

flitch of bacon

scribed de-

of

ham.

So, again,scuthat Plautus

is very

doubt little do what

semi-comic

way

tried to
"

the

learned
in did

Pacuvius Latin of

seriously attempted,
compound words,
"

that

is,the formation
failed
as

but

Plautus

Pacuvius.

(3)New
near

words

formed

after the

analogy of other
or

words

which

they stand
1

in the text,

which

suggest them:

Horace, Ars Poetica, 46-72.

THE

GR,ECO-ROiIAN

PERIOD

147

e.g.

sicelicisso suggested by parenticide; perenticida

gested suggested sug-

by atticisso;and by
charmido

recharmido

and

decharmido

(from Charmides).
words made freely

(4) Compound

and
e.g.

after theregenerally

adopted

into

the

language:

opiparus, parcieven

and salipotens, stultiloquentia; promus, pauciloquia,

mendicitas,minatio, moderatrix,oratrix, better, opimitas,

etc. perlibet, perdisco,

Words
and
are

of

this

class
to

are

either

based
shade
osor,

upon of

words existing
or

modified invented

give a different

meaning,

they

of

necessity: e.g.
else
and

trahax, etc., or polleniia, perplexibalis,

they

are

verbs

boldlyformed

out

of

nouns existing

adjectives:

e.g. paro,

parasitor, pergmcor,
seen common

etc. scortor, sororio,

It will be

that Plautus
use.

enriched His

the

language

with
were

words

for

word-formations
which it is it be
a

brought
the
seem
new

about

with from

that the

unerringjudgment
very
moment

makes

word,
Latin it is
so

when If

uttered,
Greek
If it

and

utterlyindigenous.
as

word,
be
a

modified

to

take
upon
an

on

Latin

form.

new

word,

it is formed it be is

the
word

analogy
used

of words
a new

already existing. If
sense,

old

in

this

new

sense

given it where

the context
is the him

makes first of

the

new

sense

absolutelyplain.
Those who
wrote

Plautus

language-makers.
his methods T. Lucretius

followed
for the

employed
Thus
to

though they
Cams,
a

learned.
B.C.,

in the

first century

gives
far
as

Roman

literature

terminologyso philosophical

he

148
needed
Cicero

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

it in

forth setting

the

teachingsof

materialism.1

stilllater

enlargedthe philosophical vocabularyby

express
no

coining words language began

to

to

thoughts

for which

the

Latin

then

had

equivalent.2When
the

Christianity
writers such
as a

spread over
and

Empire,
and

African

Tertullian

Augustine
but

St.

Jerome

introduced

theological vocabulary ;
on

they all

fashioned

their words
of Roman his

the

which principles

Plautus

in the

earlydays

culture had
fantastic

grasped by

instinct.3

with Apuleius, Latin

combinations, is the Carlyle of

ture, literaRoman

while

Plautus,

as

was

said before, is the

Shakespeare.
Thus the Latin
side continuous.

language and
a

the Latin that

was

literature developed

by side, in
The drama

growth

steady and
Pacu-

was

enriched

by

Marcus

vius, who
His
seen

represents a succession
he
was

of the work famous in

of Ennius. is antiquity, in his syntactical

doctrina,for which

so

in his attempt to make and carefulness,

long compounds,
of

in his introduction
sense

philosophical

See such words

"a "an

as

corpus in the

of

and glomera"matter"; caetus,

ing mean-

men,

mass"; corpusculum, or principium, or primordium, each atom";

sensus
=

aXa6t\a is;

rerum

summa,

"the

universe."

See

DeArlis Polle, Introduction The

2

Vocabulis
to

Quibusdam Lucretianis
42-47

(Dresden, 1866); Merrill's Reiley,

his

Lucretius,pp.

(New York, 1907); and

Philosophical Terminology of Lucretius and Cicero (New York, 1909).

Note such words
as

ratio

(\6yos) qualitas (ttoi6tw), species{eUos).

,

See
3

Reiley, op. cit.

See

Schmidt, De
. . .

Latinitate Christiana

Tertulliani

(Erlangen, 1870); Condamin, Artifice (Lyons, 1877); and

Plebeius

De

Tertulliano

Lingua

Cooper, Word

Formation

in the Roman

Sermo

(New York, 1895).

150
of

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

while life;
a

later

Decimus still, of

Iunius Iuvenalis lashed

converted hideous
a tain cer-

satire into

whip
saw

and scorpions,

the

vices that he

about

him, infusinginto his lines

has led him
to

grim

irreverence

which

be

styledthe

first exponent of American The of

humour. for responsible the Romans.

Greek

influence

was

what

we

have

philosophicalwriting among
a

In 155 B.C.,

Carneades,
the New
a

vehement with
to

and

rapid speaker,representing
came scepticism,

Academy,

its essential Rome from

upon

mission diplomatic discoursed publicly of

Athens.

While

there,
the

he

with

on eloquenceand subtlety

advantages
he

justice.The

next

day,

with

equal day

quence, elo-

refuted
in

all his arguments

of the

before.

This that
no

was,

demonstration fact,a practical

of his belief that

we

human

knowledge
standard he

is uncertain His

and

have
him

absolute

of truth.
was

orations
to

won

much

applause,but

sent

back

Athens
were

without

loss of

time, as being

one

whose from

tenets

essentially
"

immoral.

Nevertheless,

this time,
"

philosophy
and disciples

that especially

of the ethical schools the

found Roman

expounders
gave
to

among

Romans.1
is new;

philosophers
we owe

the world
as

nothingthat
the

yet

to

such
Aca-

writers
1

Lucretius

Epicurean, to

Cicero
Le Poeme

the
de

See ed.

1887); Martha, Usener,Epicurea (Leipzig, (Paris,1885); Thiaucourt, Les

Sources Trait
es

Lucrece,
Ciceron

4th

Philosophiquesde

et Leurs trans.

Eng. Historyof Eclecticism, 1885); Zeller, Grecques (Paris,

(London,

1893); Lecky, History of European Morals,

Seneca

(New

York, 1884); and Binde,

(Glogau, 1883).

THE

GILECOROMAN

PERIOD

151 of literature
as

demic, and
which
a

to

Seneca

the

a body pseudo-Stoic,

is both

and in itself, interesting of those

valuable

ing supplybeen

knowledge

Greek

treatises which

have

lost. the

Lucretius, in particular(96-55 B.C.),is perhaps

Roman

greatest of all the

and in the

poets in

in originality,
to

power, inherent
His

peculiar appeal which

of
use

he makes

the

materialism his

millions, even
of the

at

the present

day.

technique in
but the

hexameter
and of his

is stillimperfect;

genius of

the writer defects

even

tual spiripassionate
make him

melancholy overcome
in
some

and style

respects a model

for

Vergiland

the

cloyingly

Ovid. exquisite

Epic poetry
in which

was

continued
wrote

from

the
until

rough

Saturnian in

Naevius

his Punka
poem

it culminates
"

the

splendidnational
of all that
was

of the Mneid

marvellous
and Roman with
summate con-

mosaic

finest in both P.

Greek

literature, woven
skill. the Pharsalia

togetherby

VergiliusMaro

Later, the Spaniard, Lucanus, composed in

an

epic
of

of

almost

contemporary
and

events,
but
ceeded suc-

followingthe only
to largely
on

model

Naevius

Ennius,

in

writing brilliant
world's

lines which

have
The

added

the

collection of
and

epigrams.
as

epic

Grecian

theme,
the end

known

the

Thebais, by
among the

Statius,marks
Romans.1

of serious

epic poetry

Lyric poetry
1

in native

rhythms,
delta Poesia

as

antealreadysaid,

See

Storia Gubernatis,

Epica (Milan, 1883).

152 dates

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Hellenic
was

influence,though
But
we

of

course

this

early
that

poetry

informal.

have
set

already noted
honour of

Livius Andronicus
at

composed

in lyric

Juno
was

the

request of the State.

the Latin

However,

this attempt
not

since unfruitful, for

language was
could of

yet adapted

that lyric composition

not

vie with that of the Greeks. Valerius Catullus

It
we

was

until the time in in

Quintus
for

that
to

find

lyric poetry

Latin;

Catullus,an
easy metres

Italian

the core,

poured forth
of
a

sapphicsand

the wild emotion.

longing
In many but

heart

surcharged
was an

with

intense

respects Catullus
in the love

Alexandrian
to

by

ing; train-

addressed lyrics and

as

Lesbia, his
the

tortured

mingling of

hate
to

are

so

free from
seem

pedantry

of Alexandrianism of Gabriele

make

him
no

the

predecessor
with

d'Annunzio.

With

such

passion, yet

infinite grace,
to must

ing humour, wit, or melancholy,accorddignity,

followed
master

his be

Horace subject,

Catullus,and
of
verse lyric

to-day
among

the greatest styled

the

Latins; for he managed

measures

with

perfectease
and lyrists, than
was

the

more

difficult

of the and
more

Grecian

remained
any of his

less Alexandrian

truly Roman
verse

contemporaries. Elegiac by Ovid, represented

or

in

Rome

especially
"

and

and Propertius, of Horace.1

Tibullus,

temporaries, con-

nearly so,

See

Ribbeck, op. cit. i; Werner, Lyrik und Lyriker (Leipzig,1890) ;

Roman Poets

and

Sellar,The

of the Augustan Age (Oxford, 1892). Cf.

also du Horaz

1843); and Weissenfels, Meril, Poesies Populaires Latines (Paris, (Berlin, 1899).

THE

GR.ECO-ROMAN

PERIOD

53

Roman

prose
"

with begins practically

Cato

the

Censor

(234-149 B.C.)

soldier,statesman,

orator, farmer, and

on

also writer; for he

on

produced
what would

works

militaryscience,
of vast he

and agriculture,
us,
a

to-day be

interest discussed

to

treatise entitled

in Origines,1

which

the

and language of history, antiquities, treatises slighter of his relate

to

the Roman

people.

Some
to

to medicine, respectively

epistolary composition,and
we

anecdotes.

Practically
Re of

all that
a

have

left is the littlemonograph, De

on

Rustica,
a

practicalhandbook
Romans of their
at
own

the

management

farm. the

Other
annals

comparativelyearlyperiod wrote

country, but they employed the Greek

of Cato.
was

language until
with its

the time

This
very

form

of

narrative,
to

background, patriotic
so

attractive

the

Romans;
find

that, after
written

Cato

and

his

we contemporaries,

History

by Varro, Atticus, Hortensius,

two

and

Cicero Caesar

himself,whose
and G.

famous

Julius contemporaries,
a

Sallustius,reached
may

very

high degree of

eminence.

indeed, Sallust,
whom he

be

thought to challenge
Titius

Thucydides,
the

imitated,just as
almost
as

Livius, in
had

Augustan Age,
After Annates
a

wrote

as delightfully

Herodotus.

him

Tacitus, in
and the of

his

two

remarkable

works, the

torical Historic?, brought his-

writing to
we

climax

excellence; for
that of

after

him
on

find

only biographies like

are

Suetonius

The

fragments

collected in

commentary

by

Bormann

denburg, (Bran-

1858).

154 the Twelve

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Caesars

or

else

epitomes

and

fragmentary

sketches.1
In among novel

their

prose-writingthe peoples,prose
in which

Romans

developed,
form

first

western

fiction in the

of the

and

romance, But

they were

imitated
were

by

the

later Greeks.

while the Greeks

in fiction
as

almost
have
out
so-

always prolix and

been
at
a

unreal, the Romans,

their love of the it were, the

might

expected from
blow, single
as

concrete, struck
in the

realistic novel

called Satira

of Gaius

Petronius

which (d.66 a.d.), of character

as a

is wonderfully well
as

modern
in its sound of it

in its treatment

criticism of life and

one
as

learning. Only
choicest much

portion

remains, yet it is
literature
as

of the
a

fragments of
that the would
mon com-

ancient otherwise

well

clew to

be obscure Lucius

in the life and

language of

people.
Medaura in

Apuleius (second century a.d.), of

better the

Africa,represents
short stories

earlier form
as

of

fiction in which
are

known (generically
a

lesians), Miare

strung togetherby

thread
are

of

plot,but

The

fragments of the Roman

Romanorum

historians

collected by Peter, Hison

toricorum the Die

treatise 1883). See Ulrici, Fragmenta (Leipzig,

general characteristics of ancient

Geschichtschreiber der Romer

history (Berlin,1833); Gerlach,

the introduction biography Auto-

(Stuttgart, 1855); and

On

to Mommsen's

history of Rome.

biography, see
De

West, Roman

(New 1840); (Berlin, 1846). Much especiallythose Augustine, and

York, 1901); Wiese,

and

Vitis Scriptorum Romanorum

Suringar, De

Romanorum is found

(Leyden, Autobiographis
in the form St. of letters
"

biographical material
of

Cicero, Pliny, Seneca, Symmachus,

See

Jerome, St.

Cassiodorus.

Roberts, History of Letter-Writing

(London, 1843).

THE

GR^CO-ROMAN

PERIOD

55

not

as

yet
It

woven

into that

anything
these
two

like

definite
are

unity of

form.

is odd who

writers

practically
left behind

the
them

only

ones

in Roman

literature

have The

anything
same

like

completed

works.

Greeks

of
a

the
vast

period as
of The

Apuleius. and
number

later,poured forth
of which have

number

romances,1 a
best of them

been
Helio-

preserved.

is the

jEthiopica by
the

dorus, composed in the fourth

century, and
and Chloe.

curiously
author
a

novel, Daphnis symbolistic

the latter is

The

of

unknown,
modern A

but

the book prose

has exercised
from

strong
Pierre
written

influence
to

upon

fiction

St.

fimile Zola.

collection of

imag'nary letters
the second

by Alciphron, a give us
In there is very

Greek

sophistof

century a.d.,
life in Athens.

of piquant pictures
to

Bohemian forms of

addition
were

these

various

pure

literature,
in Latin

written

Epigrams

of which
seem

the master
to

Martial, though the Romans

have

relished
and

no

less the
in

pointed lines
the

of

Plautus

and

Horace of

Lucan and

poetry, and
in

sententious

aphorisms

Seneca he

Tacitus
1

prose.2

These

accorded

well with

of spirit History
la Grece

See

Chassang, Histoire du Roman

(Paris,1862); Dunlop, A
dans

of Fiction,last ed. (London, 1896); Salverte,Le Roman

Ancienne

(Paris, 1894); Warren, A Historyof the Novel (New York, 1895);

sur

Collignon, Etude
brand Peck's
2

Petrone

(Paris,1892); the Introduction

by Hildeto

to

his edition of

Apuleius (Leipzig, 1842); and

the Introduction

translation

of the Ccna

Trimalchionis,2d ed. (New

and

York, 1908).

See

Booth, Epigrams Ancient rough and rather

Ludicri
coarse

Modern, 3d ed. (London, 1874);

and
see

for the

epigrams directed againstthe emperors, (Halle,1810).

Bernstein,Versus

in Ccesares Priores

156 homely

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

wisdom

that

was

to

the Romans So

what

speculative

philosophywas
type and
fered to The
ever

to the

Greeks.

comedy

of the farcical
were

the

cynicalshrewdness
almost every the

of the

mimes Roman the

pre-

tragedyat
is that

periodof
surface
or were

culture. Romans In

truth

only

on

Hellenised

either

in

language
men

in literature. in the

language, highly educated

sermo

wrote

so-called

urbanus, correspondingto
In the easy
converse

the

estilo culto of the their less

Castilians.

of
a

dailylife, among
much

friends and formal

sort

intimates, they used

of Latin
"

looser and

the The
was

sermo man

cotidianus in

of Cicero's

for example. letters,

sermo

the
more

street

spoke

the

which plebeius, which which of had

now

nothing
time

than

the older

Latin

at
was

one

been
the

current

everywhere,
be the boleth shib-

but

held

by
to

literati to

ignorance.1As

ornate literature,

orations,

learned wrought lyrics, exquisitely

epics,and
us

carefully

penned

histories have

come
we

down know

to

bearingthe impress
for the

of Grecian

models; but
existed
an

that of

people at

largethere

immense

mass

popularcompositions,
sometimes
at not
"

sometimes nursery songs, chants

transmitted

and orally

lines sung
of the
common

by

children

play, the
well
as

umphal tri-

as soldiery,

fables,

familiar letters, riddles,and

we
1

acrostics.

Against Terence
must
tion Forma-

must
See

set

Plautus; againstthe epic of Vergilwe

Introduction; Olcott,Studies in the Word Cooper, op. cit.,

the Latin

of

Inscriptions(Rome, 1898); Grandgent, Vulgar Latin

(Boston, 1008) ; and du Meril, op. cit.

158
crates
"on

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

(c. 100

and B.C.),

the

other The

explainingeverything
great name
in the latter
man

the

basis of Latin is that of M.

itself. Terentius

school of

Varro caused

(116-28 B.C.), a
him Varro
to
was

which prodigiouserudition,
most

be

styled
one

"the

learned

of the of all

Romans."

of tosthenes Era-

the

great scholars
and

time, to be compared
among the

with

Aristarchus
the

Greeks, with Scaliger.

with Momm-

and
sen

Lipsiusjust after
in very of
recent

Renaissance, and
Before

years.

giving any
incident has

account, should
to

however,
be

his

labours, an philological
influence In the year native of 80 which
B.C.

mentioned,

the

continued
came

the present
a

day.

there of

to

Rome He

roving scholar,a
been had trained both

probably

Alexandria.
at

had

in his native

cityand
the

Pergamum.
each This

He

listened to the
was

disputesof

of linguists doctrines.

school,and
person, middleman the mind
as we

well

versed

in all their is
an

Dionysius Thrax,
who

admirable the

type of the
mind

stands

between

creative

and

that is entirely Until his receptive.

day, grammar,
an

have

alreadyseen,

was

not

so

much

art

in itself

as

an

and philosophy. Dionysius Thrax adjunct to logic

made

digests of
down the

the

lectures in
a

which

he

had
manner.

attended,
This mind
"

putting
was

results
most

didactic the

what precisely

appealed to
and

Roman One

something definite, concrete,

of

dogmatic.

treatise

his Te^v TpafifMaTt/ct], set forth Dionysius,

certain

ciples prin-

which

made

it the firsttreatise

on

Formal

Grammar.

THE

GR^COROMAN

PERIOD

59

Translated
and from

into Latin, it became

it there have
come

standard

text-book,
terms

to

us

the technical

of

formal A

grammar

employed

in modern

languages.1 grammarian
we

Roman

contemporary
Praeconinus later
not
name

of this Greek

was

L. ^)lius many

Stilo,of whom

have

notices

in his
to

of the

writers, although even

remain. of He
was

fragments of
first Roman
was

writingsdo
deserve

the

the
an

He philologist. birth and

of

knightly
a

rank,

aristocrat

by

and training,
no

had

gift

of natural and

oratory; though he sought

orations He for his
was

office, political

merely wrote
Greek

friends,after the fashion

a

of the

orators.

type of the
for

patrician

and scholar,

had

the true he

taste patrician's
came

antiquarian

knowledge.

Therefore

to

be

profoundlylearned
ancient

authorityupon
in the matter of

to everything relating

Latin, both
of the earlier in Grecian
while

and antiquities

in the usages
"

language.
1

Cicero

styleshim
was

most

learned
into

In the fourth
was original

century the book

curtailed.
any

translated The Armenian

Armenian,
has

the
us

somewhat

version

given
tain. con-

back

five See

more

chapters than

of the later Greek and

manuscripts
the French

the edition

by Uhlig (Leipzig,1883);
et

lation trans-

by Cierbied, Mitnoires Grafenhan, op.

A list of these may be found cit. i. p. 402

Dissertations the

(Paris,1824).
in

Cf.

also cit.

and foil., in

account

Steinthal, op.

grammatical terms
in

Greek,

with

their Latin

equivalents,

Gudeman, Thus,
we

Outlines have

of the History of Classical Philology,

=

3d ed.

pp. 30-32.
xpo"os
=

6vopa

nomen," noun";
=

7rTcD"ris

casus*

"case";
genus,

"conjugation"; tempos, "tense"; "rv{vyla. conjugatio,

=

"gender"; ZyKkuris
Aptd/xoi= numerus,
in

modus, "mood";
As Latin

irpoauirov

son"; persona, "perdoes

not

"number."

the ablative case"

case

pear ap-

Greek, it was

firstcalled "the

(casusLatinus),and

by

ablativus. Quintilian,

l6o

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

literature

as

well
as

as

in

Latin,"

while

his

pupil,Varro,
nostra.

speaks
He
was

of

him

litteris ornatissimus

memoria who

undoubtedly the regardedas

took
up
to
a

first of the Romans

had
was

any very

claim to be
he likely and the

It classical philologist.

who

the

teachingsof Dionysius Thrax becoming

the First of
taries commen-

applied them
Roman
on

Latin, thus

Grammarians. such ancient works

Likewise, he
as

wrote

the Carmina

Saliorum

and
even

on

the

Twelve

Tables.

Gudeman
with

believes that he
critical

prepared an

edition is
no

of Plautus direct
comes

signs;yet

of

this last there

His

evidence.
from the fact that
most

greatest fame
of
Marcus

he

was

teacher
most

Terentius

Varro, the

learned,the
any Roman

and indefatigable,
ever
"

the most In
a

of prolific

scholar who
says of him:

lived. Varro he that

to

later
so

century St. Augustine

that
we

had

read

much
to

ought to
and
one

feel

that surprised
so

found
we can

time

write

anything;
that any In

he wrote could

much

hardly believe

find time
at

read

all that he

composed."

fact,

he wrote
Varro
a

least six hundred.1

was,

however,
in the
war

no

mere

recluse.

He

commanded
he served he
was as

squadron

against Mithradates;
in

generalof Pompey
to

Spain,and though
to

pelled com-

surrender remained

his

troops

self Caesar, he escaped himcause

and

steadfast to the aristocratic

until

So Auson.

Prof.Burd, xx.

20.

Cf
.

Etudes Boissier,

sur

M.

T. Varron

1861). (Paris,

THE

GR^ECO-ROMAN

PERIOD

l6l

the final battle at Pharsalus.

was

Since resistance returned

But the
to

tator to the dic-

then be

Varro useless,

Rome,

expecting

perhaps to
who
was

put
a

to

death.

high-minded Caesar,
to

himself

and wished scholar,

most

ship, promote scholargave him

received
task agreeable This
was

Varro of
more

and graciously,

the

in founding a great publiclibrary since pleasing, been Varro's

own

Rome.1

the

splendid just

had library private

as

destroyed in
had which

the Civil Wars, been

Cicero

his beautiful villa at Casinum

plundered and
has

defiled

by Antony,

"

scene

depicted

with almost

hideous realism

in his second

oration. Philippic
not

Out

of Varro's

works, encyclopaedic
were

many and

remain,
cause partlybeand

because partly it was

they

too

numerous,

the habit

of Roman from

scholars to condense
them
reason

abridge long works, taking

most most

whatever
that of
we

seemed
have

It interesting.

is for this

the

valuable part of

Livy only in

the form
has

an

epitome;
and lost, there
main re-

that the greater that of

to
1

portionof
six hundred

Petronius
or more

been
works Re
task

Varro's
us

only his treatise on husbandry (De

Varro first
never

Rustica),
which the had

Suetonius, Julius, 44. assigned him.

The

completed
At

the

been

publiclibrary was (34 B.C.).

"

opened by
founded
and

private

munificence of which and

two

of Asinius
are

Pollio

five imperial last, libraries,

the most

celebrated,

first that

by Tiberius
ments, publicdocu-

famous and

for its the

complete collection
written in the

of State
most

papers

Bibliotheca in it were Rome

Traiana, the
or

magnificentof all,since
upon

most

of the books

inscribed

thin leaves of

ivory.

See

Lanciani,Ancient

Lightof Recent Excavations, pp. 178-205

(Boston,1889).

1 02

HISTORY

OP

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

number

of

and quotations
of Latin

references scattered

out throughmuch

the pages

and finally, a very literature,

corrupted collection
treatise about
him
on

of six books

taken

from

his great
"

the

Latin

language (De Lingua Latino)

The
the book which gave
sidered con-

one-quarter of the whole.1

his

reputation highest among

it his

who ancients,

has practically masterpiece, and, in perished

not

truth,it probablydid
a.d.

survive the end of the sixth

tury cen-

This

was

his

AniiquitatumLibri,divided
with
the years
vast

into

books, forty-one
which its author

and
had

crowded

knowledge
years
are

acquired by
research. To

and

of his in
of

patientreading and

be noted

also

a collection Sententitzy

of

much pithysayings, written in

a

quoted
mixture

the Middle
prose and

Ages, and
verse

his Satura

(Menippece).
on

It is the treatise
which
was

the Latin
to

language (one part

is most

of

dedicated
of

Cicero) that

interesting,
we

both

because
a

the

subjectitself
the book.

and

because
treatise

still
to

possess

portion of

The

seems

have
seven

been books
was,

arranged in
dealt with

three great divisions. the

of origin words and

The

first

phrases,

and from

in

of fact,a history view of

the Latin

languagelargely
next

the
were

point of

The etymologists.2

six

books

to relating chiefly grammatical,3

the forms

and

Edited
2

by A. Spengel(Berlin, 1885).
examines
"

Supra, p. 146 foil.

In these books and
"

Varro Words
"

the

natural

and

divisions arbitrary ogy, according to anal-

in

nouns

verbs.

are

naturally" divided

and

divided according to anomaly. arbitrarily

THE

GP^ECO-ROMAN

PERIOD

63

inflection of
as

nouns

and

verbs, since

Varro
"

regarded these
in

the

only

two

real parts of Semitic

speech

this respect last eleven

inter

resembling the
books
se

grammarians. The
the laws of syntax which
we

have

to

do
.

with
The

{ut verba

coniungantur)
as

six books

still possess
lating partlyre-

are,

is
to

seen

and above, partlyetymological

inflections.

They give us
curious

a incidentally great

deal of information
at

about shows

pointsof
in not

ancient

usage

Rome,
the

and

Varro

wisdom
his

attemptingto
the Greek.
ear,
so

derive On
the

vocabulary of
hand,
he

language

from

other

etymologisesentirely by
are as

that many
were

of his derivations

absurd

as

those which

in the Middle prevalent

Ages.1
even

This which

monumental remain
to us,

work,
has

in the scanty

fragments
with

always been

studied

great
Its

the purely lexical portion (v-vii). profit, especially

arrangement
Varro

is not
are

but alphabetical,
taken up

the based the

words
upon

that
their

treats in it

by

groups

association

with

one

another. short

Thus

author
names

begins
lating re-

the fifth book

to

a (after

with introduction)

first the word places,discussing

so

locus

and

its

derivatives locare,locarium, and

forth, followingthis
and

by

division
to the

of

places in

heaven

places on
as

earth. antithdogs give

Turning
1Thus

former, he regards caelum

that
cams

the

Varro

says

is derived

from called

cano

because

at night ; signals (canere)

that

stags

are

ceroi from

gero

(quasi
divus,

cero),because
because
a

they
man

carry

huge antlers; and

a

that

dives is from

rich

is like

god in wanting nothing.

164
esis to
terra

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

and

its

partialsynonym

humus, which
words

gests sug-

humor, humidus, udus, sudor, and other

to

ing relat-

moisture,

as

puteus (a well),lacus,palus,stagnum,
The

amnis. Jiumen, stillicidium, fluvius,

sound

of amnis

suggests
and Anio.

to

him

the

place-names,Interamna, Antemnae,
the Anio of

Because the

empties into
Tiberis.

the
so

Tiber, he
one

discusses

etymology
he

And
of them

word defines

suggests another, and

takes each

and

it,giving the etymology and

in prose-writers

citingfrom

both

poets and
of

illustration of the

various
we

uses

the the

word

or

name
a

in

question.

In

this way

receive

impressionof
tc

off-hand familiar, his

an

and such lecture,

seems

have
set
we

been

intention

though
in

K.

O. De of

Miiller

has

forth
have

hypothesis that

the
notes

Lingua
a

Latina rather

only the rough

unfinished

book

than

the book
one

itself in its say

completed form.1
rather

Whatever he

may

of Varro's

childish etymologie
the Romans certain

does

which give the explanation

wont to hold
as

themselves words.

were

to

the

originof
now

But

his citations from

authors
he

and lost,

the

full explanations which occasionally of usage scholars

gives of

matters

and
will

law,

are

source

of information On of such the

to

which Varro's

always
most

resort.

matters,
Romans

positionas
utterances

the
the

learned

gives his

weight of unimpeachable authority.

Varro

It may See

be

that

published
Varros

an

epitome

of

the

work

in nine

books.

Roth,

Leben

(Basle, 1857).

66

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

almost

wholly
the
to

of

lexical and

grammatical
and

character.

During
served

Ciceronian, Augustan,
illustrate the

Silver

Ages

it

explain and
also the

meaning speech.

of archaic The

Latin

and

plebeian form

of

tinguish dis-

glossographersPraeconinus
lius

Stilo and
for the the oldest

Aureof

Opilius created

scientific basis back

to

study

the Latin and

language by going
The

records and that down

them. studying

results of their work in many

cases

of their
to
us

contemporaries have

come

in

special glossaria {e.g. to

seven

Plautus, Terence,
of which nal Cardi-

from and others), Sidonius, Vergil,

Mai,
Glossarium

in the

nineteenth Roman
texts.

century, compiled his great

Vetus.1 edit Latin

grammarians
M.
on

and

critics

early

began

to

Antonius

Gnipho (c. 114

of Ennius.
an

B.C.) published commentaries

Cicero

the Annates

(or his brother

Quintus) published

edition

of Lucretius.2 It is unfortunate
Roman Roman

that

no

exact
come

details
down

concerningthe
to
us.

criticism of texts have scholars

appear
to

Most
to

have

confined

themselves

the

the writing of marginal glosses. They distinguish

processes:

various
which

and emendatio, distinction

the

adnotatio,
notes
com-

last word sometimes

means

adding

of notes, these

being
1See

brief

signa, and

sometimes

brief

Lowe,

Prodromus

Corporus Glossariorum

Latinorum

(Leipzig,

1876).
8

See

Munro,

Lucretius,Intr. ii.pp.

foil.

THE

GR^CO-ROMAN

PERIOD

67

mentaries
wrote
a

in the

modern
on

sense

of the

word.

Suetonius has
come

treatise
us

these

notes, part of which

He and mentions

down

to

written

in Greek.

twenty-one
of the
;

critical

variations chiefly signs,

combinations

diple,antisigma,and point (punctum) obelus,asterisk,

yet they appear
for aesthetic and for which there mentions is due
a

to

have

been

used

less for textual than

criticism literary
were

or distinctio), (/epio-ts

also other

symbols

that

Suetonius the which Latin

one

merely
critics hears

without the
deal

To describing.1

so-called
in the
to

subscript",of study
a

good
a

of

manuscripts.
It

is subscriptio

note

added

manuscript.

usually

begins with by

the
name

word

followed legi (also recognovi,contuli),

of the

the

with reviser, details

the

date,place,
vision. re-

time, circumstances,or
This revision
a

other

regarding the
the

indicated
of

by

is subscriptio

usuallynot
sort

critical recension

the text, but

of the

only

of

i.e. a guarantee proof-reading, from be

to
an

correctness

of the copy It is to

original.2
that the Romans

noted

paid considerable
stones
on

attention
1

Epigraphy.

Inscribed
of these is of

which
as

the
being
an

E.g. notae simplices.One

addition.
a

some

importance
the

distinct

It

is the

sign h, called alogus, and

as

marks iusso A

anacoluthon, or
x.

difficult

expression, such

aequore

en.

444,
2

so

marked

by Probus.
found in

Subscriplionesare

manuscripts of

all

the

best

Latin

writers, includingCaesar,Cicero,Vergil,Horace, Livy, Persius,Martial, Quintilian,Juvenal, and

Mela. See

Haase, De

Lat.

Cod. MSS.

Sub~

scriptionibus (Breslau, i860).

68

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Greeks the hewn

as

preserved their public documents

of every walls
"

were

stored in
were

temples
upon

Hellenic and

city,and
and

records

the
says, upon

pediments
a

so that, altars,

Hiibner

the

of history
stones."

Greek

city was

ally liter-

written

her
as

These

were inscriptions

cited frequently afterward Alexandrian made Polemo

documents

by

the

Greek
was

orators not

and

by

the

historians,but
that

it

until the
were

Age
such

regular collections
as

of them

by

scholars

Philochorus nicknamed
a

(300 B.C.) and

cause beo-TijXo/coTras

who (200 B.C.), the

was

study
from the

of

was inscriptions

passionwith
200

him.

At

Rome

about
orators

50 and

b.c.

until

a.d.

they are by

quoted by
some

historians,and
as

studied

of

the

grammarians, such
2

Varro, Verrius they are

Flac-

cus,1and

Probus

of

Berytus ;
on

while

collected for

legal purposes Passing over

called

by

the writers

Roman

jurisprudence.
was

Ateius

Praetextatus Asconius
on

who (c. 29 B.C.),

Pedianus

and philologies,*
commentator

(3 a.d.), the
the
annalist
name,

well-known
Fenestella

Cicero, and
to

(19 a.d.),we

come

the next

great

which
to

is that of Marcus of

Verrius

Flaccus
a

tutor (c.10 B.C.),

the children

Augustus, and
for his rank

scholar who

deserves

mention especial

in both education.

philological study
Verrius Flaccus

and may

the

general historyof
described
as

be fairly
1

the

compilerof

the first Latin

Infra,p. 169.
3

2Ibid.
10.

Suetonius,Gram.

THE

GR^CO-ROMAN

PERIOD

69

lexicon

ever

written, though perhaps it might be

an

more

trulycalled

encyclopaedia. Its
in
more

title was

De

Verborum It

written Significatu,
was a

than and

twenty-fourbooks.

lexicon because
of
was an

it denned

illustrated by citations
in their it gave

the

words
It

the

Latin

language

alphabetical
information

order.
on

because encyclopaedia

innumerable

and topics concerninghistory, antiquities,

with

grammar, from
as

and

exhaustive
"

and

elaborate

quotations

every
as

class of writers

and historians, poets, jurists,

well

from

ancient This

legal documents, rituals,and

in its original form
a.d.
an

sacred
now

formuke.

great work century

is

lost.

In the second

it was

abridgedby

grammarian, Pompeius Festus, in

allowed

fashion arbitrary

which

only one
this
a

book

to

each of the letters of the

Festus
was

alphabet,and
into
or

abridgment by

itself compressed
Paulus Diaconus.

stillbriefer

epitome by
as

the monk Paulus

Paul

Warnefrid, usually spoken of

to

The

epitome by Paulus, dedicated

now

Charlemagne (c.800
of
our

A.D.),is
the

the

principalsource
many

knowledge
the notes

of

but treatise; original

fragmentsof
and

by

Festus

remain, while
at

Gellius here from

there cites extensive

These

passages

first hand
was

Verrius.

show Festus Verrius

source

how and
were

the

treatise original

mutilated
the

both

by
of

by

Paulus.1

Yet

badly as
perhaps
the

remains

treated,they are

the most

valuable second

of information
1

remaining for
have been edited

study at

hand

of

All the remains

by Thewrewk

de Ponor

1891). (Prague,

170

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

archaic Latin
of Roman

and

for curious

information

on

the

subject

antiquities.1
is to be

Verrius

remembered

for another

thing
"

his the

system of education, which

Romans rather

for the first time

emulation and In

among

appealed to
than
to

of spirit of

ambition

the

dread

punishment.

teaching,
laid
the

Verrius
stress

offered upon the of this

era,

in study, and prizesfor proficiency

reward

of merit

rather

than

upon

chastisement
It
was

neglectand ignorance.2
time, after
the

at
our

beginningof
and Roman the

the firstcentury came learningbe-

of
so

that the Greek

as

blended

to

be

in thereafter,

sphere of
Henceforth with had

the all

field. a substantially single higherstudies,

Romans of cultivation its
were

not

only familiar
Greek world

Greek

and

with

but literature,

the

become
of its

Romanised largely
customs.

in its institutions and

in many

Greeks
find

flocked to Rome

in such

great numbers

that Roman
were

we

Juvenal,a
become

littlelater, complaining that the

a

had capital

Greek

city.
wrote

Both

languages
or

spoken
as

side

by side;

Romans

in Greek

in

Latin

they chose

; the pages

of their most

familiar and

intimate
were

compositions(the letters
with Greek

of Cicero, for

example)

studded

phrases and
took
so

allusions; while
the Roman

the Greeks, though they never

kindlyto

speech,busied
1

themselves
Verrius

in

reading and writingRoman

by Nettleship in his Essays in

See

the

chapter on

Flaccus

Latin
2

Literature, pp.

201-247

(Oxford, 1885).

Suetonius,Gram.

17.

THE

GR^COROMAN

PERIOD

171 institutions. of archaeology of of

historyand

in the scientific study of Roman Halicarnassu

wrote

Dionysius, of
Rome.

of the
master

Plutarch, that

remarkable
the

literary
Greeks

portraiture,found
and

parallelsin
in his Atria
customs.

lives

Romans,

and

the 'PafialKij investigated One of the best-known

Tran-

meaning
Roman

of Roman historians

and

scholars,Gaius
and

Suetonius

composed partlyin Greek quillus,

learned summaries of the of
usages

partlyin

Latin

his

of both
Rome
now

peoples.1The
became

intellectual

unity

Hellas

and

clearly

visible in the

system of education

finally accepted early theory

of

by

the

Romans,

uniting as

it did
more

the

the X,atinpeople with that of the Greeks. grew

more

highly intellectual period

to

As

Roman

thought and
more

literature in this
proper

and the

academic, it is
of

here

summarise Educational progress of Roman

features principal
as

the Graeco-Roman of the

System,

givinga generalconspectus
the ancient
a

learningin

world.
may

The
a

as training,
on a

whole,

be described The

as

Greek

structure

Latin
more

foundation.

elementary
of it is
Caesars ;
as

part of it is native
1

; the
known

purelyscientific part
of biographies the Twelve

Suetonius
wrote

is best
many

for his

yet he
names

chiefly on treatises,

antiquariansubjects,such

the

of articles of words of

the origin and clothing,

an

earlyimport of imprecations
courtesans,
in ten
a

and
court

abuse,
a

account

of celebrated miscellanies

manual The

of

and etiquette, of these

collection of
are were

books.

ments frag-

lost treatises which of them

edited

i860). by Reifferscheid (Leipzig,

in Latin and

It is not See the

known

written Roth

which

in Greek.

prefaceto

the edition

by

1886). (Leipzig,

172

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

foreign. This represents,of

education, m
the Greek which

course,

the
were

of Roman history

simpler forms
had

developed before
while

influence
were

been

felt at Rome;
after the time

the

scientific features
Andronicus

introduced
In other

of Livius modern

and

Ennius.

words
at

(to use
was

terms), the common-school

the
very
were

system

Rome
were

Roman;
The

secondary and
names

higher education
Rome

Greek.

given at

to the three classes of teachers

most
a

The significant.
name

elementary teacher
or

is called

by

Latin

ator {litter

arius) magister litter ; while

had titles borrowed

both from
In

classes of the Greek

advanced

teachers

rhetor). (grammaticus,
education
was

early Rome,
not

regarded as
as

important,
at

though it was
and
in

obligatory by law,
States.
own sons

it
were

was

Athens Most

other

Greek
their

Schools
at

few.
This

fathers

taught

home.

in itself

impliesthat the teaching was

character.

very

simple and

of

tarian utilithe

arithmetic, and Reading, writing,

Tables
in

memorising
that these had B.C.1

of the Twelve
was

comprised nearlyeverything elementary schools

fourth
or

taught

the

after

been

established
statement

in the
2

fifth century
was

Plutarch's
to
as

that

Spurius Carvilius

the firstperson be understood In the

open

school at Rome
the

(231 B.C.)must
alone.

to referring

secondary schools
course,
as

elementary schools the

1 *

stated

above,

Livy, Hi. 44

v.

44 ; vi. 25.

Romanae, Quaestiones

59.

174

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

History
and
more seen

and

geography
as a

were,
a

as

time

went

on,

more

valued

part of
the

liberal education.

We

have

that

even

about

beginning

of

the

andrian Alex-

Period,DescriptiveGeography
and

took definite
a

shape

form. down
and

It

was

then

that
and

Scylax,

Carian the

Greek,
Indian
for the

sailed

the Indus
the Red
name

around

through

Ocean
voyage.

months Sea, occupying thirty

is attached
not to
a

His

so-called
been

Periplus, by

which, however, could

him.1
A

have possibly
of Canidus of the

written

littlelater, Eudoxus
the

matically proved mathe-

spherical shape
five

earth,

and

first
of

divided Alexander
of
was

the

globe into

zones.

The
and

campaigns
southern

the Great
open
to

laid the western

research.

parts

Asia

Greek

Physical geography
in

developed by
all

the

Ptolemies

their commercial
far the of
as

and expeditions; then

was existed,

geographicalknowledge, so
with

it

used
as

scientific skill

by

andrians, Alex-

such and

Eratosthenes,Hipparchus Apamea (90 B.C.).

of most work of these is that We

Nicaea,

Posidonius

of

have

only fragments,
A very

however,
great and

geographers.
of Strabo

enduring

of Amasia

(c. 20

which a.d.),
To

combines
the

descriptive geography
had

with

ethnology.
a

what

Greeks

learned And
on

he

added
his

knowledge of
work

the Roman is

conquests.
treatise

though

historical

lost, his
books

geography complete
cit.

in seventeen (Ti](0ypacf"iKd)
1See the edition

is the most

by

Fabricius

(Leipzig, 1883); and Antichan, op.

THE

GR2EC0-R0MAN

PERIOD

75

treatise geographical
from
a

of

antiquity.
screed.

It

is,indeed,very far
It
was

dry

and

monotonous

meant

to be

read, and
a

it is very
or political

so readable,

that it has

been

called

sort

of

historical into the

geography.

Napoleon

caused the
wars

it to be rendered
in
at
see

French, with
East, maps
the

notes.1

During
were

Gaul
Rome

and and and

(tabulae)

prepared
all could
came

displayedin
understand armies.

where porticos,

them
the

the M.

despatcheswhich

from

Roman

Vipsanius Agrippa,
a

by

order
were

of

Augustus Caesar, made

indicated the the distances

great map,

on

which

between
This

important
map
was

places throughout
the
our

Roman maps,

Empire.
and

origin of

modern
of

contributed
It
were
was

to greatly

knowledge
or

Topography.
from

often

copied in

whole

in

part, and
maps

it

made

the so-called

or Itineraria,

intended
such

for
now

expeditions. particular
in existence is the
so-

The

most

of interesting

called tabula date is about

Peutingeriana,preserved
250 a.d., and it consisted
out

in Vienna.

Its

of twelve

of slips
as

parchment
known contain of
a

which

marked originally

all the world

to the Romans.

At present the Britain

are

which pieces the

should

Spain

and

lost with

exception

part of Kent.2
in science
See the

RivallingStrabo
1

but

not

equalling him
by
Tozer
to

S vols.

(Paris, 1805-19).
of selections

Introduction

his

English edition
2

(Oxford, 1893).
this
see geographicalcuriosity,

For

representation of

the

Atlas

Antiquus of Justus Perthes

(Gotha, 1893).

176
in interest

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

or

breadth

of

knowledge, the

Alexandrian

astronomer,
of
"

Claudius

Ptolemaeus, made

lists(c. 150 a.d.)

an

with places,

their latitude and

"

and longitude, the Indian is

atlas
as a

the first known

sea.

which this

shows

Ocean novel

closed

After
and

time

there

nothing

in of

geography
Pausanias

topography except
a.d.),
in who
ten

the
wrote

great work
an

(c. 175

itinerary
is
an

of Greece (IIe/3t?77?7o-i"?)

books,1

which

invaluable

study
of

of

Hellenic

topography.
a

Pomponius
concise

Mela,
account

native
of

Spain,composed
as

clear and
the Romans

the world the

of

known

to

of his

time.2

At

end

of

the

Graeco-Roman
a

Period,

Stephanus

Byzantium
which
the

compiled

geographical
from
one

of dictionary, and better

substance

is taken

older

writers;and
India in
a

in the sixth century, where

occurs

Cosmus

described the
name

book

for the firsttime

of China

{Sinarum

Regnum).
the

After Roman

completing his
was

studies under received

desirous
a

grammaticus, a
cation. edu-

held such

to
as

have
were

fairly complete
of
more

But

specialand
the schools of

scientific teachinghad the rhetors and

the

their choice between

universities

"

at

Athens, Rhodes,

translated
2

with

commentary
Mela nnd

by Frazer, 6 vols. (Oxford,1898).

seine

See

Frick, Pomponius
of the minor those of

Chorographie (Leipzig, 1880).

are

The vols.

remains

Greek

geographers

edited

2 by Miiller,

1882); (Paris,
a

of the Latin

geographers by Reise (Frankfort,

1878). For

study

early cartography,see Nordenskjold, Periplus

(Stockholm, 1897).

THE

GR^COROMAN

PERIOD

77

Alexandria, or
the rhetors
were
as

Pergamum,
more

or

Massilia.1

The
to

schools of rhetorical
an

immediately directed
student for
was

teachingso
and

to fit the

life as public up

orator

statesman.

Here

taken

the

study

of prose,
to

beginning
declamatio which had of

with
or

the

simple narratio,passing on ending

with the

the

and suasoria, do with

controversia,

to

legalpointsand complicated tions quesIn

life. practical
to

all this there

class of

was

nothing

to

appeal

that

numerous

students desired

who, setting
to

aside any
as

or legalambition, political

cultivate

the specialists

field of

the natural

sciences, of pure

of linguistics. or mathematics, of medicine, of philosophy,

If these their work of
a

persons

remained

in Rome,

they could

carry

on

only by employing at great expense

in the
a

the services

private instructor
Thus various of

person

of

some

learned father's

Greek.2
house Archias

Cicero, when
Greek

boy,

had

in his the

tutors, among

them

celebrated

Antioch, while only one

a

of his masters he

(Quintus
under

iElius) was
1

Roman 88-125.

born.

Later,

studied

See supra, pp. See

Der Hellenismus Saalfeld, Griechischer

in Latium Unterricht

stein, (Wolfenbiittel, 1883); Eck-

Latciniscfier und

1887) ; Compayr6, (Leipzig,

History of Paedagogy, English translation

Ei-ucation Petronius the

(Boston, 1886) ; Clarke, The (1-4) when

of

Children

at

Rome

(New York, 1896); and Munroe, op. cit.

of

satirises the
was

ineffectiveness
on

private instruction
"

teacher let him

dependent
advanced in the

the

fore good-willof the student,and there-

choose

studies

prematurely.
young
men

Now
are

as

boys they

fool away the

their time

schools,as

they

jeered at in they have

forum, and what they

is stillmore
are

the thing which disgraceful,

to

learned wrong

ashamed

admit

when

they

grow

up."

178
Philo the

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Academic, while
of Rhodes

he learned

rhetoric

from

Apol-

lonius Molo
under

and

trained himself
Then he

in close thinking
to

Diodotus attended
the

the the chief

Stoic.

went

Athens,
quently subse-

where

he

lectures of Antiochus
and philosophers
to

and

heard Asia. It
was

rhetoricians of declaim
so as

his

practice every day

with other young he

in both

Greek

and

Latin

men,
seems

to

acquire given
the

fluencyand
serious

style. At

this time

to

have

attention to

only one

of his

own

countrymen,

great lawyer,Scaevola.
The Roman

theoryof
a.d.

education
M.

was

set fully

forth in

the first century

c.

by

Fabius

Quintilianus (35who lived

97

a.d.), a
Rome.

very

cultivated
was,

Spaniard

and

taught at
of

This

indeed, the

so-called

Period

not Spanish Latinity,represented

only by Quintilian
Lucan

but

by

the two

Senecas,1
In

the

epic poet
same

and

the

epigrammatistMartial.
Rome who
was

this

century, indeed,
of

had its firstforeign emperor

a

in the person

Trajan,

born Spaniard, books

near

Seville.

work Quintilian's Oratoria. It

in twelve his view with

as

is entitled Institutio of complete training He makes

an

gives

of the

orator,

beginning
to

earlychildhood.
the Romans
orator must master
Seneca

it evident

that

him,
art.

to

generally, oratory
be
of
was

is the supreme

The
must
1

trained

in

grammatical studies,he
skilled in all the arts
we are

be
The

language and
a

Elder
a

and rhetorician, professional and which conlroversiae,

have

from

his pen

number

of snasoriae

edited

by

Kiessling(Leipzig, 1872),and H. J. Miiller (Prague, 1887).

THE

GF^ECOROMAN

PERIOD

79

of He the in
an

persuasion;but
must

he must

also be in the

much

more

than his

this.

be

deeply versed
his
own

learningof

time, in

of history

in law, and country, in philology,

as an

science,in order that

inexhaustible anecdote.
no

orator

he may

draw

upon

store

of

illustration, allusion, ornament,

must

and

Finally,he

be

man

of

exalted it is

character, for
imbued
"The of

oratory is truly effective unless

earnestness

with

moral

and

absolute The

sincerity.
firstbook
in

orator perfect

is the is

man." perfect

treatise Quintilian's
the

because peculiarly interesting

a

it,speaking of
he

of early grammatical training

child,

discusses

minutely the alphabet,the parts

of

speech,
cisms, sole-

word-changes,spelling, punctuation, barbarisms,

analogy,the
All these

influence of custom,

and
a

at

last etymology. of

things he

illustrates by have been

to

number

examples and anecdotes,which

a

later generations
Latin

treasure-house

of curious

facts

the regarding is very

language. Throughout
and
some

the book
at

the tone the

very

modern,
of

of his

precepts lie
in very

foundation

modem
in

teaching. Thus, school,he

says

speaking of corporalpunishment
: sensibly
"

"That
custom

boys should suffer corporal punishment, even

I
a can

though this

be common, and disgraceful

allow scarcely
fit

because ; in the firstplace,

; and

it is

punishment

only for slaves

a

in the
as

second

of place because,if the disposition

boy

is

so

base

not

to be affected

he by reproof,
to

will become

hardened, like the

a

worst

of

even slaves,

if lashings ; and finally,

person
no

who

regularly
of any

has

charge of his tasks be with him, there

will be

need

l8o

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

such
with

punishment. blows, how

when

Moreover, after
to

you

have he

cowed
grows
to

boy early
when
siderations con-

are
no

you

treat

him
can

when be

manhood
even more

such

threat
must

employed, and
Add
to

difficultstudies that
many
are

be

pursued ?
occur

these

things often
to

to

boys while being likelyafterward

Such shame

whipped which
to
cause

unpleasant
the sway

mention

and
or

shame and

under

of

pain

terror.

enervates

the depresses lost their

mind

and

youths then avoid others,

because

they have
also the
me a

' self-respect."

Note
"Give when

brief dictum following

is stimulated
powers
must

"

boy who

by praiseand who
be cultivated under
to

is downcast
fluence the inward Re-

he fails. His

of ambition. will incite him.

nor indifference;

Reproach will stinghim

In
a

the
never

quick.

such

boy
in

shall

fear any
It is
a

will

love of

play

me. boys displease one

and sign of vivacity,

and
even

I cannot eager

expect that
in his

who

is

always dull

will be spiritless
to that excitement

when studies,
to

he is indifferent
of life.2
. . .

which

is natural
must

his time

as early Therefore, as possible, a child

he

taught that
in mind

he should ing noth-

do

nothing in
without

harum-scarum
We

way,
must

and nothing dishonestly,

self-control.

always keep
case

the maxim

of

Vergil: 'So important is habit in the

The

of the very

young.'" s

Tenth
of

Book

sums

up

Quintilian's generalliterary

criticism them with

the

Roman

authors, carefullycomparing
in Greek. This
parison com-

the writers of like genres made

of
a

has
not

the book born

much

read;

for the

criticism,

being that
written
1

Roman,

is temperate, of tone.

impartial,
Its
con-

and

with

certain

mellowness

Inst. Quintilian, Cf. "All Adeo work

Oral. i. 3, 14.
no

and

play makes
multum

Jack
est.

dull

boy."

in teneris

consuescere

82

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

of

keen

observation, and

some
:

of them
"

belong to

the

languageof

universal criticism
pannus.

Purpureus adsuitur
Difficile est Parturiunt Ne
pueros

proprie communia
montes,
nascetur

dicere. ridiculus
mus.

coram

populo Medea
sapere
est et

trucidet.

Scribendi Ut

recte

principium et fons.

picturapoesis.
vox

Nescit

missa

reverti.

Dr.

O.

W.

Holmes

once

said

of

Emerson:
which break
a

"His

paragraphs are full of brittle sentences

and
are

apart,
coral

independent units like

poems
"

the
are

fragments of
also

colony." The
"

of

Horace

full of these
sentences

brittle sentences

these and, taken together, of his is

the body crystallise

doctrines.

The
the

Ars

Poetica of it is
man

lacks
an

proportion and
hard

but ill-knit;
on

essence

injunctionto

labour

the

part of the
to

of

to much letters,

and reading,to self-criticism, life.

who much
has

deep

knowledge
merely
with
a

of human

Without with

these
words

the

poet is
than

declaimer

deals the
been in

rather

things.1 Very
poem

same

thought is elaborated
in modern times

JThis Italian sixteenth

of Horace

imitated
his De

by

the

scholar, Gerolamo
century
;

Vida,

Arte

written Poetica,

in the

by

Boileau

in his Art

Poetique (1674); by by
Lord Art

Alexander

Pope
but

in his

Essay

on

Criticism

(1711); and
See

Byron

in his clever

less serious Hints and

from

Horace.

Cook,

The

of Poetry (Boston,
der Ars Wilkins also Poetica in his

1892),
edition p. 180.

Weissenfels The best

Aesthet.-kritische

Analyse English
is

(Gorlitz, 1880).
of the

commentary
Horace

in

by

Epistlesof

(London, 1885).

Cf.

supra,

THE

GRjECO-ROMAN

PERIOD

83

by

Persius

Flaccus, in the

first of
of

his

which satires,

ridicules the artificialcharacter

of the

the

literary language

day.
a

Quintilianwas
a

writer; he winning, graceful

a

was

also The

student

of

language, and
he

critic of

literature.
many

period in

which

lived and
it
saw

taught
also the

saw

other attractive

writers,and
in the form

pursuitof linguistics
an

of grammar,

and
His

likewise

abundance

of the

sound

criticism. literary

contemporaries were
and likewise

Spaniards already mentioned,

historian,both

Tacitus, the

Plinys, Petronius,
Suetonius.

Persius,
The

Juvenal,
teacher

Statius, Silius Italicus,and

of

himself, Quintilian Q. Remmius

was

Palaemon of
a

(c. 35-70
grammar

a.d.),
in the

perhaps
sense.

the first author

He

school

modern

four distinguished

declensions,and a.d.) contained

those of

his Ars

Grammatica
were more

(published c. rigidand

70

rules which the

a

less elastic than

Born
a

earlyRoman

grammarians.
noted

slave,originally

weaver

by trade, and
was

for his most

disreputable
as a

character, he
teacher

nevertheless of
his

extremely popular
memory, his

because
his

remarkable

glib

speech,and

trulyRoman

for serving gift up knowledge

in set formulas.1
1

See

Marschall,
also

Be

Q.

Remmii Gram.

Palmonis
23.

Libris

GrammaHcis

(Leipzig,
of Latin 145-

1887) ;
grammar

Suetonius,
the

Cf.

Nettleship's study
and

among

Romans and K.

in Lectures

Essays, 2d series, pp.

Geschichte der

171

(Oxford,1895);
1859). (Halle,

Schmidt, Beitragezur

Gram-

tnatik

184
Teachers and

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

of

grammar

became

very

numerous

during
of their and
a

after the time been

of Quintilian, and collected

It may into

the remains volumes

treatises have

seven

supplement by Keil.1
a

be said,however, that
have from any
one

only

few

of

these so-called
of their

grammarians
copy

genuine
another,

knowledge
and this

subject. They

not only their lack copying displays

of

but ethics,

their lack of do
not
even

knowledge.
understand

Some the

of the later

grammarians they
copy.

teachingswhich

Remmius
made Roman

Palaemon

is
centre

mainly responsible for having

of scholastic instruction for the

Vergil the

world, just as

Homer

was

for the Greek.

After

the firstcentury a.d., the Roman

grammarians
manuals the

show
as

little

independentresearch.
were

Their

(known

artes)

merely school-books

to relating

simplestrules of
are

orthography, syntax, and

of Marius Terentianus
to

prosody. Such

the works and

Victorinus, Servius, Charisius, Diomedes, Maurus,

Two this last scholar

devotinghis
out

tion atten-

metres.

grammarians stand
One of them
our

with

served de-

prominence.
lived in the fourth

is .3"lius Donatus, who

era

century of

and

was

one

of St.
on

Jerome's teachers. Vergiland Terence,

Grammatics)
Minor In the and in two

Apart
Donatus

from
wrote

his
a

commentaries treatise

(Ars

Donati

parts. The

first part is called Ars

in it he treats Ars

only of the eightparts of speech.

Maior,
Latini

other, called
1

he

discusses

grammar

Keil, Grammatici

(Leipzig, 1855-1880).

THE

GR^CO-ROMAN

PERIOD

85
as

more

elaborately.The

book
it

was was

so

much

thought of

that treatise, practical the

Middle
came

continuouslyused
the

down

through
Chaucer

Ages,

and

word

Donatus

(in

"donat")

to be

synonymous "a

with the word

means
a

"grammar,"

just as
as

in

English
un

Webster"
means

and dictionary,
a

in French

Bottin

generically

citydirectory.1
The other
was

Roman

grammarian
of

whose

work

has

many

merits Latin number

most
come

Priscianus

Constantinople, who
a.d.

taught

there in the sixth century

of small

After

compiling a

he published the grammatical treatises,

complete
down
to

and
us

systematicLatin
from

grammar

that has

antiquity. It
is divided
to

is called Institu-

tiones Its

Grammaticae, and

into

eighteenbooks.
from quotations the mediaeval
work

due importance is largely literature.2 An

Maurus

its full of it

ancient

epitome

by

scholar Rabanus
of Donatus

(c.776 a.d.)vied with the

Middle

throughoutthe
grammar,

Ages.8

For

the

general

of principles

Priscian drew
was

on largely

Apollonius
of scientific self him-

who Dyscolus, of Alexandria,4

the

founder

syntax

(c. 140
was

a.d.) and

of whom

Priscian

said that he

the greatest authorityin technical

Grafenhan, op.
cit. iv. p. 107.

1
1

See He

Keil, op.
quotes

cit. iv, and

from especially

Plautus, Terence, Cicero, Sallust,Vergil, Juvenal

Caesar.
;

Horace, Ovid, Lucan, Persius, Statius, and

from
3

and

less

freely

Cato, Ennius, Lucretius,Catullus,and

See

infra,p.

229.

See Skrzeczka, Die

Lekre

des

ApolloniusDyscolus (1869).

86

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

grammar,
was

thoughin this respecthis

formidable
work of

son

^Elius Herodianus Marcus The

more

undoubtedlya
a on

to rival, dedicating

Aurelius
grammar

prosody in twenty-one
was
so

books.

Priscian

often

copied

that

than

thousand

manuscriptsof

it stillexist. M. Valerius Probus

was Contemporary with Quintilian

who Berytius, but work with

was

has been

called

"

the greatest Roman

lologi phi-

like many

of the later Latin

scholars his

almost

in entirely

the field of text-criticism,

critical signs, as

for instance upon

He

Horace, Vergil,
a

Persius. Terence, Lucretius,

on

likewise wrote observed

or

treatise

these

symbols.1 It
were

will be of Roman
a

that the

later

grammarians

not

of

Italian birth.
a

Thus, Quintilian was

Suetonius Cassarea

Spaniard;

Probus
a

Syrian;
of

probably
in

Spaniard;

Priscian

native

stantinop Mauretania, though he lived mainly in ConThis

plainlyshows
but

us

that Rome the

was

no

longer Roman,
Period

cosmopolitan. After
came

Spanish

of its literature

the African
names as

Period, represented

by

such

well-known

Apuleius, Fronto,
The had

and perhapsAulus Tertullian,

of

Gellius.

goldenLatin

the Ciceronian

and

Augustan Ages

changed

to

the "silver" and later to the "bronze"

group Rome of those who
were

The Latinity.
in

small

had

set the fashion

language at

imitated writers of

rately, enough,yet quite inaccupainfully

by Cooper

foreignbirth.
:
"

Of

this Dr.

F.

T.

has well said

1

Steup,De Probis Grammaticis

1871). (Jena,

THE

GRiECO-ROMAN

PERIOD

87

"There

was

growing proportion of writers

and
too

on

architecture,
etc., whose

surveying,medical
attainments however
a were

veterinarytopics, gastronomy,
meagre
to

enable

them

to

write

correctly,

much

they wanted by the

outside

to; and their works

contained naturally

strong colouring of plebeianvocabulary. An

also exerted
no

important influence

was

less

numerous

class of writers whose whose

birthplacewas
education and

of

Italy, and
at the

speech, in spite of
a

long residence

to capital, retained,

varying

degree,traces of their alien origin. Even

incurred Italy,
censure even

Livy, born in northern

Under Rome Africa the

for his Patavinitas.

more

Empire, the

provinces became
of the centres
men

fertile than

itself in the production became especially

of

genius; Spain and

schools of reacted

of veritable

literature, possessingmarked
upon

which characteristics, Rome."

"

strongly

the

literature of

It is because

the

who people and

correct

had received Roman of

were Italy,

ship, citizenious anx-

though born
to
we

outside living
use

acquirea
so

of

the The

Latin
very

that language, last of them

a.d.

find

many

grammarians.

is had

the been

SpaniardIsidorus,who
Bishop
an

died about
was a
one

636

He

of

and Seville,

man

of very wide had been

own

ing, read-

eloquentspeaker,and
as learning

who

trained time. before the

in the ancient
He
never

well until

as

in that of his

visited Rome he

nearly twenty
to

years

his death, whither

Great.

went

confer

with
two

Gregory
in
use

His

grammatical writings are

the distinctions and
a

number,
of words.
numerous

to relating

the proper

He
1

likewise wrote
See
xxxv

collection of

beside glosses,
Sermo

Cooper,

Word

Formation

in the Roman

tion, IntroducPlebeius,

(New York, 1895).

88

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

treatises
him

on

historical and the

theological subjects. With

grammars

ends

production of
or

that

show

any But

research original

that represent original sources.

to know

desired justas foreigners

the rules of the

language
inform earlier

which

their masters
on

spoke, so
of

they

also liked to the

themselves
Roman

all sorts

to subjects relating
we

history. Hence
who

have work

series of of the

paedists Encyclo-

supplemented the

grammarians.

Varro, already mentioned,,was

from
him many

and the first of these,1

The Elder

writers borrowed. succeeding in his

mass

Pliny (23-79 a.d.)

Historia

Naturalis

had

got

together an ranging from

fashionable lius wrote

enormous

of

"general information," jewelsworn by

Gelevery

for prescriptions
women.

the sick,to

In

the

second

century, Aulus
on

his Nodes of

Atticae
"

in twenty books,

sort possible

subject
"

torical, hisgrammatical, philosophical,

upon many
an sources

and
now

legal, drawing
to

that

are

unknown

us.2
a

One

may

get
some

idea of the variety

of these scraps

by

citation of

of the
at

topics ;
do not

as,

for

instance, "The

fact that Women

nor

Rome "That

Swear

by

Hercules

Men

by Castor";
with
Faint

It is More

to Disgraceful

be

Damned

Praise

than

to

be
cause Be-

Rebuked"; Bitterly
of Sudden Horse
1
2

"Why

the Stomach

is Relaxed

Fear";
Called

"Concerning King Alexander's Bucephalus"; "Concerning the

which

was

Supra, p. 158.
See

Ruske, De
Best edition

Auli

Gellii N odium

Atticarum

Fontibus

(Breslau,

1883).

of the Nodes

by Hertz

1886). (Leipzig,

I90 the

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

works greatest of these encyclopaedic in twenty books, Origines,

"

is that of
an

Isi-

dorus, called
survey of

immense
from the

all

knowledge.

Its

title is derived

fact that it
of subjects

of to give explanations professes it treats. It is in

the various
a

which

reality nothing but

similar

compilation; yet
Natura

this and

his other

work,

De

Rerum,
and

were

widely read
a

throughout the

Middle

Ages

furnished many Romanorum.1 Isidorus.

read

hint for those who

put together
wide
was

the Gesta the his

It is As

how astonishing

readingof
monks
to

Bishop
of

of Seville he allowed

nothing

the pagan

compositions
tures the litera-

except the grammarians; but he himself raked

of

Greece

and

Rome,
was

picking out

with
was

almost
a

sense journalistic

whatever

diverting. He

great

lover of books,
while
two

having in

his

fourteen large bookcases, library

his walls authors.

in

of twentydisplayed the portraits

favourite

Isidorus
sixth

was

one

of

the

few
a

ecclesiastics who

the

century still retained

in

knowledge
Roman

of

Greek. had
was

With
more

him,
than

fact, the

GraecoThe and

Period of

reached
new

its end.

West

Europe

to yielding

masters,
and

Gauls

and Goths, and Visigoths,

Germans;

the Dark

Ages

had, in fact,begun.
[In addition
see

to

the other
du

works

cited in the

present
La

chapter, Religion
infra,

La Boissier,
1

Fin

1891) ; id. Paganisme (Paris,

Originum
Fontibus

See
224,

Dressel,De
225.

Isidori

(Turin,1874), aQd

pp.

THE

GR^ECO-ROMAN

PERIOD

191

Romaine

d'Auguste
Latin

aux

Antonins

(Paris,
Lectures

1906)
on

Michaut,

Le

Genie

(Paris, 1903) 1909)

ii.
;

1904)
Duff,
A

Hardie, Literary

Classical

Subjects
664-670

(London,

History

of
A

Rome,

pp.

(London,
Literature,

Teuffel-Schwabe-Warr, 1892)
Zu
;

History

of

Roman

(London,
;

Kortum,

Geschichtliche

Forschungen (Innsbruck,
Kaiser

(Leipzig, 1873)
1877)
;

1863)
Arbenz,

Zingerle,

Spdtem
in Rom

Latein.

Dichtern

Die

SchriftsteUerei
Transactions

zur

Zeit

der

(Basle,
Society

Nettleship,
;

of Africa,

the

Oxford
trans.,

Philological
pp. 8

for
York,
1

1880-81

Boissier,
;

Roman

Eng.
her

238-289
vols.

(New
(Oxford,

1899)
899)
AM.

Hodgkin,
Curteis,
A

Italy
History
;

and

Invaders,
Roman

880-1

of

the

Empire
Critica

from
Scholiastarum

375-

800

(London,

1875)

Suringar,

Historia

Latinorum

(Leyden,
1898)
and
;

1834-5);
Church,
Bemont The and

Norden, Beginning
Monod's

Die

Antike Middle

Kunstprosa. Ages Europe, don, (Lonpp.

(Leipzig,

of the

1895);
33-124,

Medieval

Eng.

trans.

(New

York,

1906).]

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

A.

The

Monastic

Learning

The

gloom
vitiation

of

the of

Middle

Ages

is foreshadowed

in be

the

general
as

literary taste
as

which and

began
third
are

to

able noticea.d.

early

even

the
of

second this

centuries
two:

The

immediate

causes

decline

(i) the

cosmopolitanism spread
secured
course

of

the

later

Roman

Empire;
as soon as

and
it had

(2)

the

of

Christianity.
mastery
of

Rome,
the

fairly
in

the
of
a
a

whole
to

world,
Roman.
men

ceased,
The of

the

single century,

be
for

capital
rank

became and "has

great

gathering-place
"The

every

language.
turned its

Syrian
into the

Orontes,"
Tiber."
!

says Rome's

Juvenal,
chant-princes, mer-

course

its
governors,

knights,
and
at

its senators, last

even

its
its

jurists, its
emperors,

vincial prowere

Greeks,
but

Gauls,
or

Spaniards,
even

Africans,
Brunner

"

almost has shown Later

anything
almost

Roman,

Italian. the

conclusively
is the

that
of

whole

history

of

the

Empire
the of manic Ger-

history
and

continuous

struggle
for

between

the

Iberian

elements

the

control

the

government.
1

iii.62.
192

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

93

In

no

is sphere of activity

this

cosmopolitanism more
century
of its
or

when, after the second apparent than in literature,

a.d.,
masters

and

even

earlier, one
the
names

finds the great

names

to be

either of

or Gauls, Spaniards,

Syrians, or

Sicilians,or
Roman

Africans.

The

result of

this

of denationalising very

literature showed
all that
was

itself before

long in the neglectof

Not

best in the native

traditions. literary

only Ennius, Plautus, Terence,

to be

Lucretius,and Horace, and

Varro
were

ceased

read; but

even

Vergil,
It

Ovid

regarded as old-fashioned.
and

is,

indeed, evident that Gauls

Spaniards and

Africans,
to

learningLatin appreciate the

of cadences and

as

would foreignlanguage,
of

be unable

niceties

diction, the exquisiteappropriateness

the
more

and phrase and epithet,

delicate

rhythms that
of

mark

the work

of the

highly

trained

writers
was

the

Golden

Age

of

Latin

literature. it
was

Prosody always
an

the

first to

suffer, since in Latin

artificial who
more
or

thing and

largelyforeignto the
beat

educated, un-

readilycaught the accented

the alliterative
as

of

the

Saturnians

jingleof the
a.d.,
we

carmina

triumphalia. Hence,
modianus

earlyas

250

find Com-

writinghis

Carmen

Apologeticum

in hexameters

that
accent

frankly discarded
as

syllabicquantity and
system;
knew

accepted
it is
likely un-

the basis of his metrical

many

and

that very The the

of his readers

the difference.
and
on

language itself also suffered

pens of

in the mouths

foreignwriters.

Prepositions govern

what-

194

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

ever

cases

appear

to be

most

convenient.

Nouns

become

heteroclite with

surprising facility. Conjugations change

a

places; and
these extreme
from
were

there is

wild of

dance

of

genders.

Of

course

breaches

morphology and syntax

are

far

universal ; but

the nicer distinctions of the readers and

language
writers.

lost to the
it
was

of both perceptions
sense

Hence and

that,the

of and
so

stylehaving been blunted

third
much It
was

destroyed,the

second

centuries

studied

and the rhetoricians,

read not
them.

the great writers of

an

Rome,
of

as

abridgments of

age of

epitomes,
of of

condensations,of scrap-booksand
This spicilegia.

elegantextracts;
so

and fiorilegia the most

not
come

explainswhy

many

valuable down
in
to

productionsof the earlier centuries have

us

at

all; and

why others
in

have

been

preserved
of

meagre

abridgments, or
were

abridgments
by

abridgments. Such
of

the
whose

treatises in Greek

King Juba
now

Mauretania,
much

is SearpLKr)'larropia in his

lost,though

used

by Julius Pollux,
ten
a

'Ovofiao-Tiicov, a dictionary in

books
work his
own

arranged by
on

subjects;Hephaestion,
books, forty-eight
them all

writer of

metres

in of
a

lost,though

epitome
who
wrote

survives;

Valerius
orators

Harpocration,
; Herennius

lexicon to the ten

Philon

of books

Byblos
were

(sometimes

called

"Philobyblos"), whose
in
one

mainly lost except

five books
on

; and

Pamphilius, whose

ninetywere

were glosses

epitomised until they

only five.

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

95

The

was spread of Christianity

perhaps
taste

even

more

important factor

in

out blotting

for literature and

The fine

records destroyingthe literary

failure
to

of the past. what

was

general
in

appreciateand
the

admire

was

the

of productions

precedingcenturies
the

only a negative
the
other

injury.
hand,
was

The

teaching of

Christians, on

and aggressively
In the

directed offensively
the

toward

their destruction.

earlydays of
the

tianity Church, Chrisnot

spread chiefly among

failed
that
to

who ignorant,

only
felt

value

what

was

but aesthetically precious, the

and suspicion
what

dislike which

vulgaralways exhibit
Later, when
men

toward

they cannot
and culture
"

understand.
men

of education

like St. Augustine and the

their

St.

Jerome
pagans

"

appeared, they regarded

thoroughlyperniciousin
because and

writings of
influence,
"

the all

as

the

more

they
power.

could
St.

themselves

appreciatetheir
in

attractiveness

Jerome

was,

fact, a

scholar

and
was

thoroughly familiar
even

with
an

classic literature; and

accusation He
was

this

made his with

the basis of

brought against
at

him

by

fellow

Christians.
works

last

openly

charged
pagan

his defiling
of

with

quotations from
to
one

authors;

having employed
and of
of
some

monks
on

copy

the

writingsof Cicero; pollutedthe explainingto

us

having

even

occasion

minds them
his
1

children
passages he of

at

Bethlehem

by
tells in
a

various

Vergil.1He
rebuked
xxx.

in

one

of

Epistles how
; adv.

was

lxx Epist.

Rufinam, I. ch.

196
dream
in the
a

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

for his

guiltyadmiration
the throne than
a

of Cicero, being borne

nightbefore

of

Christ,accused

of

"being

Ciceronian

rather

Christian," and
awoke in

scourged by morning
his I

the

angels so
were

that when covered

he with

the

shoulders

bruises.1

Pope Gregory
of

(the Great) rebuked

Desiderius, Bishop
thus

Vienna,
the

for

having taught the

of

classics and
.

"mingled
mind

praises

Jupiterand

Christ
.
.

the polluting
2

phemous with blas-

praisesof taught
hell. that the

the

wicked."
of

It

was

believed

and
in

writers

the classics
as

were

burning
of the
scripts manu-

In

such

monasteries

stillkept any
where any

of the secular
were

and literature,

vows

of silence

imposed,
of

it

was

customary
or

when

monk

wished

copy his

Horace, Vergil,
like
were a

Livy, to being
to

indicate

it by scratching whom the

ear

dog,

this

the animal

pagan With

writers
men

supposed
sterner

resemble.3

of

and

fiercer

type,

"

zealots
"

like

Tertullianus
mass

and

fanatics like Montanus,

was

the

whole

of pagan Its

literature

demned. consweepinglyand savagely

philosophywas
and

snare

and its

stumbling-

block;
and

its

historylies

slanders;

poetry licentious

obscene; the mythology

to

of its graceful fables,a

plain
in
a

enticement
1

the

worship

of

demons.

Tertullian

xxii. Epist.

Lecky, vol.
Maitland,
toward

ii.p.

201.

Dark

Ages, p.

403.

(London 1853).
the

Because forbade

of their hostility Christians

the classic

writers,Julian

Apostate

to

teach

rhetoric and

grammar

in (classics)

the schools.

198

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

from pictedsubjects
papyrus and

the classic

myths;

and so, the rolls of

of writings
an

vellum shared

which
a

contained
It

the
was

the

myth-makers
of the

similar fate.

anticipation
seventeenth

Puritan

frenzy of
so

the sixteenth cathedrals

were

and

when centuries, many

many the

desecrated,so
so

paintingsof

saints into

destroyed, and
because bits, ritual of fanatical the

many gave

priceless carvings broken beauty

Church. the
course

they

and The

to significance
same

the

Catholic

speciesof

frenzy marked
rolls of

of the covered

earlyChristians. copiesof
used for their

Innumerable

papyrus Roman
ments
,

with

the great

of masterpieces

literature were
were

wrapping goods.
and used

Parch-

scraped of

texts original

again
that

for religious (palimpsests) writings. The

contained them
were

libraries In

pillaged by

mobs.

389 (or391), Library

the

under
which

Theodosius, that part

then stood
in the

of the Alexandrian
was

Serapeum

sacked, and
The

books

partlyburned
and the
were

and

partlyscattered.
one

at library
at

Nisibis

greater
both

of

100,000

volumes

stantinopl ConI

burned
allowed

(477) ;

and

Pope Gregory
Palatine

600) is said (c.

at

to have

the noble

Library

Rome
1

to be

destroyed.1
is

This, however,
of

only traditionally reported.

"the oracles of God
are

The

favourite

ing say-

Gregory

was

that he is

greater than

the rules

of

grammar"
the

; and

for distinguished discreditably because Hist,

his zeal in burning

power
to

manuscripts of Livy gods.

"

they of
ii.

ascribed the

so

much

the

heathen

See

Draper,

Intellectual
;

Development of
Litteraire

Europe (New York, 1899); Lecky,

de

201

Hist. Guingerie1,

Vltalie, i,pp.

29-31.

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

99

Other diminished
more

causes

than

the

two

already mentioned
of

greatly
rendered

the

world's

supply
of that

books

and The had

difficultthe renewal
from

supply. Empire

separation
had
a

of the Eastern

the Western

very

unfavourable
of books,

effect upon it

the collection and

of did, the learning The in Roman

preservation
the East from

as dividing,

the
to

learningof the West.

collect works written had felt no
of
never

librarians ceased the

Greek, and
cared
much

Byzantian
Roman

who librarians,
now literature,

about

interest in it whatsoever. in
a.d.

Finally,

the conquest
at
a

Egypt by the Arabs

still remained

641, destroyed
libraries upon

blow
shut

what

of the Alexandrian
papyrus

and

off from

Europe the supply of

of books

which
All

the makers these

so

depended.
considered
in

facts must
many
to

be

accounting for
nown re-

the loss of

works

of classical literature whose and also for

ought

have

preserved them,
of

the
are

comparatively few
now

manuscripts

early date

that

known

to

the exist; the neglectof good literature,

of

growing ignorance
Christians
and
to

the

people,

the

of the hostility of books In

classical

the destruction learning,

of

and libraries,

the barbarisation
one

the

Empire.

the sixth century,

and safe and
never

might,

amid

the

deepening social
World,
have

intellectual darkness
in Rome

of the Western the

felt

predictingthat
would
soon

splendour of literary
and

Greece

be

only a faint
a

dying memory,
That
this

again to be quickened into

fact. living

20O

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

was

not actually

the

case

is in

very

largedegree due
a man. single

to

the energy,

and the influence,

the

example of
an

Early

in the sixth century occurred

seem

event

which with

in the

itself would of history

to

have

no

connection possible the

classical

or philology

of classical preservation whose

and yet which learning,

to

was,

in

one fact,

importance

the student of the year the order

can palaeography

be exaggerated. scarcely
a

About

529, of

one

Benedict,
that took

native from him

of

Nursia,
name

founded

monks

the and

of Benedictines.
an

Monachism
in

had
the

alreadyarisen

had

extraordinaryvogue
St.

Eastern
so

Empire, having rapidlythat

the head his

begun with

Anthony and spread

see

firstdisciple, Pachonius, lived to

seven

himself
a

of
we

thousand

followers.
that in the
were

Within
one

singlecentury
Nitria,in

find it recorded

district of less than the

the

Egyptian Delta, there

Yet
was

no

monasteries.1 fifty

in the

East, almost

from

beginning,the system
There sprang up
a

notorious

for its gross

abuses.

class of monks
and

who called Sarabastae,

lived in small
about the open

munities, com-

frequently wandered
cases a

country,

leadingin
Even in

many the

life of idleness and

want to

profligacy.
well-defined

monasteries, the
the

of any all sorts

whole

left regulations which practices

door
to

open

of licentious into in

tended

bring the
In

institution

contempt
1

and

scandal.

fact,the
Monchthums

Christian

Church

See

Mohler,
Das

Geschichte

des

(Regensburg, 1866-68)

Harnack,

Monchthum

(Giesen,1895).

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

201

its the

early years

reallyfound
the pagan of many
to

its greatest emperors

danger
and

not

in

of persecutions

governors, "Men
to

but in the character entered avoid

who the Church

of its own

members.

escape

from

or military service,

burdensome had exhausted

municipal offices";
every other of form
a
new

worn-out

rakes

of

brained excitement,harevicious sensation,

"

enthusiasts in search
and

depraved

men

and around
a

women

impelledby curiosity,
of the
new

all these flocked

the teachers
to

faith in

the

of expectation

fresh stimulus

their

jaded fancies.
and
gances extrava-

Hence, almost
of

immediately,arose
the details
are

scandals

which
The

given by contemporary
were

writers.1

festivals of the the

martyrs

at

one

time

suppressed by
manner

authorities because The

of

the

licentious tine Palesis

of their celebration. attracted such

pilgrimagesto
that the
as a

motley crowds
of

Holy

Land

described

by

St.

Gregory
the

Nyssa

hot-bed

of debaucher

Even

Agapae,or
these

often became love-feasts, evils

were

drunken
and
were

orgies.

All

concentrated

condensed
often

in many

of the oriental
men

which monasteries,
the

filled

by

who

made

professionof
the most

Christianity only a pretext

vices. filthy
It
1

for the

practiceof

was

at

time

when
on

monachism

as

then
v.

understood

See

Jortin,Remarks

Ecclesiastical

History,5

(1751-53); Cave,
Genio

Primitive Aevi

Christianity, pt. I. ch. xi (London, 1687) ; Miiller,De

foil. (Am.

Theodosiani
149

(Copenhagen, 1797); Lecky, History of European

ed.,New York, 1884).

Morals, ii, pp.

202

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

and

had practised

fallen into

such

that disrepute, Order

at

St.

Benedict

(529 a.d.),founded

his famous
Rome

Monte

Cassino,about halfway between

a

and

Naples.

It

was

place destined

to

be of the utmost and

of

importance in
was

the
a
an

historyof
man

classical texts

learning.Benedict
a

of littleeducation,but

very

mind, spiritual
an

of

unblemished
of
common

character,and
sense as

with gifted
of

unusual had

amount

well

as

piety.

He

been

made had

the abbot left it in

of

monastery

of the Eastern he in

type, and
found

disgustat
his

the license which

useful

prevailing
him
saw

there;

but

was experience

suggestingto
He

the defects of that it was

to
not

monachism

as

then

understood. should be

enough
and
were

that the monks

required
their rule

fast and

pray

sing at
left to

certain times, while that

some

remaining hours
should

idleness;but

be devised to
to

give them
a

rational .and wholesome

stricter To discipline.

occupation and
this end
he

provide for

composed
which

in the year

515

his famous

Regula
rule

Monachorum,
of monachism here
to

became ultimately Western

the universal
It is not

in the go into

Church.
It
a

sary neces-

its details.
out

requiredcontinual
scheme
above
as

residence
labour

in the

monastery; laid
spare

of manual it recogall, nised

for the monk's the

hours; and
as

of desirability

mental
as

well

bodilyoccupation,
engage

such permitting
in

monks

were

to qualified,

teaching and
1

in
is

copying manuscripts for

Some

the
520.

library.

The

date

only traditional.

give

it

as

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

203

St. Benedict secular

labours

had,

of

course,

no

the thought of preserving and intended

the

learningof
of the monks

the
to be

age,

literary

spent wholly upon

he did
soon

ecclesiastical and specify,

an

and the

theological writings;but permissiongiven by fraught

with

not

so

his Rule
momentous

received results
to

pretation intermodem

scholarship.
In the year
a

540, Flavius

Magnus

Aurelius

Cassiodorus,
from
a

Roman

of patrician

senatorial rank, descended

rich and noble of the entered

himself

urbi praefectus familyof Bruttii,

under

four

Gothic

kings, and

secretary

to

King Theodoric,
which he the

the Benedictine had

founded
a

monastery of Vivarium
took

and (529),

the vesture
had

and

of obligations

monk.
man

Cassiodorus

been and
men

during his
statesman,

public life not only a

but
a

of the world

scholar and

writer,one
who Greece

of the few had and his studied

Rome
tastes

remaining
care

in the Western

Empire

with
; and

the

earlier literature of both

after his
changed, un-

retirement

to

the
the
more

monastery,
more

remained
new

while gave
own

ample

leisure of his

life His

him

far

opportunityto
a

cultivate them.

writingsas

monk

were

but, purely theological;1

taking advantage of

the rule which

copying and enjoined

train the
younger
forth

to teaching,he began systematically

1

During his public life he

wrote

on was

the

liberal
as a

and put studies, text-book

Be Arte Grammatica, which treatise,

used Letters

throughout

the

Middle
;

Ages.

See

Hodgkin, The

of Cassiodorus

(London,

1886)

Church, Miscellaneous

Essays, pp. 191-198 (London, 1888).

204

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

monks

to

an

of appreciation
to

the
every

value

of

the

secular both

literature and
the and collection

encourage

by

means possible

and

preservation of classical manuscripts

them
in careful

the of

of multiplication
a

copies.
man

sessed Pos-

very

largefortune,and being a
he

of great

influence and
of his

energy, this

laboured

to incessantly

the end
success

long life for

with importantobject, in

such

that he

succeeded actually
"

making

every great monastery

a

of his Order

sort of Christian

Academy,"

storehouse of

with classical literature,

set apart especially

its

scriptorium or

writing-room
More

for the the

copying of parchments.
Benedictine Order

than

this, he made Order,

with

a essentially

learned
been

traditions of
to

which scholarship

have

honourably maintained
a

the

present day.1 How

in modern

great
how
were

debt

is owed

to

Cassiodorus

times, and

generalhad
written
near

been

the destruction of
of their

that manuscripts

the time

is original composition, in existence. found in the

seen

the by recalling

dates of the
a

earlycodices

Thus

^schylus, and

are part of Sophocles,

so-called Laurentianus
to

(or Mediceus)
century.
to

at

Florence, ing belongmanuscript

of of

the

eleventh goes

The

oldest

Herodotus

back

the

eleventh

century, that

Thucydides
ninth

to the
"

tenth

century, and that of Plato

this is
a

to the

century,

though
is

incomplete.

The

oldest

manuscript of
1

Plautus

at Milan, preserved palimpsest

des Limes de

See

Olleris, Cassiodore,Conservator

VAntiquitt Latine
71-

1884) ; Montalambert, The Monks (Paris,

78 (London, 1861).

of the West, Eng. trans., pp.

206

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

These
an

facts

are

quitesufficientto

show

that with the best

scarcely
classical

exceptionthe only manuscripts of

that

authors
are

give anything more

later than

than

isolated

fragments
it not who

copiesmade

the fifth century. and

Had

been

for the labours of the Benedictines

their

of those

followed

example,the
so

remains
to

of classical literature
no

would

have

been

scanty

as

giveus
a

real

conception

of that literature and

as learning

whole.
the Roman

With
and
was

St. Benedict scholar who

Manlius

must

be mentioned

cian patriThis

is said to have

been his friend.

Severinus Romans Boethius

Anicius
,

Torquatus

(or

Boetius) almost
a

the last of the Western

to possess esteem

good understandingof
of the 5000.

Greek.

He

gained the
made

of

Theodoric, King
in capital such

Ostrogoths,who
Over

Rome

his
cised exer-

the year

the Goths, Boethius

found

influence that his countrymen

little sion oppreshe

was cused ac-

in the Gothic of treason,

rule.

In the

end, however,

his property
was

was

and confiscated,

after

he being imprisoned,

executed

(c. 524)
wrote

with

terrible

cruelty. While
De five

in

Boethius prison,

his
was

titled dialogueen-

Consolatione
was

Philosophiae. It
a

divided

into

books, and

written in

close imitation

of the best

Latin

models, while the poetry

which

is interspersed shows

palimpsestfrom the monastery of St. Paul in Carinthia of the sixth century (bks.xi.-xiv.) ; of Pliny the Younger,
the ninth
a (incomplete) ; of Suetonius, a

Codex

Laurentianus of the

(Mediceus) of
tenth

a Codex century ; of Quintilian,

Bernensis
or

century

Codex

Memmianus

Parisinus

of the ninth

century.

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

207 he held
was

metrical

accuracy. and is the

For
even

seven

centuries

was

in
not

great

reverence,

in later times

his work shows

a

forgotten. He
of the many Arabic

first writer
numerals. them

who
The
one

knowledge
found
into into

(Hindu)

Consolatio
Alfred

translations, among

by King

Anglo-Saxon, and English.1

Now

by Chaucer

and

Queen Elizabeth

that western

Europe had been

sort

overrun

by foreigners might
sunk It
was

speakingevery
have

of

one language and dialect,

supposed that
But

the

Latin

language
was
men

would the

have

into disuse. the

justthe contrary
to

case.

only stable language known

masculine
between of the

of that time. it
a

Its of the

dignityand
intercourse

brevity made

fit medium

it was kings and princes. Finally, and who the had

language

Church,

Church
overrun

was

quering slowly con-

the barbarians ancient Latin Rome.

the

provincesof historyof possible

be the

and Nevertheless,as the spirit

literature were

unknown, merely the

and

faintest

tinge of grammatical imparted to language

knew
how
were

technical

knowledge could
a

students

who

tried to get

smatteringof
Even those

for far

practical purposes they were

from any

only.
real

who

knowledge

of what made A

they
a

studying, gloriedin
of it. Grammar
was

their

and ignorance,
as

boast

regarded

pedantic.

The

most

modern Bo'etius

translation und seine

is by

James, (London, 1897). See,also,

Christenthum

Hildebrand,

Stellungzum

(Regensburg,

1885);

and

Stewart,Bo'ethius (Edinburgh, 1891).

208

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

knowledge
One

of its rules

was

held to be somewhat

able. discredit-

of these scholars his

own

(Wolfhard
barbarisms

in the of

Life of St.
tells of

Walpurgis) speaks of
the

but style,

reader

that

his the
"

dung-heap is, nevertheless,full

Great The had

pearls. Gregory
at
an

spoken

stillmore

forcibly
the
to

earlier date.
of
nouns

and place of prepositions I consider it indecent within the

cases

for utterly despise,

of A the

confine

the

words

heavenly prophets
uttered upon of

the
same

rules of Donatus."

of Cordova priest verges

thought
11

with

vigour that
the

almost

ferocity.
Donatus,"

Let

and philosophers
"

impure followers
with

he says,

ply their windy problems

the

the

barking

of

dogs
throat

and and

grunting of swine, snarlingwith

teeth:

skinned

bared

let the
while
as we

foaming
remain
as

and the

bespittled evangelical
tury cen-

grammarians belch wind,

servants

of Christ."

Even anecdote

late of the

the

fourteenth

the well-known the

Emperor Sigismund at
of the

Council

of

Costnitz

is characteristic In
a

popular
Hussites
noun,
out

about feeling

grammar. the word

speech againstthe
as a

he had
which schisma emperor

used he
was was

"schisma"

feminine called

for that

corrected
a noun

by

monk,

who

of the neuter do
"

gender. Whereupon the

it?" "Because

asked, "How
Gallus says so."

you And

know who

ander Alex"

is Alexander
"

Gallus?

"

A monk."

"

Well," said Sigismund,

I

I is

am

the

Emperor
as

of

Rome,

and

fancy

that

my

word

as

good

any

monk's."

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

200.

That
of

the Church

did not

do

more

to

keep

alive the

spirit
We The that up

is not, however, learning

to

to be

counted

her. against
so

ought rather
conditions
she Mr. had
to

feel

that surprised and

she did

much.

of her existence

the

difficult mission
summed fairly

perform

have
"

been

very

by

J.

A.

Symonds:

"The

task of the Church

as

in the Middle the savage

Ages
races

was

not

so

much

to

alive keep learning

at

to moralise

who

held

Europe Empire, spiritual

their

pleasure.
.

After
. .

the dismemberment
open
to

of the action of

the whole
powers

of

Europe
had
to

was use

thrown unlettered

the

who

barbarians field

for their ministers

to

and the
have
to

missionaries.
same

To

submit

this vast

classic culture

at

time

that

Christianitywas

being propagated would

had she chosen
not been antiquity

been

beyond the strengthof the Church, even

this task, and had the vital forces of
!

undertake

exhausted."

The had

worst

feature of

of the mediaeval
even appreciating,

was spirit

that it

lost the power

in the

slightest

degree,the
was

classic sentiment. sealed book.

To

classicism scholastics, free air of

a absolutely

The

paganism,
ity virilthe

love of its passionate and colour and the

beauty,its abounding life and

richness
were
as

remote
as

from

conception of
remote

mediaeval

monks
one

the
is

is sunlight

from

the

conception of

who

congenitally
in the

blind.

Whatever

they studied they studied

Their criticism
was

spirit
and

of Scholasticism.

warped

cramped
1

and

distorted

for instance, they by theology. If,

62

Symonds, History of the Italian Renaissance, i. pp. 61,

(London,

187s).

2IO

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

admired
not

famous Vergil's

Fourth

Eclogue,they admired
beautiful

it,

because

it

was

in

itself

piece
the

of

verse,

but because

they thought it a prophecy of

The
most

approaching
of Ovid

birth of Christ.
were

licentious passages
modern of the

justas explainedallegorically, explainedthe

sensuous

commentators

have If

Hebrew

Song of Songs.
of tleties, strange subthe

they taught grammar,

the discovering

they filled it full

three Persons in the of the

Trinity in

verb, and
were even

mystic numbers
defined

parts of speech. Words

the

when as theologically,
as

scholastics
of

after and the

voluntas defining

of expressive of
as

the nature

God,

voluptas of
blended
of
man.

the

nature

the

Devil, then
the

coined mixed

form

volumtas It is easy

expressiveof

nature

to

imagine what

remarkable

feats of

exhibit. speculations ingenuitytheir etymological Church's

one

Nevertheless, althoughthe
the barbarians, education
It the rejected in which pagan
was

task

was

to moralise

of its chief instruments. it retained the guage lan-

literature while been

that literature had

written; and after

literature itselfwas and other

paganism
revived

was

thoroughly extinct,the taught

in the monastic

and

schools

during the

Middle

Ages.

It is somewhat lies

difficult to define the mediaeval

ferred trans-

what exactly age. the

period of
The

time

within properly when

decline of the

began

Constantine
Rome to

seat

Empire

from

Byzantium
itself

in (Constantinople)

330,

because, after that, Rome

and politically
from

lost its chief

both significance

the

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

211

standpoint of scholarship.
and
more

Its

records
time.

become

more

melancholy
and their

with
a

advancing

Its officials emperors had upon

flocked to another
not

city. foreign
backs upon

The

only

turned

its gates, but Henceforward fell into

its

language and

its civilisation. Its

over

Rome's

populationdiminished.
there The

temples
it the the

decay, and

began
new

to

brood

portent of destruction.
and archives, it lost the
never

Caesars the

carried away

of prestige visited it at power

imperialcourt. Emperor
saw

Some

of its rulers had

all. The

Constantius
the former

been

in

several years then he

before he

of capital

the
a

Empire, and
barbarian
anxious of
to

journeyedto
he
was

it only at the

request of
who
was

princewhom
behold
the

and entertaining, had

once

city which

been

mistress

the

world.
-c.

The

Ammianus historian,

Marcellinus,1
of this

(c. 330

378 a.d.),gives an
himself Rome.
seems

account interesting to

visit. Constantius

have

been

astonished

by

the
"As

of magnificence
the

Emperor gazed
the
and valleys,

upon

the vast

cityspreadingalong the
of the he hills,

in slopes,

between

the summits his eyes rested

declared that the

which firstmet spectacle

Now

surpassedeverything
on

that he had yet beheld.

his gaze
so

the
to

temple of
resemble

Tarpeian Jupiter, now

entire
now provinces, on

on

baths

magnificent as
structure

the massive

of the

Colosseum,

mightily compact, the summit

to the human eye ;
now on

of which

seemed

accessible scarcely
a

the

like Pantheon, rising

fairydome,

and its sublime

1

columns

with their
was

gentlyslopingstairwaysadorned
a

Ammianus in Latin
"

Marcellinus
the Latin of

himself

Greek

by birth, though he

wrote

often clumsy and often affected. foreigner,

212

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

with

statues

of heroes

and

emperors,

besides

the

Temple
of

of the

City, its Forum, the Forum

of

Peace, the Theatre

other
came

Pompey, the
wonders of of

Odeon, the Stadium, and

Eternal
a

all the

architectural
to

Rome.

When, however,he
any

the Forum

Trajan,

structure

unequalled by
exquisite indeed
refuse their
awe

other

of its kind

throughout the
would

world, so
ithard
with
a

that

the

gods themselves
as

find

to

he stood admiration,

if in

trance, surveying
words what
can

dazed

the

stupendous

fabric
to
rear.

which

neither

nor picture,

mortal

again aspire

Being asked
one

he

that in thought of Rome, the Emperor replied

respect only was

were

he
not

and that disappointed, immortal."1

was

in

findingthat its inhabitants

Not

long afterward, in
her last great
the

the

reign of Honorius,

Rome
peror em-

witnessed

when imperialspectacle his

that
over

entered

city to celebrate
is

triumphs
the

the

Goths
of this any

(403).

There

in something pitiful
was

attitude

which great city,

stillthe most

magnificentof

in the

with almost hysterical world, accepting gratitude

the visits of condescended

which curiosity
to

its emperors

from

time

to time

give it.
of

Its very

beauty,its maze
and

of porticos, its

its wilderness

marble, bronze,

gold,and
and

palacesgorged with pictures, gigantic statues, only heightenedthe melancholy diminishingpopulationnow

streets and
too

jewels,
with
a

of its
too

decadence,
small
to

grown

crowd

its

unwarlike
from

to defend

its walls.
we

It is really then

the year 330 that

must

date The

Beginning

of the Middle

Ages.

In 395, the Roman world

Empire
from East

embraced practically
1

the entire Christian

Res

xvi. Gestae,

14 foil.

214 from

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

the emperor

in

Constantinople.Thus,
with with A

one

may

say

that the Middle

Ages began, either

330,
or

the transfer

of the

in to Constantinople capital of Gothic power date The in

the establishment
time from

Italyin 476.
End is the year

convenient 1453, when

which

to

the Eastern

and Empire fell,

the
of

triumphant

Muhammadans

poured

through the gates

The
as

Constantinople.
the Middle

of scholarship in history
western

Ages, so

far
into

concerns

Europe,
Period

is

divided conveniently

the

Early

Christian

(300-751), the
Period of

Carolingian

Period

(751-911),and

the

Scholasticism the periods,

(911leaven

1476). During
of civilisation was

the first of these three

at work

to bring about trying

something
shattered
source

like order and

among

the rude

barbarians

who

had

mastered

the

Western

Empire.

One

great

of civilisation

lay in

the retention
the said,

of the Latin

language.
alone
as

It

was

not,

as

is often

influence

of the Church the invaders

that made
as

Latin the chosen

had

speech of
in their

soon

they

become

settled of

new

possessions.It
one

was

also the
of

urgent need

having
"

some

intelligible
Goths could lects diaas

medium and
use

communication,

language

which

Franks, Burgundians, and Visigoths,

with

Vandals
All the

the

of being certainty and

understood.

and
were,

patoisof Germany
one

Jutland were
They
were

cast,

it

into the

great crucible.

simmering

and
forms

and taking on unitingand separating,

new continually

and

new

idioms.

There

was

chaos

of

human

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

21

and speech,

amid

it the Latin fit instrument

language alone

was

the

one

and stable, settled,

men

for the purpose

for which

used

it.

the little later,

even

Church
Dark

confirmed

this still

selection; and

when,
and

in the

Ages,

men

attempted to
the it elements

write of
a

teach

and philosophyor theology,

had

learningthat they
and

been

well-nighlost,
the guage only laning express-

was

but
which

natural that

should
was

employ

they knew,

which

capableof

accuratelyand
reasons

easilytheir conceptions. All

the and need the of
a

these

together,
"

universal

the language,

usage gave
courts

of the Church Latin and the

once

requirementsof scholarship,
the

very

great prominence. It spread from

and

monasteries

churches,
common

into

the

mouths

and
was

understanding of
more

the

people,so

that it

almost

genuine vernacular.
In the fourth

Of this fact

proofsare

not

wanting.
a

century, during the

the and Roman
senate

reignof Theodosius,
in the

Gaul

addressed

lingua Romana

rude rustica,
There
were

rough, but

still

to his intelligible

hearers.

stillcompositions
sixth and centuries,

written

in Latin for

during the
common

fifth and

intended
in Latin he

the

people. Fortunatus,1 writing

Aubin,
use

the lifeof Saint

says in his Introduction that expression A may

that be

will be

careful not

to

any

to the populace. unintelligible

popular

song

in very

good

Latin

has
over

come

down Saxons by
Leo

to

us

of the victory celebrating In the

same

Clotaire II
1

the
Edition

in 622.
and Krusch

century,

535-600.

(Berlin, 1881-1885).

2l6

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Baudemind and reading,

was

composed
wrote

the lifeof Saint Amandus

for

public
Latin

it in

fairly grammatical Latin.

in

also

universally employed
And

public documents merely

was

and

public correspondence.
and

not

it written of the ambition

men

spoken

as

matter

of

but necessity,

some

least

capable of succeedingwere
honour

fired with

an

to
us

gain
that

from

its

use.

Gregory
Latin

of Tours1 and

informs there

ChilpericI. attempted
a

verse;

still

exists

letter written
to
a

in

metrical
who

Latin

by Auspicius,
name

Bishop of Tours,
of

Count

bore the barbarous

Arbogastes.

The

growth of

the

papal power
of Latin.

did

great
was

deal to
constant

propagate and protect the

communication between

use

There
and

the

Papal

Court The and

the

newly founded
of the

States,and it was
were

all in Latin.

bishops
of the

Church and

nobles
Latin

of the the

kingdoms language of

Empire,
The

they made

the courts.

presidedover papallegate
The

councils, royaland imperial

as interesting seen

Latin of Gregory himself

It shows
was

is

in his

History of
Latin
un-

the Franks. literature

how from

even

with

educated He writers

men

like himself

fading

remembrance. other Latin and

quotes Vergil, but

are

metrically.
He
uses

His citations from absolute

probablyborrowed.
not

the accusative verb should

apparently
In and him

does
e

know
are c

ject that sub;

e

and

be in agreement.

and

confounded before i and

are aspirates

practically disregarded; Bonnet,

Le Latin de the Revue Latines

he pronounces Tours

like Le

s.

See

de Gregoire des Deux

1 890) ; Monceaux, (Paris,

Latin

Vulgaire,in

Mondes
an

(July
Douzieme

15,

1891) ;

du

Meril, Poesies

Populaires
sur

anterieures Latins

Siecle

(Paris,

1843)! Nisard, Essai

Olcott, Studies 1898), and
in

les Poetes

de la Decadence Latin

(Paris,1867) ;

the Word

Formation Latin

of the

Inscription(Rome,

Grandgent, Vulgar

(Boston, 1908).

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

21

and
breach
was

so

the
between very

deliberations
the Greek
to largely

were

in and

Latin.

Indeed,

the

Church

the Roman Eastern

Church

due
not

the

fact that the

Church

would The

accept the Latin

Church
did

language as
well in not

its officialtongue.

Roman

yielding. Latin
some

is the

a liturgical language. Lacking essentially

of

Hellenic
seem

grace, made

its

sonorous

sentences

and

majesticperiods

for the stateliness of

worship.
with the so-called barbarous

Of

course

the

mingling of

Latin

into itsvocabularya large number tongues, injected of unusual Paratactic

words, justas the syntax

sentences

was

violently deranged. spellingwere

use

and
an

illiterate
extensive be

to

be

expected,and
On the other

likewise

of

prepositions.
that

hand, it
common

must

remembered
in the may

all these
the

things had
even ignorant,

been

enough
Golden

language of
be
seen
as

duringthe

Age, as
in such

plainly
Persius

in the and
was

and plebeianinscriptions, and St.

writers
Latin

Petronius
never

Jerome.

The

of literature

identical with the Latin

we come

of men's

dailyspeech.

Therefore, when
we

upon be

sterility, period of literary

a

find what rather than

should
an

called

reversion to

popular
had

usage

absolute

corruption of
The

what

been previously
comes

refined and

regular.
and

plebeianspeech
away book

to

the

surface

everywhere,

sweeps

language.

This

vulgar Latin
among
"
"

lasted
the

long,even

in remote Dante their

parts of Europe, and

calls the Sardinians

that so illiterate;
of

apes

(simiae) because

2l8

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

assiduous

imitation of Latin.
to

In like manner, of

so

soon

as

there ceased the

be any

definite standard

versification,
so

nicely balanced

quantitativesystem
to

carefully
accentual older
even

wrought out, from

system which
than the

Ennius
new,

Ovid, gives way

to
"

an

is not

but

really very
of Latin

old

Period Hellenizing

literature.
were

Before

Ennius, the populacechanted

and full of

rude dittiesthat

rhymed

alliteration. After
same

the downfall

of western

the culture, accentual

Church

sort

of poetry

again is common.
not

Indeed,

rhythm

and

rhyme

were

established

by

the

in the Christian

hymns;

but rather did the

priestly
most
are

poets compose

hymns

in the sort of metres

that

were

familiar to their

congregations. Some

of these the

hymns

and very beautiful, of

they retain their placein

"

literature
the

succeedingages,

such

of them,

for

example, as
Mortis

Dies

Irae, Veni, Creator

and Spiritus,

Portis

Fractis,Fortis,this last by Peter the Venerable.1

A

good example

of semibarbarous
to

Latin

prose

is

given

by Drager
It is from
"

in the Introduction life of Theodoric

vocavit

his Historische

Syntax.
"

the

Ostrogoth(c.454-526):

Rex

vero

Eusebium, praefectum urbis Ticeni,et ineum

audito Boetio

in protulit
in custodia in fronte

sententiam.
rex

Qui

mox

in agro

Cal-

ventino,ubi
accepta

havebatur, misit
diutissime
ad
tortus

et fecit occidi.

Qui

corde

est, ita ut
cum

oculi eius

creparent.
1

Sic sub tormenta

ultimum

fuste occiditur."3

See

Latin Hymns Duffield,

A

(New York, 1889); and du Meril, Po"sies

Latines du
*

Moyen Age (Paris,1847). admirably written monograph, full of illuminating illustrations,

A very

is Clark's Studies in the Latin

ofthe Middle

Ages (Lancaster, Perm., 1900).

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

2IO,

As is well said

by

Dr. V. S. Clark:

"

Barbarism
set

in Latinan

ity is

relative term,

and

it is
was
a

to impossible
matter
can

exact

date for its beginning. It writers Latin

some as

of partly

individual
in

well

as

of

age."

We

find barbarisms

during
of the

the

classical
of

period that
the

match

precisely
We
must

barbarisms

mediaevals.1

remember

that Latin

remained

throughoutthe

Middle

Ages

the practically

mother
was

and tongue of all the professional

the

for it officialclasses,

language of

the

Church,

the

law
On

courts, and
the other
or

of both

and religious

secular instruction. cayed graduallyde-

hand, among

the peasants, it

was rather, perhaps,

so

transmuted

into the Romance

languages;

that the the

common

literary language was speech was

styled lingua lingua Rojustwhen

the
mon com-

Latina, while
"

called
determine

mana.

It is

to probablyimpossible
as
a

Latin

ceased to exist

spoken language among

people.
it may

But

the

while questionof peasant dialects,

the

be

from interesting

of standpoint

Romance of

ology, philliterary

has very little to do with the transmission

Latin with

through the
is the extent
even

Middle
to which

Ages.
Latin

What
was

we

are

concerned

understood
on

by people
of their
a

who,

or nearly though illiterate, so,

account

in position way
"

social and
we now

economic sometimes

life, correspondin
term
'

general

to

what

the

reading classes/
the

townspeople and

small

traders, and landholders,

craftsmen,
p.
210.
"

better class of artisans and

1

the

Canterbury

Supra,

220

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

pilgrimsof
centuries.

the latter half of the first decade It is natural to suppose Latin and that
to

of Christian this class

people of
it

understood

continued

employ

occasionally
of
munication." com-

long after

it had
*

ceased to be the

ordinarymedium

Something

like

definite

learningappears
This

during

the

reign of Charlemagne
adviser
was

(c.800).
mediaeval

monarch's

chosen

the his
name

great

educator, Alcuin, who

He
was

Latinized

into Flaccus the head

Albinus.
of
a

born

at

York,
in

where

he became
met

largeschool.
to my

Later,
court

he Italy, teach

Charlemagne, who subjectsthe

said,"Come

and

my

liberal arts."
at

Alcuin the in

gladly Emperor

and accepted the invitation, himself

in rhetoric and

first

taught
him

logic. To
a

aid

his

work,
.

Charlemagne
Alcuin
also

established
new

court

school (ScholaPalatina)

founded

schools

throughout France
At Tours
own

and

improved
a

those which

alreadyexisted.
after his

he set up

seat

of

modelled learning

school at York.

was trained, Alcuin, though imperfectly

the

greatestscholar
he well, fairly his works the the

of his time ; had

are
a

for,in addition
Greek
noted
are

to

knowing
Hebrew.

Latin

of smattering be

and
a

Among
and
a

to especially

Rhetoric and

Grammar,

of principles
1

which

drawn

partlygarbled from
Cf. also du

See

Muratori,Ant.

ltd. Dissertatio XLma.

M6ri\,Po6sies
in his had

PoptdairesLatines, 1843). Poggio in his Historia Convivialis p. 264 (Paris,

mentions the fact that Latin that he had See
was

spoken by the
from them

women

of Rome that he

day

and (1380),

learned

Latin

words

never

heard before.

Clark, op. cit., p. 15.

222

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Albinus.

The

tongue.
is the tongue ?

Pepin. What
Albinus.
The

whip of the air.

is air ?

Pepin. What
Albinus.

The

guardian of life.
is life?

Pepin. What
Albinus. The

joy of the happy

is death ?

; the

of death. expectation

Pepin. What
Albinus.
An

inevitable event

an

uncertain stealer of

journey; tears
men.

for the

living ;

the

probation of wills ; the

is
man

Pepin. What
Albinus. The

slave of death ; a

passingtraveller ; a stranger

in his

place. Pepin. What

Albinus. An is man like ? he

because apple {i.e.

hangs between

heaven

and

earth).
It will be
seen

from

these

dialoguesthat

while

Alcuin,
of the

like all the

classic indeed
true

mediaeval

scholars,knew
lost
was

something
classic

tongues, he had
his

the entirely

and spirit, in the

knowledge
a

rather

fanciful. coelebs

Thus,

of spirit

monk,

he derived then who

(a bachelor) from

ccelum that
a

(heaven),and
bachelor
an

gives the sapientexplanation

is
on

is

one

the way
called is

to heaven.

The the

parts of
metres

hexameter
on

line

are

pedes

because

walk

them. the

Littera

because leg-entibus-iter, Malus short

a

the littera prepares has the

path

for readers.

(a mast)

penultlong,as againstmtilus (with a

a

penult) long a
are

because
The

m"lus
are

homo

does

not

deserve

to

have

vowels

the souls of words, and The soul

moves

the consonants

the bodies.

itself and

also the

body,

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

223 the soul. Thus

while

the

body

is.immovable may

apart from

the consonants
cannot

be written
when

by themselves, but

they

be

pronounced

separatedfrom
forbade
any
to
one

the vowels.
to

It is

reportedthat

Alcuin

read

the

classic poets.

So, while he did much

prepare

for the

five centuries later, his immediate great revival of learning, influence

was

rather harmful

than

otherwise. but

The
even

dral cathetheir

schools
ablest scholars but foolish
wrote

taught

what

they could,
in

spent their time

trifles to their
or own

ingenious constructing
their cleverness.
what Thus

Latin for

show

they

amusement

they
the

called
same

echoici

versus,

lines of and

poetry which

read

both

backward

forward, "serpentine
how

verses" many

and of the
the

versus} reciproci

It is interesting to know
were

classical writers Church

read at this time.

have mention

Puttingaside
Alcuin of

fathers, we

by
the

Pliny,
and
up else

Cicero, Vergil, Statius, Lucan,

Horace.2
in

grammarians,
were

Where

the classical writers

were

not

locked

bookcases, they
1

sometimes

paraphrased, or

Examples
from

of these
:
"

are

found

even

in the classicalwriters, as

the following

Sidonius

modo Praecipiti

quod

decurrit tramite iam

flumen
.

Tempore

consumptum

cito deficiat. ix. 14.) (Epist.

where
2

the

if read backwards, distich, list is taken from

a

word

by word, givesa by
Alcuin

second

distich.
at

This

account poetical

of the

Library
of

York.

One

might
a

add

also from

other

sources

Juvenal, a part

Livy,

Martial, Ovid,

part of Persius,Phaedrus, Propertius,Seneca

(in part),

Silius Italicus, two

playsof Terence, Tibullus,and Valerius

Flaccus.

224

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

centones,

or

were patchwork variations,

made

from

them.

Thus,

the conversation
"

between

Dido

and

Anna

(Aeneid,

iv.) is imitated:
Anna, dux
Mea Iste

lux,

quis sit ambigo,

Quis honor,

Quis color,
Voltu

quis intelligo ;

Ut reor, Ut vereor,
Hunc
nostra

connubia

Poscere,
Id
vere mea

Portendunt

somnia.

If the learned it is not of the

had

so

littleshare of the classical

how The dense
names
was

spirit,

hard

to understand

the and

ignorance
some

uneducated

layman.

faint

echo

of the

of exploits minds Hector

:

the heroes
Alexander of of

of the
a

still floated antiquity

through men's
conqueror;

Great,

as

able remark-

Troy, as Troy
gone
on

bold

knightand lover;
a

Helen, who
wizard what he
saw

set the town

as fire; Vergil,

ful powertold of

who

had

once

down
as

into hell and

a woman

there (Aen.
"

vi.) ; Venus,
all

of wonderful

beauty,
about in

these

were

imperfectmemories

flitting

and legends, with

fabliaux,and
and chivalry

minstrels' songs, and

all confused

tales of

magic,and

forming

part of innumerable
dwarfs
and

stories about
"

giantsand dragons and

which
are

demons,

specimensof

faithfully

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

225 and
ander the Alex-

for preserved

us

in the Gesta

Romanorum,1
in the in

indicated Saga, and faintly

and the Even Niebelungenlied.2 that have the

Faustus-legend
one

Italy,where

might suppose
Romans had

great architectural works

of the

would

in part alive, men kept their history

the Colosseum, the and explained it entirely, forgotten the great much

Palatium, the Pantheon, and

as

triumphal arches
as

the work

of demons

and

sorcerers,

the German in

peasants of to-dayspeak of

the Roman In

works military

Wiirttemberg as
of figures
to
were

Teufelsmauer.
heroes,
men,

Naples
statesmen

the
were

carved
posed sup-

Roman

and

be talismans.
to

Many

of these ancient
was

structures

ascribed

who Vergil,
to

said to have
come

known

as so spell powerful

compel devils to

from

hell and
as

build

for

him.3

The

known wandering reprobates,

went Goliardi,

about

half-lyrical singing songs celebrating

love

and

wine.
traces
and

the CarolingianAge left deep Nevertheless,

1

upon
written

A collection of curious anecdotes Most of them have

borrowed

from all
to

sources

in Latin. written borrowed themes.

"morals" Some

attached of them

them, and

they

are

in almost

childish Latin.

in later centuries

were

by Shakespeare,Chaucer, Gower, and Schiller for their plots or

See the

English version edited by Hooper

14

(London, 1894) ; and (Aldenburg,

Poeme
el la

Howells,My Literary Passions, p.

2

(New York, 1895).

See

Engel's bibliography of the older Faust-literature

and for the

1885);
3

Niebelungenlied, Lichtenberger, Le Eng. Ages, pt. ii.,

Ligende des Niebelungen(Paris, 1891).

See New in the Middle Comparetti, Vergil
trans.

(London

and

York, 1895) and

,

(New York, 1900). On

Q

the

UnpublishedLegends of Vergil, 1851). see Alexander-Saga, Spiegel(Leipzig,

Leland, The

226

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

mediaeval the

Europe.

Alcuin

may

be said to have
sent

originated
teachers
an

of Paris; University far home

and

his schools
even

out

into the

North,
of

so

that

Ireland schools

became
and

portant imand

with learning,

abbeys

monasteries

of great repute.

The

oldest

manuscript of

Horace
an

(the Codex
monk
are

was Bernensis)

undoubtedly copiedby
ninth

Irish

in the found

eighth or
words

century, since
or

on

the

margin

written

in the Erse

Irish

alphabet.
But

the first impulse toward Charles the

Great died

revival of classical study within

reasons

under
few

out

the

period of
new

generations. The
is

immediate be found in

for this

decadence seized upon

were

partlyto

which superstition

all Christendom with the the year

in the

tenth the

century.
world
was

Men
to

obsessed

belief that
iooo.

be

destroyedin

With
their

the horror
eyes,
nearer
"

of

this

approaching dissolution
that
to

before

horror
nearer

deepened

as

every

day brought them

"

and

the time of the

expectedcataclysm,
It is difficult for
over
us

all learning fellinto

to

absolute

neglect.

conceive

of the

profound gloom
as

that brooded year

the

peoples of Europe
ceased
to

the thousandth

approached.

Men

build

See

The

Life of Alcuin
and the Rise

by Lorenz, Eng.
Schools

trans.

(London, 1837) ;
; Mul-

West, Alcuin
The linger, Universities Books and and

of Christian

(New York, 1892)

Schools

of

Charles

the Great

(London, 1877) ; Rashdall, The Ages (Oxford,1895) ; Putnam, Ages, i. (New York, 1896) ;

of Europe during the Middle

their Makers

during the Middle

i. 466, 497. Sandys, op. cit.,

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

227 ties du-

houses, to buy, or
and of the

to sell.

They forsook their domestic

to

betook

themselves

the churches

and

the shrines
up in the

saints;all worldlyinterests were

swallowed When

great dread that oppressedtheir souls.

year

the dreadful

arrived,it brought with

it

everything that could

terror.
seasons

heighten and

the universal intensify

hideous seemed

plaguebroke
to

the very out, the crops failed, checked

come

have

been
as

in their down
to

courses.
us

Such

imperfect

accounts
as

have

of that

periodgive us,
that
of the
were

it were,
"

only glimpses of the fearful

the of wailing of the
women,

scenes

enacted,
the with

the prayers

priests,
mad

lamentations

diseased, many

becoming

half-naked fright,

fanatics

stalking through the

upon

streets ; while

of cities and

invoking damnation
own

the wicked them

a

those lost souls whose

of

sins had

driven
with

to

despair
of blasphemous

pardon

threw

off all restraint and

sort

defiance crime. world When

remained the

plunged into
year
iooi

every
was

form

of

lust

and the
a

ushered

in, and

still unvisited
came.
a

by the angel of death,

back
to

great reaction
but the

Many

went

their old

life;

Church, with
to

of gratitude and profound feeling

a new

resolved relief,
It is to toward A
a

the respite signalise by enthusiasm

that

activity. impulse

this

fresh

the

second

revival of

study must

be traced. progress

whole been

century, however, elapsedbefore much

had the

made;
movement

but

with

the end
as

of the eleventh Scholasticism

was

century

great

known

fully

228

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

under than

way.
an

Scholasticism

was

rather
Its

an

intellectual
features
movement
are

aesthetic
not

development.
The philological.

chief

dialectic and about

whole

volves re-

the

philosophical question of

Realism

and

Nominalism;
wits and made

but this

discussion,while it sharpened men's

in

them

acute

reasoning, was,
in
a

little after all, the

better than schoolmen

The every and

the
were

labour that is done

not

treadmill; for

free to

questionanythingfundamental.
them
a

Church

for prescribed

ready-made

solution of

problem, so that the dialecticians great philosophical

casuists of the
no

Middle
at

Ages

were

in only travelling

circle, making
and

progress

but only vexingtheir all,

an

souls

the beatingagainst and lack

bars of
freedom
on,

intellectual cage. became

more
more

This
more

narrowness as oppressive

of

and

time

went

and age.

and

more

vexatious

to the

bolder
time

of spirits from the

the

The

eighth century

to

the fourteenth the

is

divisible into two classical

the

viewed periods, first

from

standpointof
the end of

learning. The
when

period begins at
the Great

eighth century
Schools, and
the

Charles
the

established

Monastic the

made

first attempt,
a

probably in tous gratuiThis

historyof

world, to providefor
for
as

universal
Schools.

primary education, and periodis a

short one,

Higher

inasmuch

the educational
a

ments establishmake

of Charles way
a

died out

within The

few

to generations

for

new

barbarism. of

second

periodbeginswith
the

second

restoration

learning under

guidance

of

230

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

In the twelfth
numerous

century three great schools survived

founded

of the

establishments

by

Charles in the

the Great,

and

are

for their influence distinguished

preservation
at

of classical
at

learning. These
In

were

at

Laon,
of

Paris, and
teachers

Chartres.

them

number

famous much
to

ushered the forms

in the scholastic
at least of pure

periodand did Latinity.

is the most Of

keep

alive

these three

schools,
its

the School

of

Chartres

remarkable

because

interest
so

was

less
that
"

and theological Poole

dialectical than
of it that

literary,

much
that
are

so

justlysays

its character

was

of

premature

humanism."

Associated
"

with
rates," Soc-

it

the and

names

of Fulbert, whose

him pupilsstyled

who

died in 1029;

of St. Bernard

(1091-1153);
reason

and
as

of Abelard

who (1079-1142),

boldlyappealed to
foreshadowed

againstauthorityand
of

thus

freedom

of

speech and

which research,

became ultimately

word the watch-

of the nascent In

universities.2
of

this school Bernard

on

Chartres
wrote

composed
a

eters hexam-

the

model

of

Lucretius,

commentary

on

the first six books

1

of the
with

Aeneid,
the

and

drilled his
and

pupils
H61oise.

Not

the

canon was

associated

story of Ab61ard

The
2

great Fulbert
See the

bishop

of Chartres.

biography

of St. Bernard

by Sparrow-Simpson (London, 1895);

and

McCabe,
and St. the

Peter

Abelard and

(New

York, 1901) ;

Compayr6, (New
is

Abelard

Origin
the

Early History of
controversialist Bernard the The
two

Universities and writer

men

York,

1893).
called is

Bernard,
of
as

great

mystic,
of
were,

usually

Bernard known

Clairvaux. of

beautiful

hymns

Bernard

Cluny.

however,

poraneous. contem-

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

23 he understood the

in the forms

and
an

rules of grammar

as

them,

at introducing,

earlyperiod of Upon

the course,

reading freely,
the

of the

classical texts.

these he commented

besides

treatingthem

grammatically, pointing out

and the

difference between

the prose
a

and poeticstyle,

veloping de-

his system in methods

verse

way

that suggests the

exercises
an

enlightened
in prose

of

later age.

Everyday

and
upon

composition were
marked

and required,
his

insistence of his

good models
which
of the

teaching. One
of
"

maxims,

has been

quoted by John
his mind
to be
:

is significant Salisbury, the virtues of the

of originality

Among

grammarian
These about

this is one, has

ignorantof some

things."
centres

schools, as

been

already said,formed
the earliest Universities.
of the presence of
an

which

rose ultimately

Any
famous

cathedral

school which
to it
at
a

boasted
of

teacher drew

crowd

students,such
generale.

institution
ceived refinally

being called
a

first studium

These

sort

of

incorporation by papal bulls

power

and

royal by
dowing en-

with the charters, their This

of

themselves perpetuating

graduates with the right of teaching everywhere.

license to teach
was

the

of origin

the academic become

a

degree,and

as

soon

as

the studium the

name

had generale

corporationit received
the oldest

of Universitas. of
a

Perhaps
which
was

was university

that
Paris

Bologna,

founded

in 1093,
as

while

had

organised separately
became
a

teachingbody
at

earlyas 1169.
same

Oxford

sity univer-

about

the

time ;

Cambridge, perhaps a little

232

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

earlier.
whose

The

oldest German dates

from

is that university

of

Prague,
whole

foundation

1347.

During

the

period of

scholasticism

which

ends practically

in the thirteenth

century, while the Latin

as were
a

language was
and

greatlyused

medium

of communication
cannot

while its generalforms

were

studied, it
or

be said that the classics

of
a

either

read

appreciatedoutside
The
Latin

few

centres
was
as

like that of
narrow as

Chartres.

teachingof
was was

the age

its

thought.

studied

only as

vehicle for scholastic all

disputation. It
the the

spoken fluently by

scholars,but

classics

were

very littleread; while filled with

a

the
of
new

vocabulary of
words

languagewas

swarm

and

and philosophical, and partly partly theological expressions

The legaland political.1

older and

only persons
a

who

kept alive
left

the

classical tradition established

were

few

Italians who

Italy

themselves these
were

in various

parts of Western
who and became whose like bishop Arch-

Europe. Among
of

Anselm,
1093,
men

Canterbury

in the year

cessor predeJohn
of

Lanfranc, together with

who,

Salisbury and

few

of

the

French

still knew scholars,

something of
That
from
so

the Latin

of ancient

Italy.
survived
to
to
us

many

manuscripts have
twelfth

dating
spread wide-

the eleventh and

centuries,is due

no

love of classical

but learning,

rather to the fact that

Cf. such

words
see

as

nominalismus, materialismus, realismus,quidditas, Cange's Glossarium

ad Mediae Scriptores
et

and haeceiias, Latinitatis

Du

Infinae

(last ed., 1884 foil.), passim.

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

233

in the monasteries

copying
There

was

imposed
also any
a

upon

the monks

by

way

of penance.

was

certain
to

pride in
read

sessing pos-

of books, irrespective

desire

them.
not at

This

pridewas
prideof

wholly the pride of

the

the collector and it is

now

all the the

to scholar;nevertheless,
as we

due largely
possess. the

of such manuscripts preservation these of

Among
treasures

storehouses

in

which

were

hoarded

classic literature, are

to be noted especially

the

libraries of Monte Bobbio

in

Cassino, Naples, Bologna, Milan,

and

Italy; Fleury, Tours,

Cluny,

Mont-

Chartres, Grenoble, Lille, pellier, Liege, Paris,Marseilles,

and
Caen in

France;

Augsburg, Freystadt, Strasburg,

Leipzig,Wurzburg, Mainz, Konigsberg, Zweibriicken, in

Germany;
St. Gallen Stockholm

Leyden, Utrecht, and

in in

Dordrecht
in

in

Holland;

Switzerland; Copenhagen Sweden;

Seville and

Denmark;
in in

Saragossa
York
to

Spain; land.1 Eng-

and

Oxford, Cambridge, Salisbury,and

So
true
was

the

remark Claustrum

ascribed
sine It may

Geoffrey (est)
the
now

of

Sainte-Barbe-encastrum

Auge

armario interest

quasi
reader
extant

sine

armamentario.
are

to
:

see

which

the oldest classical codices

See

Clark, Libraries 1894)

;

in

the Medieval

and

Renaissance 8 vols.

Period

bridge, (Cam-

Dugdale,

Monasticum

Anglicanum,
Mitklalter du

(London, 1849) ;

Wattenbach,
Didionnaire Das Buck

Das de

Schriftwesenim Geographic
a

1875) ; Deschamps, (Leipzig,

Libraire

Usage

(Paris,1870)

Wehle,

1879) (Leipzig,

; and

Putnam,

op. cit. (New

York, 1896-97).

234

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

List

of

Some

of

the

Oldest

Classical

Manuscripts1

I. Greek.
o.

Antiope and Plato's Phcedo, 250 B.C. Fragments of Euripides' (FlindersPetrie Papyri, ed. Mahaffy, Dublin Academy,

1890.)
b. A
few

The

oldest

specimens of
Iliad

classical text

known.
non-

lines of the
240

XI.
B.C.

and (ante-Aristarchean

Zenodotean),
c.

Louvre

Fragmenta

of

Euripides,second century

B.C.

d. Alcman, second
e.

to first century, B.C.

(Paris).
B.C.

Iliad fragmenta

(Banks, Harris),second century

79
a.d.

/. Papyri from Herculaneum,

e.

Philodemus). (Epicurus,
,

Aristotle.
_ .
_

1
....

h.

}
J

First to second

_,

century

a.d.

Herodas,

Bacchyhdes.

i. Menander k.

(discoveredin Egypt, 1905).

a.d.

Hyperides, 150

(London, Paris).
to

/. Berlin

third fragments of the Melanippe of Euripides,

fourth century.
m. n. 0.

fourth century (Marseilles). Papyrus fragments of Isocrates, Codex Codex Ambrosianus

Vaticanus

of the Iliad, (Milan). of Dio Cassius.

Fifth

to

sixth

p.
q.

Euripides'Phaeton, and
Fragmenta
of

Menander,

Fragments.

century.

Birds (Paris). Aristoph.,

II. Latin.
a.

Fragments of the Younger Manuscript of Vergil,fourth Vatican).

Sallust's

Seneca, first century

laneum). (Hercu-

b.

to fifth century

Florence, (chiefly

c.

Fragmenta

of

Historic,third

to

fourth

century

(Orleans).
d. Codex
e.

Bembinus
Puteaneus
dates

of Terence, fourth to fifthcentury of

(Vatican).

Codex

Livy, sixth

to seventh

century (Paris).

Many

of the

in this list are

though agreed upon conjectural,

by

scholars.

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

235

Palimpsest.

Juvenal and
fourth century. Codex Lucan

Persius,fragmenta in codice Vaticano, third

to

Veronensis

and

Codex

Vaticanus

of

Livy.

(Vienna, Naples,Rome), fourth century.

fourth Republica,
to

Cicero's De

fifth century

(Vatican).

Cicero in Verrem,

fragmenta

in Codice

Vaticano,fifth century.

Gaius, fifth century (Verona).

Platus

(Codex Ambrosianus), fifth to sixth century (Milan).

Seneca, fragmenta,fifth to sixth century (Vatican).
to

Gellius and

Fronto, fragmenta, fourth

sixth century

(Vatican,Milan).

fifth century. Livy, fragmenta (Vienna),

It has been these and and

not

said that most

of the codices for the

most

preservedin
part, Latin
even
as

other

libraries were,

Greek.

By

the

eighthcentury, Greek,
the memory known of Western
at

had faded from tradition, Hellenic literature

was was

Europe.

littlemore
to the

that time than

Sanskrit
names

down of Greek

end

of the

eighteenth century.
statesmen

The
were

and poets, philosophers,

from the mention of them

familiar Their

only

in

Latin

authors. and find

the

actual

their time and country, personality, all

a

their

were places in history, a

blank.
so

Thus

we

Smaragdus,

mediaeval words

grammarian,
as

ignorant of
Eunuchus

meanings of Greek
and
Orestes

to

think the
names

that

Comcedia
1

were Tragoedia

of authors.1

Almost in

the

only exception to
Greek schools

this
was were

ignorance of Greek general

is to be in the

found

Ireland,whither
The
was

probably brought
by
the dwellers there
was

from

Gaul and

fifth century. time the

Irish

admirably conducted,
upon

for

country
and

unmolested

the

Continent. strife and

While

in Gaul

Germany

and

Italy

continual

236
Even

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

when
of

little Greek

had filteredits way

into the knowledge render

marian, gram-

the mediae vals

the Latin

they used

it to vitiate and

barbarous

which

they wrote.
in the seventh

Thus, the

Vergilius Maro,
preceptor
of For
rex
,

century (whose

wrote

work
new

in which

he discusses twelve kinds

the

Latin) coined

words
was

on

analogy of

the Greek.

example, scribere
became
with thors Latin

supplantedby charaxare,while
that the
Latin mixture

(from Opovos), so
and

of
semble re-

Greek

the
in

garblingof
an

forms

to

Greek, resulted
understand
that there

argot which
have

is difficult to

and which
were

might well

the theory justified

twelve
as

kinds of Latin,or, indeed,as many

were

kinds
Greek.

of

Latin There

there
a

monks

who
an

knew

little
'

remains the

compositionby
'

Irish monk

which

contains
'

sentence: out

P antes

'

solitum

elaborant

agrestes orgium,' two

These
are

of the five words

being Greek.
were ceived con-

only a
the

few

of the

quaint thingsthat

by

mediaeval
out

grammarians, who
a

made

even

deeper darkness
hear and of

of

glimpse
on

of

daylight. Thus
the vocative another
to

we

long discussions

what

was

of ego, drawn

of furious debaters

rushingat
not

one

with

swords
a

because

theycould

agree

as

inchoative verbs.2

deepening of
Greeds Medii

intellectual

darkness, Irish scholars preserved the older

and
24

learningand carried it to Bobbio

De Mvi

Pavia

and

St. Gallen.

See A

Cramer, Literary

Studiis,i.

(London, 1849)j Hyde,

History of Ireland

(Dublin, 1899); Newell, St. Patrick, his Life and

Teachings(London, 1890); and Bury, LifeofSt. Patrick (Cambridge, 1905).

1

Hisperica Famina, edited by Stowasser

See

(1887).

Sandys, op. cit. i. p. 450, with the references there given.

238
This
fiction
as

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

work

is

as

important

in

the

historyof
for

prose

it is in the

history of education;

its author tried to

dragged fiction
sugar-coat the
Martianus

into the service of grammar with pillof philology medicine

and

myth

and
on

story.
the
we

strikes out
that

and

architecture

ground
find
a

they are

utilitarian studies.1
the liberal arts into two

In Boethius groups
:

of separation

first form

arithmetic, geometry, music, and

what
was

astronomy, which

afterwards

called the Quadrivium ; while

a

mar, gramknown the

form and logic rhetoric,

as

trio which
wrote at
seven a

was

soon

the

Trivium.

Cassiodorus

work
even

upon

the number liberal arts, fixing that this number the text: hewn
out
"

and

asserting
he

had

mystical meaning, since

builded
2

quoted
hath

Wisdom
her
seven

hath

her

house;

she

pillars."

This

classification and
seven
was

this
down

of mystical interpretation

the number

continue

and of Isidorus,4 through the writings

especially

favoured
Maurus.8

by

Alcuin5
famous

and

by

Alcuin's

pupil, Rabanus
is also written he city he
was

This
was

teacher
at

(whosename
of which

Hrabanus)
made
1
2

bom

Mainz,

later

Archbishop. Studying under

Martianus Prov. Seven ix.
was 1. a

Alcuin,
and

compiled

(ed. by Eyssenhardt, pp.

332

336).
the

mystic number,
of

not

only among
an

Jews, but

among

all

the great nations in

antiquity. See

chapter on interesting

the

subject

Hadley, Essays (New York, 1873).

4

Supra,
His

p. 190.

Supra,

pp.

220-223.

collected

works

are

to

be

found

in

Migne's PatrologiaLatina,

vols, cvii-cxii.

Cf. the

monographs by

Kohler

(1870)and

Richter

(1882).

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

239

an
was

abridgment of
much

the Latin

grammar

of Priscianus

which is
a

used

throughout the
in the

Middle

Ages.
classical

He

connecting link
are

development of
and

study,as
wrote

his

own

pupilsRudolphus
their master

Trithemius, who
can

of biographies

which

be found

in

Migne's

Patrologia.
Toward
remarkable
at

the end

of the Middle

Ages, there
an

appears

the born

figureof Roger
at

Bacon,1

Englishman
Paris,and

educated Tlchester,

Oxford Order.

and

finally
can

enrolled

in the Franciscan

In his

one writings

find
which
out

that
were

clearness
inimical

of
to

vision

and

keenness

of criticism
Bacon of

scholastic

teaching.
with
men

reaches
modern

and

clasps hands figuratively

His chief the works
are

times.

the

Opus

Mains,

the

Opus
also
on

Minus, and
wrote
a

Opus

Tertium
on

(fragmentary). He
another
to

compendium
His
was

philosophy and
great force
of any

theology.
which

originality gave beyond

and he
a

his

ing, learnHe in
rare a

that
set

contemporary.
he

thought much,

down

what

thought
was

and vigorousstyle among in the

with So

certain

audacitywhich
was

his fellows.

far in advance in his

own

he

of others
he
was garded re-

that sphere of physics,

as a

time

sort
a

of wizard of

or

necromancer.

It is

likely
had
a

that he

had

knowledge
with the

gunpowder

and

that
as

he

experimented
number

steam-engine as Taking

well
up

with

of chemical

compounds.
1

his doctrines

c.

1214-1294.

24O
we briefly,

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

may

note

that he

criticised the
ancient

Fathers

for

spending too
and thus

littletime in

studyingthe
them

languages,
the that

by neglect of
ancients.

to failing

understand
he

wisdom
no

of the

Furthermore,
can Scriptures or

declared
be had

perfect knowledge
Hebrew
and

of the

without
be

knowing

Greek,

that

philosophy can

thoroughlypursued without
translations familiar
are

studyingArabic.1

All current
are

because inaccurate,

the translators

not

with the

foreign words
text; whereas

and

leave

many very

of

them

standing in
that
a

Bacon

says

acutely,
with the

translator
he

ought
is

to

be familiar, not also his

which

only
own

language that
but
These

and translating

language,
text

likewise with
are

the

subject to

the

relates.

golden words, and

they deserve

the serious attention

of modern Bacon says

are

publishers.
are

that there

not

five

men

in the Western

world

who

acquaintedwith Hebrew, Greek, shrewdly

notes

and Arabic between

grammar.

He

the

difference of any goes the

having a purelycolloquial knowledge

a

language and
down
to

knowledge

which

is

which scientific, which is therefore

the of

very
a

foundations,and

knowledge

insists upon Bacon, consequently, philosophical linguist. grammar, forerunner criticises

grammar,

and
of
even

still more
a

grammar;

and

in this

he

is the He

school philological the

errors

of modern

times.

of translation to be

to Referring

the Arabic

translations
to

of Aristotle of which

the

originals

were

unavailable practically

the Western

world.

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

241

found

in

the

Vulgate,and
ventured
the
"

he

hits

hard

those
He

asters criticsays: he in

who
"

have has

to

change

the text.

Every

one

impertinenceto
a

alter whatever
he would
not
a

does not
the
or case

understand

thingwhich

do

of classical

poets." Here,
of the texts

Bacon of

drops

hint
"

two

for the criticism

were

the
time

Scriptures,
of

hints that Erasmus.1

Bacon

to

be

fruitful in

the

Valla and

was

by

no

means

one

who

merely criticises the

work

of others.

He

showed

his interest in
a

grammatical

a studyby writing now

Greek

grammar,

manuscriptof which,
Oxford, College,
and has
a

in the Greek

at Corpus library

Christi

the

characters accidence Greek

written beautifully

contains

short Greek TV7TT0).2 A

ending with
has
was

paradigm of
been

the verb
to

lexicon
there

also

ascribed known

Bacon.

Nevertheless

littleGreek
so

to the

scholars of that time, and

as

at

Oxford

much

of Aristotle
It is

was

read

was

read in
that

Latin

translation.

worthy
famous

of

remembrance

another

Franciscan, the
to

Raimundus traveller,

Lullius, tried

first the persuade, establish and the

a

Pope and
of
1

then the

of Paris, to University

school
Tartar

oriental
It is worth in
au

languages (Greek, Arabic,

noting that
an

Oxford

scholar of this time Cf

.

spent forty

years

and correcting xiii

s.

explaining the Vulgate.

Martin, La

Vulgate

Latine Dublin
1

d'apres Roger Bacon January, 1898.

(Paris,1888) ; and Gasquet in the knowledge

it is their

Review

for

Dr.

Sandys
was

observes

(op.cit. i. p. 595) that

from the Greeks

"Bacon's

own

of Greek

mainly
he

derived

of his time, and

that pronunciation

invariably adopts."

242

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

the great oriental schools which dialects)thus anticipating

,

thrive

to-day

at

Paris

and

Berlin.1

Bacon's

opuscula,
are

gathered from
as interesting

the

fragmentsof

his minor mental

work,

very

showing his glossaryof

a

unusual Latin of He has

activity.He
from in the

had

sort

of

words
common

derived
errors

Greek.

He

corrects

number

ing, spell-

and quantity,
as, for

etymology.
he

tells
seen

some

anecdotes,
text

instance,that
books fifty

himself

the Greek

of the

of Aristotle's Natural

mentioned History,
us

takes by Pliny (viii. p. 17),and altogether

of Aulus many-sided curiosity very Gellius.2 in
a

back

to

the is

Altogetherhe
"

described by fairly
of

Hallam

sentence: single

The

mind

Roger

Bacon

was

strangely compounded
course

of almost and
a

propheticgleams
best than time."

of the future inductive the

of science

the
more
own

of the principles

with philosophy, of superstitions

usual
3

credulityin

his

Medievalism and
many views

is
are

something
taken

very

difficult to

understand,

of it. Its
a

when spirit,

properly
and

apprehended, was decay.

1
2

not certainly out

of spirit of

desolation

It sprang

of 96.

the

ruins

antique greatness

Rashdall, op.

cit. ii. p.

See supra, p. 188. There A is

an

edition excellent

of and
a

Bacon's

works

edited

by

Brewer

(London,
is that

1859).
Charles Per sonne, Greek

very

comprehensive study
later
et

of Bacon

by
sa

(Paris,1861) ;
son

and

monograph
ses

by Parrot,Roger Bacon,

Genie, ses
was

CEuvres

Contemporains (Paris,1894).
notes

His the

grammar

published,with

and

an

by introduction,

University of Cambridge

(Cambridge, 1892).

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

243

from

which

it drew any
to

much

of its

own

knowledge, though
The
a

often without

consciousness
some
as

of its value.

Middle
time of

Ages gloom

appear when

having been pursuitswere

wholly

intellectual

discouraged, partly
the

through lack of knowledge, and

which
came

partlyby
savage

ment discourage-

from

an

almost

environment,

piercedonly here and

colour. Yet in

there

by
true

rays of

of lightand glints

the reality

Middle
was

Ages
a

were

very

different from of

this

description.There
which

gradual process
tiquity an-

assimilation, by
was

the

highestthought of something
the
was

to

be
we

transformed
have the

into

different

and and

new.

So

blending of

pagan

past

the Christian

present, combining what

with what
was

beautiful
tian Chris-

in the

antique world
As
we

in the spiritual

teaching.
us, since
so

look at Medievalism
was brutality

it often shocks
in it.
tact con-

much

raw

everywhere
to master

with
seem

that which

was

in the

end

We

at first to be

standingon

the borders
which
we

of

dark hear
when that

and
the
we

almost

fearful waste, from

of continuous
to

within

can

rending sound give our

process

devastation.
grow

Yet

patientstudy
is not
one

it,we

conscious
rather is

the

but of destruction, of
a

of

nation. germi-

Instead
warm

cold, chilling
is

there

something

and

that stimulating, may have

always noticeable.
rude, yet
the

Thus

its Art

been

originality
times,

of it has

appealed most grandeur

of

to strongly

artists of modern

while the

its Gothic

architecture

attains the

244

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

heightof
out

the

sublime.

Even

its

Philosophy,
and has

as

wrought
flourished

by

the

has been revived scholastics,

the

for two

not merely within centuries,

men

great schools of the

of

Catholic Church, but among from

Kant
to Leo

of every mode
to

thought,
"

XIII.1

As powers

the and

side political
the almost

the

clash of strife of

and principalities

incessant
"

kings and J. W.

popes

and

mercantile

communities,
:
"

Professor
"

Burgess has admirably written

to

Men

have been wont

call the Middle

Ages, Dark

'

Ages.' On questions

the contrary, of the

they

are

full of

light.

In

them

the great

of individual relationship
to

right to political right,of local

and of ecclesiastical government
drawn into conscious

government

central government,

to secular

government,
Had
the

were

raised and

consideration.

European

empire of Charlemagne been

a

perpetuated, Europe might have become

never

second

China, but would

have modern

been

what

it is The

"

the viz.,

source

of the civilization of of the Middle and

the

world.

unceasing conflicts

Ages
central

between

privaterightand publiclaw, local government

state out

government,
to to

authorityand Church
from

were authority,

necessary

bring
the

men

under

the

monotony system

of slavish of the of

subjection

external artificial,

Church-state

Carlovingian
free."

empire, and
into the power

develop
of

them

by the antagonism
more

thought and will

more

producingsystems

reflected and

In

Letters

and

Learning,
a

we

owe

great debt
of the

to

the

Middle Church
1

Ages.

For

time,

the

fanaticism
the

Early
a

destroyed much;
Pica vet's remarkable
et

but

from

eighth century

See

monograph
Civilisations

entitled Medievales

Esquisse d'une Histoire

Generate

Comparee

des

(Paris,1905);

and

Perrier,The Revival of Scholastic Philosophy (New York, 1909). See also Allbutt,Science and Mediceval Thought, pp. 72, 78 foil. (London, 1895).

246

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Valerius Maximus. Civili

was

The

fragment of
and
was

Petronius

De

Bello

well known, fairly

Of

used

for

reading in

the schools.

all the classics, Vergilheld

he
was

the foremost been

one

because place largely of the As

"

believed

to

have

Christians
the

before Christ."
classical
x

to

adjunctsof
of

there literature, many there

was

the

small

grammar

Donatus

and

compilationsof
exist

Priscian's

great work, of which

to-day more
bits of
text

than
were

thousand

manuscripts.

Sometimes

quoted in
was

illustrationof the rules of grammar,

There
were

though
a

this

unusual.2

also

produced

number
The word-

of lexicons, or mediaeval listswhich

rather

and glossaries
to

vocabularies.

teachers used
were

dictate to their students

then often

carefully copied and

abridged,
one

corrected,and
possessor
as

enlargedaccordingas they passed from

another.
One of these

to

compiled glossaries,
a mentary, com-

earlyas

the ninth while

century, has been edited with

the substance lexicon
was

containingalso
like
a

of

twelve

others.

Something

genuine

produced

by
it

one

Papias, the Lombard

in
a reality

about scholar,

1063,though
Low
a

was

sort

of

The encyclopaedia.
come

Latin

word
1

Dictionarium
p.

did

not

into

use

for

long time.

Supra,
See the

184.
on

monograph

grammar

contained

in I. Miiller's

Handbuch,

v.

i
3

1902). (Leipzig, Gottingen, 1854.

See also the elaborate

description of mediaeval
Latinorum

in Lowe, Prodromus glossaries A collection of these

Glossariorum

1876). (Leipzig,
under the

was glossaries

begun in 1876 by Goetz

patronage of the Royal Literary Society of Saxony.

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

247 trines Docuntil

Papias

called

his

own

Elementarium dictionary, It

Erudimentum. after the invention in 1491. of of

circulated

in it was

manuscript

when printing,
an

issued at Venice

In the twelfth century

an

English monk,
an

Osborn

Gloucester, made
which
he

attempt

at

dictionary, etymological
About
a

called Panorama.
of

the

year

1200,

Hugutio, Bishop
tionum.
were

Ferrara, compiled
two

Liber

Deriva-

the Eighty-six years later,

used

works based

last
on

tioned men-

by

Balbi of Genoa, who

was

them of

his famous
grammar, extensive

Catholicon, which
but

not

only a

manual
a

also of rhetoric and

with criticism, These

rather the

lexicon of ecclesiastical Latin.

to

were

best dictionaries known

Thus

the Middle

Ages.1 Ages wholly in

from civilization,

far

we

have

regarded the
of history

Middle

their relation to the the downfall thirteenth the Eastern

Western

of the Western

Empire

to the
us

beginningof
to

the

century.
or

It remains

for

consider
New

here

called Byzantine Empire (also

at

Rome)
and

which
which

had

its seat

Constantinople(Byzantium) Empire by Empire

was more

outlived years. in
a.d.

the Western The Eastern

than

sand thou-

lished estabpractically

330, when

Constantine

made

Byzantium

the

of capital
between
1

the whole and

Roman West
on

world; but
came

the actual breach 395. In that year Handbuch,

i.

the East
the

in

a.d.

See

monograph
De

Lexicography in I. Muller's
to

(Nordlingen, 1902) ;
1879) ; Mahn, (Rudolstadt, 181 7).

Vit, Preface

the Lexicon

of Forcellini alien ihren

(Prato,
Seiten

Darstellung der

Lexicographie nach

248
the Roman

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Empire

was

divided took
the

between
Eastern Honorius Rome.

the two

sons

of

Theodosius.

Arcadius

half,with
received The is the

his the
and

while capitalat Constantinople,

Western

half,with

his the

capitalat
Eastern

long
record

tangled historyof
constant

Empire

of

sedition, folly, strife, treachery, misgovernment,

Thus it has been called until neglected it
"

and

murder.
Even

the last few

years.

Gibbon
and
"

tedious

and

uniform

tale of weakness declared

Phocas
on

misery." Montesquieu sweepingly historyof

a

that
was

the

the

Greek

Empire

from

merely
Taine

succession

of revolts, schisms,
it
as

and
"

treacheries."

vividlycondemned
thousand

being

a giganticmouldiness, lasting

years."
who

It has been from

computed
1453

that of the 107 persons

ruled

395

to

was (when Constantinople

stormed

by
died
to

the Turks),
in
a

20

were

murdered,
a

18

were

mutilated,12

monastery

or

prison,12
"

abdicated, 3 starved
out

death, 8 died
violence
existence that
or

in warfare

in

all, 73
the

of 107
excuse

met

with the fact

disgrace. Perhaps
the

best

for in the Asia

of

Byzantine Empire
for centuries
a

is found between time

to

it formed

barrier

and

Western

Europe, so
a

that the latter had

sion to attain cohe-

and

sort

of the
as

unity

of

purpose,

develop a
to

new

civilisation and
wild

militarypower
the Saracens

necessary whom

repel
Martel
who

hordes, such
at Tours

Charles

shattered
were

in the from

eighthcentury, or

the Turks

hurled

back

Vienna

in the sixteenth century.

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

249

If

we

look

more

into carefully
we

the

of Byzantium history

in its later years,

shall find that while

schisms, religious
it to its centre, Roman

civil wars,
there
are

and

violence of every
traces

kind shook
the

everywhere making
Rome
not

of

older

spirit,

surviving and
of Old history and
many Rome its
so we

themselves

visible.

Indeed, the

is very

of civil war, a history largely New Rome showed from

must
same

be

that surprised

of the
in

characteristics.
more

It differed
were

Old

being far
as

oriental.

Its rulers

despots ;

people were,

has been
In other the

said of the Parisians," half and populace words, princes

most

and half ape." tiger alike alternated and

the most

between

childish

amusements

bloody strife.1 Yet,

of
Some

it had

the Roman

power
hausting ex-

of assimilation,and warfare. stantine

after periods of recuperation of its emperors,

such

as

Con-

Copronymus

were (741-773),

great soldiers and

the
were

organised more
seen.

effective armies of the

than

world

had

yet

The and

boundaries

Empire
and

extended, both

in Asia
was

Europe.
and

Again
commerce

again the administration

stimulated.

reformed

Against
the

the

Hungarians, the Turks,

successful
1

the

Armenians, and

Bulgars,
was a

wars

were

waged.2 Byzantium
of life in

itself

For

diverting account

Byzantium,

see

Marrast, Esquisses

Byzantines (Paris,1874).
1

See

Gibbon, The

Decline

and

Fall A

of the Roman

Empire, edited

by

Bury

(Cambridge, 1899) ; Bury,

Oman,
The New

History of the Later Roman

Empire

(London, 1890) ; and

and

Story of the Byzantine Empire (London

York, 1892).

250

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

magnificentcity.
make Statues all its
"

Rome

on

the

Tiber the

was

ransacked
"

to

the

new

capitaldeserve

title of

Imperial."
flashed in

and

and paintings

jewelsgleamed
architecture

and

public buildings. Its complete

It
was

has

been

styled
tendom." Chris-

the

monumental
the dome

expressionof
architectural

Greek

Greek
as

genius which placeof

able

chose the
to

the Roman

its fundamental

unit in

wooden

roof,and
the dome
were

was then, by using lofty piers,

suspend

and
even

use

it with

any

kind

of

ground(with

plan.

Domes

at will; and multiplied

this

semi-domes)
wherever of it

is characteristic
can

of the

Byzantine architecture
the great masterpieces

be found,
and
as

in especially the Church

St.

Sophia

of the

Apostles in
in

as Constantinople,

well

in many In their

churches

Russia,

Northern

and Italy,

Asia

Minor. in

fact,the Byzantine

types

were

Grasco-Asiatic
once an

origin,and
which
we

this
can

is

why they suggest at

in almost As

Orientalism
the Eastern

trace

which everything

Empire originated.
are

for other

forms

of

art, there

few

remains

of

Byzantine Sculpture, partly because

an

there

existed,first,

oriental lack of skill in many literal

were

drawing

the

and second, figure,

were

because in the

of the
sense.

Greek

Christians

iconoclastic and
Panel-

Mosaic, Fresco-painting,
the artists
now

painting
Most It is of

practisedby
frescoes and

of

Byzantium. disappeared.

the

panels have
made

only from
that modern

the mosaics

priorto

the twelfth

tury cen-

can archaeologists

get any

good

idea

of

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

251

the

earlyByzantine painting.
the it was

We

know, however, that it

artists

greatly influenced
Middle

Christian felt even Toward

throughout

the

Ages, and
at

in the later frescoes in the the middle the Norman of the eleventh

catacombs

Rome.

century, the Italian States and

the South Italian

Kingdom
who

at

importedByzantine artists in mosaic

thus

trained
influence

pupils and

spread

the

Byzantine

.throughout Italy.
have
to do

It is in the Minor
as

Arts, however, which

the

with

decoration, such
gorgeous

of illuminating

with manuscripts

colours, tapestry ivorycarving,

cameos,

weaving, rug-making,and the carvingof

with

together site exqui-

embossing,chasing,and enamelling the

bits of

most

gold work,

that the skill of the

Byzantine artists

was

supreme.1
Byzantine
2

Literature

has

in

itself (with
one

one

tion) excep-

very

littleto interest any

save

the

historian.

Scholars
tracts

and

priestsof Byzantium

wrote

innumerable

and
as

controversial

which treatises,
to

have

mostly perished,
rians Histo-

they deserved
a

do.

The who

Byzantine
busied

form
with

group

of writers the
Eastern

themselves down
some

the

historyof

Empire
there
Five
were

to

its

destruction

by the Turks, and

after that.
are

who
siderable con-

kept on

writingeven
value.

of them

have

These

Zonaras, Nicetas, Nicephorus,

Architecture

See

Texier

and

Pullan, Byzantine

(London,

1894);
L'Art

Essenwein, Byzantinische Baukunst Byzantin (Paris, 1892).

J

(Darmstadt, 1896) ; Bayet,

See

infra, pp.

254-257.

252

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Chalcondylas, and give a

its
as

Procopius. historyof
to

The

first four

of

these
from noted

continuous

the

Byzantine Empire Procopius is

he

beginning down
a

the year

1470.

collector of scandalous

stories which

jotteddown giveshis
he
was

in his

Anecdota, or

"

secret

history."

In

it he which of
some

privatenotes
very

to relating

the court-life with reminds

us one

intimate;
memoirs

and

the book

of the

French and This

which
the

reveal to
court not

the

piquant sayings
the old

doings of
book of

French

under

regime.
after his in

Procopius was
in
a

publisheduntil

death.

It is written

fresh and
more

and interesting style, than almost

any

consequence

has
of

been the

read

other
are

production
fifteen other works
are

Byzantine
of

historians.1

There

writers

Byzantine historywhose
a

united

publishedwith

Latin

translation in the

Corpus

Scriptorum Historic Really

remarkable

Byzantina.2
among

the
Law

Byzantine writings is
made

the codification of the Roman

by

the

Byzantine
of

lawyer,Tribonianus, an
the
1

Asiatic It
was

Greek,
a

at the

command

Emperor
For
a

Iustinianus.
of

collection of authori-

separate edition
to

Procopius, including his orations, the

vols.

reader
rare

is referred

Dindorf,3

(Bonn, 1838). There

is

an

old and

translation
most

of

Procopius into English by Holcroft

or

(London, 1663).
transferred

The

amusing

startling passages
of his Decline

of and

Procopius were
Fall.
1;

by

Gibbon
2

to the footnotes

In

36 vols.,edited
A similar

by Labb6

(Paris, 171
was were

reprintedat Venice
at

in

I733)is

collection

in 48 vols,

begun
done

Bonn

in

1828, but

badly executed, although parts of it

as

by such

distinguished

scholars

Niebuhr, Bekker, and

the brothers

Dindorf.

254

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

or historical, etymological. Thus

Photius
two

820-c. 891) (c. volumes Greek

wrote
are

many

things,among

them

which

of great service to the student literature. He

was

of the

language
to

and and

sent

as

an

ambassador

Assyria
of 280

beguiled his stay

many

there
are now

by making
lost.
comments

abstracts

books,

of which

Sometimes
so

he varied

his abstracts which

us
a

by criticisms

and

that the whole,

is

called

Myrobiblion1 (MvpiofitfiXiov), gives

much

synopsis of

ancient
and

and

valuable

literature.

Remarkable historians
one

for its extent

was

for its

of early preservation

the

of historycompiled by encyclopaedia Constantinus This

of

the

emperors, 915
to

Porphyrogenetus
was

from (reigned

959).
of

book

something like
it

the Historian's
was

History

recent

times, since, while

was

arranged accordingto

the who

its text subject-matter,

had treated in the

that of the earlier authors

An

these themes. of Lexicography is

a

extremely important work

is the Lexicon
to

growth

of

Suidas

(c. 976).
which drew

This is

remarkable The

monument
sources

the erudition

paedic. encycloare

upon but and his

which

Suidas

still
strous mon-

only partlyknown;
in its scope rudis and

readingmust
as

have

been

range,

his book

is almost

strous, mon-

moles. indigestaque in
one.

It is a grammar,

lexicon,
in

geography all

The

subjectsare
or

arranged

but alphabetical order,

with

littlecare

and skill,

it is full

See
1 1

Krumbacher

in

Muller's

Handbuch,
vols.

ix.

1897), (Nordlingen,

pp.

93

foil.;Hergenrother, Photios,3

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

255
was

of serious mistakes

which

show

that Suidas

not

sessed pos-

the work of the critical spirit.Still, valuable because be found

nowhere it contains
so

is

extremely
that
can

much

information

else.1
came

FollowingSuidas
very voluminous of allegories

Ioannes

who Tzetzes,

was

also

writer, mainly of scholia;for besides

his

the Iliad and

Odyssey in

ten

thousand

verses

Homeric interpreting (hence Chiliades), rationalisticway,

the Pseudo-Homeric
to

mythology in
to

he

prepared a commentary
works, and

the Iliad,

has leftscholia to

Hesiod,

to Lycophron's to Oppian, and especially Aristophanes,

Alexandra.
to

Here

he

givesus the only clew mystical poem.2

He He

that

we

have

that obscure

and

also fond

epitomised
of

the

rhetoric of

Hermogenes.

was

writing

the so-called

versus

Eustathius,Archbishop of politici.'
about which 1175
a

wrote Thessalonica,

valuable commentary
upon while

on

the Homeric scholia and

from The his pen

poems other
a

is based

sound
we

Homeric
also

excellent sources,

have

fine

prefaceto

commentary

on

Pindar. the stand-

has been lost.4 From body of this work itself

The

best edition is that

to

of Bekker

(Berlin, 1854),but
25-95, and

see

also the cit.

Prolegomena
pp.
1

edition, Bernhardy's pp.

Krumbacher, op.
his

562-570. Supra, p.
Tzetzes.
p.
1 01.

Some See

think that this work

De Tzetzarum
are

was

written

by

brother,

Isaac
1

Hart,
His

Nomine, Vila,Scripiis(1880). separatelyby

Bekker Lehrs

Supra,

101.

works

edited

(Berlin,

1816), the
1840).
4

Chiliades

and 1826), by Kiessling (Leipzig,

(Leipzig,
has been

See

Krumbacher, op. cit. pp. 526-536.

pp.

See

Krumbacher, by
Schneidewin

536-541.

The

preface to

Pindar

edited

(Gottingen, 1837).

56

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

point of
writer
wrote

pure

literature,the
Planudes
a

most

interesting Byzantine
he the

is Maximus

(i260-1310). Though
on

scholia and
he

treatise

syntax, it is
Greek
a

more

to

point that
authors

translated
as

into

number

of

Latin

such

Caesar, a
the

part of

Cicero, the
of

sayings
cially espeon a

of Cato, (disticha) the Heroides

Metamorphoses basing
is
now

Ovid,

and

of Ovid,

his

translation
unknown. he

valuable

manuscript which
the

Most

important of all is
much Greek
Planudea.
taste

Anthology

which

compiled with
two

and

which

is the younger This

one

of the called earlier

great

Anthologies.
It
was

is
on

Anthologia

really based
made

anthologies,
about

the first having been

B.C.
"

by Meleager
gave the

of Gadara

60.

To

it

Meleager
This

title

'AvOoXoyia, or
was

The

Garland."

Anthology original
himself

made

up

of poems

by Meleager

and

other poets, forty-six Simonides.

including Alcaeus, Anacreon,

The poems
were

Sappho, and
and
were

all of the first order

sense,
or
"

matic epigrama

in the

Greek

embodying briefly
or

single
all of

thought,either tender
them

humorous
that work made

and pathetic,

so polished, exquisitely

they glowed and glinted

was

with
and

and colour. light continual editions

This
were

immensely popular,
to

it
a.d.

throughout
one

the

centuries, until in the

edited the
mass

tenth

century
made

Cephalas
new

of

poems

and

a practically

compilation. Planudes
taste. literary

did the same,

though with

far less

Nevertheless

the Planudean

Anthology was

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

257

the

only

one

known

in Western

Europe until the

teenth seven-

century.

It is the basis of the famous

translation

by Grotius.1
found in the

In

1606, Salmasius

(Claude de Saumaise)
finer

libraryat Heidelberg the older and

was

collection of for
one

Cephalas. This, however,

and

not

published
included

hundred

seventy years, when

nor was

it

was

by Brunck
until there No skill and

in his

Analecta;
the

it F.

edited critically
in

appeared
no

edition of

Jacobs

1803.2

modern

language can
poems.

and artistically fitly

are

translate these
of Greek of human

wonderful

They
sweep

the embodiment

genius,and
a

they

the whole and

an

gamut

with feeling
are

sureness

of touch

site exqui-

that artistry

inimitable. utterly civilisation

was

Another
came

means

by which Western
the

ified mod-

from

Crusades, which
contact

indirectly brought
and also Byzantines,
The

Western with
the

Europe into

with the
Arabs.

Turks, Saracens,and
years

First Crusade
or

occupied the began

1096- 1099.
and ended

The

Seventh

sade last Cru-

in 1270

in 1272.

It is

impossible
have

that hundreds
1 2

of thousands

of

Europeans could

be-

Infra,p.
In
13

349.

vols.;revised
in

in

181 7. while
a

recent

edition is that
was

in Didot's

Bibliotheca

(Paris, 1872), 1894.

See and
to

fine

critical edition Graca

begun by
with

Stadtmuller
notes

Thackeray's Anthologia Mackail,

the Palatine
sources

English

(London, 1877)
has added from

Select

Epigrams
a

(London, 1891).
of the the
most

Stadtmuller

collection down hundred

number

brilliant poems

ante-classical less than is called

through
poets
are

Byzantine

not period,so that,in all,

three

represented.

The

Heidelbergcollection

Anthologia Palatina.

258
come

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

acquainted with

the ways

and

customs

and

art

and
ceiving re-

of learning

older civilisations than

their

own

without with

impressionswhich
In

they carried

home

them.

fact,the Crusades
of the

are

held generally

to have

checked
rope Eu-

the advance

Muhammadans,
trade and

to have

enriched

by promoting by bringing into

which

new establishing

industries,

circulation

great quantitiesof money

more

had

hitherto been

hoarded, and by making

portant imvasive per-

the free cities of

was

Europe.

Finallyand
with

most

the intellectual effect of contact

the

higher

culture of the
who

Byzantines and
fond who
were

Arabs.

Those

Europeans
of

had

been
men

of

philosophy found
their masters, and
better

in the sages who could

the East them

even

teach

Greek

philosophyfar

than

they could

learn it in the schools and

This of
even

universities of their native lands. often

to
a

led to

certain

and toleration,

liberality
Crusaders

thought which
became

verged on

skepticism.
As
are

Some been
in

Muhammadans.
to

has

said,

"

The

roots

of the Renaissance of the Crusades."

x

be found

tion the civiliza-

So much

for

Byzantine and
der

oriental influence

through;

See

Wilken,
The

Geschichte

Kreuzzilge, 7

vols.

1807-1832) (Leipzig, (London, 1881) ; KugSybel,

Geschichte The

Michaud,

History of the Crusades, Eng.

der

trans.

ler,Geschichte
ersten

Kreuzzilge(Berlin,1891) ;
Archer and

Von

des

Kreuzzilges (Leipzig,1900) ; York,

Kingsford,

Crusades Jerusalem

(New

1898) ; Rohricht,
; and

Geschichte

des

Konigreichs
der

(Berlin, 1898) 1898).

Prutz, Kulturschichte especially

lin, Kreuzzilge(Ber-

THE

MIDDLE

AGES

259

out

the

Middle

Ages.
erudition

It

was

for

the

most

part
who

represented
turned their

by
backs

men

of

rather

than

of

taste,

in

large

measure

on

the

old

learning political

in

order

to

engage

in

theological
rate

controversy
the

or

strife.

But

they

at

any

preserved
were

manuscripts
a

of

the

true

Greeks,
time

and

they
the
mist

to

exercise

direct

influence

at

when

of

the

Middle

Ages
awoke

was

dispelled
to

in

Western

Europe
heaven

and

when

mankind

what

was

new

and

new

earth.1

On

the

literature

of

the

Byzantines,
i. pp.

see

Krumbacher, Gibbon,
Greeds

op. op.

cit.; cit.,

Wil-

amowitz, Hankius,
Cf. also

Euripides
De

und

Herakles,
Rerum

193-219;

and

Byzantinarum
op.
in the cit. i.

Scriptoribus 387-439 Ages,

;

(Leipzig,
Harrison's

1677). antine ByzIt is teresting, in-

Sandys, History

pp.

Mr.

Frederic

Early

Middle

p.

36

(London,
in his

1900).
Outlines

though
History
the

inexplicable, Philology
of the

that

Dr.

Gudeman

of
pages

the

of

Classical

should

have

devoted

nearly
the

five

to

Byzantine Europe
notice for

scholars

Middle

Ages,
years

while

scholarship
with
a mere

of

ern West-

nearly filling

thousand

is

put

off

graphic biblio-

half

page.

VI

THE

RENAISSANCE

The
movement

Renaissance that
as

"

the

most
.

remarkable
ever
seen
"

intellectual
is
too

the

world

has

often lectual intel-

regarded

being primarily nothing

to

more

than

an

reversion
as

the

great models

of classical

antiquity,
ological. archaeview.
a

"

being

almost
this

and exclusivelyliterary, artistic, is

Yet

only

narrow

and

imperfect
rather

The

Renaissance and

which

began
revolt

in

Italy was against

It
a

found pro-

far-reaching
routine in Western of

the
was

narrowness

and
of
to

mental

mediaevalism.

the

waking

humanity
burst

Europe
ages

from

prolonged lethargy,
tradition had
lectual intel-

all the for

fetters that
to

of tiresome
into the

forged

it,and

struggle up
was
a

sunlight of
of
to

freedom.
the every effects of

It of

great declaration
were

dence, indepenbe felt it

threw over-

which

ultimately
In

in

sphere

human
In

activity.

philosophy
the way

scholasticism. for the

religion it paved
In
art

directly
terpieces mas-

so-called
of

Reformation.

it

inspired the
Da Vinci
soon

Michelangelo, Rafaelle, and

schools
the of

in

Italy,

and
sprang

the up

great
in

painting
and

that

afterward
In models. tecture archiIn

Netherlands the

Flanders. classic

it

restored

beautiful
260

262

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

ideas, moreover,

destined to
from

play an importantpart
their

in the

coming
It may

age thus

received be

him

germinal expression.
initiated the
ment move-

trulysaid

that Dante

of the modern
not

intellect in its entirety, though he did considered The

as a

lead the Revival

'

separate

movement

in this evolution."

Renaissance
was

in its first marked

period
spread wide-

began

in

and Italy(1250-1453),

by

revival of interest in classic literature and ideals.

the Its first sign was of the pagan
a

classical

passionfor
world, and
Dante's
own

the this

and largeness
we see

richness

in the

of vigourand magnificence
contrast to the

verse,

in

striking

dull formalism

of those who

had before his

time

written
a

for the mediaevals.2 which

It is
to

popular error
of the

ascribes

the

Renaissance

the influence

Byzantine Greeks.

Some

wrongly
the Turks

say that after the capture of in 1453, many their

Constantinople by
writers fled westward

scholars and

and

parted im-

learningand

their

knowledge

of the

Greek

classics to the Western

as
a

in Italy. But, especially peoples, Renaissance

matter

of

fact, the
the fall of

began

at
can

least

century before
be
seen

as Constantinople,

easily
of

the by considering of the true

we

brilliant career, this

not

merely

Dante, but

of protagonist
a

Francesco period, We

Petrarca, whom

shall mention

littlelater.

have

1 2

Symonds,
See

The

Renaissance and His

to

in

Italy, p. 69. Time, Eng.

trans.

Federn, Dante

(New

York, 1902) ;

and

A Handbook Scartazzini,

Dante, Eng.

trans.

(Boston, 1897).

THE

RENAISSANCE

263
in the thirteenth

also

seen

that

Roger Bacon, who flourished

a

century, composed
Greek
after the

Greek

grammar

and

pronounced
A

his

manner

of the
had
no

Byzantines.
known
in

few Greek

teachers
seem

of eminence have

been

Europe,1but they
of
a

to

excited Nor
was

great interest outside

the

very

small

set.

mediaeval
One
as

mind
could of

necessarily hardly Gregory

say the

cramped and

its culture

crude.
names

such that, after recalling

those

Great, of Cassiodorus,Alcuin,Charlemagne, and

scholars and

the great and

teachers who
Renaissance

were

best known
means

in France
a new

England.
and
almost

The
a new

rather

ration inspi-

desire.

It

was

secular and essentially

of life, and its most al-

pagan

in its

its love irresponsibility, The

thirst for mental

freedom.
the

mediaevals

had

been

wholly under
their chief Their
concern

and guidance of the priesthood,

been with the

had

mysteriesof
was

faith.

philosophywas
hairs split
most

but ingenious,

it

very

narrow.

It could weary
a

but finally men dextrously, and shook

must

grew into

of the

of hairs splitting
a

themselves
mean

realisation of what
the

largerlife

for them. expresses the Mar-

So
new

Englishman,
a new

William

of Ockham,

in feeling

philosophy of
the

Nominalism.

of Padua sigilo and

as

teaches

importance of
a

the individual

that the individual has

seems

rightto
in

think

and

organise
Huss

best to him.
and many

Wiclif other

England, and John

in

Bohemia,
1

independentminds

organised
et ai.

Boethius, Isidorus, Alcuin, Rabanus

Maurus, Bacon,

264
at

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

their

pleasure throughout Europe.

of the

They taught
to

the

importance
and the

individual

Christian

Christianity Scriptures. give

of right

individual

of interpretation Petrarca's

the

A brief survey
an

of Francesco what
was

activities will
at the

understandingof
of the
true

done actually
It
was

ning beginthe

Renaissance.

he

who

took

first positive steps in the revival of the fire and

the

learning.1Possessing

passion of
and

Catullus,he openly revolted

of medievalism. the pagan He dom free-

against the
reverted with

dimness
an

bareness fierce

almost

to intensity

and

of thought. spontaneity
men

He and his

travelled

widelyand
and ders. Flan-

visited the learned

He
saw

of France

Germany

a
a

world larger

than

knew, predecessors
of human life.

and
His

he

took

more

comprehensive
and

view

poetic instinct

taste exquisite

rejectedthe
and

dull

of writings satires.

the scholastics with his

own

their barbarous
went to

clumsy
in

For

he inspiration Latin

and Vergil,

his studies he and

verse,

enlargedhis Augustan
an

vocabularyfrom Apart
from his

the Ciceronian

writers.

Italian
Its

he

composed
the

epic in
Punic
can

Latin

entitled it

Africa.
was

subjectwas
with
an

Second that

War, and
now

received realised
or

enthusiasm
But

be scarcely the

understood.
one

it recalls to which the

us

fact significant

that
was

of the great motives

led to the Renaissance

so long spirit,

renewal
in

in

Italyof

national The

stifled small

both

and politics

art.
1

and petty republics

(1304-1374.)

THE

RENAISSANCE

265
the memory had
to

had principalities time when the world and

now

almost

blotted out

of the of

the great Roman and and when Asia

Rome Minor.

Empire
gave A

been

mistress

law

Spain

and

Gaul

Africa

recollection of

this fact

thrilled through the minds for Italian

of all Italians and

was

inspired
to
main re-

that sentiment
a

unity which

destined

vital

thing down

through the succeedingcenturies

of Sardinia
a

until

graduallythe Kingdom
in

gave

it

actuality through

when

1870

the

King
and

of

United

Italyburst

the walls of Rome

of capital
a
new

made

that ancient

citythe splendid

and
Latin

powerful State. epic on

Latin
a

As

to Petrarca's

the Second

Punic

War,

its verse

is

imperfect. The
still obligedfor
the

poets of the Renaissance

to guess at

periodwere
of the

long time
which
are

many

in quantities

words

they employed, and

in this poem many

they often guessedwrong; splendid passages

of all is
one

yet there

of which

perhaps

the most

significant
is
a

of nine

lines in the ninth

book,1 which

and striking spirited prophecy of

One
more

the Renaissance
to

itself.

importantfact
mind,

remains

be mentioned.

To

Petrarca's
texts known

it began to be

apparent that the classical

but
a

to his world

formed

small

part of the
once

mass great and splendid

of literature that had

set

existed;

and

he appears

to have

himself to the task of its recovery.

in his he travels, with
some

Wherever

he

went

searched
measure

for of

manuscriptsof

classic authors, and

1

ix.

273-282.

266

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

success.

At
a

Liege

he

discovered

two

new

orations

of

Cicero and
a

part of Cicero's letters.

the Institutio of

At
"

Verona

he found

of portion

Quintilian,
its way

then

practically
all the
rest

unknown.
as a

More

important in

than

he recognised and discovery, philological

edged acknowl"

the very close relation of Latin achievement

much for the

to

Greek,

derful won-

time, as strange,in fact, as

relation of Sanskrit
age,
to

the both

later and
an

of discovery

the

Greek made
there of

Latin.

In

his old

Petrarca, like Cato,

effort to master
no one

the Greek
at

language. Unluckily
was

was

in Florence

that time who

capable
to

teachinghim,
a

and

he

died without which had

learningenough
been
sent

read

copy

of Homer

him

from

Constantinople.1
Petrarca that
was

the first true

for classical

son

of the Renaissance, in
not

his love

was antiquity as was

in the

least

degree

overlaid

by medievalism,
been
done

that

of Dante.

Despising all
hundred and spirit had
his

that had he

in the

preceding seven
return to

years,

to struggled passionately

the he in

life of the
a

classical age.
of style

Before

his death

attained to

Latin De

remarkable

and purity,

his Epistolce, the note

and his Viris Illustribus,

so

he dialogues

struck
as

of classicism

and clearly

so

splendidly
more

to waken

the dormant

genius of Italyonce
Boccaccio disciple
was

to

Petrarca

urged his friend

Latin, and
Calabrian

and

to render

this copy

of Homer the aid of

into
a

the task
one

very

imperfectlyperformed with
Pilato.

Greek,

Leonzio

THE

RENAISSANCE

267
da Ravenna

life.1 Petrarca's Giovanni

most

Giovanni gifted secretary,

(or
the

an Malpaghini),

was accomplished Latinist,

noted

missionaryof
over

the

new

movement.

Travelling
him of

from
a

city to city all

of

he gathered about Italy,

he but

host

pupils to
and
to

whom

taught the Latin, not

of Cicero and

the

monks

schoolmen,
them the
new

Caesar,

communicating
with
a new

them and stirring impulse,

enthusiasm

that

had

been

felt both

by

self him-

and

by

his

master. inspired

Giovanni

Boccaccio,2who
was an

is best known
son

to moderns

by

his

Decameron,
His

enthusiastic

of

the
soon

sance. Renaistaken
to

mother he

was

French, but

he

was

where Italy,

flunghimself

into the gay

was

life and

natural

beauty of
Robert,
a

the

cityof Naples, which

of culture and

then, under
the

King
same

centre

learning.At

time he became
much time

interested in classical study and had

spent

in

copying manuscripts of
the

Terence

and

Apuis

leius.

It is

that likely

latter author, whose

book
Boccaccio

a professedly

collection of Milesian

tales, gave

the firstsuggestion for his

Decameron, which

in is,

ment arrange-

and of

manner,

collection of Milesians,that is to say,

as we

short, witty stories

1

know

them

now.

But

from

There

is

critical edition of the

On

Africa by

Corradini

with

an

Italian

translation

1874). (Oneglia,

Petrarca

see himself,

Mezieres,Pitrarque
and

(Paris,1867) ; Geiger,
Petrarch 2d ed.
*

Petrarca

1874) ; (Leipzig,
de

Robinson
et

Rolfe,

(New York, 1898),and

Nolhac, Pitrarque

VHutnanisme,

(Paris, 1907).

I3I3-I37S-

268

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

the

standpointof
because

Boccaccio classicist,

is most
to
an

tant imporexcellent
on

of the
wrote

fact that he
a

attained

Latin various Varro

styleand

number
the

of treatises
manner

in Latin

subjects, quite after

or

(let us
those of

say)
Giovanni

of

Suetonius.1 in
at

His
turn

and disciples

Malpaghini
culture
cities. of

their

preached

the

gospel of
and
other

cal classiian Ital-

Venice, Mantua,
Bruni2

Rome,

Leonardo

made

excellent translations

Aristotle, Demosthenes, and

Plutarch; while

Barbaro,
One

and others shared Strozzi, of them, Colutius

to

in the enthusiastic

labours.

Salutati

chancellor (Colucciodi Salutato), ments publicdocuthus

the

of city

Florence

in 1375, first used in the

sonorous

of his office the

Latin

of

Cicero,and

forced upon themselves

the classic which de' Pizzicolli for

popes

and

of securing for princesthe necessity secretaries who

were

scribes and

masters

of

style. The
had
to

interest which classical

to

pertainedto
led antiquity feel
a

thing everyCiriaco

do with

of Ancona) (Cyriacus than

siasm strong enthuHe

rather archaeological every

remains. literary the of

ransacked

part of

Italy and

Greek

islands,

besides manuscripts, bits collecting,

sculpture, gems,
as inscriptions

medals,
seemed

and
to

and coins, him

taking note

of such

When significant.

asked

what

was

his go
to

object in
1

these

endless

he replied, "I journeyings,

See

Korting, Boccaccio's
cit. pp.

Leben

und
*33
"

Werke,

pp.

742

foil.

(Leipzig,

1880) ; Symonds, op. 1890).

87-97,

etc. (Paris, Cochin, Boccaccio,

*

1369-1444.

270

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Medievalism.1 of

He

strove

also to harmonise those

of

the

ings teachStrozzi

with Christianity

paganism.

employed

all the facilitieswhich

gave

his great commercial him for the

terests in-

in other countries

and discovery

purchaseof manuscripts.
clear from It is perfectly of

all this, that it was

the

not

the downfall scholars

and Constantinople
about the

of dispersion

Greek

that

brought

Renaissance,since
to

the thirst for

the learning, the

reversion

the

classical

antedated spirit,
:

end of the

Byzantine Empire by nearlyeighty years

favoured
a

"Circumstances
The Italian

rapid spread of the

new

culture.

cities, grown

rich under

democracy, but having tired

united

somewhat
of that

of its

had been passing into the control responsibilities,

of

extraordinaryseries
without new-made

despoticrulers
a was

who

with

brutal

of character unscrupulousness
art
a a

taste
one

for the best in literature

of the chief aims
to

and
power for

parallel.It

tyrant like Cosimo

de' Medici

that he provided
Even

the

means

of existence for talent of every

one

sort.

the

bloody ruffians who,

learned
and

after

another,held

power

in

Milan, made

maintained placesfor scholars and artists, research.

were

and encouraged libraries,

The

ancient

universities of

Bologna, Padua,
breath of the
new

Salerno

reinvigorated by the healthful

the of the rivalry
new a

learningand stimulated by by the

Council
men

schools founded
free hand
a

younger

republics. The Papacy, with passed into (1431-1449),

and V., Pius II.,
an

after the

of Basel

the control of whom

series of

like Nicholas
art
was

Leo

X., in
In

the interest in

and learning

absorbingpassion. impulse,may
thus
to have

under learning, fact,

the Italian humanistic

be said

to

have much

taken

on

the

form

of

fine art and

concealed

of its serious

import. Under

all these

favouringconditions it is not strange that

1

Infra, p.

271.

THE

RENAISSANCE

271
erness be associated with the clevThe

certain
of

of character flippancy the

came

to

fifteenth-centuryscholars.
the human
to
an

lightnessof

caccio Boc-

had natural

seemed

natural
life.

expressionof exuberant
A

joy in the

things of
way

had century later,this sincerity that

of their

largelygiven Everything
Without
was

over-refinement
the
name

knew

no

limits.

in permissible

aesthetic

experiment.

in any
many

formal

way
more

renouncing

tianity, to Chrisallegiance
in of

became

interested in philosophy than really

in

and doctrine,

lax increasingly

followingthe ordinary forms

devotion."

'

Here, then, is
as

to be

seen

what

is meant

by
of

Humanism
course

opposed

to

Medievalism.
to

Humanism
the Roman

gests sugfine

humanitas, which

mind

meant

breeding combined
a

with
"

careful cultivation, and geniality,

certain

urbanitas

in other the
one

words,
we

the

characteristics describe
as a

which

to-daymark
and
a

whom The

would

gentleman

scholar.

key-note of
and
an

Humanism every
to
a

is a toleration of individual tastes form of

to objection

dogmatism.
The
men

The

mediaevals Renaissance

were

dogmatic
no

degree.
upon the

of the

imposed

check

aesthetic tastes
a

of others,

though they were

was

all

bound

together by

common

love of what

fine and

graciousand Returning
we Italy,
1

beautiful.2
to

the

relations

between

Byzantium

and

can

see readily

in the first place that the Renais-

See

infra, p.
Die des

272.

Voigt,

Wiederbelebung des Humanismus,

in

klassischen ed.

Allerthums

oder

das

erste

Jahrhunderl Culture

3d

(Berlin,1893) ; Burckhardt,
trans.

The and cil.

of

the Renaissance Eve

Italy,Eng.

(London, 1898) ;

Gasquet,

The

of the Reformation (London, 1905) ; Emerton, op.

272

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

sance

antedated
1S"

the sack of

Constantinople by the
utmost

Turks

(1453). I*

indeed, of

the

sical importance to clasin the

literature that the

of Greek
an

general interest
while Had

Recovery
still
been
to

manuscripts began

was Constantinople

independent Grecian
of the of

city.

the Renaissance

postponed,many
in the

treasures literary

brought

Italy
the

early part

the fifteenth century to have

remained

supply

demand
to

of Italian scholars must

in Greece it is taken from the

be

destroyed in

the

of Byzantium, where pillage

at

said that traditionally

and year

least 120,000
As

books

were

burned
1400

by
to

the fanatical Turks. 1450, there

texts
was an

it was,

brisk increasingly
an even

portatio im-

of Greek demand

into of

and Italy, them.

greater

for translations
a

Thus,
for

Nicholas

V.,

who,

as

monk,
when his

had

run

deeply into debt

munificent
to

manuscripts,
and

became,
It
was

Pope,
purpose

collector the

patron.
classics

have and

all

Greek He

rendered

into hundreds

idiomatic
of

lucid
his

Latin.

tained main-

copyistsin
were

service,and
him
to

agents
for

in

foreign countries

employed by
he
for who gave

wholly
Perotti

procuring codices.
hundred ducats
to

It

was

five

($1200)
Guarino
a

translatingPolybius into gold florins

also
for
a

and Italian,
version of

thousand
He

for

like

Polybius into
thousand
Even

Latin.

promised
metrical him

Filelfo

the

sum

of ten

gold florins
the

ing render-

of Homer.
court

when took

plague drove
him all his

and

his

from

Rome,

he

with

and copyists

THE

RENAISSANCE

273
of them.

translators lest he
of books

should

lose any

His

tion collecvolumes
dinal Car-

numbered the

at his

death two
the Vatican

thousand

and

became

nucleus

of

Library.
a

Bessarion, the translator of Aristotle and

at Xenophon, collected,
a

part of

cost

of

thirtythousand
of six hundred.

gold
For

florins, manuscriptsto the

the safe

number

keeping of these,the
a

Venetian

Republic,in 1468,
of

erected

massive

and building,

thus laid the foundation The

was
a

the great Library of St. Mark.

noblest

Italian collection of
to

which
Urbino

existed at this time

Even
soon

that of Frederick

(1444-1482).1
as

as
as

boy he had

begun

purchase books, and kept some

was
one

he reached

manhood His

he

at work. forty copyists continually

library
wide

of the most

completeof the

age,

a including

range

of literaturewhich

not onlytheology, but represented

a

medicine, and philosophy,

all of

listof Greek

prising authors, com-

all of Pindar, Sophocles,

were possession

and

all of Me-

nander.2

In his

of all the great catalogues

libraries of

Italyand

of

even foreignlibraries, including

1
2

Also The

called Federico

di Montefeltro.
was

complete Borgia.

Menander

probably
for the

lost at the sack of Urbino

recovery

by
that
a

Cesare have

Scholars
as

hope

ultimate

of books
may

been

regarded
source.

wholly
very

lost.

The

Egyptian papyri
have

prove

valuable

Thus Menander.
may
now

recentlythey
mediaevals

yielded parts
MSS. of of

of Bacauthors

chylides and
now

The

possessed

lost.

We

look for the

missing books
and

Livy, for

the MSS. like

of

Petronius,for

all of

Menander,

perhaps

for the

lyricpoets

and Sappho, Alcaeus,

are

others of whose See

writingsonly

the veriest 268.

fragments

now

known
T

to

exist.

Burckhardt, op. cit.i. p.

274

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

those

so

far away

as

Oxford.
not

It is worth

noting that

his
was

collection contained then

"

only ancient works, but what

is to
say, contemporary Here
was

"

modern,"

that

literature the true

Dante,

Petrarca, and

Boccaccio. modern

type of humanist, and

would do
well
to
a

one. that

classical scholars

to

emulate.
corner

Too of
a

often

they narrow

their

knowledge only
two
or

small

which specialty

profits

and three,

they ignore the great golden world

life and

outside, pulsating with

filled with
be

millions

of

things of which
The

no

one

should
come

altogetherignorant.
in contact
to

present writer has himself

with

blind pur-

ignoramuses who
but
were

were

supposed

be

classicists

who

knew really

because nothing of the classics,

and
one

they
shed

ignorantof

the thousand

thingswhich

an

interpretative light upon

sources

classical of

learningthrough the
literature the
to

varied, multicoloured

general
are

and

history and
who have
own

and politics
often

art.

These

creatures

too

dragged
One

the classics down may wish

the level
a new

of their

ignorance.
which

to-day for
the
same

Renaissance

shall be
same

actuated

with

wide
that

sympathy
marked

and

the

comprehensive learning
in the fifteenth century. services in the and recovery

the great Revival after

But,

all,the greatest
were

of

classical texts

rendered, not by

popes

but princes,
to

by less distinguished persons

spare, gave
went

who, having
their time and

little money labour. in

a

the

more

of freely

These search

forth like seekers after hidden

treasure

THE

RENAISSANCE

275

that

had
a

for them, in their enthusiasm, all the romantic

new

zest of

Crusade.
with
was

It must the ardour

be remembered of the
new

that while the revival,

of Medievalism.

Italywas
rest

ablaze

of

Europe Only

still plunged in the dulness there had

some

here and
the
as

scholar yet single

The monasteries
were

caught
were

the

of spirit

Renaissance.
ever.

stillas

somnolent
their

The

schoolmen

still
ists copy-

threshingout
of and Duns the

chaff. mouldy theological

The

North
to

were

still erasing Vergil and

room

Catullus and

Lucretius Scotus.

make

for Rabanus

Maurus

Into these
to search

haunts sleepy
the

came

the scholars of that

Italy, eager

among

parchments

lay in dusty bundles

even

in the

the cellars, and scriptoria, for any scroll The

or

sometimes

the outhouses,
of

scrap

that contained
these

the Latin

pagan

Rome.

story of

of explorations, of experienced,

the the

difficultiesencountered, of the rebuffs

disappointments undergone,and
achieved, would
related here. read
One
name

of the

discoveries splendid but

it cannot

like

romance;

be

in the with

historyof

this
of

period is, priceless

cause be-

however,

so

linked closely
to

the recovery
a

manuscripts,as
of the

at justify

least
he

passing mention,
in the may

services which
more

rendered what
we

revival of
vation exca-

and learning
of shown

in especially

call the scholars

texts

hitherto

unknown.
him

Many

have

their

gratitudeto
"

the by calling of

first half of

the fifteenth century

The

Age

Poggio Bracciolini."

276
Gian

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Francesco
a

Poggio
man,

Bracciolini

was

Florentine,

who,

as

young From

scripts. gained his living by copying manuwas

his fees he

able to pay

for instruction
"

under

two

of the

greatest teachers
and Manuel
to

of his time

Giovanni

da Ravenna Later this he

in Latin became

Chrysolorasin
Roman

Greek.
and in

secretary

the the

Curia,

capacityhe accompanied
on

of the great dignitaries

Church and
even

their official visits to

Switzerland,Germany,
of these their

England,
made
are

so

that the notes

from interesting

journeys

which
and

he

very 1453,

quaintness
to

naivete\

In

he

was

made

Chancellor

the

Republic
which

of

Florence, Prior, and

wrote

in Historiographer, of the
a

capacityhe
upon

the

annals

city in
man

Latin

modelled

that of

Livy. Poggio was

and
an

of great

wide versatility,

sympathy,
His

intense

enthusiasm
able, remarkan

for classical literature.

even

was literary activity won

in that era, for he

a

distinction

as

orator,2

as

an

as historian,3

keen

though

scurrilous controversialist,4 readable

as

as a satirist,5

writer of very from the

epistles,9
as a

as

an

as a essayist,7

translator

Greek,8 and
and

compiler

of

witty though

indecent

anecdotes
nor things,

grams.9 epi-

It is not, fluent and

1

however,

for these he
2

for his His

easy

Latin, that

is

now

remembered.
of Florence.

380-1459.

Orator Publicus

Historyof Florence.
He attacked

Against Filelfo (q.v.). regarding his Especially

travels.

chieflythe clergy.
8

Imitating Seneca. styled Facetia. Collectively

He

translated

Xenophon's Cyropadia.

278
the
was

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Pope that
a

in

Cistercian convent

at

Roskilde

there

all of the lost books. manuscript of Livy containing

at
once

Poggio

persuaded Cardinal
in search of

Orsini

to

send

special messenger
bestirred himself
treasure.

while Cosimo it,

to

de' Medici
secure

and

despatched agents

this

The

Dane, however, had

not

probably lied,for Poggio'sown

is
count ac-

the

manuscript could
of

be

found.

how

he

discovered that
even

l Quintilian

interesting
libraries
were

because

it shows

in the .most

famous

of the North, the books little valued

"

which sake.

they contained Poggio writes:

lies
some

very

for their
of

own

"

The

monastery

St. Gallen

twenty

miles

from

the city.
of

Thither,partlyfor
we we

amusement

and

partlyfor the sake

was a

findingbooks, of which

had

heard
our

that there

large

collection in the convent, of the well-stocked and

age.

directed

steps. In the middle

safe Quintilian
as

library, we

discovered

yet

sound, though covered with dust and

You but
must
were

from neglect and filthy

not

know

that the books

a
"

are

housed

as

serve, they deat

lying in
of
a

most
a

foul and

dismal

dungeon

the

very

bottom would

tower,

place into which

thrust.
. . .

condemned

nals crimiindeed

hardly have been

to

was Quintilian

rightside
and the hand
matted

look upon,

and

ragged like
He seemed

felon with and be

to

rough beard garb against

from

hair,protesting by his
sentence.

countenance
to

of his injustice and

out his stretching

on calling a

the Romans,

begging

be saved

so

undeserved
1

fate."2
of

This in

completemanuscript
thirty-twodays
"As and

Poggio copied with Quintilian,

it to Leonardo

his

own

hand

sent

Bruni, who
of which

wrote
so

back
may

to him: you

Camillus

was

called the second author

founder

Rome,

receive the title of the second

to the

of the works

you

have

restored
2

world."

There

is a life of

Poggio

in

1837). Englishby Shepherd (Liverpool,

THE

RENAISSANCE

279
set the similar
x

Side
account

by

side with

this narrative, we
visit to Monte

may

of Boccaccio's

Cassino

"

"

Desirous

of

saving the collection of books

to

...

he
a

modestly
The
up ;
'

asked
monk

the monk

open

the

libraryfor him
a

as

favour.
:

stiffly answered, as he pointed to open.'

Boccaccio

steep staircase
but he found
a

Go

it is

gladly went
a

up;
was

that
or

the

place which
He

held

so saw

great
grass

treasure

without

door

key.

entered,and
and and
many

sproutingon
with

the windows, and

all the
to

books
open

benches
turn

thick

dust.

Astonished, he
tome

began

the leaves
and

of first one

and

then and
were

another, and

found Some

various

volumes

of ancient

foreign works. snipped and

. . .

of them

had

lost several sheets. the

text

Others

pared all around Coming

these
answer

and

mutilated

in different ways.

to

the cloister, he books

him

asked been the

so

the monk

whom

he

met,

why
The little

valuable
was were

had

mutilated. disgracefully
to

given

that

monks, in order

gain

money,

in the habit of cutting off sheets and

to

making psalters
into

which and

they sold

boys. The
to women."

margins they made

charms

disposed of them
Other
famous those

discoveries
of

that

were

made

about

this

time

were

fairly complete manuscriptsof

Bruni

Cicero's

letters works

by by

Leonardo

(1409),of
at

Cicero's

rhetorical
of
a

Gherardo

Lanbriano,
of

Lodi

(1425),and by
Nicholas

fairlycomplete manuscript
Treves

Plautus

of

(1429).
was

Of

the

Greek

classics the most

In he 1423, had he

famous
at

collector
Venice

Giovanni

Aurispa.
which these
were

arrived

with

238

volumes

purchased

in

Constantinople. Among
1

the celebrated

Codex

Quoted

from

Benvenuto

da

Imola, by Symonds, op. cit., pp.

133-134.

280

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Laurentianus

written

in the tenth Museum

century and
at

now

served preIt
tained con-

in the Laurentian six the

Florence. of

plays of ^Eschylus,seven
of

Sophocles,and
There
text
were

Argonautica
Iliad

Apollonius Rhodius.
the

also the

(Venet. A),

complete

of

thenes, Demos-

besides

Plato, Xenophon,

Diodorus,

Strabo,

Arrian, Athenaeus, Lucian, Dio

So

Cassius,and
field of

Procopius. manuscript-

great

mass
never

of

treasure

in the

was collecting

found

by

any

other

individual.

It

was

about
to

this time

that

some

of the later of the

Byzantines
The
tioned. men-

began
name

be

known

in the

countries

West.

of

Manuel
He

Chrysoloras has
in

already been

taught Greek
his

Florence,Venice, and Rome,

to

and

pursued

journeying
(1415).
He

the
a

North,

where

he

died, in Germany
of Plato's much
to

made

literal translation

Republic; and spread the

his contemporary, Platonic

Plethon, did
Theodorus
wrote
an

philosophy.

Gaza, in the early part of the fifteenth century,

elementary

Greek

grammar,

and

made

translations

of

Aristotle,Theophrastus, ^Elian, and

1

Dionysius,besides
wooden tablets
or

Codex, originally meaning

with
or wax

log of wood,
and in after

later meant

covered
paper

for

writing on,
were

times, when
and it.

parchment
In the

other of
a

materials

substituted codex is used Codices Codex

was

for wood

put together in

the

shape

book,

the

name

applied to

language

of classical in the who

codex scholarship,

of any
are

manuscript

edition

preserved
Dutch

libraries of

Europe.
e.g. the

sometimes

named

after persons after the

possessed them,
Voss
; but

Vossianus, named

scholar Codex

oftener from

after the the British

placeswhere
Museum.

they

had

been

kept, e.g.

Britannicus

THE

RENAISSANCE

28

turning the
into

De

Senectute be

and

the De

Amicitia

of Cicero
the

Greek.

It must

said, however, that

the Greeks
and who

Italian
to

humanists
teach and them.

stood The
"

high above
latter
were

came

slow

unimaginative
were

plodding
and

essentially Byzantine. They

of water
to

hewers
as

of wood Francesco

drawers

such brilliant Italians

lecturer and Filelfo,itinerant,

teacher, witty
tor transla-

collector of manuscripts, and controversialist, of Homer;

Valla
or

his brilliant contemporary,

or

Laurentius

(Lorenzo della Valla);

or

Marsilius

Ficinus

(MarPoli-

Ficino) ; siglio
tianus ; and

the

immensely erudite Angelus

Victorius

Petrus especially

(PietroVettori).1
made the

The

men

just mentioned
volumes, and

have

been

subject

of many
and their

in their

their achievements, lives,

controversies,one

finds

displayed the virtues

and

and

the
of

vices, the
the

enthusiasms,

the

illuminating
from

ardour
to

Renaissance.
like
one

Filelfo, roving
the

place

place,seems
of

of

greater Sophistsof the

time

Socrates.2
in
1444
a

Valla, though scurrilous like Poggio,

volume
was

prepared
Latini
on

which

he

called
treatise

Elegantice
on

Sermonis.

It

a essentially

style,
ing Dur-

Ciceronianism. on purityof diction,practically

the Middle any

Ages and
assurance,

later,it
since

was

difficult to write
were no

Latin

with

there

cons full lexi-

whose
from
1

makers barbarisms

had
of

sifted out
the

the

classical words

the

preceding centuries, nor

"

1499-1584-

Supra,

pp.

49-51.

282

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

were

there
was

any

grammars what
was

which
wrong
not

taught authoritatively
in the syntax of the
to

what Latin

rightand

language.
but

Valla
a

did

attempt
on

indicate

barisms; bar-

he took

safe stand

the basis of Cicero's

Latinity. He
or

could such
a

say

that such word

and
was

such

sentence

such

and

phrase or

rightbecause phrasesand
be
sure.

it

was

Ciceronian. be say,

Other

sentences

and

words
That

might
is to
was

quitecorrect,
Valla's book
with
so

but
was

one

could not

guide
and
was

to

Ciceronians,and
that it

executed

much

care

taste

imposed
in less

upon than Even

a

Italians the hundred

Latin

that

Cicero's,and

years it may

it had be

reached

its fifty-ninth edition.

to-day

consulted

with

profit.Valla, Thucydides;
careful

translated Homer, likewise, while

he

Herodotus, and
of

made
to

an

edition and his

Quintilian with

attention

the

text

doctrine.1
name

Politianus,who
had
a

took

from

Monte He

Puliciano,

wonderful

reputationin
Latin when
1400
at
a

his time.
at

began
under
of age,

his the he

studies in both
best
wrote
one

and

Greek

Florence years

and teachers,
a

fifteen scarcely lines

poem

of

the victoryof celebrating At

seventeen

of

the Medici

tournament.

he made him

wrote

Greek exquisite
tutor to

poems.
sons,

Lorenzo and

de' Medici gave

him
1

his

two
Valla

afterward

See

Vahlen, Lorenzo

(Vienna, 1870) ; Nisard, Les Gladiateurs (Paris,1889) ; Wolff, Lorenzo

Valla

de

la

etc. Republique des Lettres,

(Leipzig,1893) ; Schwahn 258-265.

(Leipzig,1896) ; and

Symonds, op. cit. pp.

THE

RENAISSANCE

283

charming

villa where conditions.

to

he

could

study
as

under
an

the most

favourable from

Being
he

sent

ambassador
in

Florence

Rome,

was

received
At

the most

manner flattering

by

the

Pope.

the request of His received

was
200

Holiness,he translated Herodianus

crowns
as

and

gold

reward.

As

he translator,

inimitable,
chair of

but
Latin His

he

a work, filling professorial preferred

literature

in

Florence, and
all
over

also and

teaching Greek.

fame
the the

spread

Europe, study
under

pupils flocked
among
"

from

great cities
first two
"

to

him,

them

being
and

English teachers Michelangelo.

of Greek One may

Grocyn

Linacre

and
was

rightly say

that Politianus

perhaps the

most

brilliant scholar of
was

of the Renaissance, since he the first period

not

only
the

vigorous but
noble pages

original. While
he

able

to

reproduce
with

periodsof Cicero,
which

could

write

equal ease
the

recalled the
His of Latin

of Livy elegance
verse

and

strength
for

of Tacitus. its

is

to especially

be noted

beauty

and expression

for the

glow

of its author's

imagination.1
As and for

he stands Victorius,
His

as

the greatest
one

philologist
ence, experi-

critic of his century.

for he
was

lifewas
times
a

of wide

at

various and

a soldier, diplomat,

and

teacher of Greek
on

Latin.

He

made

text

editions
acute-

and
ness

commentaries the work

1

Cicero, which

surpassed in

of

his

contemporaries. Like

Politianus,

See

Gresswell, Life of PolUian

(London, 1805).

284
he with

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

translated
notes
were

some

of the works
on

of Aristotle.

Editions

put forth

Sophocles, parts of -^Eschylus,

some

and Varro, Isaeus, Xenophon, Terence, Sallust, known is his

less

Grecians.

But

his most

remarkable

production (1582).
It

Varies Lectiones,in

books thirty-eight
acuteness

shows and
of

beyond

all

questionthe
of his

of his criticism

the vast

extent

reading.1 He
of

had

the honour

being painted by Titian, and

from

being sought out by

students

all countries
was

in

Europe.
his

Victorius and

in especially interesting Aristotle's Poetics.

much
as

criticism

of exposition

He
as

the interpreted

famous

KaOapaL? in 1560, very

twelve
later. years In

Roborteli
did notion

had
ten

done
years

before, and

Castelvetro
attacks the

he his criticism,

of

poetic prose,
forms gam makes
notes

because
verse

Aristotle

in

defining the
Professor

poetic Spin-

always an
"

essential.

that the

prose" is used, perhaps phrase poetic (1564) in

his Arte Poetica. shine

for the first time, by Minturno The

two

great

names

of Politianus and
to

Victorius

forth to

give splendour
the

the

closingyears
is

of the first best

period of

Renaissance, which
It had

perhaps
the

called
of the

the Italian
New

Period.

witnessed
the

dawn

Learning.

It had

watched

enthusiastic

revival

of pagan immense
1

and culture,
treasures

it had

restored to Western lore.2

Europe
of the

of ancient
pp.

By

the

end

See

Creuzer, Opusc. ii.

Victorius immense

21-36 (Frankfurt, 1854); Riidinger,

Petrus
2

(Halle,1896).
demand
for

The

manuscripts of lost authors

rather

natu-

286

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

we

name

Gutenberg or

Coster

or

the unknown
from

workman
Coster small
able mov-

who
Mainz

is said to have in

stolen the invention

at

Germany

and

then to have There

are

made
names

printing presses.
and about
Schoffer. 1430, We Certain that

also the

of Fust
known up about

it is that

printingwas
were

and
may,

regularpresses

set

1448.
the End

therefore, say

that the year The

men

1450 marks
of

of the Italian Renaissance. of immense

introduction of

was printing

importanceto

learning,

for

it

copiesof multiplied

the best-known

and classics,
into the hands
parative com-

by puttingthe apparatus
of every it paved scholar,

for critical work

the way for
a

generaland
The

scientific study of classical texts.1

use

of

printingspread
centres

with

remarkable

rapidity.The
Venice, Rome,
Mainz.
were

great

of book

were production

Cologne,
Before

Nuremberg, Augsburg, and Strassburg,

the close of the fifteenth

century, there

twenty-two
at

establishments printing
seventeen
most at

at

Cologne, twenty

Augsburg,

Nuremberg,

and sixteen at
names

The Strassburg.2 in
at at

famous

whose printers,

continually appear
Fust

the

of early were editions, history

and

Schoffer

Mainz,

John

Auerbach Aldi
at

at

Basel

16), Zell (1492-15

Cologne, the
1

Venice

,3John (1490-1597)
(New York, 1902).
ed.

Froben

See Prutz, The See

Age of the
de

Renaissance

3d Cotton, TypographicalGazetteer, Libraire, etc.,8

and

(Oxford, 185 2-1 866). (Paris, 1880) ;

A Short De

See Brunet, Manuel

vols.

Vinne,

The Invention

ofPrinting (New York, 1878) ; Hoe, (New York, 1902);

Historyof the
der Buck-

Printing Press

Faulman, Geschichte

truckverkunst (Vienna, 1882).

THE

RENAISSANCE

287
at

at Basel

Plantin and Christopher 2 7), (1496-15

Antwerp

The (1554-1589). that of William Western

firstpress to be set up
in 1477. The

in

England was
in the Mexico

Caxton

first press
of city

Hemisphere was

established in the

in 1540; and

the firstto be set up

in the British Colonies

in North

America

dates from the

name

1638 at
of the

Harvard

and College

survives under still

Press.1 University
the

Hence, the
of

first

great impulse toward

over

freer

spirit

ancient

times

swept

Italy, surgingon
took
so

to other

where countries,
Renaissance but rather
a was

its influence in
not reality

many

forms.
a

The

much

new

epoch,

harking-backto
it modified In

the civilisation of classical

to

which antiquity, Southern

in the

suit the

New

World

of

Europe.

classical
and

we scholarship,

as find,

earlydays of

Greece

Rome,

the first,

lation accumu-

of material for in various ways;

study; the expansionof development of

many

that
2

study
which

the

Criticism
"

calls into

its service

studies ancillary
a

graphy,3 Palaeo-

Epigraphy/ Numismatics,
1

knowledge
Rome and

of

the
the of

The

editions of classical authors firstprinted

any

is interesting. Thus
was a

editio

princepsof

ancient

was

printed at
first work

copy
was

De Cicero,

in 1465. Officiis, Constantinus

The

printedin

Greek

the

of 'Epur-fifxara

Lascaris words had

(Milan, 1476). Theretofore,in

been

printedLatin
work

books, Greek
was

inserted with

pen.

This

of Lascaris

set

up

according to
Aldus

its parts at various

one

places and

times,and gathered togetherby

2

into

book

(1495). (New

See

Spingarn, History of LiteraryCriticism

with with Giovanni

in the Renaissance

York, 1899).
3

As As

Aurispa.
who

Cyriacus of Ancona,
and
a

said that

seemed inscriptions
even

to

give a greater reason

truer

knowledge than

books themselves.

288

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Graphic
invention

and of
a

Plastic
means

and Arts,1 Architecture,2

for

the finally

making
one.

the

apparatus criticus of

accessible learning

to every

Thus, the Renaissance, though not, it,

was,
as
"

as

Michelet and

scribes de-

the

discovery of
Pater

the

World

Man,"
the It

Walter

said,

"

love of the their

own

thingsof
sake."
to

intellect and
was an

the

imaginationfor
sunburst, which

intellectual

restored centuries

modern
Greek the the

times

all that
Roman of

was

gloriousin
Dr. birth

the

of

and

culture.
a new

Sandys points out

was

that
with

metaphor

first associated

earliest revival of the

under Charlemagne,by Modoin, learning,

in this

Bishop of Autun,
Aurea
Roma

goldenline:

"

iterum
and

renovata

renascitur orbi.3

1
2

As with As with

Donatello

later with

Michelangelo and Bramante.

of the greatest architects
any

Brunelleschi It
was

(1377-1446),one
he

of

the Renaissance.
or
3

who,

more

than

other,revived

the Roman

classic forms
a

of architecture.
see

For

critical

history of the Renaissance

Voigt, Die

Wiederbe-

lebnng des Klassischen

in

1893) ; Burckhardt, Alterthums,3d ed. (Berlin,

in Italien Kultur (Stuttgart, 1890-1891); id., The

Geschichte der Renaissance der Renaissance in

8th ed. (Leipzig, 1901) ; Symonds, Italien,

naissance Re-

Italy (London, 1887) ; Walter (London, 1888) ; Vernon

Pater, Studies in the History Lee, Euphorion (London,

of the

Renaissance

1884) ; Scott,The Renaissance

The Italian Renaissance
e

of Art in Italy(London, 1888) ; Einstein, (Florence,1902); Sandys, Lectures

in

England (New York, 1902) ; Miintz,Precursori

on

del Propugnatori

Rinascimento

the Revival

of Learning (Cambridge, 1905); id.,op. cit. pp. 1-123); i. pp. 456-466 ; ii. 1-108 (London, Saintsbury, A History of Criticism, 1901-1902);
and for
a

convenient

summary,

Pearson, A Short History Vinne, Notable Printers of

of the Renaissance

(Boston, 1893). See

De

Century (New York, 1910). Italyduring the Fifteenth

VII

DIVISION

INTO

PERIODS

As

we

have

seen

already,

the

inspiration given by
the
is

ian Ital-

scholars
The first

extended
or more

rapidly

over

whole

of
to

Europe.
be called lasted
selves, our-

century

is what since it may

properly

the down

Renaissance
to

itself; but
present

its effects

have
we,

the

day,
and

be

said

that the

are

still

living

experiencing

results

of

that

great
the

revival. Renaissance

Many
as

scholars, therefore, would

regard
twentieth

continuing
the

down the

into

the

century,

calling
the

periods (i)
and

Italian,
the
man, Ger-

(2)

the

French,

(3)
the

English

Dutch,
This
is
a

(4)

and mode
of

(5)

Cosmopolitan.
the

convenient
were
spicuous con-

grouping
in

great personalitieswho
but

their

respective periods;
or so

roughly

we

may

set

down of

the
the In

fiftyyears

which
as

followed
the

the

ning begin-

Italian
it
we
see

Renaissance

Post-Renaissance

Period.

the fruits of Italian the different

many

culture of of

gradually Europe, learning,

distributed
until

throughout
were

countries

there

developed
tinge of

schools

each
1

having
See

distinctive

nationality.1

Nisard,

op. cit.,passim;

Pokel, Schriftstellerlexikon (Leipzig, Universette,Ancienne

et

1882)

; and

Michaud,
vols.

Biographie

Moderne,

last

edition, 45
v

(Paris. 1843-1865). 289

VIII

THE

AGE

OF

ERASMUS

While
was

the

impulse given by Italy and

felt
in of every

Italian
the other

scholarship
countries should
to

quickly
someone

country,

needed be the able

commanding
this of

personality
intellectual

who

to

interpret
and
must

great

movement

schools

peoples
not

Northern

Europe.
therefore

The

New

Learning
not

be

imitative, and
after
must

it must

remain be

Italian; but

its fundamental

principles according
each it
was

should the

accepted, they
instinct and

be

dealt

with of

to

national of

temperament
whose and
thus
was

of
to

the
form per-

peoples

the

North.

He

mission
to

this upon

splendid work, period

of

stamp

his

memory

the

transition,
who has

Desiderius

Erasmus,
in facts
a

the

greatest humanist
itself is Professor since have

ever

lived, and
The
form

whom about
sort

Humanism his

vividly personified.
Emerton has

life,as

said,
from

of

Erasmus-legend, writings
the which

they
been

are

taken

passages

in his

styled autobiographical, though

so

author remain

himself also

never

allowed
from

them his pen

to

be

called.
was

There
a

1500

letters

(for he
at

voluminous

and

ready writer);
"

representing
of every

least in

500

different

correspondents
290

people

grade

ERASMUS

291

from life, may be

a

the most
added that

lowly to
a

those who

sat

on

thrones.
was

It

letter from

Erasmus
no

regarded
an

by

king as being no
was a

less the

preciousand
same

less
a

honour

than

letter from

writer to

master. schoolvillage
so

So his

great became

his influence and

from may

widespread

fame,

that the
a

fifty years

i486

to

1536 constitute
called almost

in themselves
"

periodwhich
Desiderius

itself be

The

Age

of

Erasmus."
was

Desiderius
to

Erasmus

born
was an

at

Rotterdam.

cording Acwho

tradition

he

illegitimate son,
for

was,

cared nevertheless, lovingly died when

by

his

parents until
He
was

they both taught in

he

was

fifteen years of
school
at

age.1

the well-known

Deventer, and
"

later at three

Bois-le-Duc, where
years,

he says that he
the
narrowness

wasted

"

some

from suffering he Finally,

ten
"

and

the discomfort
near

of his life.

entered the monastery

of his

Gouda,

and

during the
In

years

stay there,he took priestly

"

orders.

1492

significant year!
in called,

he

left the

mon-

The

father
; hence

of the

Erasmus
name

was

his native

Dutch,
was

Gaert

or

Gerard This

of Erasmus himself

in the vernacular and Graecized novel

Gaert Gaert's. into Desiderius

name,

Erasmus The

Latinized

Erasmus. The The the

accurate powerfuland historically

by Charles Reade,
of the elder Gaert. it displays

Cloister and book

may

the

Hearth, givesa
to

fictitious account serious

be commended

the most

reader,since
in minute

later Middle

Ages

and

the

earlyRenaissance
fused

while detail,
a

yet its careful

into

knowledge
that is

has

been

by

the and

genius
alive.

of

great writer
Eliot's

something
is
every

singularlyconsistent
this

George

Rotnola

pale and
page

beside introspective author's

masterpieceof Reade, in
erudition.

which

the displays

and virility

292

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

astery, and, taking up

we

his abode
as a

at

Paris, he began what

But

should

now

describe

career. literary

having

regard for
better

the different

conditions

at

that

time, he might

be

termed
thus fame

an

independent scholar, teaching and

an

and writing,

making
and

income

which

brought him,

togetherwith
as

many he he

favours, the rightof living

His mind
was

he would

and

where

would.

lated stimu-

by much
to

for travel,

passed to Louvain,
he
a

to

England,

Basel, to Freiburg,and

spent three years of his life

curious culture

in

Italy.
was

But
to
a

here

we

note

fact: that the

man

who
was

spread
son

Italian the

through

the the

North North

himself

of

in North, receiving

the foundations
was,

of his

and brilliant scholarship. He genial

true

a genuine citizen of the world, a however, in fact,

equallyat cosmopolite,
sure

home

in every country, and

always

of

friendly greeting. How

was

ized thoroughlydenationalin the fact that when

Erasmus
was

may

be

seen

he

offered
was

at readership

Louvain

he declined the

because it,

he
"

not

familiar sufficiently

with

Dutch

language
that,
little he

his

native he

tongue!
at

It

is, indeed, quite certain

in
was

though

lived

times he

Paris, he

understood

French; that, though

knew
no

in Germany, frequently he greatly very of

a

German

; and

that, however
was

admired

his knowledge Italy, his

of Italian the

slight. In fact,
the
sort

only language
over

was

language king,
"

cultivated
of Latin,
was

world which

which

he with

reigned as
the utmost

he

spoke

fluency.

Its syntax

294 of

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

cultivated

men

who

gathered
at

around and in

the

famous

John publisher,
he
was

Froben,

Basel;

like manner,

an

intimate and with

friend of the Venetian well all the members Press.1 several which

Aldus publisher, of the circle

Manutius,
associated His

knew

the Aldine

writings fall
some

under

heads.
had

At

he first,
up in the

criticised
Catholic in

of the abuses
he made

sprung

Church, and
The

fun of the scholastic method of his works while religion, is to show

philosophy.
are

drift of many in

that forms of

of little value

the

spirit

genuine pietyis everything.

of Erasmus

A second

phase of
of

the lifeof

work

is found

in his editions with

the works

Aristotle and

Demosthenes,
and the

in part, of translations, of

Euripides, Lucian,
Latin Terence

Moralia

Plutarch.

Of

authors,not
and

includingthe
and

Patristic writers, he edited

parts of Cicero

Livy.

More

important

than
was

these

achievements, and

in fact

quiteepoch-making,
We

his critical revision of the New that such Lorenzo

a

Testament.

have
been

alreadyseen suggestedby
Testament.2

stupendous undertakinghad
his Annotations this work

Valla,in
a

to the New

Erasmus, in
the obvious be

prefaceto
no

of

Valla's,

pointed out

fact that

correct
a

translation of and linguist,

the Bible could

made

except by

trained

See supra, p. 286.

Supra,

pp.

241,

281-2.

This

tractate

by Valla

seems

to have

been

recovered

by

Erasmus

in the year

1505.

It represents the

starting-point

in Biblical criticism and

exegesis.

ERASMUS

295

that the

Greek original

manuscriptsought Evidently,he

to

be
at
2

carefully
once seven

revised and

compared.
for such he writes
an

began

to

equip himself
years later
"

undertaking; for
to the

in 151

"

Englishman, John Colet,the

says that he has Greek than
a

founder

of St. Paul's

School, and
with

already
scripts, manu-

collated the New and

Testament

the ancient
it in
more

that he has annotated

sand thou-

places.
The

work, when
in Basel. time it the

completed,was
It is very
was

publishedat

the press and

of Froben in its
never own

easy

to criticise it now,

criticised

because chiefly
of Greek that

Erasmus
some

attained

sure

knowledge

of said:

his
"

contemporaries possessed.1 He
Greek
I have master." studies
not
are

himself
much

once

My

almost
of

too

for my
or

courage, the

while
of
a

the He

means

securingbooks
that
"

help
the

also wrote
in Latin is

without

Greek

amplest erudition
was

imperfect." This, of
afterward

course,

in his

earlyyears.
grammar

Long

he rendered

into

Latin Greek
to be

the Greek
texts

of Theodorus of his

Gaza, while his

is also

mark

the climax

learning.2 It

noted

that in
which

1528

he

published a dialogue called

Latin
a

Ciceronianus,in

he discussed Latin
Bud6

protesting style,
of

modern againstlimiting
*For

to

pedantic imitation

instance, Guillaume
was a

(Gulielmus Budaeus), the

to superior

French

who philologist, See his

2

distinguishedGrecian, much (Paris,1884).

and editions

Erasmus.

Life by E. de Bude
as

Such

his translations
on some

already mentioned, besides

his

critical works

of the

Greek

Fathers.

296
the

'

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

vocabulary

and

phraseology of
the

Cicero.1
break

This

was

as interesting

marking
of

coming
was

between

the

Italian and

School other

which Latinity, which In

were

Ciceronian, strictly

the

schools

presentlyto
year he

arise in
his

Northern treatise With

on

countries. the correct

the

same

also wrote and

of pronunciation established
a

Latin

Greek.2

regardto Greek, he

which pronunciation countries is known

has been
of

practically adopted
and
"

in all the Northern

Europe

in the United the Erasmian

States,and

which

after him

as

Pronunciation."
"

Somewhat

later another
was

method, called
was

the Reuchlinian for its "Iotacism" vi, all have have been

Method,"
because sound of i

and proposed,3

known
et, and

of

the

vowels,rj, iy v,
machine.
remains
a

the

in the word

It

might

argued that,
to

since Greek
pronounce but
so

scholars ought living language,

of that

it

as

the

Greeks

day pronounced

it ;

many

changes had crept pronunciationof largelyfrom

in since the classical

period,
known

that the

educated the

Greeks

was

to

differ very
as
a

ancient

pronunciation.
have

Hence,

common

standard, most
method.

countries

held

to the Erasmian

As

to

the
it
was

pronunciation of
that largely

Latin

in

the

time

of

Erasmus,
1
2

of the

a fact made Italians,

Infra,p.
See W.

303.

G. Clark

in the

Journal (English)

i. 2 of Philology, admirable time of

98-108.

By Johann
an

Reuchlin Hebrew second

(Ioannes Capnio), an scholar,who

in lived
to

Grecian, and Erasmus,

and

also
was

erudite
as

in the

regarded

learningonly

him.

ERASMUS

297

evident

by

Erasmus

himself

in his

use

of

one

tion pronunciabefore ever whatfor

in whatever

country he might be, and

universities he all

might lecture.
the most all the

Scholars

retained

practical purposes

essential features of it, countries

of

because, coming from

Europe and
to

everywhere, this intercourse tended fraternising

a

tain main-

generaltradition which
time after.1

was

not

disturbed seriously

for

some

Erasmus, though easy-goingand

nevertheless which is

fond of social
of

pleasure,
work

accomplished an
one

amount

serious

prodigious when
a

gathers it together and

views itas this is

no

whole.

works Concerning his semi-theological

very

place to speak; and yet they give a pictureof

his mental

acteristi char-

attitude toward with life. In

and life, the

toward

all

thingsthat have
career

to do

early
wit,

part of his
satirised the
his (1508),

he wrote
the

books

which, with keen

Such
were

of failings

clergy.

his

Adagia

Encomium famous

Morice,or

Praise

and ofFolly(1509),

his especially

which or dialogues Colloquia, (1524),2

flashes

abound

in

livelysatire,and

of

inimitable

wit.

See

Erasmus,

De

Recta Die

Latini

Sermonis Grcecique des Griechischen

trans.

Pronunciatione

(Basel,1528) ; Zacher, Blass,The

and Pronunciation

Aussprache

1888) ; (Leipzig,

of Ancient Greek,Eng.

(Cambridge, 1890) ;

Corssen, Ueber Aussprache

*His

etc. der Lateinischen

as

Sprache (Berlin, 1870).

writingsmay
and letters,

be

classed

(a) theological;(b) satirical; (c)

his very such

educational;(d) philological; (e) critical; in (/) literary; as

numerous as

(g) expositoryin
a

lectures and
way.

discourses

he chose to

give in

unconventional delightfully

298
But when

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Martin
his

Luther

broke
the

with

the

Church, and
could
it admitted
seen,

declared
not

of independence His

Papacy, Erasmus
sense,

follow
that

him.

tranquilgood
were

while

certain abuses
with

temporarilyto be
but

had

no

sympathy
would

Luther,

believed

that all these

wrongs

right themselves

through
refused

the
to

wisdom
break

of

the Church the

itself. Therefore, he
of

with died
a

splendid traditions

papal Rome,

and

he

Catholic, although not

his

greatlyheeding external
mention here

forms because

in it manist huat

religion.This
how
"

fact deserves

shows

truly and trulyas

motto
was

unfeignedly Erasmus
Horace have in the been and

was

as

Augustan Age
that of the who

Rome.

His

might well

genial
"

poet who

praisedthe Golden
modus
in

Mean,

declared:

"Est

rebus,sunt certi denique fines,

Quos ultraquecitraquenequit consistere rectum."

Professor Emerton but
was a

does not
very

admit

that Erasmus

was

genius;yet who
what that Man

great genius could have

Erasmus? been his
so

plished accom-

accomplished by
could have

Who,

at

moment, particular
of his Time ? He

the absolutely

exercised, by
which
man was

peculiarly winning
over

an personality,

influence

felt all

Europe.

He of in
a

was

a king of letters,

of

extraordinary reading,
a

sane

and

mind, yet brilliant and original

to the progress

contributor fication the uniwas

score

of ways

of

and learning
his influence

of classical

philology. All

for

ERASMUS

299

good.

There

was

no

blot

upon He

his character, and had

was
no
"

his

were aspirations as

always noble.

pride personal
a

to his

own

accomplishments;
The
was

he

friend of all all these

the world." different ways

work
a

which serious in two

he
one,

performed in
and it
that
"

was were

seriously

by expressed by
"

Erasmus

sentences
:

penned

him

in the year my

before his death

to

I used

best endeavours

free the
to

risinggeneration inspireit with

but Italy, for

from
a

the

and depths of ignorance, studies.

I wrote, not
*

thirst for better and

for

Germany

the Netherlands."

Important

Editiones

Principes

of

the

Fifteenth

Century

I. Greek

1481.

Theocritus and Days.

with (Id. 1 -xvnr.),together

Hesiod,Works
of the

1488.

Homer

(ed. Chalcondylas)
.

Valla's Latin
1474.

trans,

Iliad 1495.

was

printed as earlyas (Aldus).

Hesiod, Opera omnia

1495-98. Aristotle (Aldus).

1

Erasmus,

Opera, ix,1440

(Basel,1540).
and work

See the lives of Erasmus Laur

and

the studies of his character Erasmi

by

De

(Paris,1872) ; Nisard, (Oxford, 1906); (London,

Erasmus

edited i (1484-1514), Epistolce, Erasmus Erasmus See also

on

by

P. S. Allen Erasmus

Jebb,

(London,

1890) ;

Froude,

1894) ;

Emerton,

(Cambridge, 1899) ; Pennington, Nichols, The Epistlesof

Education, (New
and Erasmus

(London,

1901).

ward, (1901-1904) ; WoodDe

Erasmus

York, 1904);
Lectures
on

Nolhac,
of

Erasme

en

Italie (Paris,1888) ;
pp.

Sandys,

the Revival

Learning,

162-167,

and

pp.

177-178 (Cambridge, 1905).

300

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

1496.

Euripides,
Apollonius

Med.,

Hypp.,

Ale,
Lucian and

Androm.

(Lascaris),

(Lascaris),
(excl. Lys.
Astronomi

(in Florence). Thesm.).

1498.
1499.

Aristophanes
Aratus

{In

vett.

ap.

Aldum).

II.

Latin.

1465.

Cicero,
author.

De

Officiis.
Cf.
art.

First

printed

edition in

of

classical Brit.

"Typography"

Encycl.

Lactantius

(Rome). Livy,
Lucan,

1469.
1470.

Caesar,

Vergil,

Apuleius,

Gellius

(Rome).
(Rome).
Terence

Persius, Juvenal, Tacitus,

Martial,

Quintilian,
Horace

Suetonius

Juvenal,

Sallust,

(Venice),

(Strassburg).
1471. 1472.

Ovid Plautus

(Rome,
(G.

Bonn), Merula),

Nepos

(Venice).

Catullus,

Tibullus,' Propertius

Statius
1473. 1474. 1475.

(Venice). (Brixiae).
Flaccus

Lucretius Valerius Seneca

(Bonn). Works),
Sallust

(Prose

(first volume

issued

in

octavo). 1484. 1485. 1498.

Seneca

(Tragedies)
the

at

Ferrara.

Pliny

Younger
Omnia.1

(Venice).

Cicero, Opera

See

Brunet,
und and

Manuel seine

de

Libraire,

8 vols.

(Paris, 1880)
;

Schiick,
Aide

Aldus

Manutius lxviii

Zeitgenossen (Paris, 1875).

(Berlin, 1862)

Didot,

Manuce,

pp.

647

302

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

of Humanism

into
over

and vituperation, yelpings vile scattering

language all
Oxford
Utrecht in
on

Europe.
in

Thus,

the

Universities
of

of and

and
in

Cambridge
Holland,
of

England,

Leyden

Marburg, Konigsberg,and
out

Jena

Germany,
the

thundered

their

fulminations theological from

Protestant

side, while

Wiirzburg, Gratz,
treatises of
were

Innsbruck, Paris, and

Louvain,

learned abuse
same

mingled
scholars

with who

the had

most

scurrilous
on

Protestant

written odium

the

subject.1
not

Nevertheless, the
eliminate
earlier

theologicum could
what
rage

gether altothe

the Luther

love of

had
in

belonged to
and

epoch.
sword

might
flash in
a

Germany;
while

the and

papal

might

Italy;

Holland

England
and
so.

drew

togetherin
its own

and political

scholarly union,
yet, but liberally
took scholarship

France

went

way,

Catholic

as

The

difference

lay in
in
as

the fact that

on

different forms
was

different countries.
it had

The

learned
Erasmus. Paris
or

world

not

united

been in the

days of

Young

Englishmen
their

had

formerly visited Italyand

now

to pursue
to

studies; but
German
or

they went

to

Leyden

Utrecht.
to
a

The

student,accordingto his faith,

that faith
one or was

went

school

where university studied Catholic. national had

de la

taught.
of

The

young

Frenchman that
were

at

another

the

universities in As
1

ship Thus, classical scholarrather

Europe

became

than
true to

universal. the

for
See

its scholars Italy,

Nisard, Les Gladiateurs

remained

early

Ripublique de Letlres (Paris,1889).

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

303

Renaissance, so
to

that the Italian School

remained

nian Cicero-

the

last Valla.
nor
a

degree, following closelythe precepts

Its Latin
was

of Lorenzo Not
a

wholly that
line
was

of Cicero.

word,
it could and

phrase,nor

tolerated, save
the

when

be shown
the

to have absolutely

purityof

diction
orator.

rhythmic cadence

of

the great Roman

It is extraordinary to learn what this

was

pains were
Cardinal
of

taken
Pietro

to

secure

perfect imitation.
most

Thus

Bembo

probably the
lived.1
His

perfectimitator
in every

Cicero note, and with the

very

that

ever

Latin

shade,
of

in every
master

in every model.
any

recalls the Latin inflection,

It is related that he would
not
so

his

speak
he

Latin
mar
was

casual

scholar,lest by doing
own

should he

perfectionof his
different from

Latinity. Herein
whose

Erasmus,

colloquial stylehad
own

been

his syntactically correct, while yet allowing

to

personality
said.
This

appear

in

everything that
of his gave

he

wrote

and

individual touch
He had

to popularity

all his
"

writings.
that
one

of specialcharacteristic,
was

his own,

so

could
the

feel in all that

Erasmian

the

pungent
the
man

wit,
self. him-

mood, sympathetic
But Bembo and

and

the

of geniality

his

fellow

Cardinal, Sadoleto,2
Italian

the most
wasted

of the distinguished representatives

School,
and

themselves

on

stylealone.

What

they wrote

spoke was
1

conceived delightfully
See See

in the Ciceronian

manner,

1470-1547. 1477-1547.

Symonds,

The
sur

Renaissance Sadolet

in

Italy,ii. pp.

409-415.

Joly, Elude

(Caen, 1857).

304 but it had One and

Hence

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

no

force, no personal power

or

to attract
too

the listener.

felt that the writer

too

speaker was
a

self-conscious,
or

much

afraid

of

making

here slight slip

a

there.

the Italian School with

remained

school of

of

literature,

contenting itself
whom

the

authors
and
was

the

Golden
from
a

Age, strictly

they read

and

reread It

annotated
a

literary point of

view.

school

of

style
"

style

that degeneratedinto puerility. always,and, therefore, style

As

classical
of

learning penetratedthe
took show
on a

countries

North

and

West

it Italy,

more

independent form.
of the

It,

likewise,began
and also
a

to

touch

critical element,
and

desire to

provideboth
in

instruments

aids for laries vocabuscattered others. first

as

scholarly activity.Thus,
and and
It
were glossaries

Italy, although many

were

produced, they
half represented Crastenus

and fragmentary,
was

each

dozen

in

1483, that

Ioannes

printedthe
in
a

Greek-Latin

vocabulary,which
several of the

increased
In

size much

it

passed through
complete
the Aldine
work

editions.
same

1497
was

more

character
was

issued

from cons lexi-

Press, and
the
name

this

speedilyfollowed by Calepinus, Bude"

others. Most

bearing
Gessner,
the
was

of

(Budaeus),
is It

Constantine, and
Bude

important

dictionaryof
re-edited and

(Paris, 1529;

Basel, 1530).
Robert

much

enlarged by

Etienne,
been

(Paris, 1548).

This

is dictionary

the first to have

It is

publishedafter
in its

the Renaissance.

exact particularly

of legalterms. explanation

Robert

Etienne, or,

as

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

305

Robertas he called himself,

styled Stephanus (absurdly by

at
once a

the and he

English,
a man

"

Robert

Stephens"),was

printer
as

of

and learning;

his son, Henri

Etienne, or,
two

called himself,Henricus the

Stephanus,1were

very

important figuresin
France. The

historyof

classical studies

in

father issued

collated carefully
Dio his

editions of Cassius. Latin tionary dicin

and Horace, Dionysius Halicarnassensis,

But

his most

was important production

(ThesaurusLingua Latino),which
parts during the years
1

appeared
an

531-1536.
upon

It

was

not

entirely

work, being based original

yet for
Henri
a

the

vocabularyof Bud",
known work in
more

long time

no

better lexicon

was

to

Europe.
is most

Etienne, in 1572, published a

It
was a

that

remarkable.

Greek

lexicon

five volumes
than It
100,000
was a

It defined (Thesaurus Lingua Grcecce).

Greek

words

with

references to

authorities.

of compilation
was

remarkable re-edited
this
"

and industryand scholarship, last of all

it remains of Greek of
to
a

many

times

by

Dindorf
as

(Paris,

To 1856 foil.).

day,

unrivalled
known

being

the most
France
or

complete lexicon
was now

to the world.

the mother

brilliant group

of scholars,

at

least the centre

which

they

flocked.

The shelter

Collegede France,
and
1

established

by

Francis

I, gave

to recognition
See

many

very remarkable
en

men,

constituting
pp.
sur

Egger, VEelUnisme

France,

vols.

(Paris,1869) ; id.
Essai

198

Pattison,Essays, i. 62-124 foil.;

et les

(Oxford,1889) ; Feug"re, (Paris,1893).

la Vie

Ouvrages de Henri

Etienne

(Paris, 1853); Pokel,s.v.; and

de France Lefranc, Histoire du College

x

306
what may

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

be

roughlycalled
school of
was

the French

School

of Classical criticism With the

Philology.
and its wide

This range

noted

for its acute

encyclopaedic knowledge.
the memorable
names

Etiennes Turnebe

must

be reckoned

of Adrien the

(Hadrianus Turnebus),1 who

scholar
of his

was

greatest

Greek

time;

Denis

Lambin

(Dionysius

Lambinus),2 Director
Marc
one

also of the Muret

ment; EstablishRoyal Printing Antonius

Antoine

(Marcus

Muretus),3
Charles
du

of the

of any greatest stylists

on

period;

Fresne, sieur du Cange,4 a writer

are

Low

Latin,whose glossaries
many times
re-

stillin vogue,
de

and

have

been

edited;Bernard

Montfaucon,8 the founder of scientific

Casaubon

Isaac Palaeography; and greatestof all,

(Casau-

bonus),6whose
one
man

was prodigious learning own

surpassedby only
after.
De

of his

time

or

for centuries
and

1512-1565.

See

Pokel, op. cit., s.v.;

7

Clement,

Adriani

Turnenbi
2

Praejationibus, p.
See
171

1899). (Paris,

1520-1572.

Mattaire, Historia Typographorum Aliquot Parisi-

ensium i. pp.

(London, 478-491

7); the appendix

to

Onomasticon Orelli, the

Ciceronis,
Munro's

(Zurich, 1861), 3d

ed. ; and

preface to

Lucretius, pp. 14-16.

8

15 26-1

585.

His orations

and

part of his other works

are

printed ;
Muret

Teubner i. 124-132,

edition,ed. by Frey (Leipzig,1887-1888); Pattison,Essays,

last ed.

(Oxford, 1889); Hardouin,

Essai

and

Dejob,
la Vie

Marc

Antoine

(Paris, 1861).
4

1610-1688.

See

sur

et

les

Ouvrages de

du

1849). Cange (Paris,

5

1655-1741.
2

See

de

La Broglie,

Societe de

VAbbaye

de

main, Saint-Ger-

vols.

(Paris, 1891).
The

"

1559-1614.
remain

standard

life of Isaac

Casaubon

must

apparently
ed.

always 1892).

that of Mark

2d ed. by Nettleship, Pattison,

(Oxford,

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

307
of this

Turnebus

was

the most

celebrated

Grecian

period,

and his mind Greek

Varro

was

several critical. Beside editing intensely

and
de

Roman

authors,

he

wrote

commentaries
He
notes

on

Lingua Latina, and

of many is to

on

Horace.

likewise

left

books thirty

of Adversaria, consisting of which be

were

and

critical

comments,
Lambinus
text

brilliant and of great value.

as

remembered

having

first made

the

of Lucretius
had

Before intelligible. fairly

to impossible

his time, whole But the

passages

been

read.
what
to

critical

mind and

of Lambinus

threw

light upon
he gave

had

been
an

dark,
tion ediward after-

emendation by judicious
of the great

the world Lachmann

Lambinus
to

Epicurean,upon epoch-making
and devoted

which work. himself

based eleven years of

his

spent

in Rome

the collation

manuscripts in (1561),he
was

the Vatican

Library.
as

At the end of that

time

called to Paris
his

Professor

of Greek ety sobri-

and

Latin, and employed

and admirable

with profound learning

that not

so results,

only his editions of

Horace

but Lucretius, make his memory

those also of Plautus, Cicero, and

a

very of

one special

in the minds

cal of classisuch
of
an

scholars.
and learning,

Few

his

contemporaries had profound knowledge

vast
thor's au-

few had

such

style. He

died of

caused by apoplexy,

the murders
owe

of St. Bartholomew's
to Lambinus

night. Modern
of the material

commentators

much
to this

which

they use

without

givingcredit

splendidscholar of

the French

sance. Renais-

308
His

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

contemporary,
in

Muretus, spent several

and
became well known
as

years

as

his

companion
in

Rome,

for his work tullus, Terence, CaAs he

a

various editing

classical authors, such

Seneca.

and Tibullus, Propertius,

critic he
was

produced
renowned

volume

of

Varies

but Lectiones,

most

for the
wrote

purityof
Latin

his Latin

style. At

the age
ease,

of

eighteenhe
afterwards seemed indeed
of the
as

with

great fluencyand
Paris his orations

and

in the

of University those

in Latin
were
as

splendid as

of Cicero.

They
as

read the end

in schools side

by

side with Cicero and

late

eighteenth century,

various editions

were

made

of them. One
was

of the

greatest of the Post- Renaissance

scholars
the title of

Isaac Varro

Casaubon

(Casaubonus)

who
,

deserved

which his
men

bore of

One a iroXvtarayp. being essentially

"

declared contemporaries
who

He

is the most in

learned of all
son

live to-day." He

was

born

Geneva, the

of

from Huguenot minister, until he reached

whom

tion he received allhis instrucIn these troubled home

to
save

the age of nineteen.

years

the

family often
their armed in
a

had

to flee from

their

lives from while Greek.

opponents.
Isaac
was

Pattison

relates that,
in

hiding

cave,

received
to the

his first lesson

At nineteen

he

sent

Academy
Greek

(now the
under
his

University)of Geneva,
Portus,
learned
three
a

where Portus

he

studied

Cretan.

When

died he recommended

pupilas

his successor,

and thus at the age of twentyFour years

he became

Professor

of Greek.

later he

3IO At Geneva

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

and He

at
was

there Montpellier

were

no

libraries of volumes
tances. great dishis
own

importance.
from
other

obligedto
to whose

borrow

necessary

scholars

homes

he walked

These

volumes

he

with copiedlaboriously
case

hand,

and

it is said that them.

in the

of smaller

books, he
in

memorised his memory

exact

Such

while tiresome, fixed practices,

the texts themselves

and made countries

him

exceedingly
him
out ;

in his in

learning.Many
England
at

sought
was

but it was
was

that his final home

made.

He

welcomed

and all the universities,

was

was

especially
logical of theothere

agreeableto

the

King (James I), who

In
on fact, one

fond

discussion.
was some

occasion, when
his

about difficulty

paying
"

pension, the King

wrote
"

with
Chanceler
my

his

own

hand:

of my

Excheker, I will have

my

Mr.

Casaubon

paid

before me,

wife,and

barnes."

It

was

also

by

the

personalintervention
had been

of

King James

that Casaubon's
sent
over

which library,

stored in Paris,was

to

England.

The

English people could hardly

became
his very unpopular.

understand
He
not

such favour,and Casaubon could

speak no

and English,

was scholarship was

appreciated by danger of
some

the mob.

he Consequently, At

always
windows in the

in
were

assault. ruffianly

night his
were

broken, and by day his children

In
not

stoned

streets.

France, of
from
a

course,

after he
was

had

cided dedefinitely

to return

England,he

equallydisliked,
sold his

being regardedas

renegade who

had

religious

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

31I

belief for
the
was,

English gold.
of publication
a

He

died in the year

which

nessed witwhich

great controversial work

of his powers.
'

nevertheless, wholly unworthy

was a man

Casaubon
was as

of

encyclopaedic knowledge. He
as

familiar with

authors,such out-of-the-way

those

of the Historia
as

Augusta, and

Dionysius of Halicamassus,
as

with the better-known

such classics,

Persius and

Pohe

lybius. During
contributed memorable

the four years of his visit in

England,
his fact,

little to Classical books

at
a were

Philology.

In

most

those which
his

antedate

his stay in

Paris, and

time when
was

reading was
him
to take
on

done
up
a

under
number
as

so

It great difficulty.

given to

of

authors, and
little for he
as

so

thoroughlyto

comment

them

to

leave

succeedingscholars
an

in the way

of

exegesis. Thus

brought out

edition of the Characteres of Theophrastus

an

as early 1592, and

extraordinarily complete Athenaeus

edition of Persius2
was

in

1598.1

His

exhaustive

called

"divine"; while by Scaliger

three editions in the is
a course

his Suetonius
a

passed through
In his

of

few years.
on

Polybius8

remarkable

introduction
Less

the

subject of Greek
value lasting
were

Historiography.
his annotations

full and

of less

of other

authors,but

he deserves

great and

enduring credit for having been the first to study Roman

1
2

Incorporated
Published
in

into

edition (1840). Schweighauser's

and

1605,

pillagedby

every

commentator

since

that

time.
"

Published

in

1609.

312

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

satire,1
"

subjectwhich

was,

and

has

been

since,of

remarkable

interest to all classicists.2 School of classicalstudy, we du

the French Stillrepresenting

have
sieur

the du

remarkable

Charles lexicographer, did for Low

Fresne,
an

Cange,

who

Latin

what

Valla in

earlier century had done for the Ciceronian

a

tongue.

ing Holdup

lucrative office in Paris, this scholar gave

so unremitting industry,

himself

for twenty years to

that ithas been be

said that the number

we

of his books

would

incredible if
his
own

had

not

the

all written by original manuscripts them

hand. the two The

To

enumerate

would

here be

but impossible,

by

which

he isbest known
is
a as glossary,

deserve
he

mention. especial

firstof them

to modestlycalled it,
a

the writers of Mediaeval

and Low

Latin; 3 and
Into

like glossary
he

to the writers of Late

Greek.4
could

these tomes

gathered all

the words

that he

find in

ments, legaldocumany

and charters, manuscripts, diplomas,titles,

printed documents,
which in prevailed

all written the Middle

were

in

the

mixed
for

language
some

Ages
drawn

and
from

time

afterward.

His

sources

the

archives
ceeding suc-

of Paris ; and, therefore, ponderous though scholars have

until at present every From added
to them

theywere,
in each

almost

decade,

issue is
an

an practically

Antibarbarus.

his pen

came

also

excellent edition of the

was glossary

tine Byzancom-

Historians.
1 2
s

His

Greek

hardlyso
(1605).

De The

SatyricaGrceca Poesi
was original

et Romanorum

Satira

edited

by Rambach
et

1774). (Halle, InfimceLatinitatis (1678).

Glossarium

ad ad

Media Scriptores

Glossarium

Gracitatis (1688). et Infimce Scriptores

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

313 the year

as plete

his Latin one,

and

in fact

was

in published years
;

of his death.
the French

His

son

lived

only four
how

and

finally,
the
of

Government,
Du

knowing

valuable

were

writingsof

Cange, collected the greater part

are now

his

manuscripts,which
Nationale
in Paris.1

contained

in the

Bibliotheque

Worthy

of recollection

was

another
a

Frenchman nobleman

of this

period,Bernard
but forced There
are

de

Montfaucon,
to
a

by birth,

through illhealth
few

lifeof seclusion and

which

study.

incidents in his
he

career

present much
one

since variety,

from passed successively

abbey

to

another, examining and

From Rome. GrcEca

annotatingtheir
1701, he

numerous

scripts. manu-

1698

to

spent
a

most

of his time in

His first publication was

work

entitled Analecta
But he is best
membered re-

(1688) never
,

completelyfinished.
his work him

in in which
monuments
new.

Archaeology by

in ten

folio

volumes,2

drawings made
gave
was

by

of

antique objectsand
that
was

to

the world

something

wholly

It
to

one

of the most

contributions interesting his

made
1

the

study of Archaeology;and
last and
most
10

Palaographia
to

See

Hardouin, op. cit. The

Latin is that edited

complete Glossarium

the mediaeval
2

by Favre,

vols."(Niort, 1884-1887).
book
out
was a

L'Anliquiti Explique'eet Representee en

storehouse in
1

Figures. This
first

wonderful

of

antiquities. It
two

was

brought

by

scription sub-

719, and

in less than
a a new

months of
2500

the first edition volumes

was

(18,000
printed
volumes.

volumes)
in the A
same

was

sold, and
year,

edition

with

supplementary
to

edition of five

more

full list of his contributions

Archaeologywill

be found

in the

Nou-

velle Biographie Cinirale,s.v.

314 GrcBca has

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

never

yet been
had

superseded. Somewhat
work
on

earlier

(1681),there
written of Saint

appeared a
an

Palaeography,1

by Jean Mabillon,
Germain,2 the
in France.

inmate

of the beautiful

abbey

earliest seat of the learned The of validity

wrote

tine Benedic-

Order had
been

the

charters abbey's
tioned menjust

and attacked,
how

Mabillon

the work

to show

false documents and how

to

could be
determine others.

distinguished
the date of
a

from

genuine ones,

manuscript by comparison
between
the work of Mabillon

with

The

difference lies

and that of Montfaucon Greek

in the fact that the latter dealt with

manuscripts
Mabillon

alone,of

which

he gave

listof

11,630,whereas

had dealt alone with Latin. The

close of what
us

has

been

called the French

of Casaubon, figure

Period,
has of
no

though it shows
one

the colossal

who

can

rival him.

a great cluster Nevertheless,

complished ac-

scholars enter into the annals of the end of the seventeenth

century.

Such, for example, is the

who (1673-1746),

man

of

letters, Jean Bouhier

cited the Petronian

tributing con-

fragment De

besides Bello Civili,

of Palceographia

it,and translating
The the {i.e.

to the

Montfaucon. Petronius

most

of importantconsecutive portion
was Trimalchionis)

Cena Tra-

recovered

at Trau

(the Roman
Petit

gurium) in 1663 by

the Frenchman him

at

Pierre

(Marinus

and publishedby Statilius)

1

Paris in

1664.3 There

De See See

Re

Diplomatica.
de Saint-Maur Cena

2
3

Vanel, Les Blnidictins

Introduction
to

(Paris, 1896).

Peck's

2d ed. (New York, Trimalchionis,

1908).

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

315 and others, while

translated
as

were

editions of Horace

by
and

Pere

Sanadon
were

parts of Demosthenes
learned Father de the

Cicero

by

the

Thoulie,'also
whole
of
was
a

known

Olivetus,who

edited finally Classical

Cicero.
at this time

Archaeology
who
wrote

further
on

promoted ties antiquicollected

by Bunduri,
of many

work prodigious Michel

the who

Constantinople ; by

Fourmont,

and forged inscriptions many Greek

others;by Burette,who
attempts

studied

whose Music; and by Nicolas Freret,

in Ancient A Frenchman

Geography

and

History

were

accurate. fairly

who (d'Anville),

lived four decades

later than

Freret, publishedseventy-eight geographicaltreatises and

two

hundred of
as

and French
as

eleven

maps,

all

admirably executed.
Greek and
Roman
were

group coins

scholars
gems.

collected

well

ancient

Among

these collectors

Charles

Patin, J. F. F. Vaillant,J. Pellerin,and

P.

J.
in the

Mariette, the last reproducing a largenumber

his Comte East Pierres
de

of gems

Gravees

(1752).
had

French

nobleman,
went

Caylus, who

served

in the army,

to the

in

visited Smyrna, Ephesus, and Colophon, disguise, and

actuallytraversed

examined

the

plain of Troy,
the
monuments

and of voted de-

then, returning,carefullystudied

Constantinople. He
more

was

man

of great wealth, and

than

two-thirds

of it to his he

ties. passionfor antiquiwith overflowing

His works

magnificenthouse
art
"

filled to Greek

of ancient

not

only

and
was

Roman,

but

also Etruscan

and

Egyptian.

Whatever

interesting

316
and
Two make

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

beautiful

he

endeavoured
works of his
are

to

add

to

his collections.
volumes which

sumptuous
up

the

seven

his Recueil which in the

and d'Antiquilte,
he caused
to be

the

reproduction
of the mural

by

P. S. Bartoli

made

found paintings The

of sepulchre

the Nasones.1 school Casaubon. him identify his

greatest masters
or

of the French earlier with

seem

had

ceased
Casauwith
a

with Montfaucon,
bon's final years

even

in

England
In

to

different type of scholar.

a

fact, among

ries, contemporathe learned that of

comment

number

were

in many

ways

different from

yet brilliant Frenchman

whose

stylewas

almost

the Italians in its purity, and

were

whose The

criticism and

and profound. puissant

Netherlands, small,but
men,

full of intellectual life, produced a cluster of learned unrivalled in the

Erasmus had
; but

of history

the modern since

to
no

world.
was

Of course,
a

led the way,

he

by

birth he

lander Netherschool.
home

belonged
he
was

country and

to

no

In his

own

time

at a cosmopolitan, essentially

alike in
It was,
as

in England, Italy,
we

in

Germany,

and

in

France.

have

said,the so-called

Protestant

tion ReformaErasmus
to

that

made

for another it quiteimpossible had

exist until several centuries

passed.

Between

1540,

however, and
or

1650, the

universities
some

of Holland,2 had of the most

bred

had

called to their chairs

remarkable

1 7

Peintures The

Antiques (1757).
was

Universityof Leyden
and that of Utrecht in

founded

in 1575;

that of Louvain

in 1610;

1636.

318

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

appointment
he remained and

as

Latin

secretary and

visit to

Rome,

where

two

years,

the studyingcarefully

monuments

and especially inscriptions, examining the manuscripts Vatican. A second volume of Varice
a

in the

Lectiones

after (1575), advance

his return

from

Rome,
no

showed

decided
on jectural con-

in critical

ability.He

longer leaned
emend he

to emendation, but preferred

by
had
"

the

parison com-

of manuscripts,and (collation) between distinguish

learned

to

what

call palaeographers
His

good

scripts," manu-

and scholars
was as

"

bad varied

manuscripts."
as

intercourse

with

that of

Erasmus, but his theological

a

difficulties were
in the Lutheran find him
at to

far greater. Thus, for

at Jena. University
was

year, he

taught
we

Soon

afterwards

Cologne, which
Louvain, whence

Catholic. retired to

he Presently

returned
he

he

Antwerp, where
sity Univer-

received of

(1579) a
as a

call to the

newly

established

Leyden

of history. In professor

his eleven years time in

at

Leyden (theProtestant

he passed his University) he

classroom
two

drudgery,and yet
"

found

time

to

produce his (1605)

great masterpieces, his edition of

of Tacitus
to his

Seneca

and

(1574).
It

This

last work

is a
a

ment superb monu-

genius.
to

was

publishedby

sort

of

growth,
markable re-

from

one

edition

another, until it became

on

the most

commentary
had studied him
so

that

difficult author. with such

Lipsius intensity
Tacitus say:

and continually
of

that he

could

repeat the whole

if any
one

that everything

had

written; and

doubted

this,he would

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

319

"

Put

your
a

sword
in

to my
a

throat

and

thrust His

me

through
were

if I

make

mistake

word." single

books
at

largely
and

by published
there his

the famous

press of Plantin
were

Antwerp,

completed opera
In

set

up

in four

volumes

(1637).
but

he prepared forty-eight all, tions, separate publicaof them

were

most
no

of

controversial
his

character,

and

had

relation to

scholarship.1After
to

long stay
was

at

Leyden,

he

returned
the

Catholic

intimacies,and
open
arms.

ceived, re-

by
and

with Jesuits especially,

Courts

universities in
upon

Austria, and Italy,

tations Spain poured invi-

him;

but at last he settled at Lou of Latin the the without

vain,where

he

was

made

Professor

being expected to

teach,and having also

and he
to historiographer sent out

appointments of privycouncillor King

of

Spain.

From

Louvain

many

clever

and

amusing pamphlets, writing

He
was

them

at the

request of the JesuitFathers.

of the

indeed

the

scholarly champion
were

as Catholics, Scaligerand

Casaubon

the

champions
and

of

the

Protestants.

But

had Lipsius He
even

genialmind,
a

he seldom

sought to wound.
with

maintained

friendlypersonal intercourse
with him He died
to

Protestant

scholars of distinction, and

out

ing great learnat

blotted

religious acrimony.
books
a

Louvain,

leavinghis
there.

Greek

and

manuscripts

the of with

college
Roman

Lipsius had
a

profound knowledge slightacquaintance

Seneca,
he edited Velleius

but antiquities,
1

very
and

Greek.

Besides

his Tacitus

Paterculus, and

Valerius Maximus.

320 Even

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

in Latin

he had

no

ear

for metres, and Yet

no

very
man

little true
ever

of poeticalphrasing. appreciation

so

completelyknew
whose pages

the Roman

historians, Tacitus, especially

to

he had

begun

read

as

boy, and

whom

he

until kept studyingand revising life.1

the very

last year

of his

Great, however,
in the

as

Lipsius was,

there

towers

above

him

historyof learning the

wonderful of

figureof Joseph
described
ever

a contemporary Justus Scaliger,2

and Lipsius,

by Pattison

"

as

the most

stored richly

intellect which
was Scaliger

knowledge." spent itselfin acquiring

a

born
even

of

father
son

so

remarkable
surpass

as

to make

it
was

that surprising

his

could
An

him.

This

Julius Caesar
none

ger.3 Scali-

eminent

scholar has said that

above his

of the ancients he lived

could be ranked could

not

him, while
He

the age in which

show

equal.
of La
on

claimed

to

be

one

of the born
twelve became

illustrious Italian house

at their

Scala,and

to have

been At

castle princely

the

Lago de Garda.

he
one

was

presentedto

the

Emperor Maximilian,
himself
arts

and
a

of his pages,

frequentlyshowing
He
was

miracle and

of

personalbravery.

also

given to
In 151
written
2

letters,
the

studyingunder Albrecht
1

Diirer.

he

fought at
Mire
et

The

only complete life of Lipsiuswas

by

Le

(Antwerp,

1607). See, however, Reiffenberg,De

mentarius Geschichte
a

Justi

Lipsi

Vila

ScriptisComin L. Miiller's

1823), (Brussels,
der Klassichen is commended

and

the pages den

to referring

him

in Philologie
to

Niederlanden

(Leipzig, 1869),

work
8

which

students

of the

Dutch-English period.
*

1540-1609.

1484-1588.

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

321

battle of Ravenna,

where

his father and

elder brother

were

slain beside him; but deeds

there he

performed such

incredible
him

of valour that the

the

Emperor conferred upon

of

sonally perthe

highest tokens
the

chivalry,
"

the
no

spurs,
more

collar,and

golden eagle. Receiving

he

stantial sub-

rewards,
a

left the

militaryservice and became

There

student
he

at

the

of Bologna. University
as as vigorously

and

where else-

studied

he had

fought,dividing

his time between

and the classics. medicine, natural history, would

or

This

account autobiographical

be

of comparatively
of it

little interest had

not

the truth

falsehood

playedso important a part in

son,

the later lifeof his illustrious

from the

and,

in

fact, plunged him

the

heightsof glorious
As
a man

distinction

to

depths of humiliation.
he
was

to

the elder

however, Scaliger,
powers, whether he

undoubtedly
descended
from
as

of unusual

were

the

familyof

La

Scala (Fr. de
years Verona.
one

or whether, l'Escale),
was

his enemies obscure

in after
at

declared, he
This

the
may

son

of
:

an

teacher

much

be said

during his life-time no

undoubted
was a

his questioned

noble

ancestry, while many

Certain
it is that he

facts

his narrative. verify classicist and

iant brill-

spent the last thirty-two years of his life

on

in such

way

that

his death He
was

(1558)no

scholar's reputation of the French last part of his

he

equalledhis.
school with
life
was an

one essentially

Italian

and colouring,
at

the

spent in France
a

Agen,

where

fell violently
Her

in love with

beautiful

young

orphan

of thirteen.

322

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

friends called
success a

objectedto
mere

her

marriage with

person

whom
as

they
much

adventurer; but
he had
was

he attacked

her with

as

stormed sixteen. and

and fortresses,
The

married finally
to be
a

her very nine

when

she

marriage proved
until his years

happy
years

one;

it endured

death, twenty-

in later, signalised In 1531, this in

those

by

the birth

of

fifteen children. oration

publishedan J. C. Scaliger
to

againstErasmus
It
was

answer

that its

great scholar's
mand com-

Ciceronianus. of every

in astonishing

vigour and

shade of Latin, ranging from

ric brilliant rheto-

to foul abuse.

Erasmus, however, treated it with silent

caused
a

contempt, which
of the
same

to Scaliger

write

another

oration
were

sort, and

number From his

of Latin pen
came

verses,

which
a

still less successful.

on

also

treatise

comic

metres,
After many with

and

the

first known there and

scientific Latin his

grammar.

his death

appeared
boasts

Poetica,
"

filled with
were

paradoxes
much who

that nevertheless

mingled
Modern

acute

criticism.1
his

writers
a

estimate
man

genius regard him

as

rather

as

and philosopher
His

of science than
a

student
him his many

of the classics.
care more

as earlytraining

made physician Hence

on

for

physics

than

for
are

literature.

writings of enduring subjects relatingto

Daude

worth the

monographs

physical sciences.
"

Although
with who heroic

speaks
was

of his
not

intellect
an

as

teeming
one

thought,"he
1

nor investigator

arrived

See

Spingarn, op. cit., pp.

150-152,

176.

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

323
to

at

new

truths.

He

clung

to

Aristotle and theories

Galen, and

rejected with

arrogance

the

of

Copernicus.
on

Exercitationes Nevertheless,his philosophical

Cardan
a

(1557) passed through

text-book
as

many the

editions,and
middle
men

was

lar popu-

late in
our

as

of

the

seventeenth and

century.
Sir William

Even

own

times,
called

like Leibnitz elder

Hamilton

have of

the

Scaligerthe metaphysics

best

modern

exponent

the

physics and

of Aristotle.1
His

has giftedson, Joseph Justus Scaliger,2 the greatest scholar

of

come

to

be

recognisedas
He
was

the modern

world. it was
him his
was

the tenth child of the elder

that
at
an

Scaliger;and

fortunate
to

outbreak
for
a

of the

plague compelled
and
to

remain

home

few

years, This

become

father's continual worth far

more

companion.
to
a man

companionship
in any

him

than

instruction and than and

an

school. observer scholar.

Association made It gave both chief

write young
to

with

of the world
more

acute
mere

Scaligermuch
his mind
a

the breadth

also the accuracy,

possess. It
was

of which

true

scholar should
elder

the
to

pleasureof
Latin
more

the

Scaligerin his later

to

years
son

verse;

and
a

daily he dictated
hundred
a

his

from also

eighty to

than

lines.
Latin

The
or

boy

was

compelled each day

Thus, when
1

to write

theme

declamation.
and

he

was

eighteenyears
sur

of age,

after the
(Paris 1880).

See

Magen,

Documents

J. C.

Scaligeret

sa

Famille

1540-1609.

324

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

death
at

of his

he father,

went

to

Paris,and spent
was

four years very had

the

University. His scholastic life there

Hitherto he had
But known
at

esting. inter-

only Latin

and

given
schools of

no

study

to

Greek.
were

this time

the French the

and

universities

throbbing with
great French
studies.

early glow
were

Hellenism,1 and
bent entirely This
was a on

the

scholars

almost

Hellenic

surpriseto Scaliger. He
Latin; and
now,

had

devoted
was

his

earlyyouth
to

to

of

sudden, he

made
thing. everybrated celehis
out

feel that

ignorance of
he

Greek

was

ignorance of
under
the

Therefore,

enrolled

himself

Grecian, Turnebus
lectures for several months. that he could
not

(Turnebe), and
But

attended

he found presently in this way. He

learn but

little Greek of
a

could

rush into the lecture-room

the lectures that do much up
were

stand great scholar and underHe

must

given there.

self himshut

preliminary work.
and resolved

Therefore,
on

he

himself He the

in his rooms,

teachinghimself.

read all Homer

Iliad and

in twenty-one then

days (presumably both

devoured
As all the other he

Odyssey) and

Greek

poets, orators, and

a

historians.

proceeded,

he formed and
to

grammar

for
to

himself,noting the paradigms,

their proper order.
He

reducing the words

find

seemed

this easy.

Before
himself

to listening

Turnebus

again,

he

essayed to teach
very

both

Arabic of

and Hebrew, and

acquired a

fair
1

knowledge

both, though nothing

Egger, op. cit., passim.

326
course

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

of travel which

was

chronicled
Rome

and by Scaliger found

the

is

At extremely interesting.

they

rather

but intensely clever Muretus, shifty

of whom
are

said Scaliger
many Mure-

with
tuses

something of
in the world.
as

sigh:
If he

"

There

not

only

believed

in the existence be
an

of

God,

well

as

he

can

talk about

it,he would

excellent
north
to

Christian."

After

traversingItaly they
of

went

England
at

and

Scotland, one

letters Scaliger's littlefor the and

being

dated
He

Edinburgh.
"

Scaligercared
inhuman

English.
the
It
narrowness

despisedtheir
which made

" disposition

them

to foreigners. inhospitable

him disappointed in

also to find

only a
few

few

Greek

scripts manu-

England,
he
was
was

and

only

scholars of the

type

with which
he many years

so

familiar

on

the Continent.
reason

theless, Neverhis lifefor

Protestant, and for that

been often

had

trying. One

pleasantrestingprofound
This

place he juristof
wise of and

found
the

at

Valence, where

lived the most

age,

Cujacius (Jacques de
a

Cujas).1

temperate scholar had

the Roman here he

remarkable

collection
more

manuscripts on
and

law, numbering
lived and studied
a

than
quillity, tran-

five hundred;

with

the reconstructing

Roman

in jurists

purelyclassic
For three

fashion,without
years,

any

touch
the

of

medievalism.

Scaligerenjoyed
to his fine

of Cujacius with hospitality

free

access

libraryfor
massacre

four years. led

Then
1

the so-called

of St. Bartholomew
seine

See

Spangenberg, Cujacius

und

1882). Zeitgenossen (Leipzig,

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

327 received with

the

him

to take

refugein Geneva,
and
on

where

he

was

high honour
He

to appointed

be

in professor Latin But

Academy.
gave

lectured

both

Greek

and

authors, and
he

great satisfaction
and lecturing
as

to the

students.

himself

hated

found
as

the fanatical the

more

preachersof

ism ProtestantHence he

distasteful
to

subtle zealotes.

returned
years Much

France

(1574)and

lived for the next Roche

a

twenty

in the various of his life

was

La castles of his friend, far different from

Pozay. tranquil
their
move

that of

scholar.
outbreaks from
one

The
of

Huguenots
violence
to

and

the

Leaguers

with

often

compelled Scaligerto

chateau

another, going on

guard duty, taking

and wielding in the night-time, expeditions part in military

pike

and

dagger
at

like any

other

freebooter.1
to

He

had,

however, for
up
to

least half the time, a chance

givehimself
of the

study

and

composition;
Festus

and

his

editions

Catalecta
and

(1574),of

(1576) of Catullus,Tibullus,
remarkable

Propertius (1577) are

examples

of

true

criticism, disdainingthe prevalenthappy-go-lucky guesswork

for
a

fixed and

ordered

ship. system of scientific scholar-

In

1590, the great

years

Lipsius retired
been
was

from

Leyden,
Roman

where

for twelve and

he had

of professor

History

Antiquities.Leyden
Our

then the fortress of Protes-

life at this time is derived knowledge of Scaliger's

from

ber num-

of letters in Lettres Franqaises Inedites de

at

discovered Joseph Scaliger,

him

Agen by M.

de

Larroque, and publishedthere by

in 1881.

328
tant

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

as learning,

Paris

was

the fortress of Catholic

saw

ship. scholarscholar the this,

And

so, when

Leyden

its most
successor.

famous In the
a

it sought out retire,

as Scaliger

his

Universityand Orange
gave
to

also the their

States-General
the Prince and
a

and

Prince

of

aid, and
IV

wrote
to

personal

letter both

Henry

of France

himself, Scaliger
in the sity. Univerwhen

asking that

the latter

might accept
that

chair IV

Scaligerhad

hoped
of

Henry

would,

successful, give freedom

Moreover,

speech and
to

thought to
lecture,and
the

tants. Protesmuch course inter-

Scaligerhated
his

preferredthe quiet of
of

study, and
The the

learned
of the

men. distinguished

drudgery

versity Uni-

made

no

appeal to him;

of learning was spirit

when the invitation
at the end to remain

all in all.
was

Consequently he refused; but

in the most

renewed

manner flattering

of another
in

year, he felt that he would

sneers

do wrong
hidden

France, subjectto the

once

and

innuendoes

of

the
was

Huguenot King.

This

second
he
not
was

call from

Leyden
there

and accepted by Scaliger, honours such

as are

welcomed

with

given
of

only

to

princes of

to but, likewise, learning,

men

blood, as Scaliger princely

at

believed Maurice.
among

himself The them

a

to

be.

He

dined

the

table of Prince his presence the

burghers at Leyden glory to

the

deemed
even

town,
he

and took
as
was

children abroad.
with that

louted

low

before

him, when
was

his walks

indeed, Very different,

of poor

his lot

compared
hustled

Casaubon

in

England, who

by

British

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

329 in the street.

boors

and

his windows
in have

broken

by

the rabble

was Scaliger

and a prince of learning, reality

perhaps
That he

he

should

been

quite content
a

with

this.

deemed
not

himself
and fault,

the scion of
to this

princelyItalian family was

one

his

day

no

is certain from

of the facts. his

Yet

this conviction which

was

which
been

he

inherited

father,
time, lifederful won-

and

had

never

questioned in

his father's

fated to

destroyhis happiness,and
story is worth

end his
some

labours. because which

The

in relating

detail,

it illustrates the evil effects of the had

feuds religious mation.1 Refor-

broken

out

with

the so-called Protestant

As
were

was

said before, the services of

alike

scholars distinguished
and the
we

employed
way of

by

the

Old

Church

New

in

the
seen

theological sharp-shooting. Thus

died

have attack made

Cretan in
a

that

Casaubon

while
He of

completing
had himself
from

his

upon the

Cardinal

Baronius.
a

been
a

victim

of

stream

vile abuse
who

Catholic

(Eudamon-Ioannes)

attacked

him

pamphlet.
Yet him
man,
a

much
one

more

skilful shaft

was

launched

against
This

by

Gaspar Scioppius (Gaspar Schoppe).

flitted back
a

who

and

forth

between

Madrid had
a

and
been

was Ingolstadt,

remarkable really
of his

figure. He
he became

in disappointed
1

many

hopes,and
pp.

savage,
id.

See

Pattison,Isaac Casaubon,

389-400 (Oxford, 1892); and (Oxford, 1889).

i. pp. Essays, ed. by Nettleship,

132-192

330

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

venomous

creature masters

ready

to

attack
to

any

one

whom
many

his
of

Catholic the

pointed out
of the

him.
was

Unlike
an

bravos literary
was

time, he
monstrous

accomplished

Latinist,and
and

almost
use

in his shameless He
two

genuity in-

audacious

of fiction.

had

already

scourged King
"

James
"

of

England
to

in

pamphlets.
of
was

Now,"

said he,
This

am

going

flaythe King Holofernes.

it was It

land's Engan

dog."
atrocious and when

he did in his

libel from

beginning to end; yet

was

piquant,
on

decent, it

witty.
every
sort

But

when

he went crime

to

charge
to

Casaubon

with

of unnatural

and
no

support the charges by imaginary stories that had

was

basis,his fierce assault

Casaubon insults to
was

neither

nor plausible

probable.
for such

too

austere

and

virtuous

man

have

any
a

effect whatever.

Thus, only to
Casaubon he
was
one

certain extent, the virulent libel against

Nor
so was

did

harm. slight

Casaubon, although

of the

Triumvirate,
at

as conspicuousa figure

who Scaliger, and

remained

the

very

pinnacle of

sixteenth

seventeenth found
a

his century scholarship. Unfortunately,

flaw in his otherwise
sort of
et
armour. impenetrable

enemies
In

1594, he

publisheda
Vetustate

of his family, glorification Gentis

Epistola de
J.

Splendore
was

Scaligera et
exhibition vein of

C.

ScaligeriVita.

This
runs

reallyan
it
a

of

filiallove,though there

through

proud,

and,
it

one

might

even

say, of noble weak

But self-appreciation.

a showed, nevertheless,

point in

his nature, and

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

33

one

which
means

his enemies
that could had been

at

Ingolstadtassailed
so

alike with

every and
coarse

wound

proud

spirit.Again nothing for

there

again he
and
the

attacked; but
In

he cared

violent
arena a

scribblers.

1607, however,
to

entered

foeman, vastlyinferior
of any
one

in Scaliger

but learning, of

the peer
a

in

wit, in all the artifices

of

debate, with

marvellous

command

and style,
he had
no

ing wieldrival.

all the powers Mark Pattison

of sarcasm,
"

in which

says:

Every pieceof gossip or

scandal his

which

could
"

be

raked
at the

or togetherrespecting Scaliger

family

was

put

of Scioppius. disposal

With

these

and gifts

with

this material,Scioppiussaid, " I shall kill

soon

Scaliger!" and
four
that

after launched
written
can

volume

of

some

hundred
"

pages

with

consummate

so ability

no

stronger proof
this
an

be

given of

the

impression
to

produced by
defamation
source

dedicated powerful philippic, than individual, the that of

it has

the the
now

of

been
it

from in
our
was

which

biography

Scaligeras
has

stands The

collections biographical

mainly

flowed."

book

called Scaliger Hypolimceus (" The

it

positit Sup-

and Scaliger"),

simply crushed
he had

the

haughty
in

Triumvir,

as

well

it

might.
was a

For

always believed
and

good

faith that he
a

prince of Verona,
he had

he had from
a

written

great many

thingswhich
to

heard
But
as

his

and which father, of

he believed
or

be true.

matter

fact, whether
from
a

not

Julius Caesar
was

Scaligerwas

scended de-

princelyfamily he

a certainly good

332

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

deal of and
so

romancer,

and

it was

not

difficultfor

so

malicious
show the

clever and

an

antagonist as
of fact which Around
were

Scioppius to
had

blunders

errors

crept into the younger

errors

Scaliger'sEpistola.
other
statements

these

and
be

around

which
and

claimed

to

erroneous,

Scioppius danced
soon
as

jeered with

outrageous glee. As
the

could rallyfrom Scaliger

a

unexpected attack,
called
to

he wrote FabulcB

reply to Scioppiuswhich
This of humble of the
title

he

Confutatio
Benedetto

Burdonum.
a

refers

Bordone,
to be

person

birth and
elder

said

by Scioppius
would

the

real father both

Scaliger. This
than

have

made

littleless Scaligers

impostors,and,
attacked,

of the charge was therefore,in the replythe falsity

though

with

moderation
not

and

good
a

taste.

The

Confutatio,

however,

does

bring forward
from

single convincingproof
the

either of his father's descent

or

familyof

La

Scala,

of any himself
France.

event
or

narrated

by Julius as

having happened Agen

to

to any

of his family before he arrived at

success

in The
over

The

of

Scioppius was

remarkable. read all

product of

his almost it
was

devilish

was ingenuity even

Europe, and
had

believed generally
was Scaliger

by

many

who

passed for
of

friends.
a

too

great, too

learned,too much
for these

real

princein

intellect and

bearing,
than

petty, jealous creatures

his overthrow.
now
was

to

be

otherwise

pleasedat
in

The

name
a

of the greatest man

a

Europe
name

evoked used
as

merely
a

grin,or
for
a

coarse

joke.

His very

synonym

pedant (pidant),

334
ancient but also

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

historyis not confined

to

that of the Greeks

and

Romans,
the
of

comprisesthat

of the

Persians, the Babylonians, and

Egyptians, hitherto neglectedas absolutelyworthless, and that

the Jews, hitherto mixed
up

treated

as

thing apart and

too

sacred

to

be

with

the

others,and that the historical narratives and fragments

of
must chronology,

of each of be

and their several systems these,

and critically if any carefully compared together,

on

true and

general

conclusions
constitutes

ancient
true

are history

to

be arrived at.

It is this which
so

his

and which placesScaliger on glory, than

any

immensely

higher
the
nor

an

eminence

of his

contemporaries. Yet, while pre-eminence, neither they

to have

scholars those who

of his time

admitted

his

immediately followed
to

seem

appreciatedhis

real

merit, but

have
as

considered

his

and emendatory criticism,

to

his skill in Greek,

his claim constituting

specialgreatness. overstepped any

'

'Scaliger's great
power

works

in historical criticism had

of

appreciationwhich
on

the

succeeding age possessed (Pattiis

a treatise really an on

son). His commentary

of the

Manilius1

the

tronomy as-

ancients, and

it forms he

introduction

to

the De

Emendatione modern and

Temporum,

in which

examines

by the light of
as

Copernican science
based."

the ancient

system

applied to
upon

and epochs, calendars,

computations of time, showing

what

they principles
His

were

Manilius, while

it

a represented

new

field of labour, critics

But
as

had

puzzled and
most

frightenedaway

the

smaller

being the

difficultof all the Latin

as an

classics.

this
to
a

work, with

him, merely served

introduction

comprehensive chronological system

1

to which
written
was

he gave

the

The

author
9 a.d.

of and

Latin
15
a.d.

poem

upon

astronomy
sixth book

in five books
never

between The

A
was

proposed
that of

written.

first
are

satisfactorytext

J. J. Scaliger (1579). Late Jacob (Berlin,1846). See

editions

by Bentley (London, 1739),and

Manilii Astronomicis

Kramer,

De

(Marburg, 1890).

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

335
In

name

De
a

Emendatione

Temporum.1
a

this latter effort

of

created great genius Scaliger

science of

Chronology.

Heretofore, historians had

a

merely arranged past facts in

memory.

tabular

series to

help the

On

the

one

hand,

the

know philologists
upon

nothing of the mathematical period rests. attempted

time. On
to

ciples printhe

which

the calculation of had

not

other hand, the astronomers their

apply
It
was

to the records principles now,

of ancient which light back

who Scaliger

with

new

Copernicus and
to

Tycho

Brahe

gave

him, turned
it

the

ancient

epochs and systems and made they had

between
been formed. He

plain on
an

what
acute

principles comparison

instituted
Persian

the

Greek
even

and

methods

of

reckoning
then
in

time; he studied

the Hebrew
saw

calendar, and
how

ascending to primitive ages, he

become
an

chronologymay
written
in the

instrument exist.

of

discoveryfor times when

records do not first edition

to

This
De

suggestionis only a hint

It

of the he

Emendatione.

proved fruitful compiling

a

him

until

grasped the daring

embrace

idea of

book

which

should

the records
see

of the

prehistoric

past.
ancient

was Scaliger

the first to

that the
at

historyof the

world,
an

if it could

be known

could be known all,

this remote

only as
could

entity;and that the facts of

had

period

be
in

only in the
statements

remains

of

those

chronologers
to

who,
1

copying

which

they often failed

by
many

The

first edition

published in 1583, followed

other

and

fuller editions.

336
understand
ages

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

themselves, did transmit

in this way

to

future

the universal

tradition of the human

species. The
and

distorted

fragments of Berosus, Menander, Manetho,

were

Abydenus
as a

first to be collected.

he adopted Finally,
lation trans-

basis of

St. Jerome's Latin tradition, primitive

of the so-called Eusebian It is necessary

to
was

Chronicle.
in gave
a

explain
which
was an

few

words

what it so
a

this much

Eusebian

Chronicle

the

study of
Greek,

importance. Eusebius
the

Asiatic born He

friend of in the

Emperor

Constantine, and
a.d.

in Palestine
was one

middle learned
A

of the third century scholars

of the

of the most

time

and

the

most

widely read.
all his covery dis-

list of his books

were

would
nature

be unnecessary
which He intended
was

here, but
toward with

studies

of

the
a

of

truth. religious

familiar

great

of Greek variety who lived

gians, theoloauthors, philosophers, historians,

in

Egypt

or

Phoenicia he

or

Asia
a

and

Europe.
of the

More

than
a

anything else
view
to

cultivated
a

study

chronology with

on establishing

solid basis
This
was

historical value

of the

Old

Testament.

a practically

universal
two

history (UavToBa7rr) 'laropia)

The first book from

divided

into

books.

discussed
the

the

origin and
of the world
uses

the

historyof
to

all nations

creation Eusebius
are now
"

down

the year
from

325

a.d.

Here works

copious extracts
The second

historians
"

whose

lost.

part, entitled
of

The

Chronicle

Canon

(Xpovucos Kavdiv),consisted

tables given by parallel

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

337
names

periodsof

ten

years the

each, containingthe
which

of the

and sovereigns
from

events principal

had He

taken had

place
drawn

the call of Abraham the

(2017 B.C.).

largely upon

chronography of Sextus by the aid

was

Iulius

Africanus,

completingthe
other

whole

of

and Manetho, Iosephus, famous

The

historians. down

This
to his

the

chronicle book
was

which

he continued read

own

time.

widely
course

and

was

accurate. acceptedas necessarily

In

of time, after the the Chronicle For

an some

death

of

Eusebius,

St.

Jerome

lated transa.d. as

into Latin, continuingit to

Christian scribes

378

the centuries,

preservedit

essential part of the works

no

of St.

Jerome, althoughthey
When the Renaissance

had
was

idea of its unusual

way,

value.
the

well under
the

neither

men

of

elegantletters,
what
to

nor

Protestant
at

knew controversialists,
was

make

of it, and

last it
as

omitted

from

their editions of St.

Even the great

Jerome's works

being without

value.

Erasmus, though
did not and until It in think

he

edited the other

of Jerome, writings

it worth
not

his while to include this in replaced

Chronicle,

it was fact,

the series of his works

1734.1
was

left for

to appreciatethe inestimable Scaliger

value of this document, which

of
to
a

contains

all that

we

know

carryingus history, great deal of pre-classical

as

back
Rome.

the oriental countries

1

well

as

to Greece

and

This

was

handsomely printededition publishedat Verona, but

very

edited. uncritically
z

338
To task

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

edit and
fit for

explainso complicated a
an

work

as

this

was

intellectual
was

giant like Scaliger.The tempting to

form
to
one

stance subtastes
come

of the Chronicle
were

whose it had

annalistic;while
was

the

in which
a

down
A

attractive peculiarly

mind

like

Scaliger's.
this

careful examination
in

of it led him

to doubt

whether
St.

was,
or

fact,an
it

document original
was

composed by
of
a

Jerome, original

whether
had this:

the

Latin

version

Greek

which
was

perished. The
Since
we

next
not

pointwhich
the Greek

he considered
is the original,

have

Latin down? various

translation
In

faithful version

of what

Eusebius
are was

set

the

first

place, all

translators

liable to
a

and defects, of
error

in the Chronicle

there

greater
such

chance

because

the work

was

written

with

speed.
asks write for

St.

Jerome himself calls it tumultuarium

his readers.

opus and
did
not

lenityfrom
book,
a

Again Jerome
it to

the

but

merely used
of

supply the

Latin

world and

with inserted

manual

general history. He thought the

book

omitted

whenever

he

would

be

improved, and

tried to communicate
countries

the elements
barbarous hordes

versal of uniwere

historyin overrunning the

the
natural in
a

where
of

civilisation
were

more, FurtherChristianity.
as

manuscripts
book
so

peculiarly corrupt,

was

full of dates.
to believe that

Pondering over
the

these facts, came Scaliger

as

Chronicle original
of two

written

by

Eusebius

had

sisted con-

books; and

that the firstof these books

had

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

339 book

been

lost in the Dark its

Ages.
an

The

second

had

been

preserved for
while Greek
the

as utility

epitome

of ancient
extracts

history,
from

the

first book

as

of consisting
was

the
was

for moderns historians,

most

the lost book

that

valuable.
times

It would
to

daunt
at

the

boldest

text-

criticof modern the

more

arrive

these conclusions
at

from Even

indications slight
reckless did it

which
seem

had Scaliger for him

to

hand.

reproduce a only
St.

second

book

of the Chronicle in its

of which

he had
But
to

Jerome's

Latin,
almost book

language. original
mind

finallyScaliger's
recover

miraculous both

attempted
and

the
No

first
markable re-

in its substance

language.
or

such

attempt had
known upon
was

ever

before

has What

ever

since been

in the annals

of criticism.

relied Scaliger his mastery

his skill in imitative

and translation, literature.

scrap A How

of the whole
was

remains

of Greek

ingenious
may

he
shown

in

detectingthe by
one

smallest

of Eusebius few

be the

slightincident.
had been

fragments
and

of

Chronicle original

recovered

fitted into have

their

placesby

the skill of
In 1601

but Scaliger; he
a came

these would
the

been
a

of little use.

upon

of vestiges

manuscript chronicle by
Eusebian be found the
in
an

Greek

which priest which

possibly
was

contained
to likely out

and fragments,
in the

by

deduction

Royal Library at
was

Paris.

It turned

that

manuscript
agony of

found

there.

Scaligerat
exultation,

Leyden
wrote

mingled anxiety and

after
a

letter after letter, and

year'ssiegesecured

34" the

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

manuscript over
that this

which

he
was

clared deand presently gloated,

more

writer single writers had

to his purpose

than

all the another

other

Greek

combined.
been

It was,

indeed,

chronicle

which

compiled by Georgius
after the year 900. almost To the
own.

soon Syncellusat Constantinople

this chronicle
whole The of

the Greek

monk

had

transferred additions
"

Eusebius, togetherwith
book
was

of

his

second
one

of Eusebius, therefore,
sure

the

only part

that any
as

of,

"

was

publishedat
Temporum,

last in 1606, every

part of

Thesaurus folio,

in which

relic in chronological
in

Greek

or

Latin
was

was

restored, placed
immense

order, and made

clear.

This

an

triumph

for and

Scaliger. It placed him

from chronologists achievement that

at the very

head

of all critics he had

time
to

forever,since
be

performed an

not

Many paralleled.

scholars, however, who

admired

his

genius regardedhis
as

theory about
he have

first book

of Eusebius

fanciful.
he

Could would

lived

beyond
a

the life of
even

ordinary man,

have

witnessed

triumph

greater than his first. In

edition of St. the in

the next
was

century, while the Veronese

the press

Jerome
of

passing through

under

direction
an

Dominico translation

a Vallarsi, complete

Eusebius the

Armenian

(a manuscript
its way
to

of

twelfth
was

century) was
last

slowlymaking
(181 8)
shown

and Italy,

at

published
it
was

in the Armenian that

Convent

at Venice.

Then had the

wonderful Scaliger's that there

was
a

divination
to

rightly

guided him;

first book

Chronicle;

342

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

fessor

Jacob Bemays who,

made
his
name

in
as

1855, revived
illustrious as
was

the

glory of
been

and Scaliger
two

it had

centuries

before;

and

it

Mark task.1 which

Pattison

who

aided very

in greatly

this honourable

It is

theywho

recall to us, not

merely

the advance

made Scaliger
cism, critimatics NumisTo him

in scientific chronology, and

likewise in constructive the

but that he had

also

helped on
Re Nummaria
to

study of
(1616).

by
are

his treatise De

due, also,twenty-fourindexes

Gruter's

Thesaurus

InscriptionumLatinarum2
The death of

(1603). only
to

Scaligerserved
of
the be

stimulate and

the

scholarlyactivities
among
as

Netherlanders
sure,
no

Flemings,
names
a

whom

we

find,to

such many

mighty
which

those

of

the

Triumvirate, but
of
some

have

because peculiarsignificance
achievement. Thus

specialincident

or

Jacques

de

Cruques
because

(Latinisedas
in the

Cruquius) will
at

remain

forever famous discovered with

a

Abbey
uscripts man-

Blankenberghe he
of Horace

number

of different

scholia
Codex

(1578). Among

these

manuscriptswas
the oldest

the famous
.

Blandinianus,possibly
attack

an (yetustissimus)Unfortunately,

by

1855); and Pattison,Essays, Bernays, Joseph Justus Scaliger(Berlin,

1

i. pp.
2

2-1

71

(Oxford, 1889). (Jan Gruyt"re) was Leyden, and

a

Janus Gruter
and

classical scholar

who in

studied in

Cambridge
He
was

taught in Wittenberg and

Palatine number

Heidelberg.
was

in

Heidelberg keeper of the famous

to

Library, which
of classical
was,

presently carried
but
most

Rome.

He

edited

authors, however,

is best

known from

for his collection of the indexes

which inscriptions, above.

valuable

mentioned

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

343

mob

upon

the

Abbey
that
we

led to the destruction of this invaluable

so manuscript,

have

now

only the they are

notes

and excerpts
terest greatest into

of

Cruquius.
to

It is certain that

of the

Horatians, although some

as

have
or

endeavoured
as

repudiatethem
written
out

either

inventions

inaccurately
are some

by Cruquius. Nevertheless, there

are

lines which

almost other

certainly genuine,and they explain manuscripts,which

had

lines
been
was

in existing almost

hitherto
scholar

meaningless.1 Another
Canter,
a

contemporary
Greek critic of

William had

well-known and

Utrecht,
a

who

studied made

in Paris

edited

Euripides(1571)in
and strophe He

fashion which

the distinction between numerals in the

anti-

by strophe

Arabic

margins.

also edited
in the
tury cen-

Sophocles(1579)and ^schylus (1580).

is Gerhard and the afterwards

Later

Johannes Vossius, who

in Amsterdam.
as

taught at Leyden patientstudy to

He
to its

gave

syntax of Latin
on

well

as

etymology,writingfive
another Scaliger,
Ars
two

treatises Poetica. treatises

these

subjects;and,

like

He

is best to be taken

remembered, however, by
an

which,
to

form together, ancient

tribution important con-

the
De

historyof

literature.

The
De

first
His-

is entitled

Historicis

Greeds

(1623-4) and
were

toricis Latinis
1

(1627).
scholars the

All of his books

doubt the accuracy reader

widely read
BlandiKeller's of

As to eminent and
even zu

who

of the Codex is referred

a a new

nianus

veracityof Cruquius, the

to

Epilegomena
Keller and

Horaz

1879),accompanying (Leipzig,
first edition
not

recension

Holder's

1870) (Leipzig,

"

remarkable

piece

of critical

work, though

convincing.

344

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

and
at
was

studied,and

new

edition His

of the former in

was

printed

Leipzig in 1833.
very

interest
a

everythingclassical
on

wide.

He

wrote

monograph

art

(De
very His

Graphice) and early treatise

on

in modern

times

he is the author

of

Mythology (De Theologia Gentili).

Franciscus brother-in-law, of his lifein

a

Junius,who

spent thirty years

England

as

librarian to Earl of Arundel, made

special study
De Pictura

of ancient Veterum

paintingsand (1637).
Daniel

published a
Heinsius

ume vol-

(1581arms

1639)
that

was

the beloved

and pupil of Scaliger, died.

Heinsius
was
a

in his

great scholar

multifarious
to rank

editor of classical
most

books, though hardlyworthy

with

of his

contemporaries.
in

When
was

Scaligerdied
vacated,was

1609

the chair
an

of

which history,

thus

left without
a

occupant for twentysuccessor

two

years,

although
was

very

worthy

would

have

been

Vossius,who
on

widely known
chair
was

by

ings his historical writnot

ancient
1

history. The
then
a

filled, however,
de Saumaise

until

63 1,

and
"

by

Claude foreigner,

(Salmasius)
,

brilliant
who

figureamong

the

landers, sturdy Hol-

and

one

attracted admiration, both

for his
he

and personality discovered

for his varied

learning.

In

1606

had

the older

Anthology by Cephalas in
The influence there
was,

the Palatine duced probably in-

Library

at

Heidelberg.
to

him of religion
a

become

Protestant, which
In

indeed, the

his mother. feat of

1609

he

attempted successfully
notes,

genuine

in editing Florus,with scholarship,

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

345
In the next

which

he
to

compiled

within

ten

days.

year

he

returned

but receiving no France, studyingjurisprudence

office because
the
notes

of his

religion.He

was,

however, devoted

to

and classics,
on

when, in 1620, he published Casaubon's

the Historia

Augusta,
own
was

he made

so

many

acute
name

and trious. illus-

brilliant additions His Anne

of his

as

to render

his

Protestantism

evinced

when

he married he

and family, Mercier, a Huguenot of distinguished

the

reached

height of

his fame

by

his commentary

on

the
a

of Solinus (1629), a Polyhistor

work

remains that still

proof of extraordinaryand
anxious
was

conscientious

industry.

So

Salmasius
to

to

attain

complete accuracy

that he
;

learned Arabic
and he
was
so

helphim in

the botanical book

part of his work

unwillingto let his

a

go to press until he

should

have

consulted

rare

treatise by

Didymus
et

that the

third section of his commentary did not

once a

(De

Herbis

Plantis)
was

appear scholar
"

until after his death. of

Salmasius
of

at

high rank, and

gentleman
was

polished
that

manners

genuine cavalier.
received

It

natural

he

should and

have

urgent calls from

Oxford, Padua,
But
a

Bologna.

All of these he declined.

in

163 1 the

Universityof Leyden presentedhim

and
sum a

with

research
a

fessorshi proa

stipendof
soon

two

thousand

livres

year,

which

was

raised to three thousand.

was

The

only

thingrequiredof

him

that

he should
He
n.

live in Leyden,

and refute the annals

of Baronius.1
1

fulfilledthe former

Supra, p.

309

346

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

condition, but
very them attacks

convenientlyforgot the second.

in tracts and

He
most

was

however, prolific,
classical.
upon In

monographs,

of

spite of his Protestantism, and

power,

his
in

the

papal

Salmasius

was

popular

France, and
would

the scholars of Paris his faith and

return

evidently hoped
to
a

that he
was,

change
made
a

them.

He St.

deed, in-

royalcounsellor
of money
were

and

Knight of

Michael,
he

and

great

sums

offered him;
the money

but while
and

accepted the honours, he refused

faithful to his Salmasius

remained

religion.
best remembered
he
wrote

is now

by

his

DefensioRegia
Charles I of

pro Carolo

I, which
of

in defence

of

England and
because

absolute
forth

monarchy.
Milton
a

It is remembered virulent
answer.

it drew have

from Milton
an

Many

said that

overwhelmed

Salmasius due
to the

in

this controversy; but such

opinion is

ality parti-

given by English-speakingpeople
as

to

Milton, in this

in other

things.
one

The

truth

is that the

Defensio, being
very II

written

by

Protestant

againstanother, was
influence. the author
invited with

widely
the

read and had considerable

cost

Charles
a

paid

of

and printing

gave

hundred
to

pounds.
visit her
tions. distinc-

Queen Christina of Sweden

at her

Salmasius and gifts

court, and
The

loaded

him

other

first edition

of his

Defensio was
at
once

anonymous.

A Le

French
Gros

translation
and
was

appeared

under

the

name

of

also the work

Milton
nor

of Salmasius. Salmasius showed

It must

be said that neither

his full

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

347
allowed self him-

powers
too

in this famous

controversy.
vile

Milton

much
was

and vituperation
not

language, while
away

Sal-

masius
to

carried sufficiently
the

by

his

subject

give his

words

ringingforce
was

of truth.

Nevertheless,Salmasius

gladlywelcomed
after,in 1653.
a

back
He had

to

Leyden, where
his
must sense,

he

died

soon

by
we

great powers

made

himself

and dictator, literary

ascribe this to his vast

his keen

erudition,his natural good

an

perceptionof
text

author's

meaning, all of

which

make
most

his

corrections He
was,

often

quently ingeniousand freneither

a sour

felicitous.
a

moreover,

Puritan

nor

dissolute

cavalier ; but liberal, generous,

enabled
to

and

wise, and

a fortitude that exercising

him

to combat

ill health, and

yet produce books

of which with

the

number

of

eighty, every

one

had

distinct value. and

Contemporary
a

Salmasius

Vossius,

and

wise like-

of Dutch great pillar native

was scholarship,

Hugo

Grotius

(in

his

tongue
scholars Caesar

called
and

Huig

van

Groot), one

of and

those

ancient

writers

who, like Plato

a

Thucydides, and
and

and

was Sallust,

man

of action He

thought
as

as

well
as

as

distinction. literary

served

his State

well

raised the Grotius

of nine.

reputationof his country

was

for

scholarship.Young
verses

able to write
entered

good

Latin of

at

the age
at

He

the University

Leyden

twelve.

Three

years

later he

began

an

edition of the he
was
a

of Martianus encyclopaedia

Capella.In fact,
urged him

who great favourite of Joseph Scaliger,

348

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

to edit this educational

allegory. After degree of

on travelling

the

Continent, he
and entered
on

took

the

doctor of laws at
an

Leyden,
He
not
was

actual

as practice

advocate.

successful aside
was

in his

and profession,
His Latin schools

yet he
so

could
pure

put
he

the classics.
even

stylewas
side

that

read Muretus

in the

by

side with read

Terence,

just as
with

in France

had

been

side

by

side
he

Cicero.
out

Apart
two

from

his text

however, editions,1
show how he

wrought

great works

which

was

divided in his studies between and

on

the classics, pure

and

simple,

science. juristic
the

The

first is his

treatise extraordinary
to relating

of jurisprudence as principles
He

tants. comba-

went,

however, much

farther
were

than

this, and

opened
to

many

largerquestionswhich
those who looked he
was

subsequently
Grotius
as a

be

developed by

upon

master. to

Thus, for example,

a

the first to
a

attempt

formulate

of right, as principle outside

basis for
the
an

society
His

and

government,
De lure

the Church
marks

or

Bible.

treatise science
one

Belli et Pads2
It is worth

epoch

in the

of law.

noting that

even

in this work

is struck of

by

the

beauty

of his Latin

and style,
which he

the
sciously con-

glimpses

pearls with half-forgotten

his pages. work

adorned
The

other remarkable

which

he

accomplishedwas

Of Martianus Published
at

the Pharsalia,and Capella, Paris in

Silius Italicus.
was

1625.

A French

translation

long afterward

made

by H61y (Paris,1875).

350 The

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

study

of ancient

coins

was

taken

up

by

Ezechiel

Spanheim,1 whose

liferepresents the union

was

of the Protestant in
2

since he countries,

born

in

Geneva, educated
his Dissertatio

Leyden,
he
wrote

and
a

died famous

in

London.

Besides
on

commentary

the

Hymns

of Cal-

limachus, which

is still valuable
was
an

in the edition

of Ernesti
not
"

(1761). Spanheim
so inspired, scholar,

industrious,though
said of him:

an

that

Wyttenbach

Span-

heimius The

multa,
two

non

multum, legerat."
Burmanns

Peter

(Burmanni) revived the old

The

supremacy

of Holland

in letters.

elder3

was

dent stu-

of Graevius, but spent the last life

as

twenty-six years Leyden.

He

of his
was a

Professor

of

Eloquence

at

voluminous
Latin writers

editor, confining himself, however,

both
in prose

to

the has

and

poetry, for which

The
most

he

been
are

much

blamed
of

by

the Grecians.
Poeta Latini
were

notable of

his editions

the
His

Minores, and

Petronius

in prose. many

editions
are

largelyVariorum

and editions, when

his

of them

dull; though sometimes

so

were prejudices

aroused, he became
be

scurrilous time. lifewas

that his introductions

So

could not
was

during his printed

so

laborious
"

he, and

that patient,
"

he

called

by

many

the beast of burden of

the

(Burdomanus)

of

classical

learning. Students

historyof

scholar-

1 1 "

1629-1710.
Dissertatio de Usu
et

Prastantia Numismatum

Antiquorutn(1664).

1668-1741.

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

351
to

ship in
the

the Netherlands
volumes

will,however, continue
of his

read
Viris

huge quarto

Epistolarum a Sylloge
contains

Illustribus value

Scriptarum, which
classicists.1 devoted
Ludolf

material

of

great

to relating

Just as
so

Burmann

his whole

life to Latin

studies,

the German,

Kiister

the (Neocorus)2 represented

was a

of investigation
but

Greek.
of
a

Kiister

German

by birth,

something

since cosmopolite, then He

an

he visited Utrecht,

Paris,and
and of Homer,

Cambridge,
died in Paris.
and in 1705

lived for
wrote

long time

dam, at Rotter-

(1696)a

critical history
in three He

edition of Suidas

large
then

volumes, published by the Cambridge

busied himself
it up with
a on a

Press.

life of

Pythagoras (1707)and

followed

massive

edition of
a

all Aristophanes, including version

to parallel

the Greek
text.

with scholia,

metrical

the

He

included comments,

also at the end besides

many

of the volume
sent

all the

modern

notes

by

the great

Richard English classicist, The

number of famous and
we

Bentley.3
Dutch

scholars

who

flourished yond be-

in the seventeenth

eighteenthcenturies
have

is notable

those
Lambert grammar

whom

already

mentioned.

Thus,
Greek also This

Bos,4 the contemporary

with much of
care

of Kiister, studied
; and

at Franeker

there

was

the great edition

was

Livy by
seven

Arnold

Drakenborch. volumes

in originally
1

quarto
54~59-

(i738-1746).

See L.

Miiller, op. cit., pp.

Infra, pp. 361-371.

1670-17
17.

"i670-i7i6.

352
His

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

contemporary,
edited
He
was

Siegbert Havercamp,
in in
two

Professor

at

Leyden,
errors.

Lucretius careless

large volumes,
value

full of

the neglecting

of what He lected col-

lay nearest
a

at

hand,

i.e. the
on

Leyden manuscripts.
the

number

of tracts

of Greek, pronunciation

and

it

was

this collection which of

probably led

to at

the appointmen

Havercamp
should

as

Professor of Greek been

Leyden. plainly

This
seen,
to

honour

have

given,as

is
at
a

now

Tiberius

Hemsterhuys,1 educated

Groningen
mere

and he

Leyden.
was
was

At the latter university, when

youth,
teen at nine-

placed in charge of
called to
at

the

and publiclibrary,
at

the chair of mathematics

the Athenaeum

Amsterdam who
him
were

(1704).
then
a

His

acute

criticism of classical

authors

being

edited

by
was

the different
to

led professors
very

to

distinction

which
had

become
to

great. J. H.

Lederlin,who
threw
up his

been

engaged

edit

Julius Pollux,

engagement, and
a

parted de-

where suddenly for Strassburg, been

were

had professorship books of the work

offered him.

The

remaining three
with

assignedto Hemsterhuys, who,

to

natural

modesty,
ten

wrote

Bentley,and begged
the last two books.

for his

opinion on

sages pas-

in
to

Bentley'sprompt
off at
a once

answer

all these questions,thrown

pages of

in

letter that of his

fills three

print,is

remarkable

proof

and versatility
1

ready scholarship.2
another incident

1685-1766.
Still
more was striking

connected
wrote

with

this book. of

When

Bentley received

the first edition, he

back

in words

high

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

353

Later, this eminent

whole of

Greek

scholar

began
can

to

edit the be

Lucian, the minuteness

years

of which

judged

by

the fact that in ten

he
At

had
that

only translated and

stage, however, the

elucidated

six of the texts.

printing began, but wishing to

the
see

proceeded slowly. The completed during

were

publisher,
own

the work

his
over

time, lifeto
one

remaining five-sixths
of

given

J. F. Reitz1

Utrecht,who

finished them much

text

in five years. in the

Hemsterhuys, likewise,did
editions of

criticism

other men,

mistakes correcting

and

emending
to
to

doubtful
a

passages.

Meanwhile, he had

been

advanced Much

of Harderwyk. at the University professorship

the

Hemsterhuys disappointmentof friends of learning,

succeed Gronovius
at

did not

Leyden, though he
in

became
two

at Franeker. professor

however, Finally,
of

1740,

years

before

the death

Havercamp, he received the

a

but regretted that praise, have dealt with carelessly

so

learned

scholar

as

Hemsterhuys
Pollux.

should

the metrical

quotationsin
astonish
to

Bentley,
so

thereupon, proceedsto make

such
ease

the necessary fulness

as

and does corrections, the

with

and

fluency and

would

ripest scholar. Hemsterhuys.

They
He had

did, indeed, bring gall and

been well with
aware

wormwood

young

of the

importance of
maddening give
up
to

these

quotations,and had Bentley's easy

who
was so

endeavoured

all his skill to

rectifythem.

Hence

mastery

of the

subject seemed
to

Hemsterhuys
forever ; and
a

that he resolved distressed, months

1

Greek
to open

for several

did

actuallynot allow himself

head
master

Greek

book.
at

Reitz

(1695-1778)was
he

of the local school but

Utrecht.
a

It

was

in this

positionthat he assisted Hemsterhuys;

was

later for

periodof thirtyyears
University.
2A

Professor

of

History and

Eloquence in

the

354

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Professorshipof
Hellenic studies
so

Greek

in

Leyden,

where scholars

he from

revived

that successfully
was

other

lands flocked to hear him, while he famous

joinedby

his most

pupil, David
at
even

Ruhnken.1

Ruhnken
so

had
was

been
Hem-

studying Greek
that sterhuys,
were

Wittenberg; but
in the German

famous

universities

students

advised
in

to seek the Netherlands

for the best instruction

the
had

Hellenic
sprung from

literature and the arduous

L. K. and

language.

Such

renown

brilliant labours Peter

of

Hemsterhuys, Oudendorp,
one

Valckenaer,

Wesseling, and

of the

foreigncontingent, Jacques
were

whose Philippe d'Orville,

studies

made

in entirely
a

the

Netherlands.

There

had and

been, indeed,
the Latinists

sort

of

between rivalry

the Grecians

at

Leyden,

and

the other
a

great Dutch
was

universities. the chief of the

For

time Latin
was,

regardedas
it were, Hebrew.
an

classics,
to

while

Greek

as

oriental
But
out

tongue

be

grouped with
his

Arabic and
taken

Hemsterhuys
of this

and

colleaguehad
had

Greek it and

unnatural

and position,
with

taught

its great

importance,
the other

brilliant effort and Latin for for

a

complete success.
had
become Franz with
van
a

On
sort of

hand,

time

stamping
2

ground
a

dullards, until

Oudendorp

came be-

at Leyden, professor
were

the result that

a
man

Greek
lating stimu-

and

Latin power.
1

each

representedby

of

Oudendorp's Lucan,
1723-1798.

his editions of
2

Caesar,

1696-1761.

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

355

Suetonius,and
work. getical The

Apuleius were

excellent

specimensof

exe-

Anglo-Dutch

Period.

"

It has

been
a

said that the natural

pathy, sym-

Protestant

countries in the North

had, by

been drawing together after gradually of

the outbreak

Protestantism.
we

But have

although
mentioned
were

the
as

very

early English
land Ire-

scholars whom and

schools
not
so

in flourishing

in the

abbeys
and the

in close contact
seats

with of

the

of France

Italian splendid

learning,
teenth seven-

much

can

be said for the

Englishmen
a

of the

century.

They had, however,

certain

full-bodied
were

enjoyment of
averse

the pagan

side of classicism.

They
as a

not

to

the songs

of the

Goliardi;and,
Oxford

matter

of

at pride,they patronised learning

and

Cambridge

and We
came

some

of

the

public schools.
that
to

have
to

already seen

many

young for
a

Englishmen
the

the Netherlands
were a source

study

while, and

Netherlands
A

of

Englishclassical learning.
Englishmen
was was

good type

of

these Oxford

cultivated
man,
was

Sir
to

an Henry Savile,1

who
a

tutor

in Greek

Queen
man,

Elizabeth. of much and

Savile

wealthy, high-spirited
his

learning, although
He

learningwas
four

of

serious

painstakingsort.
Histories
an

translated
the

books

of

Tacitus, the
he wrote

and

also
on

Agricola.

thermore, Fur-

excursus

the
was

military usages
translated

of into

the

Romans

"

pamphlet
1

which

1549-1622.

356
Latin
at at

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Heidelberg in

1601.

Later
a

he

became and
austere

Provost

Eton, and there he introduced

He
was one

stern
were

pline. disciin preparing

of those

who

associated
was

the authorised

version of the

Bible,and

knighted

by James
Sir be
tom.

I.
as a

Henry endeavoured,
to prepare

work

by

which

he

should

remembered,
He
not
a

great edition of St. Chrysosfrom

secured

manuscript collections

Paris,but
Savile

could

get

font of the

royaltype; whereupon,
the the
cost

bought
oversaw

specialfont,employed
the

and King's printer,

actual
done
at

printingof
Eton
at
a

eight folio
of

volumes

which alone
while

were

"8000,
was

the paper

costing "2000.
this work
was

Casaubon,

who

in

England

going

on,

describes

it

as accurately

produced privata impensa,

of

animo

regio.

No

piece master-

English scholarshiphad
and evinced
of

heretofore breadth

been

so

splendidlyexecuted joinedwith
a

such

of erudition

lavishness the

outlay.

Savile was,

indeed,
of the

fitting type
school.

of

magnificentEnglish scholar
in

early

Free-handed

gratifyinghis
over

scholarly
He

tastes, his collected

generositywas

felt all

England.

other scholars; founded manuscripts, patronised

at Oxford, professorships

and

aided

Bodley

in

founding

the famous

Bodleian

Library.
Savile scholarship, somewhat "an
was,

Apart

from

his love of and

as

likewise,

chivalrous in manner,
He

affected in his

speech.

regarded

himself

handsome extraordinarily

358
a

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

system which
of
There
new

shall be

and fruitful,

given to

the

ment develop-

learning.1
in this

remain
a

earlier

period Ludwig
who

Caspar
rather

Valckenaer,
noticeable

professor in Leyden Hippolytus

of:

made

editions of the

and

Phoenissce Bucolic

of

and sundry editions Euripides,

(1) The

Poets,
de Aris-

(2) The Fragments of Callimachus, (3) Diatribe

tobulo. students Valckenaer's
as were

lectures of

were

attended
another

by English
at professor

those

Ruhnken,

Leyden,

who

is to be

remembered
in the Timceus Daniel

chiefly by
and
his

his Lexicon tory critical hisSwiss

at

to the Platonic

words

of the Greek

orators.2
at

Wyttenbach,3 a
studied
also

by birth, and
German
to

educated

Marburg,

the many Gerhe

Universityof Gottingen.
live at

He

abandoned after which

Leyden
for

under

Ruhnken,

taught at
to
a

Amsterdam

twenty-eight years,
years.

then returning

Leyden

for seventeen

Wyttenbach produced
texts,
two

complete edition
Latin

of Plutarch's
two

Moralia, with Greek

volumes

and of
an

with translation,

of notes, and
pages.
same

index, containingseven
writer interesting and

hundred
scholar of the

It is intertime Robert

Another who

was

Burton,

produced,
This

after much volume is a

quiet study,

the

famous

Anatomy
what

of
the

Melancholy (1621).
and
essence

delightful blending of

is grave,

what of

is gay, human

filled with

apt and
so

quaint quotations that

from them
many
a

contain has

wisdom,

that

gem

been

drawn
2

without

acknowledgment.
Vita

See

Wyttenbach,
cit. pp.

Ruhnkenii,
101-103.

pp.

67-300,

pp.

175-181;

L.

Muller, op.
1 1

84-88,

746-1820.

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

359

relations existing between estingwith regard to the scholarly

Germany
two

and

Great

Britain,that
decided
Press.
to

even

when

the

countries

were

at war, at

it was

printthis great
instalments

monumental
of

work

the Oxford

The

manuscript were

sent at

to the successively

Press

through

the British minister boxes

was

the
a

Hague,

and

several of these with

were

in protected for two Dr.

chest covered and

a

pitch,that

mislaid
says

years
"

half, * during all which

time,"
was

Sandys,

the editor
to

(Thomas Gaisford)
*

anxiouslyuncertain
In the
course

as

its fate." and

of time both Oxford

Cambridge began
new

to

and halls, spread their stately with Greek restored in

unknown.
some

to cultivate the

ing learn-

of the
was

where ithad colleges

at

become

almost

There had

first a
Roman
two

feud between

who the Latinists, and sufficient,

thought the
"

tongue
bands
"

their fellow-students

the
"

scribin deand

as themselves, respectively,
"

Greeks
so

Trojans."

Their

animosityat
took
to

times became

rampant,
But

that

of them parties
of

in the fighting

streets.

the progress

learningwent
were

steadily on, until England

of being matched deserving Charles

possessedclassicistswho
with

the great men

upon

the Continent.

Burney

declared,about
a

the year

1800, that England had

possessed
Dawes

Pleiad:

Richard

Bentley (1662-1742); Richard

463.
a

1 *

Sandys, op.
1757-1818.

tit. ii. p. He
wrote

critical discourse

on

the

metres

of

^Eschy-

lus

(1809).

360

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

(1708-1766); Jeremiah Markland Taylor

Thomas

(1693-1776); John
Porson

(1703-1766);

Richard

(1759-1808); Jonathan Toup

Tyrwhitt (1730-1786); and

(1713-1785).1
1

Andrew

Downes

edition (d. 1628) is associated with Savile's gigantic

Greek
was

of St. where

Chrysostom.
he held
a

largelyrestored
Greek for

by

him
years

in

Cambridge,

of professorship

forty

(1586-1625).
orations

John Taylor (1703-1 766) edited

of Demosthenes. of Peter

Lysias,^Eschylus, and
various

several
an

Elmsley (1773-1825)made,
annotations
on

besides dramas. Greek

edition
Thomas of Marcus
so

Thucydides, some

excellent Puritan
a

Gataker

(1574-1654), a

scholar, publisheda
Latin and version, of any
a

text

Aurelius,accompanied by
this book
was

commentary,

that

"the

earliest edition

classical writer In his

published in
introduction tive illustranote.

England
there
are

with
many

original annotations"
observations from the Greek
on

(Hallam).

the Stoic and Latin

and philosophy, writers

are

many

passages

given

in the

Morhof,
the

in his

i. p. 926 (Wiemar, 1747), Polyhistor, placed Gataker who

were

among

six Protestants of
enormous

deeply read;
A
very sat

and

Gassendi

calls him

"a the in

scholar

reading."

versatile in the

investigatorwas

jurist, John
161 7
was

Selden

(1584-1654),who
works

Long Parliament, and

brought
written

forth two

of which the second

the first treatise

{The History of Tythes) (De

Diis
was Syris)

in had

English, while
a

in

Latin, and

certain known marbles

mysticism running through

from
were

it. the

His

name,

ever, how-

is far better Marbles. second the These Earl

its connection

with

famous
an

Arundel

purchased
were

in

Assyria by
to

agent of the
and

of Arundel. Arundel

They
House

shipped

England,

placed

in

gardens of
of
a

(1627). They
as a

consisted whole
was

of two

large fragments
Marmot 354
B.C.

chronologicaltable, which
table

called
as

Pariutn. The
262

The

begins with Cecrops, and

which would have been Selden

continues the

far

as

lost

fragment,

third,ended

with

263-

B.C., the year

of its

composition.

deciphered and interpreted

Arundettiana information.
at

the

and inscription,

published

the Marmora much

were

with

the most When the

careful marbles

notes, description,and
first came and
to

learned

England, they
won

gazed

by

multitudes

del at Arun-

House,

Selden

universal

praise.

About

1667, John Evelyn's

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

361
was

Of

these

seven

men,

Richard and

Bentley
He

the

most

memorable
in
some

master

of Greek
to

Latin.

comes,

indeed, scholars,

respects close

the great Continental

of Salmasius, of Muret, the versatility having the brilliancy

and
He

some

of the
a

depth of reading which

was

Scaliger's.
a

was

burly,contentious
the famous
"

Englishman,with
as

violent
and

diary describes
down about the Some

marbles

broken,

and

"scattered
the

up

garden,
of these

exceedingly impaired by fragments

had been used
was

corrosive air of

London." while whence

in

the house, repairing

the upper it
was

half of the Marmor

Parium

built into the At

chimney,
250

rescued

once

more

by Selden.

Evelyn's request
walls of the

inscribed

of pieces there.

marble First

were

given to
were

the

of Oxford. University in the the

Only
Shel-

136 arrived
donian Milton

they

inserted

Theatre,
has been

and

finallywere

placed
a

in

University Galleries.
but classicist,

spoken of already as
reader,wrote
number

controversialist and
than that of

belongs to
He of
was an a

the category of poets rather

a

linguists. professional
"

wide

of Latin His
a

verses,
on

in the

springtime
(1642) is,

ardent

and

brilliant of
a

fancy."

Tractate

Education and
a

however,
since he

less the work

poet than of

schoolmaster
to

encyclopaedist,
which He he agined immends com-

arranged
an

the

classic authors and

according

plan

will form also the

"easie

Book delightful

of Education." and

famous

Italians Mazzoni

for their commentaries

are

criticisms.

Castelvetro, Tasso, and

It is interesting to note and

those

whom

he

mentions. especially Latin

that he advises

the Italian

pronunciation of
the stillmore

apparently of

Greek.

John

Hales the

(d.1656),and

famous
are

Jeremy Taylor (d. 1667), and

an

dreamy

"Cambridge

Platonists"

but unimportant interesting best known for his

group

of scholars.

John Evelyn (1620into his native

though 1706),

English diary,translated
with
a

tongue the first book

learned

of Lucretius

commentary
who

(1656).
the

very

lady
of

was

Mrs.

Lucy Hutchinson,
to

translated of

entire six
Her
as

books
of

Lucretius,dedicating them
with the

the Earl

Anglesey.
him

lack

sympathy
and

poet is shown

by

her

speaking of
as

"this
trine." doc-

Dog,"

of "the

foppish,casuall Creech,
a

dance

of

attoms,"

"an
a

impious

Thomas

fellow of All Souls,put forth

third transla-

362
temper, and

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

prideso great,that
of

when

he

was

to chaplain
was

Stillingfleet, Bishop
the

Worcester, a nobleman, who

to

Bishop's guest,
yours
and
was a

said
a

him

after dinner:
"

"

That

chaplainof

is

very

man." extraordinary
of it with
notes
a more

Yes,"
Oxford
than

tion of Lucretius Press.

most

an man

edition of

(1695) at

the

Creech of his

good taste,and

serious scholar

contemporaries. Besides his Lucretius,he translated portions

Plutarch. The

of

Horace, Theocritus, Manilius, Ovid, Juvenal, and

of

death This but

John Dryden occurred

in the into

same

year

as

that of Creech
not
were

(1700).

manly poet had

also

translated

metrical His

English

only Vergil,
far of
more

Horace, Perseus, and

Juvenal.
;

renderings

than Pope's in his Homer spirited

though Pope, by his

of many. much

neatness

ing, phras-

brought the great epic poet into the hands

like the elder Dumas his work is in had
so collaborators,

Pope, however,
of what
a

that

passes

as

the work reality

to

of others. the

Furthermore,
to

rhymed version
so

compelled him

depart from

else or original,

supplement it ; interpolation :
"

that the best-known True

couplet in his Odyssey is partly an

are

laws friendship's the

by

this rule exprest,

"

Welcome
The seventeenth

coming, speed the parting guest.

was,

xv.

74. son, Joseph Addi-

century

in

one fact,

of classical taste.

John
affected

Dryden, John

Evelyn, and
of

Joseph Spence
even

were more

especially by the
to
so-

by the influence
in

Bentley, but perhaps

we

called classic revival hereafter. Ruddiman

a

France, of which
for

shall have classical

something

say

Worthy

of mention Scotch

serious

study is Thomas produced

went

(1674-1757),a
was editions,

printer and

who bookseller, Latin

practical grammar,
many

entitled Rudiments

of the

Tongue, which

through
American

reprinted in England, and

more

imported into the

Latince

colonies.
"

His

elaborate

work

"

Grammaticm He also

Institutiones the Latin assailed of the

was

excellent for its treatment

of syntax.

printed
had

works

of

George Buchanan, that truculent

in Latin
verse,

Scotchman
a

who

Queen Mary

and

had

made

metrical

rendering miah Jerea

Psalms, which Markland,

brought him

more as

credit than
one

he deserved.

already mentioned producing

an

of

Burney's Pleiad, was

of

scholar

of note,

edition of the Silva

and showing Statius,

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

363
of humility, gift
in

the Bishop. replied he would

be the most
a

"

If he

only had

the

man extraordinary man

Europe."

Bentleywas
took
his

Cambridge
among

and (St.John's College),

degree high

the

wranglers.
had
a

Later

when

who chaplain to Bishop Stillingfleet,

remarkably

fine

library, Bentley read omnivorously,sounding deeply

reaches of classic lore delicate shades of
"

the vast
the most

noting the

nicest

points,

meaning, the

cadences

in verse,

and

the subtler laws of prose. the

After several minor

writings,
aid to

in largely

much shape of letters, privately giving

an

and Englishscholars, he published, as foreign

to
an

appendix
own now

edition of
Letter

John

Malalas

of Antioch, his
In

celebrated
most

to Mill

(1691).

this letter he dealt

with acutely

the

Attic Drama, the

Themis, identifying

Minos, and
the actually and

Auleas

of

as legendaryhistory,

being

historical dramatists,Thespis, Ion likewise discovered exists in the

one

of Chios,
tinuity con-

He .#"schylus.

the metrical

which (syanphceia) His

anapaestic system.
pages

monograph

was

less than

hundred
than he

in bulk,

more yet in it he criticisedand explained

authors, sixty
won

Greek

and
among

Latin. scholars

By
on

this achievement the

tion reputait must his

own
v

Continent, who
him appreciate

were,

be confessed,better able to clever classicistsin Great

critical of three and
sort

than

Britain.
of the of Cicero Epistles
to

in his ability

treatment

Brutus, and
ing, learn-

plays of Euripides.
said of his
own

He
"

was

familiar with it will be

the Continental
a

work in

Probably

long time before this

of

will learning

revive

England."

364

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Bentley had
a projected

boundless

ambition

in these years.

He

collection of the
another

fragmentsof

all the Greek

poets, and
his

of all the Greek

was

But lexicographers.

ad Epistola

Millium

alone sufficient to
To

placehim

at the

head
"

of all living English scholars.

quote Mark

Pattison:
The which
ease

with
been

which,by
left in

stroke of the pen,

he restores

passages

had

hopelesscorruption by the editors

different totally style from
To

of the
over ful care-

the certainty of the emendation, and the command Chronicle, the relevant and
are material,

in

the
a

laborious

learningof Hody, Mill,or Chilmead.

it
was

small

circle of classical students arisen in England

a

at

once

apparent
were

that there had

to be measured

whose attainments critic,

not

by the ordinaryacademical
sufficed to

standard,but whom

these few pages

of
a

had

placeby the side of the great Grecians

fault
was
a

former

age.

only Bentley's
which

pugnacityand dogmaticism,
him
as

in after years

made

many

enemies him

as

his In

learningand genuine benevolence private life

scholars
some

made
to
a

friends.

he

was

charitable
an

degree, and

young For

found

in him

source unfailing

of aid.1
was

years

after his Letter to Mill,his energy it took

no

dinary, extraor-

though
won

shape

in

form. literary

He

from recognition

Continental

scholars,and
which
he worked him

became ously. laborito

librarian of the The

Royal Library,in

of Cambridge University and Latin

asked

obtain

fonts of Greek had

cast

type for the Press; and these he

in Holland. He aided

in beautiful form
1

Evelyn

Supra, p.

351-52.

366 J
ever,

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

in
"

1700,
men

become

the and

of dwelling-place

cultivated

idlers

who To

dined
them

wined

and

cared littlefor the

as an

scholar's

life.

Bentley came
over

unwelcome their

reformer, ridingroughshod
tastes.

their traditions and

to

He he

diverted

the

funds college

purely academic
in

uses,

introduced wrote,
"

strict He

and, discipline,

fact,as
once

De his
test, con-

Quincey
reward

made

Trinity College at

and his scourge

has

for the rest of his life."

This

which would
he have

been
a

styled"The
less

Thirty
than

Years'

War,"
But
was

killed

sturdy man

Bentley.
that spirit

fought through it all with

More than
once an

the combative
it seemed
as

his. naturally go At his

an

though he

must

under
one

in the face of he
was

almost

unanimous

opposition. degree,and
died,he
was

time

deprived of
from

his academic he

headship was

taken

him; yet when

in the

secure undisputed victor,

both possession

of his

degreesand
It is work his
an

of his

headship of Trinity.
that all of hours
s published Bentley'

fact interesting

represents the casual

that he could

steal from hold. houseman's

the struggle against This

enemies
one

within
more

his academic

fact

gives us

proof

of

the

immense

scholarshipand
was

his

profound reading, every

his wonderful memory. work of
a

line of which
In

at the

of disposal the
mere

his books

we

see, not

finished carefully

leisured is

but scholar,
on

the

play of
This

whose giant, is true

true

mind

bent really
on

other

things.
it is

of his

sertation Dis-

Phalaris; and

just as

of his critical

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

367 (1726),in
his

edition of Horace Milton and (1732),

with

(1712), in

his

Terence

in his Manilius its notes

on

and (1739), and

the famous
Latin
text

Critica Sacra of the New

An be

the Greek

Testament.
account

admirable

of

work Bentley's

as

critic will

found

in Sir Richard

Jebb's brilliant little monograph,

of Letters Series.1 There

in published will

the

English Men
many

be

shown, with

the illustrations, interesting

This

almost

ingenuityof Bentley'smind. preternatural

itself in the elucidation of passages had been
a

best showed and

in Greek

Latin, which
scholars.
To

of by precedutterly ing despaired

throw

dazzlinglightinto the deepest

arrived
at

"

darkness

was

forte.2 He Bentley's
of vast

his results

by happy
and
a

combination

minute reading,

scholarship,

which giftfor conjecture

was

few have
in
a

ever

possessed.
he
was

First of all he the kind

and critic, relies

"

largemeasure
what say,

of critic who

largely upon
that is to

the French upon

an

call le sentiment

critique
of what

stinctive in-

knowledge
of how

the author

had

in

mind, and,

he would
this

naturally express

himself.

mulated Bentley forNobis

theory of ipsa centum

his in the famous codicibus

sentence:

et ratio et

res

sunt? es potior
instruments
sureness

It

was

Bentley'scommand
here

of the three him

of and

criticism mentioned

that gave

his

1 1

London Cf.

and

New

York, last ed. 1889.

139-140,

Jebb, op. cit., pp.

on

and

p.

211.

In his note

Horace, Carm.

Hi. 27. 13.

368

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

dexterity.He
he highdegree, familiar with
success

possessed the
was a

"

critical sentiment
and subject(res)
,

"

in he
was

master

of his

the

Hence manuscripts (codices). He

his great
a new

in

conjecturalemendation.

became
he

leader in the field of criticism, because largely

to

applied
he gave
rivalled un-

his task each of these three aids; and

an

so

long as
he

each of them

equal share

in his

wOrk,

remained

in his chosen

field. He

leaned,however, too

much

toward

the

instinctive critical sentiment, and often

not
or

therefore,

while his emendations and

strike

one

by

their And

brilliancy
ample, ex-

ingenuity, they are

out

convincing.
more

so, for

of the hundred

changes which
or

he

troduce in-

into his edition of

Horace, only four

five have of modern

been

acceptedto

take

their

place in

the

texts

times.
Hence He
was

Bentley must
the first to Others

be

as regardedchiefly

pioneer.

point the

way

toward
in his

trulyscientific
steps, and
are

methods.

have

followed

have
to
a

passedbeyond him,

but their achievements

all due also

as

and Bentley'sinspiration

example.

He

serves

warning ;

for when

he tried to make

criticism
to

jective, purely subin

a

he, with
of
error.

all his powers,

began

flounder

bog

Thus
at

in his edition of the Paradise

taken Lost,underthe

the

request of Queen
that the text
as

Caroline, he evolved
we

absurd
as

notion
wrote

have

it is not

the text

Milton
a

but it,

that it had hands

been
it had

altered in

places
There-

by

copyistthrough whose

passed.

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

369
an

fore

Bentley goes

through the book, and by

endeavours
to restore

entirely original
may

method, subjective
form.
serve
as

it to its

The
a

result is both ludicrous and

and pathetic,
that

warning to
in

those who
an

think

merelyby putting
think his the

themselves
and thoughts, Swedish

placeof

author,they can
wrote.

rewrite what
have shown

he

In

later years this

scholars

something of
an

audacity.

The

French

school

have

held to

intense
we

conservatism,

while the German learned

one

to which school,

shall

refer, presently

from

best ^Bentley's

work

the value of

correcting

source

by another, and using the critical sentiment

with

caution.
are

emendations Bentley's
a

dazzlingexamples of what
effect. To him

combination
we owe

of
the

and geniuscan learning

the

also the

of discovery

digamma
a

in its relation to
new

for prosodyof Homer, the suggestion

and critical which light

revision of the New he throws

to

Testament, and

the flood of

upon

the

earlyLatin
strange that

metres not

in his introduction

Terence.
was

It is his

until the nineteenth

century

in England. Engrecognised geniusfully lishmen him

a

thoughtof
of

mainly as the contentious

Master
;

Trinity,
"

as

quarrelsome, pugnacious creature youth,his

name
was

whereas, even
the Continent
as

in his
as

known

all over
As

the greatestscholar of his time.

who
wrote

late
he

1833,Bishop Monk,

his

life,1 regretsthat

See The

2d Lifeof Richard Bentley,

2B

ed.

(London, 1833). This book

37" "wasted

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

his time

upon

criticism" conjectural

instead

of

turninghis
^ never
"

attention to
to

Theology.
him
"

But

the Germans that is his

have due.

ceased
says

give

the

praise
not

Thus,"

Mahly,

Bentley is

merely one

among
new era

the in

but he great classical scholars,

the
art

inauguratesa
a
new

of

criticism.
obtained

He

opened

path.
scholars

With had

him,

criticism

its

majority.

When

hitherto with gave

offered

suggestions and
over

conjectures,Bentley,
material "The
rare

unlimited decisions."

control

the whole

of

learning,
of

Bunsen

styledhim:

founder

historical
wrote:
"

philology."Jacob Bernays,with Corruptionswhich

of the had hitherto

enthusiasm,
every
a

defied

tempt, at-

even

were mightiest,

removed

by

touch

of

the

of fingers in the
so

this British

Samson."

But
were

England
him

of his
as

day,even
to

the most

learned

men

far below When

were

not

the greatness of appreciate his opponents appeared, routed them

his powers.
at

his Dissertation
aware

Oxford

that he had make

as

them;

yet their
how

learning was utterly they were

too

slightto

understand

crushed; and
a

for the British that

educated in

it supposed for public, the victor. his in

own

long time

Boyle was
his

reality

Thus

when

Bentley died, in
him

eightieth year, long struggle

countrymen

remembered

by

his

TrinityCollege. They hardly dreamed

had

that in Richard and intellect,

than with his

Bentley England
has work
more as a

produced

the richest

to

do with critic and

and personalaffairs Bentley's quarrels scholar.

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

37
be

the most

remarkable

that type of scholarship

can

found

in the annals

of Classical with
men

Philologyin

Great

Britain.1
are

Contemporary
number

Bentley and
who
are

followinghim

of learned

chronicled

by Englishmen,
the

but who
of

made

no

great impressionupon
one

history

though European scholarship,

to

of

them, Richard

Dawes,2 in his emendations

followed
in
some

the

Greek

dramatists,was
and One
was

instances

by Brunck,
MS.

wards after-

confirmed
than
an

by the
may

Ravenna

who

is other

Englishman

find it worth
an

while here to recall

who ChristopherPitt,3

made

excellent translation of the

Art

jEneid, and

another
known
was

of Vida's

of Poetry. Thomas
his

Gray,4 best

to
a

for posterity writer

was

Elegy in

Country
delicate

Churchyard,
Latin

of

very

careful

and
as

poetry; while he

mentioned
who

by

some

among

the few

Englishmen of his time

Richard Hurd5

stood thoroughly underbe

those

Plato.
1

should

mentioned
of

bealready
BerDe Mark

The

principal biographiesof Bentley

Richard

are

Monk,

cited; Mahly,
nays,

Bentley. Eine Wolf,

Biographic (Leipzig,1868);
Kleine ii. 1030-1094; Schriften,

Philol. Mus.

viii. 1-24; vi.

Quincey, Complete Works,

Pattison 2d ed. The in the York of

35-180;

Nicoll, Great

Scholars;

Encyclopedia Britannica, vol. iii;and

and

Jebb, Bentley,
vols.

(New
works

London,
were

1899).
collected have and edited
as

Bentley

by Dyce,
follows:

(London, 1836). Separate

on

works

been

edited W.

tion Disserta-

the

Epistlesof Phalaris, edited

by

Wagner
and

(Berlin,1874) ; Sacra, edited

Horace,

edited Ellis

by Zangemeister (Berlin, 1869); (Cambridge 1862).

Critica

by
1
*

A. A.
1

709-1

766.

* "

1717-1771.

1699-1748.

1720-1808.

372
cause

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

of his aesthetic commentary the

on

the Ars
which

Poetica

of
the

Horace, and
unusual

Epistolaad Augustum

had

honour One

at that time of

being translated into

scholars who
from

man. Gerwere

cannot

pause

to

dwell upon

able and

sometimes

worthy of passing notice

an

their

Continental be made
as

contemporaries. Perhaps
of
at

exceptionmay
a

in favour well
as

Samuel

Musgrave,1
who

student among
as

at

Leyden,

Oxford,

numbered distinction
He

his

of correspondentsforeigners

such

Ruhn-

and ken, Schweighauser,

Ernesti.

edited the whole in order

to

of
a

Euripedes,and

twice

visited Paris
text.

make

careful collation of the

the
was

Thomas

Tyrwhitt, one

of

Pleiad, was
said to have

much
a

admired

and during his lifetime,

every

knowledge of almost
was

European
It

tongue.
was

taste Certainlyhis literary

excellent.

he who

led the way

He

in

the famous detecting

forgeries
cised critihe covered dis-

of Chatterton.

likewise

edited
acuteness.

Chaucer, and
In
some

Shakespeare with real

was

ways for he

worthy follower of Bentley'smethod,

many
traces
on

of Babrius
many

in the

fables of

^Esop.

His

critical notes

authors, and
a

his especially

with valuable edition of Aristotle's Poetics,

Latin version,
But

gained him
other

from recognition may

name

France

and
from

Germany.
this short Parr
was

Englishmen
reach the
780.
See

be

omitted

list

until we
1

of Samuel

Parr.2

essen-

732-1

1747-1825.

Field, Lifeof Samuel

Parr, 2 vols. (London, 1828) ;

and

Nicoll, op. tit.pp. 139-187.

374

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

and exegesis; such

Art
as

we

have

noted

some

of the various

tions, transla-

Pitt's version
So Thomas

of the jEneid, and

of Vida's

of Poetry.

Gray

wrote

more

trulyin

vein of criticism than

while of creation,

Hurd's

aesthetic

commentary
exposure
was

is remarkable

for its time, and

Tyrwhitt's

of

Chatterton, like his criticism of Shakespeare,

work of
an

the essentially

mind, analytic
the

which

dealt

with

comparison

and

the

of application

fundamental

of principles

the art which

judges art.
after

By
Richard
town

far the

greatest English scholar

son

Bentley was
in
a

Porson,1 the

of

parish clerk
was personality as

small

in Norfolkshire. In his

Porson's

extremely
been

odd.

prime
a

he is described

having
Roman

nearly
and

six feet
an

high,with

bulging forehead,a
while his countenance
is the
was so

nose,

mouth, expressive

suggestedprofound

thought.
friends. partial

Such
If he

of his, perhaps, description

impressivelookingon
in his be

monious cere-

occasions,he
life. His
upon him

was

otherwise certainly seemed

to

daily

dress

was

slovenlyand
were

thrown

; his hands

while ink-stained,
contortions has

his
must

snortings
have
sembled re-

and

and puffings

absent-minded

those which

Macaulay
was,

ascribed

to Dr.

Samuel

Johnson.

Porson

over-fond likewise,
even

of

drink, and
he drank

it is related of him
to
excess

that

at official dinners

while
the

after the

guests had
the

departed he

would

walk

about

table, sippingup
1 i

dregswhich

remained

759-1808.

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

375
lants, stimusoap,

in the

glassesof
he had
a

the others.

When

deprived of
thingsas
up

strange craving for such

which he

cologne,and
wherever His
mere

ink,

would

lap

with

avidity

he could

find them.
were,
a

mental

powers

however, remarkable.
memory,
so

As
that
enter

a a

child he evinced of
and

high degree of
him

number Eton

gentlemen provided

with

funds

to

afterward various

TrinityCollegein Cambridge.
a

There

he
The

took

honours, until he reached

fellowship.
him
an

of unfailing generosity income

his friends also gave he

was

annual
to the

of

^100,

and

unanimously
the income

elected
this
was

in Greek, though professorship

was

from

chair

only "40.
of
were

Two

years

before

his death
In

he

made

librarian

the

London

Institution.
he
to

all the

various posts that

his

held

by him,

studiously neglected
account.

duties,but
a

no

one

called him
much
so

He
was

was

considered
soap,
as as

prodigy, as
he
was

when

he

eating

when

overthrowing Gottfried
Hellenic
metres.

Hermann

to

nice

points in
was

Porson

naturallyan
enormous

indolent
amount

person,

and
and

yet he
did
an

accomplished an
enormous

of work,
is
a

amount

of
the

reading.

There

tradition

that
to

when

he made

journey by
the

mail-coach
his

from

Oxford

London, he crammed
editions of the various

pocketsof

long top-coat with

small
over

classics

printedin pored

type, and
them with

by

the

swaying lamp

of

the coach, the

painfulassiduity.Among

really important results

of

376
Porson's

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

are learning
on

(i) his

restoration

of the Greek

scriptio in-

the Rosetta

Stone; (2) his

critical edition of the

four

plays of Euripides; (3) the preface to

he

second

edition of his Hecuba, in which

the

completely disposedof
and
very

ingenioustheories
of his

of

Hermann;

(4) his

Letters to

Travis, one

early works, yet

that the passage

cause important,bement Testathat

in it he

proved
v.

in the New of

(1

St.

John

7) which
"

speaks

the

"

three

bear witness
had down been
to

in heaven

is

wholly spurious.
and

This

opinion
scholars who first

held

by Erasmus,
of

by

many

other Porson

the time
a

Bentley,but

it was

made

it

certainty.
was a Grecian, and essentially as

Porson1
not
so

his

was Latinity as a

remarkable

that of Samuel

Parr ; but

ist Hellen-

he excited the admiration whom he maintained

a

of Continental

with scholars,

continual

correspondence,e.g.
In 1808 he

Ruhnken, died,and
statue

and Heyne, Villoison,

was

Hermann.

buried

in

at TrinityCollege,

the foot of the

of Sir Isaac Newton. of

of portrait and
see

him

hangs

in the

diningroom

TrinityLodge,
If
we

another
a

sity in the Univerever

Library.
1

wish

to

perpetualand

See

Watson,

Life of Richard

Porson

(London, 1861) ; The

Table

Talk

of Samuel

Rogers (London, 1856); and

Luard, Cambridge Essays

Porson

(London, 1857) ; also The

Correspondence of Richard 91-138, and

by Luard

(Cambridge, 1866); Nicoll,op. cit. pp. England, vi.

text
on

Sandys, In Social

p.

300

foil.

"

Note

The

authenticity of the traditional

was

the of

"three

heavenly witnesses"
was

defended

by John Burgess, by Dr.

Bishop

Salisbury, but

finallyand

absolutely refuted

Turton, afterwards

Bishop of Ely.

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

377 shall find it modern

death

present monument

and

memorial

to

him,
almost
after

we

in the beautiful Greek

texts
are

type in which
was

all our Porson's he

printed. This

cast

from Greek
as

the clear and

elegantletters
which is

in which
now

copied his

manuscripts,and
"

everywhere known

the From

Porsonian the middle

type."
of the

eighteenth century until nearly

renown as

the

middle

of the
upon
to

nineteenth, such

English
in

learning shed
measure

English scholarshipwas
of the

small

due The

the influence
at

sities. great English univerand

The
at

both colleges, into

a

Oxford

Cambridge,
Fellows
joyed en-

were

sunken
their

sort

of

lethargy.

stipendsin their beautiful academic

means

homes,
the

not

by

any

the neglecting

routine

reading of

but doing nothing for the advancement classics,

of classical the

learning,and
and cellars,
every
men

caring more
the

for

the

fine

vintages of

deep potationswith

which

they ended
If

and higherthinking. day, than for plainer living

of
was

real distinction
in of

came

from

among

their

number,
and
not

this

spite of
it.

the

universityinfluence
Chesterfield
even

because
"rust" the

Thus,

Lord

spoke of the
friend of

of

Cambridge;

and

West, the
:
"

poet Gray, writingto the latter, says

seriouslyhere
in

"Consider

me

very

strange
and

country,
Masters

habited in-

by things that call themselves

Arts,
and
"

Doctors

of

country

flowing with

and syllogisms

ale,where

Horace

Vergilare

equallyunknown."

378

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Gray, answering him, quotes prophet, and

than wild owls. A
more

the words had

of the Hebrew
no

insists that
in view
an

Isaiah he of

Cambridge
wild

less
and for

Babylon
asses,

when

spoke of

beasts
a

of

inhabitation

dragons and

court

serious indictment

was

that of in

England'sgreatest
stern

Edward historian,

Gibbon,

uttered

and
After

stately giving

of Oxford. language againstthe University

the

of particulars words

his which

unprofitable stay there, he spoke

have
become
so

the famous
"To she will the
as

widely known
no am

"

Universityof Oxford, I acknowledge readilyrenounce

a

and obligation, claim willingto disat

me

for

son,

as

her for

mother.

I spent

fourteen

months

Magdalen
my

College; they proved

life. The scholar."
1

the most pronounce

idle and

of unprofitable

whole
the

reader

will

between

the

school

and

It is Edward his seventeenth

wrote

Gibbon

who,

thrust

forth from
to become

Oxford
a

in

year, because

he chose

Catholic,
of
an

with

all the minute

and application

research

accomplished scholar
Rome. From memory,

of later the greatest existing history he his had been

childhood
which

remarkable

for his fed. It

unusual
was

abundant

reading

in Rome
came

in 1751
to him.

that the first conceptionof his great The the it

work

plan then

formed

was

originally
of the Lang,

limited

to the

decay of
reflection

but imperial city,

was

after years embrace

and
"

reading and
1

expanded
(New

to

See

Morison, Gibbon,

pp.

7-10

York, 1879)

1906). Oxford,pp. 199-218 (Philadelphia,

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

379 Fall

Empire, Empire)

as

its title (The Decline

He

and

of the

Roman in 1772,

shows.

began
of
in

to

write

this book

after twenty-one years the first volume

lished reading and research,and pub1776.

the Two
more

volumes in
as

were

publishedin 1781,
From the moment

and

last three

volumes

1788.
classic

of its appearance,
even

it ranked
has

of the classics, nor criticism

structure.
"

to this
an

day

the most
in

searching
its massive

discovered The

important
has

error

book, indeed,

been

called, rightly

one

of the greatest achievements It is in

of human

thought and

erudition.

of the civilised world a reality history

during those thirteen centuries when supplanted by Christianity."New

different
the most

paganism was
facts have

being
a

thrown

lightupon

some

of Gibbon's

conclusions; but

critical scholarship has not

His It

altered the essential

truth of his great panorama. endurance balance and

to
a

stylegives point and

has stateliness and

what
sort

he

writes.

of "measured

melancholy" befitting
the

the author's whole

have made theme; yet it would, perhaps,

were

monotonous,

it not led
He

infused
to

with
of in

certain
as

piquant qualitywhich
"

Byron

speak

Gibbon 1794.

the lord of How

' irony."

died in London
to do

littlethe universities had

is classics,
numerous

with
that
and

the broader

field of
1

seen

by
in

the

fact
Decline volumes

archaeological
Fall have all been

The

editions that of

of Gibbon's
seven

supplanted by
See
also Letters

Bury

(London, 1806-1009).
and The

Gibbon's

Memoirs,

edited Prothero

by

Hill

(London, 1000) ;

of Gibbon, edited by

(London, 1896).

380

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

studywas
The is
was manner

carried

on

almost

outside entirely

their

precincts.
Marbles
*

in which

they treated
The

the Arundel

characteristic. sufficiently
not

reproach, however,
in

to Englishmen applicable

general. Thus
been founded

the
in

so-called Dilettanti 1733,

the

which Society,

had

produced

some

remarkable
Two

works

for which

itfound and of

necessary

funds.

explorers(James
the material The This
for

Stuart
a

Nicholas

Revett) furnished
known
as

work

enduring value,
Measured
and

Antiquities of
book
was

Athens

Delineated?

rendered

into

German,

and

is stillreferred to its exhibit plates

at
were

by

the student

of archaeology

because
of the monuments No
an

the earliest reproductions

Athens. the works of Robert Wood

and

lessvaluable

(d
.

7 7 1) ,

inveterate

who brought accounts traveller,

drawings
William

of

the ruins of
sent account

Palmyra
to

and

Heliopolis.Sir

Hamilton minute

the

British

a Society of Antiquaries

of the
was

earlyexcavations
enriched

at

Pompeii.

The of

British Museum Greek and and

Roman

by

collection splendid

marbles, bronzes,coins,gems,
Richard

vases,

other
a

while antiquities;
of

Payne Knight
and

lected col-

set splendid

antique bronzes
The and

coins,which

also fell to Martin

Leake

the
in

Museum.

travels of Sir William

in

Upper Egypt
enriched

Turkey

and

Greece

(1801 and 1804) both

1 *

the literatureof

archaeology

Supra, p. 360.
First

edition, 1762 ;

second

edition, 1825-1830.

382
The Hellas

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

monuments

of
were

the

East

beyond

the

domain

of

and and

Rome

exhibited splendidly
who explorers

in this structure, stimulated

the travellers and

had

knowledge of Archaeologyvery naturallywere

and increase the

destined
a new

to excite

study of languagein

and

hitherto unknown
had

form.

English scholarshipheretofore
aid and

done

littleor

nothing to
of

Philology, apart

from

the the

comparative study
scholars
of Hebrew

Greek
to

Latin, leaving for

to

of the Continent
which
was

speculateas
as
a

the

relations

regarded
at

primal and original

tury, eighteenth cenwas

tongue;

but

now,
an

the

close

of the
who

there
one

came

oriental

scholar

to

open

of the most

brilliant pages

in the

study of

classical

learning.
This He
was was

William in

Jones1

(afterwardsSir William).
was

born he he
was was

London, and
entered
at

educated

at

Harrow,

whence There

UniversityCollege,Oxford.
desire to
His

able to

his strong gratify oriental have in

gain

thorough knowledge
orientalism
Edward he became
as seems

of
to
2

languages.
like that

tive instinc-

been

of the

late

Henry

Palmer

that, without
and 1770

the East, visiting

versed in both
in the

Persian In

Arabic, colloquially
he
at published,

well

as

dialects.
in the

the

from

the fact that if the books

librarywere
to
a

placed
of

on

end

in bookcases three

eight feet high,they

miles.
1

would

extend

distance

more

than

746-1 794.

Edward

Henry Palmer, by

Walter

Besant

(London, 1883).

THE

PERIOD

OF

NATIONALISM

383
Nadir

request of the king of Denmark,

translated
year, A the into the French Grammar from

A the

Life of

Shah,

Persian;
and
in
to

in the next
lated transas

Persian
seven

(1772);

1780 he

exquisite poems,
Sir
as

known

the Arabs

the Mo'allakat. remarkable of

a

William, like Hugo

in literature. He

Grotius,was
wrote
a

as

in law
so

number
made

legal essays,
judge
in the

that in

1783
Court

he

was

knighted and

Supreme

of

Judicaturein Bengal. everythingthat

He
was

His

himself at finding delight

itself in many
to Society,

amidst
ways.

oriental showed

established
he

the

Royal

Asiatic

whose
was

volumes the
a

contributed He called

and largely,

of the

which

he

first President.
verse,

published
The Hindu

translation and

of

story in

Wife,
work,
or

an finally

English rendering of
to

the

ancient

now

well

(known

Sanskrit This

scholars,
aroused
a

Sakuntala,
wide

the

Fatal

Ring

(1789).
and

interest of

throughout Europe,
Hindu literature.

led
was

to

general
in
a

discussion

Jones

engaged

of digest

the Hindu

and

Mohammedan

laws at

the time

of his death He
was one

in 1794. of

the most
has

noted
ever

and linguists

oriental
passage

scholars

that him

England

produced;1
of Asiatic may

one

penned by
after he

in the first volume

Researches,2
a

had

given
Sir

what

one

call

only

slight
(London,

See

The

Life of

William

Jones

by

Lord

Teignmouth

1807).
*

Asiatic

i. 442 Researches,

(1786).

384

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

glimpse of Sanskrit,is memorable

:
"

in the

of linguistics history

"The wonderful
than the
to

Sanskrit

language,whatever
more

may

be its antiquity, is of

structure;

perfect than the Greek, more

refined exquisitely than in the roots been

copious
of verbs

Latin,and
of them

more a

ing either, yet bear-

both

both stronger affinity,

and

in the forms
so

of grammar,
no

than

could

have

produced by
the

accident ;

strong that

could philologer

examine been

Sanskrit,
from

them Greek, and Latin, without believing

some common

to have

sprung

source,

which, perhaps,no longerexists. There is a

not

similar reason, the Gothic Old

1

though

for supposing that both quiteso forcible,

the
same

and
may

Celtic had be added

with the Sanskrit. origin

same
l family."

The

Persian

to the

Though

Sir William

pointedout Jones rightly

and Old done before his time

the

peculiarsimilarity
must

between that

Sanskrit,Greek, Latin,
had been

Persian, we
to

remember of this

something
In

help

the progress
some

discovery.
of the Hindu

the Middle

Ages,

the Arabs

introduced

knowledge
In the obtained

and science,

the so-called Arabic

(Hindu)

numerals. French

sixteenth century, the Portuguese, Dutch, English, and

a

foothold

in

India.

They

sought there, however, only

some

merchandise
was

and

preciousstones, though
one

knowledge
even

of

Sanskrit
a

gathered
poet into
issued Rome tween beH. F. in

and by missionaries, Dutch

as was

of

them

translated

Sanskrit
to

early as

1651.

The Father

first Sanskrit

grammar had it

be

Europe
in
1

compiled by
few years

Paulinus, who Jones'sdeath

of In

printedin

790,

only a
and

before
were men

; but

the real mediator

India

Europe
H. H.
men

like Charles Wilkens, letters,

Colebrooke,
admired
after them
to them

and

Wilson. like

Germany,

their the

translations

were

intenselyby
those
even

Goethe, Herder,
literature

two

Schlegers,and
more

who than

found its

in Hindu

something
and epics, India

ing interesting strik-

its remarkable lyrics,

its very

drama.

See Frazer, A A

LiteraryHistory of

(New York, 1904);

Macdonell, (New

notes History of Sanskrit Literature,with bibliographical

York, 1900) ; Buhler

and

Kielhorn,

Grundriss

der

indoarischen

Philologie (Strassburg, 1896 foil.).

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

Where
there
were

shall

we

look

for those

earlyschools
who

in which

wandering scholars gatheredtogether earlyuniversities?

We

yielded already
the the

the first fruits of the

have

mentioned
Great with

the revival of

promoted by learning
His

Charles Louis

the aid of Alcuin.1

"

successor,

who Pious,

knew

Latin and understood

Greek," let learning

was

lapse;and

later the monastic it an

school at Tours
Irish monk
son

of
a

slight
Latin

althoughin importance,
grammar. France from

composed

Charles the Bald, the

of Louis, was of the West.

king of
At the

840

to

876, and Emperor

head

of the school set up

the

by

him

he

placedthe

most

noted

of philosopher Duns
even

earlyMiddle
he

Ages, John the

Scot

(or
and

Scotus), and
from
famous Greece.

invited teachers from

a

Ireland

At Fulda

school founded

by

Boniface

was

for the labours of those whom

was

Alcuin

taught.
at
was

Among
Mainz,
Rabanus and many

them

the

German,

Rabanus

Maurus, born
Strabo. the It

Servatus

Lupus, and
who

Walafrid

(orHrabanus)
a

founded

at Fulda library
a

then retired to

where he composed hill, lonely and

several treatises on
219-229.

great

works encyclopaedic
1

educa-

Supra, pp.
385

2C

386
tion.

HISTORY

OP

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

He

introduced besides

Priscian's
a

grammar
tract
on

into the schools

of

Germany,

short

alphabets and

abbreviations.
In the Middle
were

Ages

many

fragmentsof
some

classic literature much

more

read and
we

and studied, have

of them The

fully

than

should

supposed.

historians (Caesar,
very

Sallust, Livy, Suetonius, and

and Valerius Maximus historical anecdotes.
with
cannot
was

Florus) were

familiar,
in

popularbecause
was

he abounded
so

Germany
France and

not

well

supplied

books

as

were

one Italy. Nevertheless,

be very

precise upon

this point. For instance, Pliny

is

the Elder's Historia France

and On in

Naturalis and

cataloguednine
in

times

in

Germany,

only twice

and EngItaly land.

the other hand, the younger

in the book-lists of

Pliny is mentioned
while his letters
are more

only twice
are

Germany,

quoted once
of Tacitus

by
in

scholar

in Verona. than

There

traces

Germany

elsewhere.1
the

who Petrarch, Germans Thus of the

knew
as

something of by
no means

North, regardedthe
inculti.

of Austria the German Roman

strangers and
Charles

when

Emperor,
and

IV, became
himself
a

head

Holy

Empire2

showed

generous
as a new

the Italian poet hailed him patron of literature,

Augustus,a
1

sincere friend of all the arts.

of the

Petrarch

corre-

An

elaborate

account

preservationof
in
a

the Latin
way,

classics in the will be in Proc. found Amer.

monasteries in
a

of the

East, arranged
and

very

careful
as

number

of works
1902,

monographs

such

West,

Phil.

Assoc,

xxii foil.;

Wattenbach,

Schriftwesen im
2

Mitklalter

(Berlin, 1871), etc.

1346.

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

387
to

sponded with
was

the

Emperor,

from

1350

1356, when

he

sent

to the

then supposed at Prague,1 Emperor's capital

'

by

the Italians to be

the extreme

confines

of the land of the

an

barbarians.'

Before this time he had

with

giventhe Emperor

decorated effigy

gold and
his

silver coins of ancient

Rome,
count ac-

showing the images of

of Alexander

Arrian's great predecessors.

verse
was

in easy Latin

taken to Vienna
Latin

(1442-1455).
on

tineas

Silvius wrote

(1450)a

treatise

education When

for the benefit of his

was was

master. imperial

iEneas

made

Pope

in 1459, his former

pupil,
of
the

Hinderbach, who Germany

humanism
an

fond of him,

promisedon

behalf

that this

country should continue

the
new

to cultivate
so

of which

Pope

had

been

admirable
him

example.

Classics were,

soon therefore,

taughtby

(1460-1469) ;
mathematics
of

and
but

he also lectured in Vienna, not

only on

astronomy.
known
as

His

pupil,Johann Miiller,
on

Konigsberg,best
and

Regiomontanus, lectured
De

Terence, Vergil,
classicists and

Cicero's
astronomers

Senectute.
now

A number

of

also

spread throughout
where and lectures
were

Germany,

rude establishing and where

were

schools editions

regularlygiven
Greek and
Latin

translations

of

works

put into circulation.

the calendar
was so

It is
as

that interesting
to

at Ratisbon

studied

lead to

proposal for

its correction.
to

Because where

of this

the

Archbishop was
us

summoned

Rome,

he died.2

Let

trace

the briefly
^sG.

rise and

progress

of the greater

.'1476-

388
German

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

universities.
the

It

came

from partly

Paris and

partly

from

influence

Bologna.1 of Italian universities, especially

was

The
next

earliestof them

at

and Prague (1348),

the that

the

of University
were on

Vienna

(1365).

Paulsen

says

both

of these

the eastern
was

borderland

of German many, Geras

civilisation in that Paris and

near

enough

for Western

because
a

between

the old church

was

such schools, In

Cologne,

close connection

kept

up. the

the

same

century (1385) the Westerns

founded

Universityof
Erfurt.
Five

Heidelberg (1385) and

of these remain
at

the

Universityof

the

present day; Cologne having been

in 181 6.

closed in 1794
that it was

and

Erfurt

It must

be

bered remem-

Austria

and

the parts of
more

Germany

which

bordered French
with the
more

on

Italythat
Italian

receive

the directly

fruits of touched
was

and

culture. of

Though

rude

and

semi-orientalism civilised than

the

Byzantium,

Austria

at

least

the barbaric

North.

All this is
were

priorto
homes
opens

Renaissance, and
A

these universities

the

of scholasticism.

second
movement.

periodof great activity

Such
and

with the humanistic

doctors
Duns

as

Albertus had
came

Magnus

and

Thomas in many which

Aquinas

Scotus Then

taught and argued

the Hussite
its

of these

schools.
to

schism

lost

Prague

Germany. (1409).
of the

In

of Leipzigwas place the University

founded the needs

Rostock

opened

its halls

(1419) to

meet

Baltic countries.
1

devoted Originally

solelyto

the

study

of law.

39"

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

university might only a

humble

be

great

seat
a

of

or learning,

it

might

be
to

school with
in
a

small

destined foundation,
be convenient

be swept away reference to

name

few years.

It may

for

the universities in
exist and to-day,1

Germany

and Austroor

Hungary
1

which

to say a word

two

con-

In

Germany
Berlin

to-day
about

there

are

twenty-one

the largest universities, and

being

(with

5800 students), Munich

Leipzig, Bonn,

Breslau, Freiburg, Halle, Tubingen, Heidelberg, Gottingen, Marburg, Strassburg,Wurzburg, Kiel, Konigsberg, Erlangen, Giessen, Greifswald, MUnster, Jena,
the faculties of Rostok. At

Freiburg,Munich, Minister,and Catholic;

at

Wurzburg Tubingen
at

theology are
Catholic
are

Bonn, Breslau,and
while
as
"

they
other

are

mixed

and

Protestant;
It number

the well

faculties be added

all the the

universities of

Protestant.

might
seven

that

universities

Austria-Hungary

Vienna, Gratz,

bruck, Inns-

Pesth, Breslau,Cracow,
Of the
men distinguished

and

Limberg.
German
"

who shall

first made

learningillustrious
Peter Luder

"

omitting those
who

of whom
at

we

speak

above he and

are

(c.1450),
Later he

matriculated

Heidelberg
academic
an

before home

visited lectured

Rome.
on

returned

to his German

the Latin

poets
thing every-

(1456).

This

was

such hinder

innovation in his with

that his older

so

did colleagues the

to possible

him

work,
much

that when

plague

afflicted

Heidelberg, Leipzig.

Luder

lectured

applause at Ulm, Erfurth, and

Hartman Schedel literature. d'Ancona
own

One

of his most became

ardent known

pupils at Leipzigwas
as a

who (1440-1514), It
was

collector of humanistic of the

he who
p.

preserved a great part 268) with copiesof

in the

journal of
and and
1492

Ciriaco

(seesupra,
collection

monuments

inscriptions. His
his work is
on

is

now

libraryat Munich,
to

the

history
as are

of the world the said

from

the Creation Chronicle."

the year sketches

everywhere

known

"Nuremberg
to

His of the

of ancient of

monuments

have

inspiredsome
Schedel
of
was,

drawings

Albrecht

Diirer,now
the istic humanwho

in Vienna.

an therefore,

important figurein
Another who

period
deserves

German

scholarship.
was

leading
is best

humanist known mental

especial mention
name

the

Frisian

by

his

Latinised

Rudolphus

Agricola (1444-1485). His

and

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

39I

cerning their characteristics.

In the earliest days of German

the universities were scholarship

scholastic. essentially

activityis shown physical

he He
was was

by

his interest

in travel

and

observation
at

; for

educated

at
to

four

German

universities
at

and, perhaps,
and
at

Paris. he

then
a

journeyed

Italy,studying
under
to

Pavia Gaza. humble

Ferrara, where
so

student
to

of Greek have where

as

Theodorus
a

After station

much

activity city

he appears of

dropped
he
a was

rather

in his native

Groningen,
he

town

clerk for four years. and

at

However, during Deventer,

where totle, Aris-

this time he
met

acted

town-envoy,
he

often

visited

Erasmus. and

Later

taught
from Like

Heidelberg, lecturing on
Humanists he his
was

translating selections
him
as

Lucian. Erasmus

in

Germany
in

looked his

to

their leader.

very

influential
what some-

private and
overrated.

personal associations, though

He
as

scholarship was
which

wrote

treatise

on

education and the of

appeared
an

in

the

same

volume it did not

like works He in but

by

Erasmus

Melanchthon,

honour

which and

deserve.

had, however,

truly humanistic
the the
a

spirit,
cheerful

urged

carefulness
a

reading, practice
earnest

memory,

and alacrity,

quiet

oppositionto
was

ticism. stiffness of scholasteacher of

Alexander made mocked Classics Rudolf and Deventer

at
as von a

who Hegius (1433-1498),

Erasmus,
He

great humanistic

centre

of Northern

Germany.
back
to

the old mediaeval the true

source

text-books,and
of
a

pointed style.
at at

the Latin

perfect Latin
studied

There

follows

him,

Langen

who (1438-1519),
a

Erfurt, visited Italy,

Minister. Another Schlett-

finallyfounded
school in
was

great humanistic
of

school

famous stadt
at

that
was

Jacob Wimpheling

(1450-1528) at
of

Alsace, which
which

the third of the schools

Germany.

Later,

Strassburg to
which

he the

migrated, he teachings of
in

founded Erasmus.

(i.e. humanistic) literary

He
as was

group

followed

the friend author

of

Sebastian

Brant,
Fools

well known
Conrad

English
Celtes

literature

the

of the

Ship of
Dr.
years
at

(1494).

(1459-1518) is rightly called

in
some

by

Sandys
were

"the

knight-errant of
after

humanism

Germany."
time under

His

early

unfavourable, but
and

spending Greek,
at

Agricola Italy,
in

Heidelberg

learning a
cultivated

little

he

made

his way and

into

livingwith
Rome.

most the]

Italians

Padua

Ferrara, and
from

When

he

returned, he received

the

poet'scrown

Fried-

392 From

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

the middle
came

of the fifteenth century, the humanistic with strongly, especially

fluence inwe

in

those

men
a

whom

have

alreadymentioned.

Subsequentlyarrived
to the influence
was

periodof
Luther

partialreaction, owing
rich III at

of Martin
to

Nuremberg.
afterward and

Celtes he

the first German humanistic

win

this honour.

Immediately
in Poland
was a

founded and

societies in The the

were

rapid

sion succes-

Hungary,
group.

along

the Rhine.

last

(at Mainz)
of the Greek

very

famous
von

Its first president was and

among

Maecenas the two

time, Johann
and Hebrew
was

Dalberg,

its members Wilibalc

Trithemius scholars,
a

and

Pirkheimer.

Johannes

Trithemius for his

to be

great collector of manuscripts, and

a

is stillremembered
was

learning. Celtes,also
of the

member

of this group, in Vienna. He

later called
a

the head

Imperial Library
and

travelled in
a

great
tion collec-

deal

throughout Germany,
of Latin
poems, many

described do

his adventures
not

of which the

tend

to

but edification, He is best

suggest

the

semi-pagan spiritof to-day for

a

early

Renaissance.

remembered of
a

discovery which
of
a

he made
map

in the Vienna
.

Library
The

thirteenth-century copy
was as

Roman

(itinerarium)

nal origia

early as

the third century, and

map

is of great
to a

interest, although

part is missing. This

one name

Celtes

bequeathed
from
was

rich patron

of learning,

Conrad Tabula of

Peutinger of Augsburg, Peutingeriana.

This which
copy

whom

it gets its familiar

at

painted
of twelve that

Kolmar broad

after

the model

an

original map,
all those

consisted

stripsof
known
to
are

parchment showing
the Romans. the The

parts of the
should southeast from
east

world

were

pieces which
the

contain
corner

Spain

and

Britain

lost,with
is
to
on

exception of

of Britain

(Kent).

It

disproportionately lengthened
its breadth lines

to

west, the ratio of its height

town to town
are

being

1:21.

The
to

distances The

from

marked
are

running by
can

from

east

west.

relative sizes of the towns who

are

indicated

distinctive find
"

marks.

Those

interested of

in this very Perthes

early

map

it in the all that

little Atlas

Antiquus
Lernen und

Justus

(Gotha, 1893).

On

proceeds, see

Forschen A

(Berlin,
Bursian,

1892); Pearson,
the German

Ethic

of Freethought (1901); Janssen,

i. 63-80

History of

People, Eng. trans.,

der klass.

(London, 1891) ;

Geschichte

in Deutschland, etc. (Munich, 1883). Philologie

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

393

who (d. 1546),

but learning,

introduced
it was checked

purely ecclesiastical mode by the great scholars who

of
ceded pre-

F. A. Wolf

(1739).

If

we

prepare
to

scheme

of German

from scholarship

Luder

down

Bopp,1 it will stand

and

somewhat

as

follows:

not introducing only Criticism

mar, GramincludingHistory, Hermeneutics,but Archaeology,

mismatics Religion, Geography, Chronology, Metrology, Nu-

and

Epigraphy.

I. Ecclesiastical Period II. Humanistic III. Ante-Wolfian IV. V. Wolfian

(1400 to
(c.141 5 (c.1660
to
c.

c. c.
c.

141

5).

Period Period

to to

1660).

1739).

Period

(c.1739

1810).
to
c.

Post- Wolfian
as

Period

(c. 1810
German

1870).
no

After 1870,

will be

seen,

was scholarship

but belonged to longerisolated,

the

cosmopolitancreative
are

study of
ways of

all the western

world.

There

many

different

of these periods subdividing agree in

German the

most learning.AlEcclesiastical

all scholars Period. Period.

Thus of the
we

speaking of
will

Almost After

all of them
are

speak

of the Humanistic

there that,
of

other divisions in

terminology.
School,

shall hear

the

Grammatico-critical and

School, Historico-antiquarian

of the finally
is man purely Ger-

that Junggrammatiker, until the scholarship

ceases

to

exist

as

an

isolated

phenomenon.
then learns from

many Gerall

first teaches

all the

world, and

the world, until at last the divisions of

1

cease learning

to be

That

is to say,

from

about

1451

through 1867.

394

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

National, and
Period

become has

wholly Cosmopolitan. The

siastical Ecclein the

been sufficiently described already

so

precedingpages,

and

has the

of the earlyRenaissance. spirit

One
to

should

speak

more

of the first great Grecian fully

of
"

arise in studied
a

Germany,
at Paris

in the person and

at

Johann Reuchlin,1
at

who under

Basle,

the latter school

a

native Greek.

It

was

there that he wrote

an Breviloquus,

Latin

entitled : dictionary,
work which
was

Vocabularius
its

excellent ness clear-

to preferable

in the predecessors
was

of its arrangement, and

which

the

more

remarkable the

from book Greek Greek back be

the fact that he

was

was

only twenty
some

years of age when

finished. After and

"

further and

he taughtboth study, He describes

us

Latin

at

Orleans for
a

Poitiers.

as

necessary

liberal education; for it leads

which
cannot

to

the

philosophy of Aristotle

really
Later,
Reuch-

comprehended
he met

until its language is understood."

was

in Rome,

who Argyropulos, of Greek. Later the

at surprised

lin's command and

stillhe

learned it as

Hebrew,
portant im-

thenceforward

pursued
For

study of

the most

thing in life.
was

the last year of his existence he

Hebrew
at

of professor

Greek

and

Tubingen.
Hebrew
was

The

fact that Reuchlin

urged

the

study of

distasteful to the
Latin

bigotsof the day. They preferred dogbarbarous almost

1

and

stillmore

Greek

to

language which
Reuchlin
was,

they regarded as

impious to
1455-1522.

learn.

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

395

abused therefore,

and

assailed for of the

long while, until the

came

enlightenedhumanists They
believed

day
and

to

his defence. be

that

anything

everything should
enemies

studied,and
of
came

they fell upon

These

Reuchlin's

like

band

lighthorse.

witty and
once

nimble-minded

scholars

to the defence

in the

famous

satire called

Epis-

tol(B Obscurorum

Virorum
was

(15 16-1517).

The

first book
a

of

the

tola pis

largelycomposed
second
was

by

humanist

named of the

Johann Jager,while the

famous

mainly the work

writer,Ulrich
leader
of had

von

Hutten; and the quiet,

was

deeply learned

this band been

Conrad

Muth

(Mutianus Rufus), who

and with him had

at school

with Erasmus,

felt the earnest

to

of earlyhumanism. inspiration

Returning
residence
at

Germany, he made
over

his canonical
set

Gotha, and
:

the door

he

in

golden
as

letters the words

a

Beata

There Tranquillitas. It
was

he lived
a

lover of all that is beautiful in literature. have mob had survived

at to
see

strange

fate that he should

his home

dered plun-

by
For

Protestant

the time of the Reformation.

in upon

Protestantism

broken

the mild and

ial gen-

humanistic

in Germany, where learning, especially

were

the

followers of Luther
was

savage

in their assault upon

ever what-

refined and
to fear

beautiful.

The

humanists

saw

that

they

had

more

from the stark

ignoranceof the

Protestants

than from the occasional

intolerance of the Catholics.

riot continue.

Not tion inven-

however, did this Lutheran long,

of the and printing-press

The

the

setting up of printing-

396
presses all

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

over

Europe

did much
to

to

beat

back
more

ism Protestant-

of the radical sort, and

bringagain the
desecration
the

graceful

attitude of the classicists. The with their

of cathedrals of pillaging
art
"

paintedwindows, beautifully
of the most

the smashing galleries, these atrocities did not

exquisite statuary, long.

With

continue

for very

the

of printing-presses love a multiplication

for classical learning

returned,and
modern

before

the end

of this

period (1660) the

an

languageshad begun
which

to exercise
was

influence which humanistic

was

but classicistsdeplored, trait. Helius

on

in

a reality

Among
Eobanus

the greater humanists

who lectured Hessus,1

of

Germany

to enormous

audiences
the famous

poetry and

rhetoric. formed

Of
one

his

pupils was

Camerarius,2who
clustered around noted
for

of the

interesting group
at

who

the press of Froben of Roman

Beatus

Basle.

He

is chiefly

his criticism Basle

were

chronology.3 Among
Renanus,4
well known the

his friends at

associate

and

biographerof Erasmus,
Velleius

and

for his editio

on

princepsof
of Tacitus

Paterculus, and
held the

his work

the text

; Clareanus, who

of poetry ; professorship
a discovering script manu-

Gryaenus

of

famous Heidelberg,

for

of the first five books and Galenius finally and

of

of the fifth decade

of

Livy;
of

Prague, who

produced editions
as

Callimachus

as Aristophanes,

well

of the Planudean

1 1 *

1488-1540.
See his life by Horawitz

1500-1574.

Really Kammermann.

i. 154 foil. See Bursian, op. cit.,

(1872-1874).

398
was

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

head-master made

of the school at the chief work

for forty-three Strassburg of his scholars

to him
came

years, and

the

writing

and

the

speakingof Latin, for Pupilsfrom

became
a

this seemed

the whole

of education.

all countries
sort

to visit him,

and

his school It

of model

for most who

German
never

gymnasia.
him,
"

happened

that

Roger Ascham,
his and
once

met
:
"

was

of correspondent
time

wrote

to him

For

our

the odde
to

man

to

soever whatperform all three perfitlie,

to

he
so ever

doth, and
is in list,

know
poore

the way

do

them

whan skilfullie,

he

my

Joannes Sturmus." opinion,

A
a
were

work

written

by

Conrad

Gesner, justmentioned,
at

was

somewhat

remarkable

attempt

what achieving

many

at that time

with great interest. studyingand discussing book known

as

This

was

Mithridates
the

which (1555),

has

been

styledthe

first effort toward Hebrew

was

comparative
to

studyof language.
Latin itwith
as a

When

added

Greek

and
at

for wide study, began subject linguists

to look

interest. Very many peculiar have

sprung

scholars held that all

from
a

living languages must

who

single tongue.
and Latin moral

prepared

so-called

Opus Aureum, made

Latin

up

of Greek
or

sayings ; Basilius Faber, whose being reedited

as

Thesaurus

Lexicon

long survived, J. M.
of Gesner

by Cellarius
An

(1686) ; Graevius
at

(1710) ; and
wrote
a

late of

as a

1726.

earlier Gesner

Zurich

sort

tion combinaan one

biographical-bibliographical dictionary, united together with

a

with

cyclopaedia, en-

dictionary of Greek
Rivius
was

and

Latin, and

of

proper

names.

A in

pupil of

Georg

Fabricius

(1516-1571),
the
monuments

who and he

studied

Italy,and

exploredwith livelyinterest
Like modern

in Rome. inscriptions used his

editors of the familiar

classics,

knowledge of topography and

antiquitiesto illustrate his

editions of them.

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

399 Testament

Furthermore,
written

they argued that

Hebrew
"

as

the Old

was

in Hebrew, in the

must

have been
has

the earliest language found

was

world,

theorywhich
times. from

adherents

down

to Gesenius to

in recent

Great
different

the

industry

devoted
had

words collecting

languageswhich

the

same

meaning,

in order
common

that

they might then be

studied for traces

After

of their

origin.
there
was

the rise of the

Reformation

less

literary
a

study of
sterner

but the classics,

everywhere one

might

notice

and stricter discipline both in the schools and branches Especial

of
were learning

in the

universities.

cultivated. and (1571),

Lexicography is represented by Basilius Faber

a

very

thorough knowledge of Greek

of Friedrich
was

with

critical acumen
Lorenz

were

the characteristics

Sylburg and

Rhodomann,
in

the latter of whom

remarkably skilful epic poems

which
to

writingGreek

hexameters,

so

that his

he put forth

anonymously (1588)were
of

widelybelieved

be

genuine works
In

antiquity.
Renaissance

Hungary during the

there
as

were

some

few
Vite"z

well-trained
who (d.1472),

classical students, such

Johannes

correspondedwith the
who Latin

Italian scholars ; and

a

Janus Pannonius,
of Greek
Matthias He
at

brought to Hungary manuscripts.

The

tion largecollec-

and

king of

gary, Hun-

Corvinus,1 was

interested in the humanities.

also
a

founded

an

academy

at

Pressburg, and

university
artists

Buda, where

he maintained
1

and copyists thirty

1443-1490.

400

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

to

continue

the

supply of
Latin

illuminated the

manuscripts.

It is

that interesting

remained

spoken language of

the

down Hungarian aristocracy

Maria
was
"

into the nineteenth

to

century.
nobles

Theresa's delivered

famous
in

harangue
as was

the

Hungarian

Latin,

their

spirited response:
!" Latin
was

Moriamur

pro

rege nostro, Maria

Theresa

also the official languageof the

1

Hungarian Diet,until
where
a never

1828.1

Almost

the who

same

thing

may
at

be said of Poland,

well-known
to

humanist

had

studied for

Cracow,
twenty

and
years

seems a

have

visited Italy, maintained

with Filelfo. The

some

brisk
was

ence correspondwritten

first Latin

history of
was

Poland studied The

by
of

Johannes Sanok,
who

Dlugosc.

Latin

poetry
a

mainly
at

by Gregor
most
was

finallybecame
who

lecturer Latin

Cracow. in

famous

humanist, however,
Buonacorsi. and

made

popular
in

Poland

Filippo
in Poland See

He,
as

with the

founded Celtes, latter had

classical societies both Western

Hungary,

done

Germany.

Zeissberg, Die 1847), and /Evi, t.

ii
on

des Mitlelalters, polnische Geschichtsschreibung etc. (s. 1. Polish classicism

see

Sokolowski studies of

and

Szujski,Mon. began

Medii in the

(Cracow,

1876).

Classical the

in Russia
was

seventeenth Latin
was was

century, when
studied carried
on

Academy
Greek After

Kiev

founded and became

in 1620.

rather

than

in that

century,
Moscow of
a

all instruction
a

in Latin. establishment

Kiev,

seat

of

learning,after
In this the

the

there, in 1679,
carried into of the Greek
on

printing school. by
the

study
This

of

Greek

was

and

was

subsidised

government.

developed
who
were

Slavo-Graeco-Latin

Academy
had taken Peter

(1685), with
their doctor's the

teachers

descent, but
was

who

degrees at
here
were

Padua.

This

academy
translations into

favoured of classical

by

Great,

and

published
rendered

authors,

twenty-six

volumes

being

Russian

by
of the

the

long-lived
was

scholar, Martynov
founded St. in 1755, in the

(1771-1883).
University
of

The Vilna

University
in

Moscow

1803,
in

University of
done for

Petersburg
in

1819, the University of

that of Odessa of every

Kazan in

1804, the University

Much
was

of Kharkov the

1804, and
of

1865.

promotion

studies literary

kind

by Catharine

II in the

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

401

Further students of distinction who

followed in the

teenth seven-

century
teacher of Latin
His
most

were

Johann

August Ernesti,1a famous

pure

of the style, especially books

an

Ciceronianism.
in five

famous

are

an

edition of Cicero Ciceronianum

To

volumes

(1739)with
after his death

Onomasticon

lished pub-

at Halle must

(1832).
ascribe

this school of

stern

we scholarship a

also

Johann
author

Jacob
of full

Reiske,
editions

student
of

of oriental

Greek, and

Plutarch, Dionysius Halicarnassensis,and

were

all of which others, death.

He
wrote

not
own

until after published

Reiske's

his

in autobiography,published
Voltaire
and other

eighteenth century,
writers and of of distinction
to

she
to

who

summoned German
Almost birth

French
remained

offset the

which influence, all the and had

continued Russia
were

be very either Thus of

strong. German
R. D. T.

scholars distinguished
at

or training,

least of

German under

training. Heyne

Timkovski

studied

at

Gottingen,
a

; Professor
one

L. Kriukos
most

(1809-1845)had
at
"

been

pupil

of Boeckh Professor

; while

of the

brilliant scholars

St.
"

Petersburg, Hermann, Heidelberg.

N. M.

(1821-1891) had Blagoviestschenski Creuzer,

a

heard and

Becker, Haupt,
This
an

and

Schlosser
on

at

Leipzig
and

scholar annotated

wrote

very

able work of

Horace also

his

times, besides
certain
were

translation

Persius, and History. Of

an

discussed
stock

terestin inK.

questions of
Lernstedt ski

Roman made
a

native

V.

who (1854-1002),
wrote

edition of

Antiphon
on

; L. F. Voevod-

who (1846-1901),

peculiartreatise
he

cannibalism
upon

in Greek the Sun

Mythology, which, however, Myth.

are a

regarded
who

as

bearing

Of

the

many

Germans

taught
of

in Russia where Graefe

the
he at

best

known

Christian

Friedrich of

Matthaei

Moscow,
C. in the F.

discovered
St. burg, Peters"

manuscript
who

the

Homeric

Hymns;
German
to

edited

Nonnus, using

this work

because

the the

revival
1 1

of

classical

learning belongs

Germans."

During

707-1

781.
3D

402

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Leipzig (1783). The

was

true

founder

of

the science

of Archaeology

Johann Joachim
the
son

Winckelmann.

Winckelwas

mann

was

of

poor

cobbler,and

for many his him energy

to

years and

charity scholar, risinggraduallyby

ability. At lengthhis associates advised

that
career

low fol-

which

ultimatelymade

him

the

first

great creative and

critical scholar

in the field of Classical

Archaeology.
and

He

spent much
became

time

in

Rome,

Naples,
Albani,
he

Pompeii, and
famous

librarian to Cardinal

the most

collector of his time, to whom

many ways

owed led

innumerable
to

opportunities. In
of taste in the

his work

the

elevation

decorative

arts; but his

der Kunst des

monumental

production

is his Geschichte

Alterthums,which

appeared in 1764 (new edition by Julius

Winckelmann
be said in
was

Lessing with
middle Germans of the

biography,1882).
century it
and
may

the
the

nineteenth

general that

greatly
Nauck

influenced the

stimulated

Russian

scholarship.
at

August
St. his work

spent
while

better

part of his life in teaching Greek

Muller
owes was

Petersburg,
in

Lucian

equally conspicuous
much
to

for its

Latin. in the

Archaeology reign
of Peter
was

Russia,
year

and

study began
death been of the

the

Great,

in

the

of

whose had

Academy
in

of Sciences

founded.
was

After taken Much in

the the

Crimea

conquered
by
H.

1783, great interest

of Greek
an

exploration
done in

this former

home E.

civilisation.

has
gems, years

been and in

this field

Kohler,

authority on

ancient

especially
charge
of

by
the

L.

Stephani (d. 1887),

the

who

spent nearly forty

at

in antiquities

Hermitage
on

St.

Petersburg, while writing many

in Southern Russia. See the

valuable

monographs
Maleyn
of

the

researches of

interestingsynopsisof
Professor

the

history

classical scholarship written

and

by
E.

St.

Petersburg,
of his work

incorporatedby

Dr.

J.

Sandys

in the third volume

already cited,pp. 384-390.

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

403

teacher of his age and

was

the

expounder of
which

Classic Art.

It

his

theoryof
and which

the

Beautiful

impressed greatly

Goethe
forth
never

led Gotthold

Ephraim Lessingto put

has has

his

famous
to be

discourse discussed.1

called Laokoon, which Winckelmann's

death

ceased

an

interest for the

to

In April, 1768, he superstitious. but

on

left

Rome
came

revisit Germany;
him

the way

strong feeling

upon

that he should not

to
a

departfrom Italy.This
a

amounted finally feeling

as

horror, yet

man

so

sane

Winckelmann Vienna.
At

and' it, disregarded

the

visited both
was

Munich received

and
with

Austrian the

he capital

great honour
with

by
a

Empress, Maria
of very

Theresa, who
and Trieste
rare

presentedhim gold coins.

take with
was

number

ancient
to

Leaving Vienna,
On
his named

he

hurried

to

ship for Italy.

a man

journey,however,

he fell in

whose an ex-convict, Arcangeli,

and gold, who in consequence him
to

greed
entered

excited

by

the
room

Winckelmann's

and

stabbed

death,on

June

8, 1768.

Joseph Eckhel,2 founded

the science of
and Latin

Numismatics als, medNumand

by making
on

of specialty he wrote

Greek

coins and

which

volumes,entitled Doctrina eight

first volume

morum

Veterum, the
work

appearing in 1798
a

the whole

in being reprinted

fourth edition

(1841).

Christian

Gottlob

Heyne,

teacher steeped persuasive

Period.
und

in
1

ends reading,
See K.

this so-called Ante-Wolfian

He

Justi,Winckelmann, sein Leben, seine Werke

seine Zeit-

genossen,

3 vols.

(Leipzig, 1872).

31737-1798.

404

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

was

professor at preeminent,it
gave him It and

Gottingen, and
was

though

his
a

learning
teacher

was

his his

as gifts exceptional

which

and

the university

leadershipat
at

this time. hundred

is said

that of his students

in professors and

least

one

thirtybecame

various

versities uni-

throughout Germany
August
died in Wolf
was

Holland. lived
a

Friedrich life and

true

born He
was,

in 1739, and
as we

long

1824.

have

alreadysaid,the
was

founder
of

of modern

philology.1He
Halle

at first Professor

Philosophy at

until that
His

was university

closed

after the battle of

Jena (1806).
since

teachingwas
classical

marked

by great breadth,
with every

he held that

study dealt

phase of

the life and

thought of antiquity. In
of

classical

he antiquity the

found

model

publicand private
1807 he
went to

life, resting upon Berlin, where

new

highestideals.
an

In

he

took

active

part in founding the

became

he but, unfortunately, university;

so petty quarrels,

involved and visited

rests

in

that he

he

left

Germany
His

Southern
upon it he

France, where

died.

fame lasting

his so-called traced show the

Prolegomena

ad Homerum the

(1795).
poems,

In

history of they have

and

Homeric
been

and

sought to
from

that

both
that

greatly changed
are

their

form, original

they

made

up

of

separate poems
1

by
2-3.

different authors.
He attracted much there but

It is not
attention
was no

true, how-

See

supra, pp.

on by insisting

being
was

matriculated

in

Philology,though
under

such
;

faculty.
thus he

He
waa

told to matriculate

Theology,

refused

and

the first Studiosus

in Gottingen. philolcgiae

406
in printed

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

the text.

He

spent

long time

in

making

searches re-

libraries of Europe, throughout the principal

he

and

studied the texts

An

with

entire indifference
was

to the

printed
Lach-

editions.
mann on

epoch-making work
Iliad

that of Karl his all,

rent

Homer's

and (1807),
he took

above

immortal and

in masterpiece, understood
sense
"

which
of

the hitherto
with

little

poem

Lucretius,and

his fine critical

"

far

greater than Bentleyever

the
a

possessed

restored
Latin

it to its

rightful place among

Lachmann
at
was

masterpiecesof

genius.
and
most

first

at Konigsberg professor

afterward

Berlin, where
his
It
an

he

remained
more

one

of the

of distinguished
a

for colleagues
was

than
he

quarter of

century.

late in life that of which

A. is

duced pro-

his Lucretius, the

"

account

given in
says
:

preface to
any

that poet

by

H. has

J. Munro, appeared
any in

who

Hardly

work

of merit

Germany
of Latin

since

Lachmann's

Lucretius,

in

branch the

without literature, his

bearing on
was,

every

page

impress of
of In
a

example."

He

in

fact,the

creator

strict he in

and

scientific system

of

textual he

criticism.
say
too

this much

follows

Bentley, of
he
goes

whom

cannot

praise; but
"

his beyond Bentley in restraining the original form by ascertaining of the

critical sentiment"

the work

through the
of their for

evidence
He

of
was

manuscripts,and
renowned much
master
no

correction

errors.

less for
so

than versatility it may

so profound learning,

that

be

said with

truth

that he

was

of

three

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

407

great departments
Teutonic.
work.

of

and classical, philology oriental,

"

In each of these he

produced by

an

epoch-making
he

For, besides
the best

his Lucretius,
he

which

is perhaps
Wolf's
to

known,
to

of applied the principles

Prolegomena
show that
or

the

German be
as

epic of
resolved he the

the

Nibelungen
twenty
the

this could

into

original
into
in

ballads

lays; just
he his

resolved
poem
as

Iliad

for eighteen,

regarded
treatment

inconsistent he
was

details.

In

of Lucretius

followed

by especially

Hermann

Kochly, by Jacob Bernays, and

A.

by

the

Englishman,H.
the

J. Munro; lightupon
Lambinus
of

but
this

we

must

not

forgetthat
came

first clear

difficult text

centuries third

before,from

(Denys Lambin).
Lachmann
was

The

great achievement
of the New

his

treatment

Testament, in which

he

brought out
To the

the
same

methodologyof
illustrious

scientific textual criticism.1

the

period belong in
names

Grammatico-critical
who

School
wrote
a

the

of

August Meineke,2
comic

critical

of history

the Greek Theodor

poets, and
as

edited the
andrian AlexW.

fragments,assisted by
poets Dindorf,3 Karl
1

Bergk,

also the
K.

in

his

Analecta

Alexandrina, Ritschl,5 and

2

Lehrs,4 Friedrich

August

1793-1851. 1802-1883.
other With his brother
a

1790-1870. plays
in

Ludwig
to
"

he

edited Both

all the Greek brothers the

and the

texts, besides
of three

lexicon

/Eschylus.
the

shared

making

famous

series

Teubner,

Tauchnitz, and

the Didot.
4

1802-1878. 1806-1876.

great authority on

grammatical
L. Muller

studies

in Greece.

See Friedrich

Ritschl, by

(Berlin,1878).

408
Nauck,1

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

who

did
He
one

so

much
a

for the

lives of
the

the

Greek
of St.

tragic poets. Petersburg,

"

was

in professor who
as

Academy

of the many

carried did

the influence
his

of German
Lucian In

to Russia, scholarship

rary, contempo-

Muller.
find of
a

the

Historico-antiquarian School, we
2

Barthold

Georg Niebuhr,

founder
was a

of Dane

new

school birth and

historical

study. Niebuhr profession. But

founded
he
was

by

lawyer by
was

soon

after the

of Berlin University in history

called to the chair of he lectured almost

that institution,

where

wholly on
who
were

the annals charmed

a

of
his

Rome, before brilliant audiences

novel
manner

by

of

what treating Roman

had

become

threadbare

subject. Hitherto,
written of with
no

history had

been
The

told and

great discrimination.
a

earlylegends
But
a

had

been

in accepted or rejected in the of spirit

a

lump.

Niebuhr

approached them
knows
a

lawyer or

judge who
tains con-

that all human

certain
amount

and yet testimonyis imperfect

of truth. take up

Therefore, he proposed
records them
was as

without

to prejudice

the written

of

Livy

and other authors and to he

were

weigh and balance

This

though

in presiding
on

court.

method

singularly
was

acute, and

the

negativeor destructive
he
came

side

widely
and

accepted. But
1

when

to

constructive

work

1822-1892. 1776-1831.
See

Winkworth,

The

Lifeand

Letters

of Niebuhr

(London,

1853),and

Eyssenhardt,Niebuhr

(Gotha, 1876).

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

409

himself
treated and The had

put forth

two

volumes

of

History,1 they
own

were

by

historians

according to

Niebuhr's with
been

method,
acumen.
done; over-

their defects
"

pointed out
had

much somewhat

theory of
and
when

tribal lays"
Niebuhr

resolved
of
a

this

of earlyhistory

Rome he

into the

remains

series of
not
even

ballads, poetical

failed to convince.
Yet

He who

was

original.2 subjectin
went.
a

it

was

Niebuhr

first treated his

as

so truly scientific spirit

far

his
Rome

early lectures
under the

His studies of the

and its divisions
"

of population
the
"

Republic,

the patricians and plebeians, plebs,

were

the ager scholars.

etc. publicus,

all

new

and
two

acceptableto

Furthermore, he put forth

and mainly philological,

volumes

of miscellanies

dealing partly with topography,having

the criticism of classical texts3

himself Niebuhr in

and

discovered Italy
a

new

fragmentsand palimpsests.
of style which vivacity this effect diminished
as

had

freshness
nor

and
was

helped by
to say
a

convince
remarkable
"

his hearers;

self-consciousness such
no

once

led him could

The

discovery of
the world
so

ancient
as

historian my work."

have
in

taught
*In
2

much

Though

1812. Dutch

Perizonius, the
the of

scholar,had anticipatedthis theory (1685),

de of

while

Frenchman,
the

Louis

Beaufort, early
Roman

had

published (1738-1 750) History.

whose
were

proofs
also

uncertainty
Arnold

Niebuhr

was on

preceded by
commerce,

Heeren

(1760-1842),
colonization

monographs
in
many

ancient written
3

politics,and began

cases

before

Niebuhr

his lectures at Berlin.

1828-1843.

4IO

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

detail he
have in
as

was

often wrong,

the later researches of able men1

not

shaken Danish did

the foundations

of his

history. He
the

was,

a fact,

with Gibbon, dealing with

earlyRepublic

Gibbon

the later

Empire.2

His

friend,Georg
and

Ludwig
put

Spalding (1762-1811),went
forth three
seen

to

Berlin of

with

Niebuhr

there

volumes

of

fine edition press

Quintilian,the
Buttmann fifth volume.
2

fourth
an

volume

being
lexicon

through
the author

the

by

P. K. in
a

with

excellent

to

by
F. E.

Bonnel

Other

scholars
who did
so

of

the

time for

were

the

famous

D.

Schleierlytical ana-

macher,

much
;

German Friedrich
on

prose

style and
also
,

for the
a

study
but best

of Plato for

Ludwig
notes

Heindorf

Platonist,
Buttmann

known

his

Horace;
of
a

Philipp Karl

(originallyBoudemont),

author and His of other

a

clearly expressed
an

but

purely
of the

dogmatical
Homeric Bekker For

grammar,

Lexilogns,
works
a

acute

study

vocabulary.

may

be

ignored.
critic of

Immanuel
texts.

(1785-1871), of Berlin, was

he held his

notable

Greek

sixty-one years
seldom

at Berlin, seldom professorship

ing, lectur-

heard, yet winning a

of

brilliant

reputation
and

among

scholars for

his collection in the

manuscripts (over four hundred)

of

his

improvements
and
"

existingtexts

Aristotle,Plato,
late and writers, and
not

the

Attic

tine orators, the Byzan-

historians,many
It be
was

in

Latin,

of

Livy

Tacitus. he could

first said in
seven

of

him,

of See the

von

Moltke, Suppe
of

that

silent

languages." (1785-1867)
to
was

H.

(Gottingen, 1872).
Gottfried Hermann. He of the classics.

August
He made

Boeckh

rival

devoted

his attention

the

antiquarianaspect
the
to

studies especial
of Pindar is
a

of Plato
monument

and

dramatists, while
his

his elaborate He

edition
was

industry (1811-1821).
of Berlin views
on a

professor of Eloquence
In his work unlike he
was

in the
more

University

for

fifty-six

years.

interested he

in broad

of classical the

learning, and
economy

Hermann

published a
but

treatise

public

of Athens

(Eng. trans., Boston, 1857), and

not

great part of

the

Corpus
after

Inscriptionum Gracarum,
his death.

ended

until

(1877) ten

years

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

411

Among
Hermann

the earliest text-critics and

was

grammarians after
(1781-1860),
He

Christian

August

Lobeck

who
r;
*

taughtat Wittenburg and

acuteness

Konigsberg.

discussed
in

with much

the laws of word-formation of

nouns

Greek,

taking up the terminations

of the

and

the

generallaws
notes
on a

language

in his

Phrynicus (1820), his (1820), and

his

fragment
Sermonis

of Herodian Grceci

great Palhologia

edge (1843-1862). His comprehensive knowlhim

to

of Greek of

literature enabled
to

pour

forth

titude mul-

examples and
of the

detect and

illustrate the
to

living
was

phenomena
Gregor
devoted

language.

In addition whose
,

Lobeck

Wilhelm
to

Nitzsch

(i790-1861)
He
as

lifewas

largely
Wolf in

Homeric

studies. Homer

differed from

regarding the actual

poems, the
an

near living

the end

of the makes

and

therefore the

shaping artist;while he

point that the Cyclic Poets

Iliad and
an

implied the existence of

in their present form.
at

Odyssey somewhat
in

Better Friedrich

known,

foreigncountries
and
most

least, was

Karl
on

Nagelsbach,

of all for his treatise

,

Latin and

which Stilistik) style(Lateinische

its ninth gave edition at the hands

appeared in 1846,
of Iwan

reached
,

Miiller

(1905)who

ita

index, and complete

book

thus

added greatly istic characterprose.

to its usefulness.

The

deals with the most

Latin
on

differences of idiom Lobeck

to relating

between

and

German

and

Karl

Lehrs from

carried
the

grammatical studies
the decadence

the Greek the

beginningof
As
a

(300B.C.)to

ByzantineAge.

Lehrs critic,

treated

412

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

the text of Horace

even

very

severely, many
An

of whose

odes
Hermann

he

rejectedas
Friedrich

spurious!

early pupil of

was

Wilhelm

Thiersch

(i784-1860), a lecturer
of organisation

at

Munich,

and

doing

much

for the
He

the

educational of the
gave

system of Bavaria.
and

had

studied and
was

the art therefore due

Bavarian
to

Louvre

the
to

British

Museum,

much
that

attention

antiquesculpture. It
was

him

the

Glyptothek

founded

at

the

capital by belongs to
grammars,

the Crown
the listof he
wrote

Prince.

Thiersch, however, rightly

besides two
on

grammarians, and
innumerable and

Greek nicer
was

treatises the

the

points

of

word-formation also treatise the with

on

He particles.

fairly intimate
in

modern

Greek, and
of

wrote

French

the

Greece

to-day.
Georg
the

Other
Anton

at professors

Bavarian

were university

Friedrich

Ast

(1 778-1841),
Leonhard

editor

of

Characters

of

Theophrastus;

Spengel, Carl

Prunst

(1820and

1888) ; and

Ludwig
and noted

Doederlein, professorat Bern

for
his

Erlangen,

forcible and

stimulating
unmethodical

full of epigram, and lectures, treatises

on

for his rather

synonyms und

and

in etymologies

Latin

(Lateinische
Synony-

Synonymen

6 Etymologien,
was

vols. ; Lateinische

the firstof which mik, etc.),

in 1826-1838, published

and

the

second
was

in

1839.
still the

Grammar Wilhelm
two

subject that

attracted
grammar its

Karl in

whose Kriiger (1796-1874), its rules

Greek and

parts has

clearlystated

examples

414

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

place the study of classical literature

level.1

upon

very

high

Following Bernhardy,
literature2
was

an

excellent
two

work

on

Roman Wilhelm work

sort

prepared
of

in

volumes

by

Sigismund
is not

Teuffel

Tubingen (1820-1878). reading,but

It
was

This is
a

intended

for continuous

of

glorified bibliographywith
translated into

notes.

at

first vilely

Englishby

W.

Wagner,

and

later its fourth L. W.

edition, having been Schwabe,

Warr
was

enlarged and
into added

supplemented by
English by
the
more

well rendered

G.

C.

(1845 an^
and

I9OI)"wno

important
had
to the to

English

French

references This is
a

which book

the

Germans

omitted. insolently

of great value which

student
many

of Latin

for the easy Roman

access

it giveshim and

details

to relating

authors

their books. of reference

Closely linked
is the
the
name

with

another

valuable

work

of Teuffel, who

assisted the
of

completion of
Pauly

great Real-Encydopadie
a

August

(1796-

1845),
Greek

monument

of

minute

information
at

regarding
in Stuttgart

and

Roman

which, begun topics,

1839, was
1

finished after
der romischen der

Pauly'sdeath.3
Litteratur

Grundriss

(1830, 5th ed., Brunswick, (1836-1845

;

1872); Grundriss

Griechischen is
a

Litteratur

4th ed.,

vols.,1876-1880).
describes with M.
for his his H. other

There

Life of Bernhardy
as

by Volkmann.

It

works, such
and
as

his Suidas

(1853), his rivalries

his fatherlyfriendship

E. Meier

Theodor

Bergk, and
Keil and

pupils,such
ed.

Heinrich

August Nauck.

2Geschichte
*

der romischen

Litteratur

(1870), last Eng. trans., 1900.

New

by Georg Wissowa

(1902).

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

415

Grammatical
Gottlob prose and
was

studies

were

further

pursued by
grammar of

Karl Latin

Zumpt

(1 792-1849), whose
was

(1818)

several

times

translated

into
as

English
as

circulated in the British dominions

well

in

the United whose

States;by Karl Leopold Schneider

was

(1786-1821),

large grammar

the

first

systematic treatise

of the kind
R.

produced in Germany;

Nicolai,Meisterhans,
the

Klotz, J. F. Jacob, editior of

second-rate

JEtna, and
one

Albert whose better

a Forbiger(1798-1878),

but scholar, Lucretius

pedestrian editions
known in

of

Vergil and
those of

were

England than
also the

Heyne
a

and

Lachmann.

Forbiger was

compiler of

German-Latin

tionary. dic-

Lexicography, being
here

an

elementary part of
developments,
with
a

grammar, reference
194,

may to 247,

be

considered

in its later
pp.

early
254,

lexicography on
255" and sius
3"5-

96,

97,

108, 126, 165-167,

246,

Soon kinds

after

the

Renaissance

began

to

make

word-books

various

of lexica

popular,
a

one

Ambrogio
which and

Calepino (Ambrowas

Calepinus) had
it defined Greek. It

prepared
the Latin The

Dictionarium in Italian of the

widely used,
also the
was

because

words
success

later gave

equivalent in
extraordinary.
in every
so

so-called

Calepinus

was

and republished, revised,amplified, the

was

extended
many

possible
that

way,

definitions

being given
a

in with

guages, lan-

there finally

produced

Calepinus Danish,

the

Latin

defined Greek.

in The

Italian, German,
vogue of when the

French, Dutch, book,

thus

English, and
into the
at

altered, continued
revision became
was

eighteenth century,
Padua whole work be

still another
soon

undertaken that

who by Iacopo Facciolati,

was

convinced that
an

the

antiquated.
out

He

proposed body
his

entirely new
and this

lexicon
was

made

of the himself

great
and

of Latin

authors;

done finally

by

colleague Egidio Forcellini,in

41 6

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

The

broadly
known
as

scientific

study

of

languagewhich
,

is

riously va-

Linguistics (Linguistik)or Comparative

Lexicon

their Totius
of

Latinitatis

(Padua,
was

1771), a

splendid

rial memo-

classical
and Fr.

scholarship. This

revised by Vicenzo
used the work of

De-Vit

(1879)
and It has

Corradini
was

(d. 1888), who

Klotz,
Perin. and

whose been

lexicon said

completed after his

this great lexicon
as

death made their

(1890) by
articles by

of

by Facciolati

so Forcellini,

fully have
that classics, their Other

they illustrated
the

tions quota-

from be
we

the

greater part of Latin

it

literature could
texts

restored
now

from

lexicon, were
lexicons than

destroyed in the
of the in Italians

where been

find it.

those

have

independently
translated of Lewis and

made

by Wilhelm
States

Freund

Germany
and
was

(enlarged and
made
"

in the United Scott's Latin

by E. A. Andrews)

the basis

Dictionary (1882). This

Smith Latin of

conveyed

"

William by the English publisher,

is known in

(afterward Sir William), and Dictionary. Independently,

a

England Georges

as

Smith's

Karl
Latin of
a

Ernst

(1806-1895),
it A
was

Gotha, produced
at

German-

lexicon in 1833, and doctor's

dissertation. the seventh which

accepted

Jena

as

the

equivalent
in

seventh

edition

appeared
which

1882,
bears

as

did (in
name

1879)

edition

of another
upon

lexicon the work

the

of
as

Georges, but Luneman,

and weak but he

is based

of other

scholars,
had from posal dis-

such

Forcellini,Gesner, and
so eyesight,

Scheller.
not

Georges
go at

ill health his

that

he

did

often

far the

library;

generously put

his stores

of

learning

of scholars

in every
wrote
a a

part of the world.

Latin-German
and

Besides

the books

already
Hand-

mentioned worterbuch
many

he and

German-Latin
have
a

Schulworterbuch, both
The
most

of which
at

gone

through
was

editions.

ambitious

attempt

Latin

lexicon As

that
as

planned by
1857, the

Eduard of

Wolfflin,professor at
offered
a

Munich.
ten

early

king
the
to

Bavaria of

to

contribute

thousand Latin. Halm

gulden toward
It of
was

cost

truly complete dictionary of

of Carl Franz

proposed

put the editorship into the hands

Alfred

Munich,
as

Ritschel, and
editor-in-chief.

Fleckeisen, with
disturbances

Biicheler
prise enter-

of Bonn

Political

delayed the
his

until

finally Wolfflin began

the

publication of

Archiv

filr

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

417
Sanskrit The

Philology, began with

William

the

discoveryof

by

Sir

Jones,alreadymentioned
Lexikographie
and Archiv und

(p.383).
(in 1848),
all
over a

greatest
for In vols,

lateinisch collections

Grammatik
scholars for
a

quarterly
world. in of
12

suggestions from
announced
a

the

1893
of and
1000

the

plan

great
years

Thesaurus
at
a

pages

each, to charge
Vienna. It

be finished

in twenty of

cost

$150,000,

under

the and

of the academies Professor

Berlin, Gottingen, Leipzig,

Wolfflin and F. Leo
were

Munich,

Bucheler,
in its

the first editors. Greek of the of had need the

was

to

appear

fasciculi.
excellence with there the
was

lexicography
Stephanus
of lexicons students

reached

highest
as

tionary dicfelt

(see p. 305), yet,

that

with

Latin,
words

should

define

Greek of in

in the

language
in 1571,

using them,

instead

Latin.
as a

Faber,

published a Thesaurus;
1726
of
uneven

but, using
two

that

basis,J. M.
now

Gesner,
forth
and
a

between Thesaurus

and his

1735, own,

issued

revisions,and
barbarisms

he

set

eliminating
and

and

solecisms,
a as

though
advance

in its treatment

explanation,it
Gesner
was

marked noted

distinct
a

in the

history of lexicography.
The the Old

leader had Yet

in the New

Humanism.

Humanism Latin
a

of the and

Renaissance literature. and

sought
this
was

to

prolong
to be

life of the

language

found of Halle

as impracticable

spoken tongue,

the so-called the teaching headed

School
of Gesner

abandoned

the attempt, and But

merely tolerated Humanists,

a

spoken
at

Latin

in the schools.

the New

by

Gottingen,
which and and bore made

held that the classics had the

psychic and philosophical

modern

value
to
a

study

of them

in leading peculiarly helpful, of the of

broader

richer

understanding
every

literatures and
This view
was

of their art that which

poetry and
fruit in

phase

learning.
of

the aesthetic Gesner

was

teachings

Winckelmann,
of
upon

of

Lessing, and
taste

of Goethe.
a

also the precursor

Heyne

in letting

play
edited

part in his exegesisand

commenting

the authors and

whom

he

(ScriptoresRei Rusticce, Quintilian, Pliny's Letters

and

Panegyricus, Horace,
were

Claudian).

Others teacher
to

of the

New who

Humanists

Tobias

Damm
to

(1609-1778),a
Homer and

in Berlin

compiled being

great lexicon

another

Pindar,
V. C.

the

words in

etymologically arranged (alphabetically by

F.

Rost

1833).

418

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

achievements have been made

in

this

department
or

of Classical

Philology

by

Germans
to

in

Germany.
of

Sir William

Jones

drew

attention

the
we

likeness
now

the

structural

system of Sanskrit and

what

call the Indo-European

languages; but
gave
a

it was
to

Franz

Bopp (i791-1867) who

was

scientific turn

the

discovery. Bopp

born

in

Mayence,
Persian Sanskrit

lived in Paris Arabic the under

where (1812-1815), de

he

studied learned

and
from

Sacy, and
of

himself

grammars Wilkins

William
In 1821

Carey (1806)
he became
down

and

Sir

Charles

(1808).
chair
he for

and professor,
to

held
1

his 18 16

fifty-six years
his

his death.
Gotllob model and

In

published

first work
lexicon
Passow's of the

Johann

Schneider
for those

(1750-1822), of Breslau, whose

of Franz Passow

supplied a
did

(1810-1824),as
this in turn edition for

for Rost

Palm
and also

(1841-1857),and
Scott
the
name

that

Englishmen
on

Liddell

(1843),the last
of

(1880) bearing
an

its title page of

Henry

Drisler,
had

American made

Hellenist
an

Columbia
lexicon
were

College, New
of scholars
runs

York, who

himself

independent
and

Greek, including proper

of
as

names.

Messrs.
A

Liddell

Scott in
"

very

unequal capacity.
:

popular rhyme

England
is the

follows and

This Some That That

book

of Liddell
some

Scott,

of it's which which

good and
is

of it's not,

good is Scott,
is not !" lexicon
were

is Liddell and

The

first appearance

of Liddell

Scott's

in

1843

was,

however,
and noble
1

noteworthy, because
in Latin
"

its definitions for which

given in English
editors
gave
a

not

an

innovation

the

very

defence See

in their

preface. Bopp, sein

Leben und seine

Lefmann,

Franz

Wissenschaft

1896). (Berlin,

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

419

on

the

conjugationalsystem
of

of

Sanskrit

as

compared
German,

with

those

Greek,

Latin, Persian, and

our

endeavouring to explain the originsof

forms. This he

grammatical fullyin
his

discussed

more

freelyand

Comparative Grammar appeared

more

(Vergleichende Grammatik),which

in

1833.

Bopp

made

much

of

"

roots

"

and

of conjugational similarities in legitimately named.

But when
was

the languages of

he wrote

he

was

in advance

his time.

Sanskrit

stillimperfectly understood, and

as

therefore and
even

such Bopp's earlier contemporaries,

some,

Hermann

Lobeck, held aloof,while

treated

like
as

Ludwig Ross,
a

Comparative

Grammar

subject for

witticisms.
Theodor
an

Benfey, a
to

converted the

Jew (1809-1881),gave
which guage lan-

intense devotion he wrote

a

of study of Sanskrit,

complete grammar
lexicon
of
"

(1852),having previously
Greek
roots
on
"

published a 1842) and

Greek
very many

(1839scientific

articles and After

monographs

etymology.
the

Bopp

and

Benfey, the

two

great
came

in pioneers many,
was

there comparativestudy of languages,

of whom

Georg
"

Curtius

at Leipzig, (1820-1885),

the most

influential

the head

of

school of
won

language
fame
for

study.1 Curtius,whose
a

elder brother
his

Ernst

of history
1

Greece
Edmonds's
was a

in (1857-1867),2

declared inaugural,

See

J.

M. who the

Comparative Philology (Cambridge, 1906).

Leo

Meyer,
is at

pupil of Benfey
*

and

did
an

much

to

further

his

work,
at

present writing still livingas

honorary professor (1873).

Gottingen.

Eng.

trans,

by

A.

W.

Ward

420

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

that he

should

bring

Classical

Philologyand
This

language
he
plished accom-

study into by

closer relation with each other.

his
own

influence and
"

that of

of his many

tinguish dis-

pupils
with

ten

volumes

Studien

868-1 878) (i

five volumes

of

Studien Leipziger his

own

(1878-1882)being
chief grammar works for

edited
that

by

himself

and
his

colleagues.The
were

were

wholly

his

Greek Greek
the

schools

of (Prague, 1832), principles his

Etymology
Greek
Verb

(1858-1862),and (1873-1876).
Curtius In

bulky

treatise

on

his

etymologicaldiscussions, Georg
classifies the
as

and investigates in the consonants

or

regular phonetic
from

changes

they

pass

Sanskrit

to

Greek, Latin,
and irregular known
to

German

; but many

of these any

changes are principle

"

not

in accordance
at

with So

settled

Curtius

that time.

he dubs not,

them

radic spo-

changes," to
of ingenuity the

be

explainedor

according to

the
that in

In investigator.

other

words, he held
set

the

exceptionsto
Law
was
were

the consonantal
"

changes
and
a

forth

Grimm's What between

sporadic
Law in
Low
was

"

reallyaccidental.
as

Grimm's

It is

law

to the relations

the consonants
and

(1) Sanskrit,Greek,
German

and

Latin,

(2) High German

The tian germ
Rask

(including English).1 by
Rasmus Kris-

of

this

law

discovered
had

(1787-1832),who

travelled

in extensively

fully Iceland,Sweden, Finland, Russia, Persia,and India,care-

comparing
1

the

different

languages spoken
99 et. al.

in these

See

Giles,Comparative Philology, "

422 Karl
most

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Verner

"

are

the most the

remarkable
of

and

have been

the

fruitful in

study
were

languages since

Classical skill by
chief

Philologybegan. They
Karl
of

applied with great

may

Brugmann

of

who Leipzig,
among

be

styledthe
are

the

Jung-Grammatiker,
Osthoff of

whom

numbered
of

Hermann

Heidelberg,August
of

Leskien

zig, Leip-

Hermann

Paul

Munich,1
The
New

and

Ludwig

Lange of
hold
in
are

Leipzig (1825-1885). general (1)

mechanical,
that
occur

Grammarians far
as

language-changes,so according
the
so

they

to

definite and

immutable is

laws,and (2)that
at

of Analogy, which principle

ever

always

work, has been

The

since

speech began.2
found
a

Young
Karl

Grammarians

powerful ally in )" wno cooperated revolutionary subject was

Friedrich
with
as

Brugmann
wrote
a

(1849paper

the

others,and

almost

as

Vemer's, in Curtius's
Sonans, and
as

Studien.3
so

The

Nasalis of Curtius
two

proved
a

destructive to the theories

between the the Old and

to
so

bring about
that for many

personal rupture
years Curtius
on

men;

and

Grammarians his

waged
is

an

unceasing war

Burgmann

disciples.It
was

now

universally accepted that Brugmann

his

correct

in

view

of

the

Indo- Germanic

Paul's

Principien
and

der
;

(Eng. adapt, by Strong, Sprachgeschichte

and

Logeman,
chenden
2

Wheeler)
der

Brugmann's

Grundriss

der

verglei-

Grammatik B. I.

indo-germanischen Sprachen (Eng. trans.).

and the

See

Wheeler, Analogy

Scope of its Application

in

Study (1887).
1

Vol. ix

(Leipzig,1877).

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

423 labors of
at

vocalic nasals.1

In

fact,owing

to the

Verner, of

Brugmann
and
the

succeeded (who finally Grammarians

a

Curtius

Leipzig),

Young

in

general,language-study changes analogy,

has been
are

put upon

sound
to

wherein scientificbasis,

to

be has
was

traced,not
laws

sporadiccauses,

but

to

which It

of its own.
that
so

natural
be

great
a new

change in linguistics
movement

should
of

accompanied by
which
sets

in the

field

grammar of

the forth, quasi-dogmatically, Hence Nicolai who

was we

truths

language-study.
exhibited

find

the

German

influence
a

by Johann

804-1 886), Madvig (i

educated
there
at

Dane

of He
as

great distinction
became
such for

hagen. Copenmained re-

of professor
more

Latin

(1829) and
Like
seen,
most

than

fifty years.
has

of

the
was

greatest scholars whom

the world
as

Madvig politics,
a ber mem-

remarkably versatile, engaging

much

in
was

law, and diplomacy as

of

in classical study. He

the

Diet, President
Minister
of
was

of the Education.
done in

Council, Inspector of
As
a

Schools, and
and

grammarian
his collective

critic his best work

papers, Adversaria

Cicero,but

Critica, etc., are

His Latin

masterpiecesof
grammar

and interpretation
was

criticism. every

(1841)
in To and the his

translated
States. in his

in His

European country

and

United

was personality

remarkable.
was

death,
1

eightieth year,
great

he

vigorous
der

full

See

Brugmann's

work, Grundriss

vergleichenden Gram2d

tnatik der

indo-germanischen Sprachen

(Eng. trans.,

ed., 1897).

424 of the the

"

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

scholar's

zest, combined
has

with

the

gracefulpoise of
nobles.

diplomat

who

mingled
was

with

kings and

Speak

the truth
out

in love"
to the

his favourite

maxim, and

it was

carried

letter. He
most

taught all the scholars

tries. coun-

of modern

Denmark his

and

of the Scandinavian

Among
and
a

pupilswere

Christensen,Sophus Bugge,
Christiania. As

Johan

Louis

Bugge (i820-1 905) of

was

critic, Madvig
minute

less

given than

his

to contemporaries

the

study of manuscripts, except archetype.

an

in

determining
verbal

their relation to the

and criticism, In his
was

He

dwelt

on largely

adept

in

emendation. conjectural

judgments he
Such
a

recalled

the

judicialmethods
"

of

Niebuhr.
a

was

Madvig,

great classical scholar

and
a

Grecian,
man

a grammarian, Latinist, a critic,

iant brill-

of

the

world.
with the

To Dutch

be

compared

Danish
Cobet

Madvig

was

the

scholar, Caryl
was

Gabriel
a

(1813-1889),whose
and

mother, however,
born
in Paris. He

Frenchwoman,
the

Cobet

was

showed

and brilliancy
was

wit of the
out at

French, though

his

education

carried
on

the

Hague and
he
was

at

Leyden.

It is said that the ancient His

entering Leyden
had
a

alreadysteeped in
with familiarity

and classics,

verbal excited

them. the
so

doctor's

dissertation him

high hopes,and
for five years

Royal

Institute gave

leave
scripts manu-

of absence in

that he

might study Greek

was

Italy.

On

his return, he and his

made

an

dinary extraor-

at Leyden, professor

inauguraladdress

has

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

425
The

become

classic in the field of text criticism.1

story is

told that fell to

drama. his and way

during one
a

of the

symposia of the professors, they point of

usage

arguing on
Cobet
was

certain
on

in the
so

Greek

fire with

enthusiasm, and

pelted

with quotations from colleagues

iEschylus, Sophocles,
gave

Euripides and
and

from

the

Fragments, that they

Then, with
a

admitted
them

his claim. that most them

roguishsmile, spurious,

he informed that he had

of his
on

were quotations as a

invented

the spot

bit of academic
Hoffman is

play.

Not

long after
had

the retirement

of Petrus

Peerlkamp, who
best known
him. He Dr.

been

full professor (1848)and who

in Horace, Cobet

by
was

his critical work

succeeded land. HolMad-

the greatest Greek

scholar of modern and

in

Sandys recalls the meeting of Cobet

tercentenary celebration
felt when
in
at
came

vig
A

at

the
was

Leyden
to
was

1875.
his
a

hush

Cobet's

turn

address

great contemporary
Hellenist Cobet's
so as

Latin, for Cobet

was

firstof all
Latinist.

Madvig
were

first of

all

But terity, dex-

words

full of grace,

compliment, and
Post

that

Madvig

began his reply:

most

Cobetum
is to be

Latine

loquivereor.2
in the
numerous
are

Cobet's

enduring work
and

found

lectures, papers,

examples of
and his and

criticism that
Nova
1

contained

in his Varies Lectiones

Lectiones,which
Oratio it Arte Emendandi

with

Madvig's Adversaria
1840).
of

(Amsterdam,

Cobet

did later (in 1877) criticise the Latin

"

Madvig.

His

own

was

superb,

his Sashing, graceful,sinuous, reflecting

remarkable

personality.

426

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Opuscula,and

the addresses

of Edouard
a

Tournier

(1831-

of Paris, might 1899),

well constitute

Corpus

of modern

critical work.
The German
more

influence

on

France

in classical studies has upon other

been

subtle and

less direct than

peoples,

mainly because
and politics, and

of the difference

of

race

and

the clash of
ates cre-

also because

of the French way.

geniuswhich profound
more

transforms it is more

in its own

If less may

than

the German, Yet

or

lucid, and, one

were

say,

logical.
Germans

since

the

great discoveries

made
even

by

those allied with

them,

and
more

since

in the and

department

of Romance

Philology the
done

minute

careful work
of France Germans

has been
have

by Germans,1 merely

the

genuine scholars
what the

acceptedand

elucidated

found.
passes

one Because, however, they have lacked originality

over

their later work such

as

with

the mention
men

of

few

spicuous con-

names,
"

those of

who

wrote

with charm

H.

J. G.

Patin

whose (1792-1876),
are

studies in the Greek

and

late Latin and

poets

learned

and
set

widely read;
themselves of
to

Desire"

Nisard

Charles

Nisard, who
at

making

the classics popular even

the cost
of the

inaccuracy ; fimile
on

author Egger (1813-1885),

Grammar

first treatise

parative ComM.

(1852); the

able of
a

L. lexicographers,

Quicherat (1799-1884),author
Emile Littr6

Latin

thesaurus, and

(1801-1881) ;

the

distinguished palaeographer,
brief

Charles

Graux
1

whose (1852-1882),

life was
Grober.

one

of

E.g. Dietz, Korting, Meyer-Lubke,

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

427

remarkable best known

Athens
was

achievement; and Otto Riemann

for his work in

(1853-1891),
School in
to

Livy. The

French
and has Fustel

founded
such

as

early as 1846,

helped
de
"

stimulate

as Burnouf, archaeologists

Cou-

langes, Perrot, Collignon,Homolle,

scores

and

Reimann,
to every

with

of others

whose

names

are

known

scholar.

Victor

Henry

(1850-1907) wrote

comparative
his wide

grammars

that
of

were

translated into

and English,
a

knowledge

all

languagesmade
brilliant
was

him

universal
Roman

authority. One
life and

of the most literature

were

of expositors Boissier

Latin lectures

Gaston

whose (1823-1908),
were

absorbingand
ses

whose

books

(CicSron fascinating
sous

et

Amis

(Eng.

trans.,
Fin

1892),U Opposition
du

les

C tsars

(1874-1875),La
Roniaine

Paganisme (1891),and

L'Afrique

(1895)).
sense

Archaeology
to

in its broad

and

Fine

Art

owe

less of

Germany

in their

development than other branches

Classical father of but

two

Philology. To be

sure, there is Winckelmann, the

and archaeologists,

Lessing,his greatest critic,

share the honours
seen

scholars of other nations illustrious men.

were
was

with

these

We in

have

how

earlythe Arundel
how
rare

Marbles Museum

admired created The

England, and

the British

for the

of repository
was

objectsof
in 1204 and cois Fran-

antiquity.
converted I. Pierre

Louvre

in Paris
an

begun
art
museum

into the

beginningsof
lavished

by
men

Upon
Lescot

it and

were

all the

genius of

like
con-

Jean Goujin, and

its beautification

428
tinued

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

through

the

Napoleonic

wars,

during which
the richest his

the

great Emperor

filled the

with galleries

spoils

of the countries he
III.

conquered, as did

leon nephew Napoin

Its collections those

undoubtedly surpass
of any other structure the Vatican the
must

richness,

beauty,and value to-day.

inferior.
Even

in the world be

those

of

reckoned

Throughout France,

museums provincial

exhibit separate collections, though it is

of policy Side the government side with
to draw

becoming

the

these

to gradually

Paris. here

by

stands archaeology

and history,
are

the

German

influence is very of
the Latin

great. There

in Germany

editions
Friedrich
von

fragments by
Wilhelm
von

H.

Peter,
Suvern

Schlegel, Johann
Karl

(d. 1829),while dailylife of

known
Gallus of
a

Bottiger (1760)wrote
a lady,

Sabina, the
well-

Roman and Rome

model

for Bekker's More and

Charicles
were

(1796-1846).
Ernst whom
were

serious
Theodor
more

historians Mommsen2
to

Curtius1
we

(1817-1903),of
But in

shall have

say.

England

there

giantsof history,
"

Connop 1871)
"

Thirlwall

(1797-1875) and
a

George

Grote

(1794-

each

having written
s

monumental
"

historyof

Greece, Thirlwall' Grote's,

of their
"

being called

and Tory history,"

from Whig history,"

the evident

partiality
in

authors. respective in
was
1

a lecturer Thus, Thirlwall,

was Trinity,

sympathy with
a

the

English patriciate,
and in fully

while Grote

banker, not
Deutsche

university man,

See See

the

Rundschau

(Berlin, 1896).

Infra,pp.

443-444.

430 Since

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

the

splendidcareer
no

of

Cobet,

the

Dutch

sities univer-

have

had

classical scholar

of the first order, but

theyhonourably maintain
are

the traditions of the in

past. They

Groningen (founded

1614), Utrecht
Athenaeum The
was

(1636), Leyden
raised to the
of
"

1575),and Amsterdam,
rank

whose

of

in 1877. university
at

greatest number
of

students

is to be found

the oldest seats

were

learning,
universities these
were

Leyden
in

and
"

Utrecht.
Franeker

There and I.

two
"

more

Holland,

Hardervyk,

but

suppressedby Napoleon Belgium, having 1831.

Ambrosian
were

as

separate state, is of part of Holland

more

recent

existence,
of

formed
It

until the revolution famous

and

contains

than

one

ancient

libraries of which hitherto unknown

he

had
to

charge.
as exist, a

Some

of his discoveries

of works

part of Dionysius Haliof Plautus, and remains

carnassensis,fragments
of

of the lost

Vidularia

Cicero's

lost has

treatise,De
been in
vogue,

Republica (1822).
Domenico the We Pezzi
names

Since

Comparative
and

Philology
Graziadio

(1844-1906),
among

Ascoli

(1829-1907) are

greatest
have of

the

parative com-

of Italy. philologists
cenzo

already

mentioned

Vin-

De-Vit
Fr. in

(1810-1892) as
Studies in

the reviser whose

Forcellini's task
was

great lexicon,

and Perin

Corradini

(1820-1898)
Gandino
Greek
at

like

completed
undertaken

by
by

1890.

early

Latin

were

ably
while known
trans.

Giovanni

Battista

(1877-1905);
Pisa, is widely (1873;
and

Domenico

Com-

paretti,professorof
of

by

his account

Vergil
all

in

the

Middle

Ages

EnS-

1895). Luigi
Maria Avellino

Canina,
were

Bartholomeo

Borghesi,

Francesco

but distinguishedarchaeologists; de

first of all stood who made and

Giovanni
collections

Battista
of

Rossi

(there were

two

of the in the

name),

of especially inscriptions,

those

Catacombs,

of Christian

Archaeology.

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

43

and university

is remarkable

for the number

of its learned Louvain

in
was

societies. founded

The

Catholic

Universityof

in 1426,

as having separate colleges,

was

England.

Of these the best known

which Erasmus for
a

the

over Collegium Trilingue,

time

the presided, cultivating Latin.

three tured lec-

languages,Hebrew,
here Athens." and Louvain

Greek, and

Lipsius also
"

styled
has

the

University
its

the

Belgian

had

vicissitudes, having been

and
as a

closed French

by

the

Austrian but in

Emperor, Joseph II,

1834
it
was

by

the

in 1797;

refounded

strictly

Catholic
Besides

University and
Louvain,
"

has
are
"

resumed

its old

prestige.

there

Ghent

(1816), Liege (1816),

and

the

free

university
toward

of Brussels

(1834).

As

Dutch

tends scholarship

textual criticism, so
to

that of the

Belgians has
constitutional

by preference turned

and archaeology

these being represented antiquity, chiefly by

a (1868-1889),

Jean

Baron

de Witte the

scholar
Roulez

enced influlargely

by
Professor

Germans;
at

J.

E. and

G.
an

(1806-1878),
ancient of Latin of

of Greek

Ghent,

on authority

music; Joseph
at

Gantrelle

(1800-1 893), Professor

of the classics and

Ghent,

defender

editor the

the

Agricola (1874), Ger

mania

(1877), and

Histories

(1881),besides publishinga special study of

Tacitus

the

styleof
his chief in the

(1882), to
The

whom,

indeed, he
is

devoted

labours.1

influence of Germany
scholars of
note

seen plainly

Other

Belgian

were

Auguste teaching;

Wagener
Louis

(1829Chretien

1896), largely influenced

by

German

432

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

work

of the

because Belgian scholars, have held

at

so

many

of their

Germans universities,

{e.g. professorships
Gallic strain but

J.
has

D.

Fuss;
made

G.

J. Bekker), yet
scholars

the native

Belgian

not

only profound

lucid. The the most

Scandinavians,as
of original
to trace

we

have

alreadynoted, are

among

classical scholars. farther

It is unnecessary, than

however,

their work

the

beginning

of the nineteenth

century, for it is only then

became

that Danes,
their

Swedes,
prowess

and in

Norwegians

conspicuous for to-day are,

one

learning. Their

universities

first

of all, Copenhagen
famous

(founded in 1478) and

of the most

in Northern

Europe; Upsala, in
the

Sweden

(1480);

Christiania
besides Lund

(1812),
in

Norwegian
(1666).
have and

State
The

University;
famous
"

Sweden

most

Scandinavian

scholars

been

already named,
"

Rask, Madvig, Niebuhr,

now

Verner,

but several others

requireattention.
Johan
Louis and 820-1 905) was Ussing (1
was

the close associate

of

Madvig

the

most

celebrated
on

Scandinavian the

writing archaeologist,
Roersch

his dissertation

subject of
reviews and

(1831-1891), of Liege,and
F61ix classicist Neve

noted

for his valuable

monographs; choice, but

(1816-1893), of Louvain, orientalist by

(1816-

by profession; Jean Joseph Thonissen

wrote
a

1891), a
in

jurist who
and
a

long
the

work

on

primitive criminology
Willems

Greece
of

Rome;

and work
on

Pierre finally,

(1840-1898),
Senate.

author Rome

standard

politicalinstitutions of ancient
on

(Louvain, 1870), and

another

the

Roman

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

433 in Greece and

Greek

vases.

He

travelled for two

the Museum of made

years

Italyand
at

founded

Classical
Reader.

Archaeology
The

Copenhagen, where
of

he
to

was

ence influ-

Madvig

led him

more

work, closely philological

annotated
a

so

that he took part in

editing Livy and

Plautus
was

on

his

own

account

(1875-1887). As
most

text-editor he
are

unlike conservative, of
a

who Scandinavians, the Swedish

possessed Ljundberg (1872),

caco'ethes emendandi, of which

an

furnishes
where
out

awful

example in

his edition of Horace

unaltered of all the lines he has left barely sixty

In

(Reinach).

Iceland,there

arose

one

splendidscholar,
thunderous
lations trans-

whose Sveinbjoin Egelsson (1791-1852), of all Homer unite

a

fire and

splendourthat

rival

the

Sagas

of the

North, while they recall them. (1782-1846),the

that in 1808
most

Esaias

TegnSr
Swedish

of Lund

popular poet
to

in

so literature,
"

he was,
was

quote Dr.

Sandys,

the

Tyrtaeus
more

of
on

Sweden," Latin,

of professor
Karl Vilhelm

Greek, but
Linder

insisted

while

was (1825-1882)

strenuous

advocate

of Greek.

not only investigated nantal consoSophus Bugge (1833-1907)

changes,studied
Sanskrit under
1

Latin

under

Madvig,
Germanic

in

Berlin,

under Weber

and

Bopp, and

philology
of principles
whose

further Haupt,xbut he investigated Haupt

to

the

Moritz

(1808-1874)
His
was

was a

pupil of

Hermann,

daughter he married.
He is said have

vigorous,impetuous
his lectures Hermann's author." He

personality.
the value what of is

taught

Nettleshipin
from
an

Bentley.
meant

He
"

himself

learned

Baccha
was

by

really understanding

appointed

27

434 Verner's

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Law.
a

He

is mentioned

here,however, because of
which caused
a lution revo-

his criticism of in

very

important work

Latin

studies
at

everywhere.

Wilhelm

Corssen
an

teacher a (1820-1875),
and
accurate

undertook Schulpforta, sounds had been of

acute

of the investigation
for this work

the

Latin

language. Materials
Albert made

gathered by
had been

Benary (1807-1860),while by
Friedrich But
no

further notes

Ritschl

(1806-1876)
had

in his Plautine

studies.

preceding scholar object until

made

Latin with der

phoneticsa
his Ueber

definite

Corssen und

appeared
Betonung
to

Aussprache, Sprache.1
In

Vokalismus

lateinischen sounds
not

it,Corssen

sought

study the

the pronunciation) of the Latin (i.e. and

language, using
the most
as

only the earliest literary sources,

ancient

but inscriptions,

also the Italic dialects such with

a

Faliscan,

Oscan, and
from
the

Umbrian,
Roman

vast

collection of
work

quotations
had

grammarians, whose
means

been used

little studied.
with

All these

of information his results that his

as

Corssen

and scholarly ability,

to

phoneticshave
It

stood
was

the

test

of

time, so

book

is definitive.

needed, for
become
none

the confusion
was

in the
no

of pronunciation

Latin

had

great. There
since

standard, and

there had

been
after

the time
death
to

of

the Protestant
latter's chair list of his
at

Reformation.
Berlin.

Lachmann's
was

fillthe

Though
works
on

his Fach Greek

1

Germanic Latin in is
a

philology, the
very

published

and

long
at

one.

Published

1858-1859
in

Leipzig, where
2

it received

prize for

scholarship;

reedited

1868-1870,

vols.

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

435

Each
own

nation

had

pronounced
while
on

Latin

as

though
of

it

were

its this
were

language,and
of
no

the continent

Europe
sounds

was

great consequence,
same,

since the vowel

the generally away

it shut

Englishmen, and
as an

cans, later,Ameri-

from

using

Latin

medium intelligible and

one

of
all

speech. Lipsius,Cardinal complained

of but this, there

Wolsey,
was no

Milton
to

had

guide men

until Corssen

appeared, spurred by
science of

the

necessity imposed Philology.

"

by

the

new

Comparative
for the every

He

showed

the phonetic basis clearly and

Roman

"

tem, sys-

after
it. In

some

grumbling,
it met
even

universityhas
much

adopted
from

England

with

opposition

the

publicschools,and though
in the

to-dayit is not commonly

in advanced
In

employed;
work

universities and

it is not

only accepted,but taught.1 collegeshave

been founded
statements
one

the United from

were

States, where

many
soon

countries, Corssen's
because received,

authoritative
to

it gave

students

accurate single,

pronunciationinstead to-day
the

of many

inaccurate

ones;

so

that

phonetic system

is universal

both
the

in school,

and college,

university.2Curiouslyenough
been

phonetic

system had

anticipated by
of

an

American

of German
he

parentage, Dr. Haldeman,

1

Philadelphia, though
of

had

See the

more

recent

English

grammars

Latin, such
The

as

Kennedy's, Language,

Roby's, and

the

luminous
2-4.
on

work

of

Lindsay,

Latin

(Oxford, 1894), chh.

2

The

standard

work

Latin

pronunciation is that of Seelmann,

Ueber

die

Aussprache des Latein

(Stuttgart, 1885).

436
access

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

onlyto
rather

the Latin
to

grammarians

and

ture to written literabook

was

than

dialects and

This inscriptions. and (1851), An

is entitled Elements

of Latin

Pronunciation
work

finished before

Corssen's the

appeared.
end
was

dent indepenProfessor he

attempt
Richardson

to reach

same

made

by
and

of

the

Universityof Rochester,
results

did

arrive at many

of Corssen's

(1859), though differing

Corssen he

from
the

him

in grotesquely of

other

conclusions.

spent

last years

his life in

Rome,

where His

died, it was

said,of disappointmentand
this

chagrin. by

Aussprache to
however,
that still
the
at

day

is an

authority. Flushed
the
"

his success,

he

undertook

task the

of

solvingthe problem

awaits

solution,

affinitiesof originand linguistic lived in

Etruscans, that strange people who

one

Italyand

time

conquered
as

the

greater part of it,yet who, in appearance

were

in

language and customs,

or

like neither

the

Latins, the Umbrians,

oriental
In

the

Oscans, but suggested an

to

origin.

Corssen

resolved
die

dispel this mystery.

his colossal

work,

Ueber

Sprache der Etrusker,1he

intellect and
a

lavished materials
his

all the powers

at

of his For

all the vast

so

his command.

moment,

great
had

was

the prestige,

learned
soon

world
showed

believed

that he had

ceeded, suc-

yet criticism
he
went

that he the

and failed, of

down

to

his the

death
way.

with

sneers

his late

friends to smooth
1

Leipzig, 1874-1875,

vols.

See Deecke

Deecke, Corssen
edited the

und

die

Sprache

der Etrusker

1875). (Stuttgart,

Etrusker, in 1877.

438
and
of
"

HISTORY

OP

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

presumptuous."
De

He

at

once

edited the

fragments
He

Varro,

Lingua Latina,
and
was

and

later of Festus.

died at Athens
much His who

buried there

(1840).

He

had

done

for historicalresearch and for the methods

Friedrich acquaintance, Gottlieb Welcker
more

of Niebuhr.

(1784-1868),
manner

long survived him,

He interpretation.

turned

to the artistic

of

early studied

at

Rome;
as a

he

was

professorat

Giessen

(1808),he fought
was

volunteer

against Napoleon (1814), and

first at Gottingen and professor,

afterwards
at

again
where

then

Bonn,
Art
ever

he

presidedover
His and

the firstMuseum
were

of Ancient
reason

known.

lectures

stimulating by

of his Greek made

personality,
and Latin

his reach

was

both broad, including

Greece.
on

poetry and

the

mythology of

He many

numerous

wrote translations,

monographs by
"

and subjects,
or

is

known especially in him Relation

Welcker's

Cydus,"

Greek been

edies Tragsaid of that

to the

Epic Cycle.1

It has

that his chief

was

while strength lay in interpretation,

in historical research. of

of K. O. Muller
A

contemporary

great fame

was

Otto
was

Jahn (1813various times

1869),also given to archaeology. He professorat 1851), Though

at
an

at

Greifswald

(1842-1847),at Leipzig (1847died

at

Bonn

(1855-1869). He
the

Gottingen.
many his
graphs, mono-

and archaeologist will be

author

of

he

longest remembered (1843) and

1

by

critical
an

revisions of Persius

Juvenal (1851),with

vols., 1839-1844.

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

439 For

edition of both
he Athenian

in the year

before
and

his death.
of

books text-

edited the

Cupid

Psyche

the Apuleius,
Electra of
on

Acropolis from
of

Pausanias,

the

Sophocles,the Symposium
tiie Sublime

Plato, and

the

Treatise be
on

ascribed
to enumerate

to

Longinus.
his minor

It would

sible imposartistic

here

treatises

whose subjects,

very

titlesfascinate and

attract.1

Classical literature treated either with with distinction

was
a

deep learning or
at

subject for study

not

all times,

though the

Germans

are

happy, as
as

in that which rule,

the requires have

aesthetic

as

well

the historic element.

as an

We

alreadymentioned

Bernhardy
K. O.

historian

of both
a

the two
of Greek

great literatures.
Literature
at

Miiller

began

history Society
he died

the

request of the London

for the Diffusion

of Useful

Knowledge,
full text
Dr.

in
was

1836, but
not

before in

its

completion.

The

published
finished been
done

Englishuntil 1858,when
a

J. W.
Yet

Donaldson has

it in

three-volume

edition.

much

for classical literature and translated, others

by

German

scholars, many

of whom
on

wrote

special monographs

ticular par-

authors,such

as

the

illuminating papers

on

Plautus

(Parerga) by
wrote
1

Friedrich

Ritschl

(1806-1876),who
Varro
Bursian Otto

also

of the

of literary activity
Conrad

and

the laws of the

the torian his-

Latin

archaeologistsare
in

(1830-1883),
Benndorf the

of classical studies Peter Willen Forchhammer

Germany;

(1838-1907);
and

(1801-1894),
well-known of many maker

topographer;

Heinrich
of

Kiepert (1818-1899) the

at

cartographer, Professor
maps

Geography

Berlin, and

and

charts.

44" Saturnian
were

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

verse.1
A. the

More

historians strictly

of

literature and whose

has Otto

J.

Fabricius

(1668-1736),who

condensed

compiled
aid been
Ribbeck
no

whole

of the classic writers, without

either Greek
or

subsequent historyof

Latin and

written; Teuffel, already mentioned;

in (1827-1898),professorsuccessively

five universities To

but
we
owe

passing his
of the

last years

at

Leipzig.
of

him

much

historyand

criticism edited

the

early

Latin

whose dramatists,

fragmentshe

(3d ed.,1897the

1898),a
with

study of

Roman

tragedy under
texts

Republic,2
and

editions and
His

conservative

of

Horace, Vergil,
is his

Juvenal.
Roman Since

most

work interesting

history of

poetry.3
the Middle
have been

Ages,

some

lost

fragments of important
is the

authors

discovered.

Such

longepisode

of the Cena edited

nas,

Trimalchionis

from the Latin novel of Petronius,

the

by Friedlander;

so-called Anthologia Palati-

already mentioned;

quite recently, fragments

;

of

Bacchylides (ed. prin. Kenyon)

1

Babrius

(122 fables,
in
junction con-

He

is best with

known Gustav edited

were

by his monumental
Lowe,
and

edition

of Plautus Friedrich

Georg

Gotz,

and

Scholl. his

Ritschl himself
three Wilhelm

reedited

nine Alfred who

plays (1848-1 854), and

Fleckeisen also
was a

coadjutors
Studemund

assisted

by

(1820-1 899),
noted Greek the

(1843-1 889), Wagner

palaeographer,Wilhelm prosody by
1

(1843- 1880),

and

in especially

the

researches

of Wilhelm

Corssen, already

mentioned.

1875.
3

vols.,1859-1868

abridged, 1895.
Ein Bild

See

volume

compiled by

his

friends,Otto Ribbeck,

(1901).

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

44

ed.

prin. Boissonade);
the Athenians
of

lost treatise

by

Aristotle
1

on

the

polityof

(ed.prin. Kenyon) (ed.

poems

and

fairly
1907,

complete plays
Headlam
in

Menander

Lefebvre of

in

1908);

with

seven

Herondas

(ed.
It is

prin.Kenyon,
believed
as

last ed.

by Creuzer, Leipzig,1894).
will

that the

papyri of Egypt

yieldnew

treasures,

they have

in the past five years, and

some

scholars look

eagerly
of

for other

playsof Menander,
it may
even

of the exoteric works

and Aristotle,

be the famous
to
a

lost books

of

Livy.

Archaeology (to of)

has been
to

revert

subject already spoken by

the

greatly enriched
of
a

compilation of
With the

corpora
aid
has

each

the

classic

languages.
of Greek

of
been

Epigraphy,
made of
the

collection who

inscriptions
the first two

by Boeckh,

edited

volumes

Corpus InscriptionumGrcecarum
other volumes
and A.

(1825-

1843), followed by
the fourth and the

by

Franz

(1845-1853),
(1826-1908),
of H.

by
whole

E.

Curtius

Kirchhoff

completed by
was

the
to

Index

Rochl

(1877).

Assistance

given

the work

by

Wilhelm He

Dittenberger (1 840-1 906), professor at

much also for the

Halle.

did

Corpus InscriptionumAtticarum
himsef
a

(1878tions inscrip-

1882), and
that
are

prepared

Syllogeof

Greek ed.

especially important (1882,2d

his

1898-1901).
a

Apart

from

work, Dittenberger was epigraphical

cialist spe-

in Caesar,havingprepared eleven editions of Kraner's

Commentary.
1

Georg

Kaibel

editor (1849-1901),

of

the

See

Greek Gilbert,

Constitutional

Antiquities, 1895.

442

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

Electra of

Sophocles(1896)and
a

of Athenaeus

(1886-1890),

collected from

volume

of

some

1200

epigrams (1878)copied
a covering

stones

and {ex lapidibus)

was

thousand

years.1
for appear It
was a

Latin

Epigraphy

pursued
The

in

desultory way
do
not

m long time, chiefly

Italy.

Romans

to have

collected
the
a

as inscriptions

the Greeks

did.

only

at

beginning of

the

Middle

Ages, when

Rome of the

became
most

Christian Mecca, that

to inscriptions
came

copiedsome pilgrims
carry

famous

home. in

With

the
as

Renaissance
gems and
a

genuine
Cola

interest
di

them

in

carved

work.

Rienzi

(about 1344)
in which he

prepared
drew

account topographical

of Rome,

largelyon
them. have

while inscriptions;

Poggio
were

Bracciolini2

collected
some

Unfortunately, many

and forged,3
as

of them from The

been stamped only recently

hands unscrupulous of Pirro

spurious, Ligorioof

mainly

the

Naples.
to have

first printedcollection of that of Ravenna

seems inscriptions

been

(1489).

For

Gruter's

great

work
was

the reader

is referred to another

place.4 The
Raffaele

study

taken

up

by others,among
it was
to

them

Fabretti

but (1618-1700),
gave
a

L. A. Muratori

who (1672-1750) his Novus saurus The1739Milan

great impulse
Veterum

Epigraphy by

Inscriptionum (4 vols.,Milan, Palaeographyby

Greek

1742), and
1

to

his researches

in

Other

noted

epigraphistswere
Dobree,
3

Kohlen,

"

and

outside

of

Germany,
1

CEconomides,
pp.

Riemann.
pp.

Supra,

276-9.

Supra,

284-5.

Supra,

p. 342.

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

443

and

other

seats

of

learning. Bartolommeo
to him

Borghesi
is due

(d.1859) made

epigraphy a science,and
that has been

the

splendidwork
Both
vast

accomplished

in this field.

the French

Academy

and

that of Berlin

planned
was

Latin inscriptions, but this Corpus of all existing undertaken until 1863, when the first volume

not

of the

present Corpus Insert ptionum Latinarum

the of editorship Theodor work Mommsen has

appeared under
Henzen

and Wilhelm

(1816-1887). The

volume steadily progressed,

but it will probablynever by volume, with supplements, be

owing wholly finished,

The

to

new

discoveries.1 the

greatestmind
of

since

if not Scaliger's,

greatest
name

mind
Theodor

all time, is recalled in the

Mommsen of

illustrious
so

of

(i 819-1893). Like
letters,he
we

many

dis- /fd for his

"

tinguishedmen

became find the of

famous young

that in him so versatility,

ardent
master

poet, the

the close student politician, of ancient

the inscriptions, the finally

torian his-

constitutional

law, and
"

of the Roman and

Empire,
was

tist, numismachronologist, made

the

lyrist. It

he

who

plan

for

the
as

splendid Corpus againstA.

entrusted
1

Insert

ptionum Latinarum, in 1847,

and
to

W.

Zumpt,
as

Mommsen
it.

the

Academy

the scheme
article
"

he outlined
"

See

the

Inscriptions
It famous

in vol. xiii of the ninth

was

edition of
Emil

the

Encyclopedia
of

Britannica.
a

written

by

Professor the

Hiibner

Berlin, himself Egbert,

archaeologist.On

Corpus York,

especiallysee
1896).

Latin

Inscriptions,pp.

6-15 (New

444

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

He

came

to

write

his

History of
a

Rome with yes,

a

with

certain

naivete.

While
old

spending

vacation
"

his father-in-

law, the

gentleman said, Why,

fitted you
flushed with the

Theodor, your
Young

studies have
Mommsen

for

just such

work."
once

and pleasure,
of
on,

at

began
made

the
no

history.

Out

of

fulness

his

mind, he
after

but preparation, book of

after

just wrote
volume

chapter

chapter,

book, and
"

after

instead volume, until,

composing a

popular" work,
a

he had which aroused

poured the
is
a

wealth

of his wide
matter

knowledge into
brilliant in
more
so

book

informingin
storm

and

style. It
as

of

troversy, con-

the worth

Mommsen

had

not

thought it
These
were

while

to
a

equip
sixth

it with

footnotes.
another

given later by
Romische
The

volume, and

book

entitled

Forschungen. History of
Rome is in
a protest reality

of

New

Germany

the against It

old feudalism

which

Napoleon

had

failed to shatter. told the

ever

pleaded for

and brilliant dictator,

story of Julius Caesar, the

head of
some
a

greatest
He

man

who the

lived,as the ideal

State.

lashed

weakling,Cicero,and
flashes.
Ferrero No has
one

wrote

of his papers with great

and

has refuted
a

him

neither Gisner
The

nor

made

satisfactory response.
comes

climax

of Roman beholds
a

grandeur

with
the

Caesar; and
when

Mommsen the

grandeur

in

North,
are

petty,

ignorant squires of
Dictator. enlightened

Junkerthum

scattered

by

an

446
their
even

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

with acquisitions

any

other

country
done.
as

to the extent

that
been

Spain
of her in

and

Portugal have

This

has not

true

such greatest scholars,

for example, Bentley, has foreigners

tended ex-

but

general the
even

British distaste for

to

their

learning. Hence
is
a

the German
or

ence influthree
still from

in its full sweep

thing of

the past two

of

decades, and
whose living,
this survey.

has
names

been
are

shown

in the persons

men

excluded (exceptcasually)
in

passage

George
make

Eliot's Middle-march,
Dorothea in
see

where

young

Ladislaw is her
"

tries to Mr.

how

backward

husband,

Casaubon,

modern

scholarship, says:
"

If Mr.

Casaubon
...

read

German, he would

save

himself

great

deal be

of trouble.
away,
as

It is a
so

pity that it [devoted labour]should

is,for English scholarship
want

thrown

much

of

knowing
"

what

is being done
understand

by the

rest of the world."

I do not

you," said Dorothea.

said Will in
an

"I merely mean,"

Germans have taken
are

off-hand

way,

"that

the

the lead in historical

and they laugh inquiries, in woods with

at results which

got by groping about

pocket-

compasses,

while

they have made

had
a

good roads."
her own,
truth. In No
a

But

Great

Britain

of scholarship of sound

arship scholGreek
verse

of and
or

and elegance,

again

Latin, as such, she surpassed all her rivals.

prose
as

in either that which

language was
came

so

near

ards the classical standor

from

Oxford

from

Cambridge.
was

The
near

Italian school of
to

with Latinity

its Ciceronianism
a

that of

England; while, for

time

at

the least,

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

447 stimulated
as

critical work

of the Netherlands
Names

was

by the Bentley,
Gaisford Dobree Charles

example
Porson,

of

Englishmen.

such

those of

Peter

Elmsley (i773-1825), Thomas

Blomfield Paul (1786-1857),

C. J. (1779-1855),

(1782-1825), James
Badham

Scholefeld

(1780-1853),

(1813-1884),J. W.

Donaldson

who (1811-1861),
E.

finished K. O. Muller's Greek

W. literature,

Jelf(1811Conington
at

1875), George (1825-1860), the

Henry

Long
first

(1800-1879), John professor of

Latin

Oxford,
duced pro-

Nettleship (1830-1893),who
a

with

Conington

definitive edition and

M. Leake

translation of Persius,and
"

William

(1777-1860)
More
men

all these

were

familiar
is due
to

to Continental
one

scholars. brilliant

mention especial

of the most

of his country, Sir Richard

at

Claverhouse

who Jebb (1841-1905),

the

time He

of
was

his
a

death

was

of Greek professor
man

at

Cambridge.
"

witty,versatile

of

the
"

world,

humanist had
no

in

the

highestsense

of

the word

(Sandys),who
and

equal

in his mastery of both

not
a

classical form

spirit.Though

stranger

to

drawing-rooms

and

he polite society,

edited

Sophocles (1883-1896) and Theophrastus, published

lifeof Porson, of Erasmus,

Bacchylides (1905),
an

translated

introduction
one

to

Homer,

and

of
was

Bentley,
a

helped found
of

the British School at Athens, and and

master

English prose

of Greek
of of
an

verse.

It is

to impossible

overrate

his combination the easy

tone

so ried, easilycardeep learning,

with

accomplished gentleman.

448
Further

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

mention

must

be

made

of

Benjamin

Jowett

(1817-1893),Master
into

of

who Balliol,

admirably

translated the
mentaries. com-

English, Plato

(1871),Thucydides (1881), and

both (1885),
it
was

Politics of Aristotle But

must

of the latter with

perhaps

that Jowett'spersonality

be taken

into account.

His influence

over

awkward
as

and with

bashful

undergraduates was
own

remarkable,

it

was

those of his

age.

His

unexpected pungent, witty, quoted

as

sayings will
translations Mention

be
are

remembered read. been

We
note

and

long as

his

has

made
must

elsewhere refer

of
H.

many A.
as

noted

British scholars.

again to

J. Munro
an
"

(1819-1885) to

his

splendidwork
because

both

editor the first

x

and and translator of Lucretius,

he gave

impulseto
one

reform

in the

of pronunciation services which

Latin." Great the work Rome

And

must

also mention

the

Britain
of the

has rendered British Schools

to Classical at Athens

Archaeologyin (1883-) and

on

at

(1901-) ;

Banks, Arden, Harris, carried Herculaneum,

rescue

fruitful of
a

at explorations

in resulting

the

course

century, in the

of

important fragments of Epicurus, Philodemus,

the

part of

Iliad, speeches of Hyperides, and

as

others
the
treme ex-

alreadymentioned
of minute

recovered.
was

And

perhaps by

commentary

reached

Professor

J. E.

B.

Mayor
on
1

(1825-1911) in
the Satires of

his two

volumes

of

closely

notes printed

ed.,1886). Juvenal (last

Ill-p. 433. See Sandys, op. cil.,

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

449

These

and such
names

as

these
are

are

ship. of the eliteof British scholarwherever classical learning Gaisford

at

Their exists.

known

One

is reminded
went

of the
a

story of how
Dindorf who

when The

in

Germany
was

to pay
a

call on
man was

Leipzig.
a

door

opened by

shabby
name

resembled

servant; but when

into his
If
men arms

Gaisford's
kissed him.1

mentioned, rushed

and

England
the

felt

only in the

person

of her most

learned States of
at

influence of
may

Germany, the United

to

America

be said not
the memory

have

discovered

Germany

all until within

at

of those

still living. Settled

as

firstby
a

Englishmen,such rude culture

was

it had

for

more

than of

century

wholly English. The

Harvard

firstinstitution Harvard

was higher learning

now College,

named University,
gave
was

from

John

Harvard

of

Cambridge, who

half his fortune and

to bear

all his

that to the college library

age, among William

his

name

(1638). In

American
and
next

homes

of

the Collegeof scholarship,

Mary,
to

chartered

in 1693, comes by those sovereigns in

vard;2 HarYale

and

are order,during the colonial period,

named so (1701),

in

1718 after

one

Elihu

Yale; Princeton

1 1

Tuckwell,
Dr.

p.

131. this venerable

seat

iii. 452) oddly omits Sandys {op.cit., has existed been Chief down four
to

of

which learning, whose the of

most
our

the

present time, and

of
one

among

graduates

have
our

Presidents

the of the makes

United
most

States,
brilliant
to

learned of

and Justices,

soldiers (General Winfield

the second
2G

Scott).
in the

He

Yale

have

been

collegeestablished

United

States.

45"

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

(1746) ;

the

Universityof Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, academy,

York

an originally

assisted

by Benjamin

Franklin

(1751); in George
and
was

New

chartered City,King's College, renamed

Columbia

by

II

but (1754),

Collegein 1787,
Brown

Columbia established

University in 1890.
in

University

Providence,
of the

Rhode

Island, in 1764.
were

These

five centres before

higher

education

all in in the

existence United

the Revolution.
than four

There hundred

are

now

States

more

institutions that

call themselves
score

collegesor
definition.

but universities, In

barely
be

the satisfy

general it
become

may

said

that

the

older the name,

collegesthat
and
are

have

universities
with the

deserve
most

splendidly equipped
for in

modern
in

apparatus

research,
other

with

specialists
to

trained

Germany
most

or

foreign countries knowledge;

their

the satisfy the

exacting seeker
ones

after

while

newly

founded

are

still to prove

right to

esteem. scholarly

It must

be

noted, however, that

of the

this statement

is

only

general. Some
(1892), Johns
Stanford
New
some

like Chicago, youngest universities,

Hopkins

(1876)

in

Baltimore, Leland
at Ithaca

at

Palo Alto,California
were (1865),

Cornell (1891),

in

York very

nobly endowed
The
no

by

the

of generosity ter, Worces-

wealthymen.

Clark

in University

Massachusetts, admits
all its energy
are

but undergraduates, these

newer

gives

to intense

All specialisation.

versities uni-

modelled

mainly

on

the

German,

while

the

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

45

older

ones

still retain

in

largemeasure

the traditions of

English scholarship.
There
was

scarcely any priorto

standard

but

the

English
the this

standard
wide

known

the nineteenth States from

a

century, and

of the separation

United it led to
to

Europe

made

natural
The

enough; but

sort

of intellectual dry-rot.

first American

study

in

Germany
of

was

George

Ticknor and

(1791-187 1), afterwards

and

Professor

the French He

Spanish Languages
years

Literatures at Harvard. between

spent four

divided

Gottingen, Leipzig,
Rome,
of his

also Weimar, Naples,and Halle,and Paris, visiting

and time. In like manner, Edward and Everett

meeting

some

of

the

most

eminent

scholars

afterwards (1794-1865),
of

President
years

of Harvard,

Professor

Greek, spent
:

four
"

(1815-1819) abroad.
to

On

he said returning, America has from

In
to

regard

methods, university

nothing

learn from

to learn England,but everything

Germany."

George
of his whose
own

Bancroft

(1800-1891),the long-winded historian

was

country,

another
bore
no

of those

sporadicpilgrims
the American
to

isolated enthusiasm

fruit because Let

us

people were
C.C.

not

ready

for it.
at

add

the list

Felton,Professorof Greek

Harvard, who
a

annotated
account
was

Wolf's text of the Iliad, and wrote

of his
more

naif singularly of

travels in able and

Europe.

T. D.

Woolsey
more

Yale

a'

and active scholar,

of regard. deserving
a

He

edited

number

of Greek

texts

with

fair comprehen-

452 sion

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

of their

meaning.1

Harvard

possessed two
was
as felt, was

foreignthat of
E. A. of

born
the

whose professors

influence

poet Longfellow (1807-1882). These

wrote
a

were

Sophocles (1 807-1 883), who

the Roman
a

Greek

grammar Beck M.

and
German

Byzantine periods,Carl by birth.

Professor
a

(1798Lane

1866),

His

pupil, G.
for

was (1823-1897),

of Latin grammar
seen

thirty-three years.
which he the had press

After

his

death,
was

Latin

upon

long laboured
(1898)by Many
the
more

finished and

through
M. H.

his former

pupil,Professor
were

Morgan.

American

grammars

publishedin this period,

of

popular being those

of Latin
3

Albert

Harkness,
Allen

fessor Proand and

in

Brown,

often

revised ; 2

Greenough;
Buck,6
but
who
to

Gildersleeve- Lodge,5 Hale Gildersleeve,4

7

Bennett
on

and

a especially

grammar

little known,

made

theory of

his own,
at

by

Gustavus

Fischer,
order

resignedthe chair
pursue this work.

of Latin

Rutgers Collegein

By

an

unfortunate
was,

the fatality,
its plates, destroyed

whole

edition of this learned work

so by fire,

with

that

copy

of it is a very

rare

possession.
in learning Columbia

The

true

spread of

the

influence Anthon

of German

America

is due
was

to Charles

(1797-1867) of
descent. He

who College,
a

himself of German
of annotated

produced
and

number large

editions

of Greek

Latin

For

criticism
in
an
3

of

American

colleges at

this

time,

see

Bristed,

Five
2

Years

English University (New

1904.
*

York, 1855).
"

1898.

1875.

1905.

1903.

1908.

454 Columbia
Short
was

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

professors.The
Charles Latin
at

Latin Lancaster

lexicon
Short

by

Lewis

and

tells that Professor

of

(1821-1886)
the

of

Columbia;

while

Greek

lexicon

Liddell the

and

Scott, in the latest edition, acknowledges

of
Dr. with

services

Henry
the

Drisler

(1818-

1897), who
and

had

collaborated

English editors,

who

held the Greek

chair in Columbia. after German ideals was

that name,

The the and

gave

firstuniversity to be founded

Johns Hopkins,endowed

by

gentleman of
Gilman

its first president, Daniel

Coit

(1831-1909),
that in
a

full

swing
he had

to

his

Germanising tendency,so
him
a

few years
in the
to

gathered around
sense

group

of scholars

European

and

compelled the

older universities has been

the

reform
mater

their methods. of many The Basil

Johns Hopkins
most

alma

able men,
American L.

of whom

stilllive to

do her honor.

Journal

edited of Philology,
there.

by

Professor

Gildersleeve,is published
from

Other

studies and

classical series emanate the

Classical

Chicago
as

(ClassicalPhilology and
Harvard

Journal),
from

do

Studies, Cornell

Studies, etc.,

other

versities uni-

Profound

scholarship was

represented by
of

William

Dwight Whitney

(1827-1894),Professor
who known
was a

Comparative
student

Philologyat Yale, language, widely

oriental studies
contributors
to
are

Sanskritist

and and

of

in He

Germany
was one

wherever

pursued.

of the four chief

the St.

of Sanskrit; Petersburgdictionary

THE

GERMAN

INFLUENCE

455

his first the

own

Sanskrit

grammar of the

is

standard eda-Samhitd

work

with

the

volume second

Atharva-V

(1855-1856), Whitney's
Other former

volume

being
Lanman

completed
of

by

pupil,
of who

Professor

Harvard.

professors (1821-1872),

distinction
is known

at

Yale
his

were

James

Hadley
L.

by
and

Greek

grammar;1 Day
upon

R.

Packard

(1836-1884),
whose studies

Thomas

Seymour
Homer,

(1848-1907), though
Pindar his he
duced pro-

were

largely
of selected
in the of

one

edition

odes
Homeric

from

(1882).
swan-song,

His
the

last

work

was

Life
years

Age,

results

of

long

patient

study.

Of fine ablest before

that

American flavour of

scholarship
it and
its

it

is difficult

to

write,
new,

for

the
its

opportunities
still

are

all

and

representatives
it
has

are

living
mention

men.

Let

it

be

long

becomes
do aside

possible
so

to

them

in

volume who

to

fully
their

and

almost

wholly

with

those

have

laid

pleasant
ed.
rev.

labours.

1860;

last

by

F.

D.

Allen

(1884).

XI

THE

COSMOPOLITAN

PERIOD

With

the death
appears

of Theodor
to

Mommsen,
upon has

the twentieth
a new

century
remarkable the

have

entered

and

periodof scholarship. It
and

passed through
all
now

rough

rugged paths by

which

learning is recognised

the attained,
on

value of classical all

is training

every

side,and

possiblemeans

are

provided
sums

for
are

its efficient and

illuminating study.
many

Immense countries and

are

given

for

its betterment, and for classical

maintain Athens.
into

schools special

study
of

in Rome

Furthermore, the
groups

scholars their
own

to-day

divided
their the

accordingto
still more
are

inclination distinction

and

especial
past is
as

ability.A

marked
not
now

from

that universities

separated and
Nationalism.
to the

isolated
The

theywere
and

even

in the
one

periodof

students the
as

of professors

country pass
of another

of fellowship

and professors

students

country, very much

they
more

did in the time and facility

is noticeable
a

of the

Renaissance, but with much

assurance

still greater

of welcome. chairs
are

This

in the United

where States,
American

established

for the

interchangeof
456

Professors

THE

COSMOPOLITAN

PERIOD

457 welcomed

with those of
every year

foreignlands,which Germany,
countries.

lecturers

are

from

and France, England, Italy, The whole world of

a

the Scandinavian

learning
narrow

has

become

singleworld

without

becoming

world.

Every division
united intimately
on light

of Classical with
on

is now Philology

regardedas

all the rest.

Archaeologythrows
givesbeauty
an nor

usage

and

custom,

Art refines and

to

Numismatics, and makes

the

readingsof the Classics longercrude

aesthetic pleasure.
a

Language study is no

matter

of

mere

guesswork; but since the remarkable

and the work splendidexpository order. highest has of

discoveryof
Brugmann,
the love

Verner

it is a science of the

Moreover,
grown

of the

Classics

for themselves

and

flourished.
But

which perhaps the greatest gift

has

come

to

us

in

modern is the
we
men

times, from

the

teachingof Scientific Philology,

When

of the value of scientific truth. recognition

upon

look back
of

the controversies and

foul

wrangling of
see

and Scaliger and Milton,we geniuslike Scioppius

that

were they in reality

first for victory and only fighting

one

for truth. partially

To-day,

hopes that

in whatever

form
as a

the

higherstudy may

it will reveal itself reveal itself,

and verity in longing for idealised worship of reality

all

things. long ago

as
a

So

1870, the great

lecture this

Romance

Gaston scholar,
:
"

Paris,uttered in

splendidcredo

458

HISTORY

OF

CLASSICAL

PHILOLOGY

"I science without which

profess
has
no

absolutely
other for the aim

and than

without

reserve

this truth
for

doctrine its

that

truth, good

and

own

sake,

care

consequences,

or

ill,regrettable
He who
from
a

or

happy,

that

truth

might
from in

have moral

in

practice. motive,

patriotic,
the facts

religious,
that he is

or

even

allows that is he

himself

in

studying,
the

the

conclusions

draws, worthy

the
of

smallest

dissimulation,
the claim carried

slightest
to

alteration,
truthfulness Thus in all

not

place

in

great
to

laboratory
admission in the than

which skill.

is

more

indispensable
in
common

understood,
civilised

studies

on

same

spirit
often

countries,
a

form,
great
but them

above land fatherwherein of old

restricted,
which souls find the

diverse,
no war

and

hostile

nationalities,

soils, which
and the

no

conqueror

threatens,
was

the

refuge
of God."

unity

which

given

by

citadel

INDICES

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
SELECTED
I.

INDEX

GENERAL
II.

INDEX

462
Besant, Binde,
Walter.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

INDEX

Edward Seneca Das

Henry Palmer
Buchwesen

(London, 1883).
1882). (Berlin,

Robert.

(Glogau, 1883).

Birt,Theodor.
Historia

Antike Latini

Hexametri W. Die

(Bonn, 1876).

2d ed.,3 vols. (Leipzig, 1898). Beredsamkeit, The Pronunciation of Ancient Greek,Eng. trans. (Cambridge 1890). Die Inter polationenin der Odyssee (Halle,1904). Blau, August. De Aristarchi Discipulis(Jena, 1883).

Blass,F.

Altische

Boeckler,

Doctor.

Die

Polychromie

in der

Antiken

Sculptur (AschersT. Varron

leben, 1882).
Gaston. Boissier, Etudes
sur

la Vie et les CEuvres de M.

(Paris,

1861).
La La Fin du

Paganisme (Paris, 1891). d'Auguste

trans.
aux

ReligionRomaine
Altius

Antonins

(Paris, 1906).

Le Poete Roman

(Paris, 1857).
(New
and

Africa,Eng.
A. M. Le

York, 1899). 1890). (Paris, Modern, 3d ed. (London, 1874).

Tours and Greece

Bonnet,

Latin

de

Grtgoirede

Booth, John. Botsford, G.

K. Botticher, W.

Epigrams
A

Ancient

History of the
De

Orient

(London
Vi Usu

and

New

York, 1904).
E. F.

Alliterationis apud Romanos

et

(Berlin,

1884). Breal, M. J. A. Broglie, Emmanuel Pris,

2

Pour

Mieux de. La

Connattre SocUti de

Homere

(Paris,1906).
de Saint-Germain

VAbbaye

des

vols.

(Paris, 1891).
Handbook

Browne, Henry.

of

Homeric

Study (London
der

and

New

York,

1905)Brugmann,
Karl. Zum

heutigen Stand
du

(Leipzig, Sprachwissenschaft
vols.

1885).
Brunet, Bud6,
Gustave. Manuel

Libraire, etc.,8
Grundriss

1880). (Paris,

E. de.

Vie de Bude and

(Paris,1884).
der

J. G., Biihler, (Strassburg, 1896 fol.).

Kielhorn.

Indo-arischen

Philologie

Bunbury,

E. H.

History of Ancient
Geschichte der

Geography,2d
Renaissance in

ed.

(London, 1883). (Stuttgart,

Burckhardt, Jakob.
1890-1891).
Kultur The

Italien

der Renaissance

in

8th Italien,
in

ed.

1904). (Leipzig,
trans.

Civilization Konrad.

of the

Renaissance

Italy, Eng.

(London, 1898).

Bursian,
etc.

Geschichte der Klassischen

in Deutschland, Philologie

(Munich, 1883).

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

INDEX

463

Bury, J. B.
Ed.

History of the History of

Later

Roman and

Gibbon's

the Decline

Empire (London, 1887). Fall of the Roman Empire

(London, 1896).

Life of St.
Butcher,

Patrick

(Cambridge, 1905). Theory of Poetry and

Fine

S. H.

Aristotle's ed.

Art

(London, 1902).

Demosthenes, last

(London, 1903).

A History of Elementary Mathematics (London and Florian. Cajori, York, 1907). A History of Mathematics (New York, 1906). University Lifein Ancient Athens (London, 1877). Capes, W. W. Gli Hethei Pelasgi (Rome, 1894- 1902). Cara, P. C. A.

New

Carroll,Mitchell.
Carlo. Castellani,

Aristotle's Poetics
Delle Biblioteche Primitive

(Baltimore, 1895).

nell' Antichitd

(Bologna,1884).

Cave, William. Chaignet,

A. E.

Christianity(London, 1834).
el

Pythagore
Essai

la

Philosophie Pythagorienne (Paris,

(Paris,1875).
Doctrines

1873).
Chalandon, Georges. Charles,Emile.
des Texles Inidits
sur sa

Ronsard

Roger Bacon;

Vie,sesOuvrages, ses
"c.

d'apris

(Paris, 1861). Roman, 1862). (Paris, Essays (London, 1888). Ages (London, 1895).
et Dissertations

Chassang, Church,
The R.

Alexis. Histoire du W. Miscellaneous Middle

Beginning of the
C. de. Libraries

Cirbied,J. Clark, J. W.

Mtmoires in

(Paris,1824).
Renaissance

the Mediaeval

and

Period

bridge, (Cam-

1894). Clark, Victor S. Studies in the Latin of Penn., 1900).

Clarke, George.
The Education Introduction the Middle

Ages (Lancaster, (New York, 1896).

of Children
to

at

Rome of

Classen, Johannes.

the

edition

Thucydides (Berlin,
Poe-

1897).
Clement,
matis Louis. De

Hadriani

Turnebi
. . .

et Praefationibus

(Paris,1899).
F. Fasti

Clinton, H. Cochin,

Clodd, Edward.
Henri.

(Oxford,1824-1834). The Story of the Alphabet (New York, 1903). Boccace,Etudes Italiennes (Paris,1890).
Hellenici, 3
vols. Etude
sur

Collignon,Albert.
and New

Pitrone

(Paris,1892).
the Middle

Comparetti, Domenico.

Vergil in

Ages, Eng.

trans.

don (Lon-

York, 1895).

464
Compayrd,
Gabriel.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

INDEX

Abilard

and

the

Origin and Early History of Universities

(New York, 1893). History of Paedagogy, Eng. Condamin, 1877). Conway, Cook, Cooper,
R. S. S. Verner's The Word Albert F. T.
trans.

(Boston, 1886).
Christiana

J.

P.

De

Tertulliano

Lingua

Artifice(Lyons,

Italy (London, 1893). Age of Poetry (Boston, 1892).

in the Roman Sertno Plebeius

Law

in

Formation

(New York,

1895). Cotton, Henry. Couat, Auguste. Courthope, Cox,

G. W. W.

Typographical Gazeleer, 3d
La PoSsie Alexandrine Law

ed.

(Oxford,1852-1866).
(London, 1901). (Lund, 1849-1853). (Paris, 1873).
trans.

(Paris,1882).
in Taste

J.
The

Life in Poetry:
Greeks De and Greeds

the Persians Medii Aevi

(New York, 1897).

Studiis

Cramer,

Friedrich. F.

Creuzer, Georg Croiset,Alfred. Croiset,A. and (New Cros,

C. I.

Opuscula (Leipzig, 181 7).

son

Xtnophon,
M. An

Caractere

et

son

Talent

Abridged History of
V

Greek

Literature, Eng.

York, 1904). H.,

M. and A

Henri, Charles. History of

Encauslique(Paris,1884).
Empire from
vols. 375
to 800

Curteis, A.

the Roman

A.D.

(London, 1875). Curtius, Ernst. 1872).

D

Historyof Greece,Eng. trans.,5

(New York,

1868-

Decharme,

Euripidesand (New York, 1906).

Paul. E. Les Latins Marc Charles. Antoine

the

Spiritof

His

Dramas, Eng.

trans.

Dedouvres, Dejob,

1903). (Paris,
Muret

(Paris,1881).
das

Delbriick, Berthold. 1893) ; Eng. Delepierre, J. O. Denis, Jacques. Deschamps,

De La La

Einleitung in
trans.

Sprachstudium, 3d

ed.

zig, (Leip-

(London, 1882). Grecs, etc. (London, 1870). Grecque, 2 vols. (Paris,1886).

chez les de

Parodie Comidie

Pierre.

Dictionnaire

Geographic

I'Usage du

Libraire

(Paris,1870). Vinne,
Notable De T. L. Printers

of Printing (New York, 1878). Century (New York, 1910). of Italyduring the Fifteenth
The Invention

Vit, Vincenzo.
A.

Preface to
Manuce
et

the Lexicon VHellenisme

of Forcellini (Prato, 1879).

d Venise

Didot,

F.

Aide

1875). (Paris,

Bibliotheca

(Paris,1872).

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

INDEX

465

History of the IntellectualDevelopment of Europe (New Draper, J. W. York, 1899). Dressel,Heinrich,De Isidori Originum Fontibus (Turin, 1874). Drisler, Henry. Classical Studies in Honour of (New York, 1894).
Stress Accent in Latin Poetry (New York, 1906). DuBois, E. H. ad Scriptores Media Glossarium et Infimai Du Cange [Charlesdu Fresne], ed. by Favre (Niort,1 884-1 887). Latinitatis, (London and Leipzig,1909). A Literary Historyof Rome Duff, J. W. S. A. W. Duffield, Latin

Hymn-Writers

and

their

Hymns

(New York,

1889). Dugdale, William. 1830).

Du

Monasticum

Anglicanum, 8 vols. (London, 181

7-

Menl, Edelstand, Potsies

zieme Poesies Latines du

Populaires Latines Antirieures Siecle (Paris,1843). Moyen Age (Paris,1847). of Richard

A

au

Dou-

Dunlop,

J. C.

History of Prose Fiction,last ed. (London, 1896).

The

Dyce, Alexander. 1836).

The

Complete Works

don, Bentley, 3 vols. (LonPorsoniana

Table-Talk

of Samuel

Rogers,to which
E

is added

don, (Lon-

1856).

Eckstein,F. A. Egger, Emile.

Essai
sur

Lateinischer

und

Griechischer Unterricht

1887). (Leipzig,

Callimaque et VOriginede la

s. a.). Bibliographic (Paris,

VHistoire de la
en

UHelUnisme Lewis. Einstein,

chez les Grecs (Paris, Critique 1886). France, 2 vols. (Paris, 1869). Italian Renaissance Erasmus in

The

England (London, 1907). (London, 1864). (Altenburg, Schriflen

Pronuncia-

Emerton, Ephraim. Engel, Carl. Engel, Karl

D. L.

(New York, 1899).

The Music

of the Most Ancient Nations

Zusammenstellung der Faust

Recta Latini

1885).
De Erasmus, Desiderius. tione (Basel, 1528).

Sermonis Grcecique

ed. by P. S. Allen (Oxford, Epistolce (1484-1514), 1906). Omnia Opera (Basel,1540).

Essenwein, A. O. Eyssenhardt, Franz.

ByzantinischeBaukunst
Niebuhr

(Darmstadt, 1896). (Gotha, 1886).

F

Faulman,

Karl.

Geschichle der Buchtructverkunst Dante and His

(Vienna, 1882). (New York, 1902).

Federn, Karl.
2H

Time, Eng.

trans.

466
Feugere, L. J.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

INDEX

Essai

sur

la Vie

el les

Ouvrages de Henri
vols.

Etienne

(Paris,

i8S3).
Field,W. Fink, Karl.
The A

Life of Samuel

Parr,

(London, 1828).

(Chicago, 1900). History of Mathematics Outlines of a System of Classical Paedagogy (Baltimore, Fitz-Hugh, Thomas. 1900). Flach, H. L. M.
Peisistratos und Seine Litterarische

Thatigkeit (Tubingen, 1900). (Leipzig,

1885).
L. O. Fleischer, Die Reste der Tonkunsl Altgriechischen

Forbes, W. H. Lifeand Mind of Thucydides (London, 1895). A Handbook Fowler, H. A.,and Wheeler, J. R. of Greek Archaology (New York, 1909). Frazer, R. W. Frick,Carolus. Froude, J.
A. A

LiteraryHistory of India
Mela und Seine

(New York, 1901). 1880). (Leipzig, Chorographie

Pomponius
Erasmus

(London, 1894).
G

Gardner, Percy. York, 1892).

New

Chapters in
Griechische Eve

Greek

History (London

and

New

Gardthausen, V. E.

1879). Paldographie (Leipzig,

York,

Gasquet, F. A.
1900). Geiger,Ludwig.

The

of the Reformation (London, 1898 ; New 1874). (Leipzig,

Petrarca

Geraud, P. H. J. F.

Les Livres dans

Geschichtschreiber Gerlach,F. D. Gevaert,F. A. Hisloire et Theorie 1875-1881). The Decline and Gibbon, Edward. Bury (Cambridge, 1899).

1840). (Paris, VAntiquilb der Romer 1855). (Stuttgart, de la Musique dans VAntiquitl(Ghent,
Fall

of

the Roman

Empire, ed. by

Giles,P.
Etudes

Short Manual

of Comparative Philology(London, 1895).

Girard, Jules. La Peinture

sur

1895). Antique (Paris, V Eloquence (Paris, 1874).

Die F. A.

Gleditsch,J. G.

Grafenhan, E.
7

Pythagoreer (Posen, 1841). in Alterthum, Geschichte der Klassischen Philologie Vulgar Latin (Boston,1908).
the before Middle

vols.

(Bonn, 1843-1850).
H. A

Grandgent, Charles
Graves, F. P.

Historyof Education
Pneumatics

Ages (New York,

1909). Greenwood, J. G.
Gregorovius, F.
trans.

(London, 1851).
in the Middle

History of the City of Rome

Ages, Eng.

(London, 1894).

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

INDEX

467

Gresswell, W. Gros, Etienne. Gudeman,

P.

Memoirs
sur

of Angelus Politianus,etc. (London, 1805).

la chez Rhilorique delta Poesia les

Etude de.

Grecquts (Paris, 1835).

Gubernatis, Angelo
Alfred.

Storia

Epica (Milan, 1883).

Outlines

of the

History of Classical Philology (Boston,

H

1902).
F. De Latinorum

Haase,

Codicum

anuscriptorumSubscriptionibus

(Breslau,i860). Hadley, James. Haight, A. E. Hall, H. R.

alter The

Essays (New
The

York, 1873). of the Greeks

Mathematik

Tragic Drama
Geschichte der

(Oxford,1896).
in Alterthum und Mittel-

Oldest Civilization

of Greece (London, 1001).

Hankel, Hermann, Hankius, Martinus

toribus Graecis Hardie W. R.

1874). (Leipzig, (Martin Hanke). 1677). (Leipzig,

on sur

De

Byzantinarum

Rerum

Scrip-

Lectures Essai Das

Classical

(London, 1003). Subjects

Hardouin, Henri. Harnack, Adolf. Harrison, Frederic.

la Vie et les Outrages de du

1849). Cange (Paris,

don, Ages (Lon-

Monchthum

(Giesen, 1895).

Byzantine History in the Early Middle

Nomine,

1900).
Hart,
G. De Tzetzarum

1880). Vita,Scriptis(Leipzig,
als

Hartfelder,Karl. 1889). Hartmann,

Paul.

Philipp Melanchthon
De De Canone Saturnio How G. Music Decern

Praeceptor Germaniae (Gottingen, 1891). (Paris,1880).

lin, (Ber-

Oratorum Versu

Ha vet, P. A. L.

Latinorum

Henderson, W. Heyse, C. W.
L.

J.

Hergenrother, J. A. Hildebrand, August. Hill,G. B.

Ed.

Developed(New York, 1898). Photios, 3 vols. (Regensburg, 1867-1869).

und

(Berlin, 1856). System der Sprachwissenschaft

Boetius

Seine

Stellung

zum

Christenthum

(Regensburg, 1885).
Gibbon's Memoirs

(London, 1900).

Hodgkin, Thomas.

Italy and Her Invaders,8 vols. (Oxford,1892-1899). The Letters of Cassiodorus (London, 1886). (New York, 1902). A Short History of the Printing Press Hoe, Robert.
to the Close of the Holm, Adolph, History of Greece from Its Commencement Independence of the Greek Nation (London, 1894-1899).

Howells, W. Hubner, F.

D.

LiteraryPassions (New York, 1895). Enyclop"die, 2d ed. (Berlin,1892). My

A

Hyde, Douglas. 1899).

LiteraryHistory of Ireland

(Dublin and New

York,

468

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

INDEX

Ihne, W.

Early Rome

(New York, 1902). J

Jannet, Claudio.
1880).

Les

Institutions

Sociales
. . .

Sparte, 2d ed. (Paris, don, (Lon-

Janssen, Johannes. 1881). Jebb, Richard Bentley

Erasmus Homer The
"

History of the German

Orators, 2d
of Letters

People, Eng

trans.

C.

Attic

ed., 2 vols. (London, 1893). Series,2d

ed.

English Men

(New

York, 1899).

(Cambridge, 1890). (Boston, 1887).

and A

Growth

Influenceof Classical Greek History of Greek

Literature Sadolet

Poetry (London, 1893). (New York, 1897).

Illustrative

Jevons, F. B. Joly, Aristide. Jones, Stuart. Jortin,John. Jowett, B. W. Justi, Karl.

genossen,

Etude Select

sur

(Caen, 1857).
Writers

Passages from Ancient

Ecclesiastical

of

the

History of Greek
Remarks

Sculpture (London, 1895).

on

History (London, 1751-1773). Werke, und

Seine Zeit-

Dialogues of Plato, 2d ed. (Oxford, 1893).

Winckelmann,
3

Sein

Leben, Seine

vols.

(Leipzig, 1872).
K

Keil, H.
Ker, W.
P.

Grammatici

Latini
zu

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Horaz

Keller, Otto, Epilegomena

The Dark

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York, 1904).
and

Ages (New
Chiliades and

Kiessling and Klotz, Richard.

Lehrs.

(Leipzig,1826
Her Schools

1840). (Leipzig,1890).

Kingsley, Charles. Korting, G. K. O. Kortiim, J. F. C. Kraemer, August. 1890).

Kroll, Wilhelm.

Alexandria

(Cambridge, 1854).
(Leipzig,1880).
Astronomicis

Grundztige der Altromischen

Boccaccios Geschichtliche De Manilii Leben und Werke

Metrik

Forschungen (Leipzig,1863). Qui

Fertur

(Marburg,

Geschichte
von.

der Klassischen der

1908). Philologie(Leipzig,

Kugler, Bernard

Geschichte

Kreuzziige (Berlin,1891).

Laffore,Jules de B. de. Lanciani, R. A.

Ancient

Etude Rome

sur

Jules

Cesar

de Lescale

(Agen, i860). (Boston,

in the

Light of Recent Excavations

47"
What Have

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

INDEX

the Greeks

Done

for Modem Bentley,Eine

Civilization?

(London

and

New

York, 1909). Manly, Jacob Mahn,

E. A. A. P. Richard

Biographie (Leipzig, 1868).

Allen Ihren Seiten

Darstellungder 7).
Dark The

Lexicographie nach

(Rudolstadt, 181 Maitland,

S. R.

Ages (London, 1853). Typographorum (Paris,1752).

Palaemonis Libris Grammaticis

Maittaire, Mariette,
P.

Michael.
171

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Aliquot

Parisiensium

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Pierres Gravies

J.

Marrast, Augustin. Marschall,

Carl. De

Esquisses Byzantines (Paris,1874). Quinti

The Remmii

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Martin, J. 1888). Matthai, Mengin, Meyer,

Vulgate

Latine

xii

s.

d'apresRoger

Bacon

(Paris,

C. F. Urban.

von.

Glossaria Documents
sur

Groeca J. C.
sur

(Moscow, 1774-1775). Scaligeret sa

Famille

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vols.

Eduard.

Forschungen
F.

Alien

Geschichte, 4

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Michaud
45

A.

J.
F.

Pilrarque (Paris,1868).
The

J.

History of

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Biographie Universelle (Paris,1 843-1 865).

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Michaut, Gustave. Middleton, J. H. Migne, J.

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Engraved

Times Gr.

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Patrologia
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A. des Monchthums

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Theodor.

History of Rome, Eng. Bentley,2d

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Greek and man Ro-

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C. F. de T.

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de.

Representee en

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

INDEX

47
Series

Morison, J. C.

Gibbon

"

English Men
Can

of

Letters

(New York,
(London,

i*79).
Miiller, F.
Max.

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It Teach

Us?

last ed.

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Lectures The
on

the Science Books

Sacred

of Language, last ed. (London, 1891). of the East, 2d ed. (London, 1892).
der Klassischen

Miiller, Ivvan.
Lucian. Miiller, Geschichte der

Handbuch

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Friedrich Klassischen Ritschls Leben

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Niederlanden

Philologie in den
trans.

(Leipzig,

1869).
Greek and Latin De

Versification, Eng.
Genio The A Les Aevi Schools Handbook Precurseurs

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Miiller, P. E.

Theodosiani

Mullinger, J. B. Murray,
Gilbert.

of Charles the Great (London, 1877). of Greek Archaeology (London, 1892). (Florence,1902).
de la Renaissance

Muntz, Eugene.

Nettleship, Henry.
Lectures and

Essays in Latin

Literature

(Oxford,1889).

Essays (Oxford, 1895).

St. Patrick, His

Newell, E.

J. J.

Nichols, F. M. Nicoll, H.

Life and Teachings (London, 1890). Epistles of Erasmus (New York, 1901-1904).
Scholars
sur

Great

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de la Decadence

Nisard, Charles.
Les Gladiateurs Le Triumvirat

Essai de la

les Poetes Latins

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Republiquedes
en

Lettres

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Littiraire Erasme

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Italie

Nolhac, Pierre de. Norden, Eduard.

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Pelrarque et VHumanisme
Die

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Antike

Kunstprosa (Leipzig, 1898).

Nordenskjold, A. E.

Periplus (Stockholm, 1897).

O

Olcott, G. N.
Alex. Olleris,

Studies in the Word

Formation

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Inscriptions
Latine

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Conservateur Cassiodore,
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VAntiquiU (London and

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Story of the Byzantine Empire

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472 Otto, Friedrich. Overbeck, J.

A.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

INDEX

Sprichwbrterder
Geschichte

Rbtner

(Leipzig, 1890).
Plastik

der Griechischen

(Leipzig, 1894).

Pais,

Ettore.

Ancient

Legends of

Roman

History, Eng.
Museum

trans.

(New

York, 1905). Parthey,

G. F. C. Das Alexandrinische in the
2

(Berlin, 1838).

Pater, Walter. Pattison,Mark.

Isaac

Studies

History of the
ed.

Renaissance

(London, 1888).

Essays,
ed.

vols.

(Oxford, 1889).

Casaubon,
De Sillis

2d by Nettleship,

(Oxford,1892).

Paul, F. Paul, H.

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ed.

last Grundriss,3 vols., The German

(Strassburg, 1896, foil.).

trans.

Paulsen, Friedrich.

Universities, Eng.
Renaissance

(New York,

189S).
Pearson, Alfred. Pearson, Peck,
H. Karl. T. Cena A Short

History of the

(Boston, 1893).

Ethic

of Free Thought (London, 1901).

ed.

Trimalchionis,2d York, 1908). Life of Erasmus

Revival

(New York, 1908).

Literature

(New
A. R. The

Pennington, Perrier, J. L.

(London, 1901).

of Scholastic Philosophy (New York, 1909). (Paris,1873). Perrot, Georges. Les Pricurseurs de Demosthene Perthes, Justus. Atlas Anliquus (Gotha, 1893). Historicorum Romanorum 1883). Peter,Hermannus. Fragmenta (Leipzig,
Picavet, F. J.
Marius. Pieri, F. Plessis,

Esquisse d'une Petrarque et

Histoire

GenSrale

el

Comparie

des Civilisations

Medievales

(Paris, 1905).
Ronsard

Pokel,

W. F.

(Marseille, 1895). 1889). Metrique Grecque et Latine (Paris, 1882). (Leipzig, Schriftstellerlexikon
De W. Artis ed. Vocabulis The

Polle,K. Prutz,
The

Quibusdam of
Gibbon

Lucretianis

(Dresden, 1866).

Prothero,

G.

Letters

(London, 1896).

Hans.

Kullur

der Kreuzziige (Berlin,1898). geschichte

Age of the
G. H.

Renaissance Books and

(New York, 1902).

Their Makers in the Middle

Putnam,

Ages (New York,

1896-1897).

Rabe, Hugo.

De

Theophrasti Libris (Bonn, 1890).

The Universities

Rashdall, Hastings. (Oxford, 1895).

of Europe during

the Middle

Ages

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

INDEX

473
Commentarius Scriptis

F. Reiffenberg,

A.

F. T.

De

Justi

Lipsi Vita

et

(Brussels, 1823).

Reiley, Katherine, Philosophical Terminology of Lucretius (New York, 1909).

Reinach, Salomon.
Manuel de

and

Cicero

Philologie Classique,2d
et de

ed., 2 vols.

(Paris, 1885).
Renan, Ernest. 1898). Ribbeck, Otto.
Geschichte der
Rbmischen M

flange d'Hisloire

Voyage

dans

VAntiquiti(Paris,
2

Dichtung,

vols.,2d

ed.

(Leipzig, 1897-1900).
Ridgeway, William. Ritschl,F. W.
Neue Die Plautinische The

Early Age of Greece (Cambridge, 1901,

Bibliotheken

foil.).

Alexandrinischen Excurse

(Breslau, 1838).

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Greek

Roberts, E. S. Roberts, William.

Epigraphy (Cambridge, 1887-1905). Rolfe,J. C.

Geschichte Varros Petrus Auli des Petrarch

History of Letter Writing (London, 1843). (New York, 1898). Kbnigreichs Jerusalem (Halle, 1896).
Atlicarum Fontibus

Robinson, J. H., and Rohricht, Reinhold. Roth, Ruske,

K. L. Leben

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(Basle, 1857).
Victorinus Gellii Noctium

Rudinger,

Wilhelm. De

Lothar.

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G. A. E. A. Saalfeld,

Der

Hellenismus De I'Ecole

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St. Hilaire,Barthelemy

de.

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York,
1900 ;

Saintsbury, George. Salverte,Francois Sandys, J. E.

Lectures A

History of Criticism,3 vols. (New

Le Roman dans la Grice Ancienne

London, 1901-1902).
de.

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ed.

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2d Scholarship, 3 vols.,

bridge, (Cam-

1908).
on

the Revival A

of Learning (Cambridge, 1905).

to

G. A. Scartazzini,

Handbook Die

Dante, Eng.

trans.

(Boston, 1897).

Schanz, Martin Scherer, W. Schmidt,

K.

von.

Sophisten(Gbttingen, 1867). (Erlangen,1870). (Halle,1859). (Gottingen,1837).

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und Cultur

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Geschichte
to

Schmidt, Joseph. De Latinitate Terlulliani

E.

Beitragezur
The Geschichte
von.

der Grammalik

Schneidewin, Schomann,

F. W.

Preface

Pindar

G. F.

der Alterthiimer,4th ed. Litter atur

Schroeder, Leopold

Indiens

474 Schiick,Julius. Scott,Leader. Sears, Lorenzo.

W. Sellar,
Y.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

INDEX

Aldus

Manutius

und

Seine in

Zeitgenossen (Berlin, 1862).

The

Renaissance

of Art

Italy (London, 1888).

History of Oratory (Chicago, 1903).

The Roman The Poets

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Sergi,Giuseppe. Seymour,
T. D.

Mediterranean the Homeric

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Life in

Age (New York, 1908).

Life of Poggio (Liverpool,1837). Shepherd, William. Simon, Jules. Histoire de VEcole d'Alexandrie, 2 vols. (Paris,18441845). Skrzeczta, Smyth,
H. R. F. L. Die Lehre des

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W. and Melic Poets

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Medii und Seine Mevi

Sokolowski

Szujski. J.

Monumenla

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Numismatum Anti-

Spangenberg, Spanheim,
quorum

E. P.

Jacob

Cujas

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Ezechiel.

Dissertalio

de Usu

et Prastantia

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von.

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the Seventeenth

F. Spiegel,

Die

Alexander

Spingarn, J.
1

E.

Critical

Essays of

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vols.

ford, (Ox-

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LiteraryCriticism Steffen,Georg. 1876). Steinthal,Eduard.

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Aristarchi

qui

Dicitur

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Geschichte
2

der

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Griechen

Romern,
De

vols.,2d
Rowe,
ed.

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The

Steup, Jul.
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Probis

Grammalicis Nicholas.

Stuart, James, and

Antiquities of Athens
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Measured

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Sturz, F.
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Latinorum

Suringar, W. Susemihl,
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Litteratur

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vols.

J. A.

History

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Sir

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191

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Teignmouth,

J.

S.

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William

Jones

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

INDEX

475

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History of Roman
R. P.

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C. F.

M.,
St.

and

Pullan,

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J.

Anthologia Grceca,with
Les Traitis

English notes
Ciceron

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Camille.

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Philosophic, 9th
de

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Librorum

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Epicurea (Leipzig,1887).
Hermann. Ulrici, Geschichte der Griechischen

Dichtkunst

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Vacherot,

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Histoire

Critiquede
Valla

VEcole

d'Alexandrie, 3 vols.

(Paris,1846-1851). Vahlen, Johannes. Vanel, J. Verrall,A. Vibaek,

M. B. W. Les Lorenzo Bbitdictins

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de Saint-Maur

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Die

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Voight, Georg.
Erste

Wiederbelebung des
des

Jahrhundert R. E.

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Geschichte

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Vita

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W

Wachsmuth,
Walden, J. W. Warren, F. M.

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Wattenbach, Wilhelm. Wegener, C. F. W.

Schriftwesen im
Attalica

(Copenhagen, 1836).

476
Weise,
F.

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL

INDEX

O.

Charaderistik
trans.

der

Lateinischen

Sprache, 3d
der Ars Poetica

ed.

zig, (Leip-

1905),Eng.
Weissenfels,Oskar. 1880).
Horaz

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Aesthet-Kritische

(Gorlitz,

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F. G. R. M.

Welcker, Werner, West,

Roman

Epische Cyclus, 2d ed. (Bonn, 1865-1882). Lyrik und Lyriker (Leipzig, 1890).
Der and the Rise

A. F.

Alcuin

of Christian

Schools

(New York, 1892).

Autobiography (New
Rudolf. des Griechischen D.

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Westphal,
Die Musik

Metrik Allgetneine Alterthums and the

(Berlin, 1892). 1887). (Leipzig,

ed.

Whitney,
The

W.

Language

Study of Languages, 4th

(New

York, 1884).

Lifeand
L. A.

Growth

of Language,
The

last ed.

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vols.

Whittaker, Thomas, Wiese,

De

Neo-Plalonists

(Cambridge, 1901).
Euripidis Hcrakles

Vilis

Scriptorum
Ulrich
von.

Romanorum

Wilamowitz-Mollendorf, Wilken,
Friedrich.

Geschichte der Education

Kreuzziige, 7
in Greece

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Wilkins, A. S.
Christ

National

in the Fourth

(London, 1873). J.J.

Wilhelm. Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums

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F. A.

(Dresden,1 754).
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History of Ancient
The

Philosophy,Eng.

(New

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Susanna. De

Lifeand

Letters

of Niebuhr
Fonlibus

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last ed. 1859. Werke

Wissowa, Georg. Wolff, Max 1893)Woltmann, Eng. Woodward,

Alfred
trans.

Macrobii

Saturnalium

Prolegomena
von.

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1795) ; (Berlin,
Leben und Seine

Lorenzo

Valla,Sein
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(Leipzig,

von,

Woermann,
Education

Karl.

History of Painting,
New

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H.

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W.

Erasmus

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Zacher, Konrad. Zeissberg, Heinrich

Eduard. Zeller,

Die
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Die

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MitteU

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478
Aquinas, Thomas, 388. Arabic, knowledge of, in
Ages, 240. Aratus, 96, 102. Arcesilaus, 118.

INDEX

Athens,
the Middle
as as as a a

the

Sparta, 28; champion of Hellas, 29, 30; of learning, centre 32, 35, 42 ; 1 university town, 21-124.

contrasted

with

Attic Style, 42.

Archaeology and
268,
Russia

Antiquities, 250-254,
313, 401 315
n.

269,
and

287, 288,
the

in

his DidasAttius, his tragedies, 149; colica,157 n. ; his reforms in Roman

Crimea,

Archimedes, 103. Aristarchus, 104 ; his critical methods, ogy, 100116; his grammatical terminolno;

orthography, 157 Aurispa, Giovanni,

n.

his

enormous

lection col-

of Mss., 279, 280.

his
114.

his five critical processes, 109; his Homeric criticism, 109-1 n ; five nolte, 113; his successors,

Auspicius,216. Austria, classical studies in, 386-388.

B

Aristobulus, 102. Aristophanes,72

76.
of

Bacchylides, 34,
;

234.

his criticism of Euripides, Bacon, Francis, 357-359.

Bacon,
invents his the
as

Roger,

230-242

character

of

Aristophanes Byzantium, critical accents, punctuation, and 98, 107, 108 ; his hypotheses to signs, the dramatists, 98; helps establish
the
107
as

his criticism of writings,239; Scholastics, 239 ; his suggestions to Scripturaltext-criticism, 240, his Greek

241 ;

Canons,
the

99;

his

ten

prosodice,
107, 108 ;

; his criticism of texts,

and glossaries Bancroft, George, Cardinal

lexicon, 241 ; modern methods,

451.

his
242.

Caesar,309 n. Beadus, Renanus, 396. Aristotle, meaning of "pi\o\oyla in, Beck, Carl, 452. his analyticaltreatise on oric, rhet2 ; Bekker, August Immanuel, 405, 410 n. his of oric, rhetBenfey, Theodor, 419. conception 45-47 ; his metaphysical disBenedictus tinctions, (St.Benedict),197; founds 47, 48; the order of the Benedictines,200, 48; his Organon, 48; his ten categories,48; the importance 202, 203. of his categories in the development Bentley, Richard, assists Kiister,351 ; of formal grammar, his relations with Hemsterhuys, 352 48 ; his Poetics, in the "Pleiad," criticism, 74, 73-76; his dramatic n" 353 "" included
108.
75;

first scientific

lexicographer, Baronius,

his criticism edition"

of Homer,

"casket

78; his of Homer, 78.

Graeco-Roman

360;

as

scholar, 361-365;
;

his

Phalaris, 365
366-370;

his

critical power,
371
n.

80. Aristoxenus, Arithmetic in

172,

bibliography to,

the
173.

Period,
Ars

Poetica, 181, 182. Art, distinction between

useful art,
73;

fine art

and of

aesthetic mediaeval
251.
n.

study
art,

art, 127-129;

243;

Byzantine
Arundel

art, 250,

Bergk, Theodor, 409. Bernhardy, Gottfried, 413, 414. Bernard de Chartres, his method of teaching, 230, 231. Bernays, J., quoted, 74. Bessarion, his founding of the Library of St. Mark (Venice), 273.
in Classical Biographical Method Philology, 3. Biography, 120, 153, 154. N. M., 401 n. Blagoviestschenski, Boccaccio,Giovanni, 267, 268.

Marbles, the, 360 Asconius, Pedianus, 168.

Asiatic

Style,42.

Ast, G. A. F., 412. Astronomy, 22, 103.

INDEX

479
Callimachus, 96
; his

Boeckh, August,
Boethius, Anicius
De
207

410

n.

93 n,

Manlius,
to

Consolatione
;

206; Philosophiae, 206,

use

his

work, 98,
101

106 ;

his

ical bibliographlyricpoetry,

; his

epigrams, 101.
1 29. Sculptors,

first writer

Arabic

Camerarius, 396.
Canon of Ten

translated (Hindu) numerals, 207; by King Alfred, Chaucer, and Queen Elizabeth, 207. Boissier,Gaston, 427. Bopp, Franz, first scientific student of Comparative Philology,418, 419. tific Borghesi, Bartolomeo, the first scien-

Canter,

William,
in verse,
150.

his
343.

use

of

Arabic

numerals

Carneades,

Carnegie Institution, 92. of Middle Carolingian Period

Ages,

epigraphist, 443.
Bos, Lambert,
351.

214-218, 225, 226. Casaubon, Isaac, 306, 308-312. Aurelius, Cassiodorus, Magnus
204.

203,

Botsford, G. W., quoted, 7, 8. Bouhier, Jean, 314. Brant, Sebastian, 391 n. British Museum, 381 n. Brown University, 450.
Brugmann,
Karl

Castelvetro, F., 75. Categories, of Anaximenes, Aristotle, 46,

47.

45;

of

F., 422,

423.

Catholicon,247. Cato, M. Porcius, his Origines, 153;

as

Bruni, Leonardo, 208.

the

originatorof

Roman

prose,

Bucheler, Franz, 417. Buda, University at,

Budaeus, 304.

153. 399.

Bugge, Sophus 424, 433, 434. Burgess, Prof. J. W., quoted, 244. 65, 66, 76; Burlesque, of the Sophists, of the tragic writers,76 ; of Homer See the and Cyclic writers, 77.
Parody.

Catullus, Quintus Valerius, 152. Caylus, le Comte de, 315, 316. Celtes,Conrad, 391 n.

Cephalas, 256,
Charlemagne,
Charles

344.

his court

school, 220.

the Bald, 385. Christomathies, see Lexicography.

Manuel, 269, Chrysoloras,

Peter

280.

Burmann,

(the Elder), his Latin

351.

Cicero, M.
as a

T.,
an

as

editions,350, Burney,
360. Burton,

philosopher, 150;
as

word-maker, 148; as a historian,

153.

Charles,

his

"Pleiad,"

359,

153;

orator,
at

Ciceronianism

the time

of the
303

naissance, Re-

Robert, 358

n.

281, 282, 302,

vated ; culti-

Butcher, S., quoted, 73, 74. Buttmann,

P. K., 410
n.

by Ernesti, 400. Ciriaco de' Pizzicolli (di Ancona),

17,

chaeologist, ar-

teristics 268. Byzantine Empire (New Rome), characof its history, 210, 247-250; City editions of Homer, 16, its literature, its art, 250, 251; 112. 251, 256, 257 ; its jurisprudence, Clark, Victor S., quoted, 219. 254,
252, 253;

111,

its

scholarship, 253-255;
the

Classical its

studied Archaeology,

in Great

its

pillageby

Turks,

272

earlier relations with

Italy, 269.

and Britain, 380, 381 ; in France Germany, 426"429. Classical Philology, 1-4 ; definition of, tory of treating,3-4 ; his1-3 ; methods

of,

1"2.

Cobet, Caryl Gabriel, Cajori,Florian, quoted, 22. his lexicon, Codex, meaning of, 280 Calepinus, Ambrosius, alterations herein,see Lexicography.Colet, John, 295. 415 n; College de France,
305.

424,
n.

425.

480
Columbia

INDEX

lege), Cylas, 174. University (King's ColCynics, 51. 450.

in Athens, 72, 76.
193.
n.

Comedy

Commodianus,

Comparative Philology,3
of 418, 419.

firstattempt Dalberg, Johann von,

391

n.

Tobias, 417. Damm, Dante, 261, 262. Dawes, Richard, 371. Conington, John, 447. Byzantine Empire. Demetrius, Magnus, 120. Constantinople, see Demetrius Phalerius, 88-91. of Abdera, 11 ; his theories Democritus Cooper, F. T., quoted, 187. his treatise on of Syracuse, writes the first of language, 58; Corax manual of rhetoric, his 126 his work n. ; on Glosses, painting, rules, 41 ; 41,
44.

at, 398 ; first scientificstudy

128.

Corpus Inscriptionum Alticarum, 441. Corpus Inscriptionum Grmcarum 441. Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, 443. Corpus Iuris Civilis, 253. Corssen, W., 434-437. Corvinus, Matthias, 399.

Demosthenes,

44.
see

Descriptive Geography,

raphy. Geog-

Didascalica, 157 n. Chalcenteros, his Didymus

114,

vast

ductiveness pro-

116.

Dilettanti Society,380. Cosmopolitanism at Rome, 186. his view of Dindorf, K. W., 407. Crates of Mallos, 119, 120; the "Bentley of Antiquity," Homer, Dindorf, Ludwig, 407 n. ; 449. 120; his conception of Dinocrates, the designerof Alexandria, 120; his works, text-criticism, 119, 120; his embassy to Rome, 1 20 ; 157. 120;

89.

Cratylus,synopsis of

the

dialogue,61-

67. Critical Signs, 98, 107, 108, 113, 114, 160, 166, 167, 186. Poems, in Criticism,of the Homeric

Diogenes Laertius, 60. Diogenes of Apollonia,quoted, 40. Dionysius Thrax, the first teacher
formal

of

Early Greece,

13,

ment abridgvarieties, 39, 40, see aesthetic,73-75 ; Auratus Doratus, (Jean d'Aurat), Greece, 74-77; subjective, 107, 368, and teacher of Scaliger Ronsard, 326. 369 ; verbal, 305, 306 ; diplomatic, See Text Criticism. Downes, Andrew, 357, 360. 336-340. Cruques, Jacques de (Cruquius), his Drakenborch, Arnold, his great edition of Livy, 351. studies of Horace in Mss. lost, now its beginnings in Greece, 15; Codex Blandinianus,342, Drama, 342, 343;
343-

158"160. grammar, Dittenberger, W., 441. Dcederlein, L., 412. its Donaldson, J. W., 439. 20, 25, 27 ; Criticism Text ^Elius, 184, 185; ; Donatus, of the drama in of, 246.

influence

in Greece, 72,

75-77;

tive na-

Crusades,
257,

their influence

on

Europe,
75;

Roman Dramatic

258. tions Cujacius (Jacques de Cujas), his relawith Scaliger,326; his reconstruction of Roman law, 326. Curtius, Ernst, 419. Curtius, Georg, the
head of
a

drama, 131. Criticism, in Aristotle, 74, Dramatic the three Unities,

school

of language study, 419, Cyclic Poets, 12.

420.

Theophrastus of Ephesus, 76 ; in Aristophanes, 76. Drisler,Henry, 418 n, 454. saries Du Cange, Charles du Fresne, his glosof Low Latin and Late Greek,
312.

75 ; in

INDEX

481
of Epigrams, of Callimachus, 101; Martial,155. Epigraphy, originand development of, in Antiquity,167, 168 ; Greek, 441 ; of late development, 442, Roman,
443-

Duff,J. W., quoted, 136.

Scotus, 385, 388. of Samos, 128. Duruy, J. V., 429.
Duns Dims

Epistulae Obscurorum
395-

Virorum,

394,

Eckhel,Joseph, 403. Eclectics, 97, 102. 51 ; at Alexandria, Editiones Principes of the Fifteenth Century, 209, 300.
Education, in early Greece,
27 ; 49-51; 125; 17-19,

Epitome
Erasmus

Treatises, 1 14, 1 15. of Desiderius, 200; account his life, his writings, 291-294; 294297; 297-299.

of the Four

his

character

and

influence,

26,

in the Prae-Alexandrian the ancient in

Period, 1 21universities,
131;

early Rome,

the
;

Graeco-Roman
monastic

education, schools,228-231.

171-191

"the Icelandic Egelsson, Sveinbjoin, Homer, "433. 50, $1. in Classical Egyptians, their influence upon early Ethnographic Method Greek Philology, thought, 22; their scientific 4. Etruscology,436, 437. knowledge, 105 n. rhetorical E/*c6s, Etymology, 52; Plato's discussion in meaning of,41, 44. the Cratylus,61-67; in Classical Eiodographic Method popular etymologies, involved 66, Philology, 67 principles 9. ; in developing words, 63, 64, 69; Eleatic School, 24; linguistic theories of the, 56-59the etymological schools among Romans, ElegiacPoetry, in Greek literature, 162-164. 157, 33 ; in Latin literature, Euclid, 103. 152. Eudemus, his historyof geometry, 22. Eliot,George, quoted, 446. Eudoxus in Latin, 188-100. of Canidus, 174. Encyclopaedists founder of the Pergamene as relations Englishuniversities, Eumenes, scholarly

Alexandria, styled in the Alexandrian "pi\6\oyos, 2 ; School, 98, 103, 106, 107. Ernesti, Johann August, 400, 401. Ethics, in Homer, 18, 19 ; in the philosophy of Pythagoras,23 ; of Socrates,

Eratosthenes

of

School, 118. Press, Euphemism, 69. 67, 72, 76, 78, 86. at, 359 ; Eng359 ; revival of Greek lish Euripides, scholars of the seventeenth his Eusebius, tury, cention Chronicle, 189; restoraof, by J. J. Scaliger, 360-363 ; the Cambridge Press, 336-341. 364; deterioration of from 1750 until Everett,Edward, 451. influence Exegesis, 1820, 377, 378; German 72, 73. on, 446. Ennius, Quintus, 138; changes made
sities, Univer359, 447;

between

English and

Dutch

the

Oxford

by

him

in

Latin

verse

structure,
o-

130-141 ; his Annales, 139, 140. the Epic Poetry among Greeks, 12, 97; 135; among 151-

the

Romans,

134,

139,

Epicurus, his theory of the origin of of a language, 60; his endowment school at Athens, 122.
21

Faber, Basilius, 397 n" 399. Raffaele,442. Fabretti, Fabricius, George, 397 n. Fabricius, J. A., 440. Facciolati, Iacopo, 415-416.
"Families" "Father of of Manuscripts,
in.

History," see Herodotus.

482
Felton, C. C, 451. 168. Fenestella,
Ferrero, G., 429. Fiction, see Prose fiction. Filelfo, Francesco, 281. Fisher, G., 452.
Folk Literature
among

INDEX

393

intellectual influence

of, 385ship scholar-

45 S ;

periods of

classical of

in, 393
394-

study

Hebrew

in,

Gesner, Conrad, 398. Gesner, J. M., 397 n.

Romans,
Gesta

Romanorum, 190, 224, 225. Gibbon, Edward, 37, 378, 379. : Foreign schools at Athens and Rome Gilman, D. C, 454. school French at various meanings of (1) Athens, 427 ; Glosses, 125-127; school Rome the word, 126; at their relations to (2) German ; (3) British school at Athens, 447 ; (4) lexicography,126; Pamphilius, 194. British school at Rome, 448 ; (5) Glossographers, 127, 194. American school Athens at cography. ; (6) Glossography, 126, 166, 167; see Lexi131.

the

156-

American

school

at Rome. n.,

Forgeries, of
Frederick of

manuscripts, 284

285

of inscriptions, 442.

rhetoric Urbino, his remarkable list of Greek library,containing a authors now lost,273. French School of Classical Philology, Graevius (Johann Georg Grave), 397 n. studies in music, geogGrafenhan, A., quoted, 26. 304-320; raphy, by Grammar, its early relation to logic, history, and gem-work 47 ; French of scholars,315, 316. meaning "grammaticus," 70; Froben, Johann, 294. gradual development of grammatical terms Fronto, Marcus by Protagoras, 70; by ProdiCornelius,186. totle, by Plato, 70; by Aris49, 70; cus,
70, 71 ; 71,

Gnipho, M. Antonius, 166. Goethe, J. W. von, 417. Gorgias of Leontini, teaches in Athens, 41-43. Graeco-Roman Period, 130-190.

by

the Stoics and

120;

andrians, Alex-

109,

by Dionyon

Gaisford,Thomas,

447,

449.

sius

Thrax,
M. T.

158;

first treatise
159;

and Gaza, Theodorus, grammarian translator, 280, 281, 295, 391 n. Geldner, K. F., quoted, 30. Gellius, A., 186 ; his Nodes Allicae,188, 189.

formal

grammar,

L. Stilo,159,

160;
school

Varro,

162;
the

the

first

grammar,

183;
among

later

matical gram-

writers

Romans,
monastic

184-187 ; study of, in the schools,

theories modern
229,
231 ;

Gem-cutting,

learned

from

the

tians, Egyp-

grammatical
Ages, 236;
401 n., 405,

83, 84.

in

the

Middle

Genealogy, 35. Geographic Method

4-

theories

of,

in Classical Philology,

412-415.

18, 69. Yp6.iifw.Ta, ypa.fl/j.a.TKTTfy,

25 ; first scientific treatise 25,

Latini, 184-187. Grammaticus, 172, 173. 70; first tionary, dicThomas, geographical Gray, 371. 35 ; 174,175; Ages, 235, 236; Period, Greek, in the Middle 176; in the French and in the Renaissance after, 269; n. 315 ; road-maps, 392 taught in Italy by the Byzantines, Geometry, 22, 23 ; developed by Euclid and Archimedes, 103. 269 ; restoration of, in the English asticism universities, Germany, early culture in,388 ; schol359. in, 388- Greek culture,antiquity of, 5-9. in,388 ; humanism Greek genius,character of, 83-87. 394, 396"398 ; universities in, 388-

Geography,
on, 25 ;

Grammatici

geography, descriptive

INDEX

483

Greek

of the, 5-8. Hellenes, origins ; teaching Hellenic Influence in Italy, 266"284. writings, 13-15; cism, critiHemsterhuys, Tiberius, his acute early criticism of, 20; of, 18-20; his edition of Lucian, 353 ; 26, 34-39 ; at Athens, historiography, 352 ; 28 ff ; varieties of, 33-45 ; study of, appointed professor in Leyden, 354;

Literature, beginnings of, g-13

Homeric

the his fame in other countries, criticism of, 71; 73-75; 354. drama, 72; parody, 76-78; genius Henri, Victor, 427. in Alexandria, 91-116; Henzen, VVilhelm,443. of, 83-87;
71;

in Pergamum, Greek

118-120;

see

sance. Renais-

Hepha;stion, on
Heraclides

metres,

194.

Ponticus, his

treatise

on

studies in Ireland, 235

n.

language,76.
Heraclitean
124.

Gregorovius,F., Gregory
Grimm's

theories School, linguistic

his view of

Gregory Nazianzen, quoted, 123, of Tours, 216.

Law,
420, 421.

of, 50-59Heraclitus,
56-60.
Herennius

21

language,

Grocyn, William, firstteacher of Greek at Oxford, 293. Gronovii (J. F. and Jacob Gronov),
their Thesaurus
349-

Philon, 194. Hermeneutics, 73, 87.

Hermann,

Gottfried,401

n., 405.

of Greek

Hero antiquities,

of Alexandria, 104, 105. Herodotus, his contributions

to

graphical geo-

Grotius

Hugo

(Huig

van

Groot), great
constructive Martianus
34, 35 ;

classical

scholar

and

knowledge, 34, his history, 34.

35 ;

quoted,

jurist, 347 ; his edition of Capella begun at the age

Hesiod, 13. of twelve, Hessus, Helius Eobanus, 396. lure Belli el Heyne, Christian Gottlob, 403. 347 ; his treatise De his translation into Latin Pads, 348 ; Hieronymus (St. Jerome), 148,
verse

195.

of the

Planudean

349-

Anthology, Hipparchus, 103. Hippias of Elis,

his

experiments

in

lection literature, Gruter, Janus (Jan Gruytere), his col50, 51. of Latin inscriptions, History, 26, 34; in Greek 342.

literature,
55;

34-38;
II in Latin

among

foreigners, 54,

Hadley, James,
Haldeman,
the ten

455.

S., 435.
lexicon
to

Harpocration, Valerius,his
orators,
194.

Harvard,

John,

founder

of

Harvard

College,449.
Havercamp, Siegbert,352. Haupt, Moritz, 401 n., 433 n. Hebrew, study of, 240, 394, 398. Hecataius, 25, 26. the originator of true Hegemon,
77.

the literature,153, 154; Byzantine historians, 254, 258 ; later Gibbon, historians, 378, 379, Curtius, Niebuhr, 408"410, Ernst, 419, Grote, 428, Thirlwall,428, DuMommruy, 429, Boissonade, 429, sen, 443, 444, Ferrero, 429. Holmes, O. W., quoted, 182. Homeric Epic, character of the, 9, 10; in, 9, 14-16; interpolations early
"

type, preservationof the probable archetheory of, 9, 15 ; inspirational

ody, par10-12;

influence
n, 12,

upon 17,
11,

Greek

thought,
ethical

19,

26,

27;

Hegius, Alexander, 391 n. Heinsius, Daniel, pupil of

344-

value

of,

18, 19;

early

Scaliger,

criticism of, 13-15, cal allegori20, 44; and rationalistic explanation of,

Heliodorus,
Hellanicus

155.

of

Mitylene,35.

burlesques of,77; by Aristotle,78, 79.

20;

editions made

484
Homeric

INDEX

Hymns, 13. Homonymy, 58. I. Horatius, Flaccus, quoted, 19; as a a satirist, as lyricpoet, 152; 149; as a critic of literature, 181, 182. contrasted with Humanism, 269-271 ; Medievalism, 270-273 ; in Germany, 388-394, 306-308; the New, 417. of Humboldt, Antiquity, the, see
Herodotus.

Jebb,

R.

C,

447.

Jerome, 148, 195. Jevons, F. B., quoted, 36. John of Salisbury,231, 232. Jones, Sir William, his knowledge of Oriental his aplanguages, 382; pointment in as Bengal, 383 ; a judge his translations from the Sanskrit, 383 ; his anticipationof Comparative

Hungary, classical studies Hurd, Richard, 371. Hutten, Ulrich von, 395.

in, 399.

Philology, 383, 384Jowett, Benjamin, 448. Juba of Mauretania, 194. Junggrammatiker, 393, 422. Junius, Franciscus, his study
painting,344.
of
cient an-

Hylozoism, 21. Hymns, Homeric,

Latin, 218. 13; Hypsicrates, etymological school at Rome, iS7, 158.

of, Justinianus, 252.

Kaibel, Georg, collector of

Iambic

1200

grams, epi-

Poetry, 33. 441"442. Kiepert, Heinrich,439 n. Iamblichus, 103. Kirchhoff, A., 441. Iberians,the, 6. Klassische Alterthumswissenschaft, Iliad,the, see Homeric Epic. 3. foreign languages, Klotz, R., 415. Interpreters of the Greeks, 54. Kohler, H. E., 401 n. among Invasions of Italy,213, 214. Kriiger, K. W., 412. tion Ionian Greeks, 17, 18, 28; educational (Neocorus), his devoKiister, Ludolf influence of, 17, 18. to Greek, 351 ; his edition of Ionian School of Philosophy, 21, 22, Aristophanes with the scholia, 351.
24.

Ireland, Classical Scholarshipin, 226;

Mediaeval
Schools

in,

226

n.

; La-

tinityin, 233. Irony, 69. of Isidorus Seville, 187,

Origines,190;
190;
on

Laberius,D.,
Lachmann, 188;
his
405

149. ; his

Karl, 405"407 his Lucretius, 406 ;

;

Homer,

his De

Natura number

Rerum,

of text

; his methods criticism influenced by Bent-

the

mystic

Seven,

ley,406
criticism

by Wolf,
of the New

406 ; his

text

Testament, 248. Isocrates, the first artistic orator, 43; 407. his success Lambinus, Dionysius, 306, 307, 407. as a rhetorical teacher,43 ; Cicero G. M., 452. of Lane, obligations to, 44. Italian Period of Scholarship, Langen, Rudolf von, 391 n. 284, 303, Language, study of, in connection with 304philosophy and psychology, 51, 52; Itineraria, 175, 392 n. theories regarding the origin of, 5169,
see

Varro;
to

indifference

of

the

Greeks

foreignlanguages,

52-55;

Jager,Johann, 395. Jahn, Otto, 438, 439.

Eleatic theory of, 56-59 ; Heraclitean

theory

of, 56-60.

486
Luther, Martin, 298,
397302, 392,

INDEX

395,

Metaphor, its use in language, 68. Metres, early treatises on, 76.

Middle in the secAges, foreshadowed ond Lycophron of Chalds, 99, 101, 102, 255. decadence of his recension of of the Athens, Lycurgus century a.d., 192 ; Classical Latin, 193, 194, 214-220; tragicpoets, 78, 79. of Christianityon ical classinfluence Lycurgus of Sparta, 17. and Cohans the learning, Poetry, Lyric 215-217; aration sep195-200, among from of the Eastern the Dorians, 33 ; at Alexandria,101, 105 ; in Latin Western Monachism, Empire, 199; literature,131, 134, 151,
IS2. 200-204;

invasion
214;

of the end

Roman of Middle

Lysias,43.

provinces, 213,

Ages, 214; periods of mediaeval of M scholarship, 214; popular use Latin after the fall of Rome, 214grammatical theories in, 236; Mabillon, Jean, 314. 223; Macedonian 263 ; art in, 243 ; philosophy in, 244, ascendency overGreece,84. letters and learning in, 244-247, Macrobius, his Saturnalia, 189. 386. Missing Analogy, 59. Madvig, Johann Nicolai, 423-425. Mock-heroic, 77. Mahaffy, J. P., quoted, 19. Theodor, his remarkable Mommsen, Mai, Cardinal, 166.

Manuscripts,

collection

and

tion preserva-

versatility, 443;

his

plan

for

the

Latin Corpus, 443 ; his history of of, 204-206, 273-280; during his listof the Middle the supplementary Rome, Ages, 233, 235 ; 444; oldest classical manuscripts, 202, 234, papers, 444. abilityMonachism, 200-204. probat Constantinople,272; 23s; their of recovering Mss. now Scholars, 222-225; lost, Monastic of lost Mss. in books, 223 n. n. ; recovery 273 Monastic Schools,228-231. recent times, 440, 441. Montanus, 196. Geography. see Maps, Monte Cassino, 202. Maria Theresa, 399, 403. Bernard Montfaucon, de, 306, 313, Mariette, P. J.,315Martianus

Massilia, the

Capella,237, 238. Universityat, 125.

314-

Mathematics, 22, 103, 105. of Pitana, 77. Matron Matthaei, C. F., 401 n. Maximus Planudes, 256. Mayor, J. E. B., 448. Mediaevalism, characterized, 242,
270; 270-273.

243,

Miiller,Lucian, 402 n., 407 n. Muller, Otfried,quoted, 3 ; his monograph the Etruscans, 437 ; his on history of Greek literature, 439. A. J., quoted, 406; his H. Munro, edition of Lucretius, 407, 448. Thesaurus, Muratori, L. A., his new
442, 443-

contrasted

with

Humanism,

Muretus,
race,

Marcus

Antonius, 306, 308,

Mediterranean

the, 6.

326.
Museum,
the

Meineke, August, 407. Mela, Pomponius, 176.

Melanchthon

Pergamene,

(Philipp Schwarzerd),

Louvre, Music,
79;
among
33;

Alexandrian, 92-95 ; the the Vatican, 428; 119; n. 427 ; British, 381 ; at
433
;

396, 397Meleager, 256. Melic Poetry, 33. Menander, 86, 91, 234. Merriam, A. C, 453.

Copenhagen,

American. treatises
on,

early Greek
of the

foundation

Classical
81 ;

modes

Greeks, 80,

vocal,
;

80, 81

; notation

of,in Greece, 81, 82

INDEX

487

Fleischer's

theory

of

Greek

modes, Rufus),

81, 82 ; at Rome, 82. Conrad (Mutianus Muth,

305-

Cycle, 12, 13. Mythology, the oldest

a

Myron, Mythic

42.

Painting in Early Greece, 82, 83 ; painting,83. Palaeography,314. Pamphilius on Glosses,194.

Panorama,
247.

caustic en-

treatise on,

13 ;

great anonymous

manual

of,116.

Papias, 246.
Paris, Gaston, quoted, Parmenides, 24.
457,

458.

77, 78, see Burlesque. Paronomasia, in Greek, 66, 67. Parrhasius, 83. 136. Nasalis Sonans, 422, 423. Parr, Samuel, 372, 373. Nauck, August, 402 n., 408. Pater, Walter, quoted, 288. Neo-Platonism, 102, 103. Paulsen, Friedrich,quoted, 388, 389. Netherlands, rise of scholarship in, Paulus Diaconus, 169. 316, 317. Pausanius, 176. Nettleship,Henry, 447. Pausias,83. New Learning, the, 284, 285. Pelasgians,the, 6. Nicholas V., 272. Peloponnesian War, 3s. Niebuhr, Barthold G., 37, 408-410. Pennsylvania, University of,450. Nisard, D6sir" and Charles, 426. Pergamene Library, its foundation, Nitzsch, K. F., 411. 118; catalogued by Callimachus, Nonius Marcellus,189. 120. Numerals, Arabic (Hindu), 207. Pergamene School, 1 18-120; trasted con-

Parody,

Naevius, G. N.,

134;

his Punka,

135,

Nuremberg

Chronicle,300.
120;
120.

with
117,

the

School
of

at

dria, Alexan-

118; how
Crates

founded, 118-

under

Mallos,

119-

Odoacer, 213. Odyssey, the,see Homeric Onomantia, 67. Onomatopoetic theory

see

Epic.
of

of, 118, Pergamum, description the Age of, 42, 43. Pericles,
School Peripatetic
of 128. Persian

119.

Philosophy, 122,

language,

Oratory,in the Prae- Alexandrian

Wars, their influence on Greek civilization, Period, 29-32. art, 30-47 Style Persius Flaccus, 149, 183. 39 ; as an ; Asiatic of,42 ; Attic Styleof,42 ; its relation Petrarca, Francesco, his studies,264; to epic, 264, 265; his recovery Rhetoric, 43-48; in legal proceedings, his Latin 266 classic of authors, 265, 46; taught at ; his 41, 43, relations with the German Rhodes, 124; at Rome, 132; orations Emperor, written for friends,159; Quint Man's 386, 387. teaching of, 178, 179. Petronius, C, 154, 157, 161; quoted, Oriental influence on Europe, 258. covery read in schools, 246; disn. ; 177
Heraclitean School. Oriental Middle Middle

languages:
Ages, Ages,
240; 240.

Arabic Hebrew

in

the

of

Cena

Trimalchionis

in

in the

1663, 314. Phidias, 42.

Philetas

Osborn of Gloucester,247. Oudendorp, Franz van, revives at Leyden, 354.

Latin

Cos, first attempt at lexicon,96, 127. various meanings of, Philologist,

of Homeric

an

1-3.

488

INDEX

Philology,various meanings of, 1-3.

Philosophy, origin of, in Greece, 21 ; Heraclitus, the Ionian School, 21;
ax;

375

; his work

and

reading, 375-377
Stone, 376
the

restores

the Rosetta

; ; his

letters to

Travis, 376;

Three

Pythagoras,
24;

22-24;

the Eleatic
122;

Heavenly Witnesses, 376

type, 377Post-Renaissance

; Porsonian

School,

Aristotle,48,
the the

rates Soc-

and

Sophists,50,
Stoics,
51,

51 ; the 51, 122;

the

Sceptics,50; Epicureans,
the Cynics, 51; Plato, 63-65,

Prae-Alexandrian
Princeton

122;

the
97;

Period, 289. tion Period, characterizaof, 84-86 ; its end, 87.

New

Eclectics, 51,
122;
103;

Alexandrian

University (Collegeof Jersey),450.

introduction

philosophy, 102,
studies
at

philosophical Printing,
147, 150, 151;

Rome,

Mediaeval, 243, 244, Renaissance, 263. Photius, 254.

263;

in

the

opment of, 285; develof, 285, 286; centres of early book production, 286 ; effect upon Classical scholarship,286, 395. Scianus his

Priscianus

Phrynicus, 411.
Pindar,
32-34.

185, 186;
239

Constantinople, abridged, grammar

of into Germany,

; introduced

386.

of Homeric Pisistratus, alleged recension by, 14-16. poems "pi\6\oyos, terms Plato, first uses "f"i\o\oyta, 1 ; his opinion of writing,
19;

Private Probus

editions,in.
186. Berytius,M. Valerius,
252.
as a

Procopius,
Prodicus
49-50 70.

of Ceos,

lecturer
on

on

style,
50,

his

linguistic theories, 61-67;

of language, 63-65 ;

; his treatise

synonyms,

bis

physiology

popular etymologies, Pronunciation, of Greek, 241 phabet, of Latin, 434. 65, 66; classifies letters of the altinctions, dishis Prose, beginnings of Greek, 26 grammatical 65;
his ridicule of
70.

n., 290

opment devel-

man Plautus, T. Maccius, his place in Ro-

methods Prose

literature, 138;
of the Latin

his enrichment

of, 34, 35; Latin, 153, 154; of studying, 177, 178. fiction (Greek and Latin), 154,

vocabulary, 142-148; comparison with Shakespeare, 143,

144; text

155 ; at

Byzantium,
of Abdera,
51;

253.
as a

Protagoras

teacher

of

criticism

of, 160;

Varro's

rhetoric, 49,

first distinguishes and

Plautine Plebeian
"

Canon,

165.
Sermo Plebeius.

grammatical
70
n.

moods

genders,
effects

70,

Latin, see

Plinius Maior, 188.

Protestant
301-303.

Reformation,

of,

Prose," 284. of Poetics Aristotle, 73-76. theory Poetry, inspirational

Poetic
12.

of,

10-

Poggio
279.

Bracciolini, Francesco,

276-

Ptolemius, Claudius, 176. Ptolemy Soter, 90. Publilius Syrus, 149. Punctuation, in Greek, 98, 108.
Punic

Wars,

31,

153,

154.

Politianus, Angelo de, 282, 283.

Political Science, 38. his Pollux, Julius,

84. Pyrgoteles, Pythagoras, 21-24;

24.

Golden

verses

of,

dictionary, 194.

Polus,

68

n.

his "Canon," 128 n. Polyclitus, Polygnotus of Thasos, 82. Polyonomy, 58. Pompeius Festus, 169. Porson, Richard, characteristics of,374,

Quadrivium, 238. his M. Fabius, Quintilianus, education, 178-181. on

treatise

INDEX

489
in,400
universities in,400 influence in,400 n.
n.

Rabanus
239,

(Hrabanus) Maurus,
275.

185, 238,
Old
sian, Per-

Rask,

R.

385-386. K., his study of

421.

ies
German
edited edited his his Floras the

n.

420,

(Johann Miiller), 387. Regiomontanus Reiske, Johann Jacob, 401.

Reitz, J. F., 353. Religion, 11, 13;
23,

Saintsbury,George, quoted, 20. Salmasius (Claude de Saumise),

the Palatine in

covered dis344 345; 345; ; ;

Anthology,
ten

days,

24 ;

Pythagotaught by ras, religionat philosophical

103.

Historia
on

Augusta,

commentary
calls from
345
;

Solinus, 345
and

Alexandria, 102, Remmius Palamon, Renaissance, the,

260-264;
274;
causes

Oxford, Padua,
receives research
345
;

Q., 183.
characteristics of

Bologna, of,
270-

fessorship protroversy con-

in Leyden, with

his

the, 262,
263;

Milton, 346; personal

philosophy in,

early

scholars of, 281 ; Italian Period, 284, 285 ; results of the, 285, 287, 288 ; Ciceronianism in, 302, 303. Reuchlin, Johann, 393, 394. first treatise on, 41; Rhetoric, 40-51; by Gorgias, 43; taught in Athens critically expounded by Aristotle, 45, 48 ; popularizedby the Sophists, 49the Alexandrian rhetoric, g8, 51 ;
101; 150.

characteristics, 347. Salutati,Colutius, first Ciceronian, 268. Sanskrit, first grammar of, 384.

Sappho,
149,

33.

Satire, a Roman
150,

form of literature, 135,

162.

Savile, Sir Henry, tutor in Greek to tions Queen Elizabeth, 355 ; his translafrom becomes Tacitus, 355; Provost at Eton, 356 ; helps prepare
the authorized version of the

exhibition

of, by Carneades,
78.
399.

Bible,

Rhinthon

of Tarentum,

356 ; produces a great edition of St. of the Chrysostom, 356; a founder

Bodleian

Rhodomann,

Lorenz,

Library, 356.

Ribbeck, Otto, professor in

Justus, 323-341 ; his his early teaching, knowledge 440. 323 ; of Greek and Arabic, 324 ; his travels Richardson, J. F., 436. in England and Scotland, 326; his Rienzi, Cola di, 442. his Ritschl, Friedrich,407, 434, 439 ; his Cujacius, 326, 327; stay with edition of Plautus, 439, 440. call to Leyden, 328; his feud with Romance his E pistula Caspar Scioppius, Languages, 219; study of, 329; his de Genie by Germans, 426. Scaligera, 330, 331; ing Romans, early history of, 130-134; Confutatio Burdonum, 332 ; his learnhis as a earlyliterature of, 131-136, 138, 142chronicler, 333-336; their first relations Manilius, 337, 148, 149; 338; his Eusebian 144, with Greece, 132-134; Hellenic fluence Chronicle, 339, inhis personal 340; national cline deteristics characcharacteristics, on, 134; 341 ; temporary of his of, 136-138. reputation, 341. Roman of philologus, philologia,Scaliger, Julius Caesar, 320, use 321 ; his Latin his 2. Grammar, physical 322 ; Rome, in the first century A.D., 170, theory,322. Sceptics,the, 50. 171 ; schools at, 172-181 ; the city in
the fourth century a.d., 211,
212.

versities, five uniScaliger,Joseph

Schliemann, H., his remarkable

Schola 445. Palatina of

vations, exca-

Ruhnken,

David,

354,

358.
of classical stud-

Russia, development

Charlemagne,

220.

49"
Scholasticism, period of, 214;
features,227, 228. Scholia,origin of, 125.
its

INDEX

cipal Symonds, J. A., quoted, prinSynchronistic Method Philology,3.

209.

in

Classical

Schools,see Education. Scioppius, Caspar (Caspar Scioppe),

329-331.

Tabula Peulingeriana, Sears, L., quoted, 39, 40. 175, 392 n. Seneca, quoted, 3. Tarsus, the university at, 124. Sermo Cotidianus, 156. Teachers, in the Grseco-Roman Period, Sermo Plebeius,156. 172-173. Sermo Rusticus, 215. Tegn6r, Esaias, 433. Sermo Urbanus, 156. Terentius,P., 149. Servius, 184. Terpander of Lesbos, 33, 80. Seven, as a mystic number, 248. Aureus, 186, 196, Tertullianus, M. Seymour, T. D., 455. 197. Text Criticism, beginnings of, 13-16; Short, C. L., 454. first rhetorical undertaken by Aristotle,78; by teaching in,41. Sicily, dria, SiUi, 78. Lycurgus of Athens, 78; at Alexanat Simonides, 72, 73. Pergamum, 98, 104-116; fluence 1 1 9, in^Elius Socrates, essentially by a Sophist,50; Stilo, 160; 120; of his teachings, 50, 51 ; as Varro, 165; by other Romans, 166,

167 ; see Criticism. Thales, 21. Solon, 16, 28. Theocritus, 101. character of their Theon, 116. Sophists, the, 49; their influence on teaching, 40-50; Theophrastus of Lesbos, his treatises Greek lesqued burand on metres, comedy, on style, on philosophy, 50-51; Aristotle and endows by Socrates, 65, 66 ; literary 76; succeeds criticism by, 76. Peripatetic School, 122. Thiersch, F. W., 412. Sophocles,42. Thrace, mythical poets of, 10. Sophocles, E. A., 452.
a

the

critic of poetry, 72, 73 ; Sophists,65, 66.

burlesques

Spalding, Georg, 410 n. Spanheim, Ezechiel, as

350.

Spanish Latinity,Period Spengel, L., 412.

Stephani, L., 401 n. Stephanus, Henricus, 305. Stephanus of Byzantium, Stephanus, Robertus, 305.

Thucydides, 35-37. numismatist, Ticknor, George, 451. Timon of Phlius,77, 78. of, 178, 183. Tisias,41. Topography, 175, 176. Tournier, Edouard, 426.
Tragedy,
176.
73_75; 72;

discussed

by

Aristotle,

148, 149. among Trebonianus, 252. Stoics, 51 ; their language teaching, Tribal Age in Greece, 7. Trigonometry, 104. 119, 120. Strabo of Amasia, 174, 175. Trithemius, Johannes, 239, 391 n. Studium Triumvirate, the, 317. Generate, 231. Trivium, 238. Sturm, Johann, 397, 398. Style, 40, 47, 49 ; Asiatic,42 ; Attic, Trojan Cycle, 12. Stylists, 98 ; Latin, Tryphon, 116. 42 ; Alexandrian in antiquity, 135, 138. Turnebus, Hadrianus, 306, 307. Suetonius Tyrwhitt, Thomas, 372. Tranquillus,Gaius, 171. Tzetzes, Ioannes, 255. Suidas, his lexicon and its sources, 254.

the Romans,

INDEX

491

Vossius,
his Ars universities

Gerhard Poetica,

Johannes,
343; 343;

343,

344;

his two his

great
graphs mono-

United
451 455 ;
;

States,
classical
German

in,

449452-

historical
on

treatises,
Art and

scholarship in,
influence
75.

Mythology,
Roger
241.

344.

in, 452-455.
92-97;

Vulgate, the,
241 ; edited

criticised by
at

Bacon,

Unities, the Universities, Pergamum,

1 2 1-1

dramatic,
at
n

Oxford,

Alexandria,
7-1 20; 124;
at

at at

Athens,
Lesbos, Walafrid

24 ; at at

Rhodes,
124;

124;

Tarsus,
at

Paris, 226,
in England, in

Strabo, 385.
as a

426-428;
see

Bologna,

231;

Warfare, Watts,

stimulus
32.

to

intellectual

English
232, ; in

Universities;
;

productiveness, 31,
2.

Germany,
399

388-393
399

in

gary, Hunn.

Poland,

n., 400

Welcker'3

Cyclus, 438.
W.

in Russia,

n. ; 400 ; in Holland, 430 in Belgium, 431 ; in Scandinavia, United in the States, 432-434;

Whitney, Willems,
William

D.,

454, 432
n.

455.

Pierre,

449-4SI-

Ussing, Johan

Louis,

432,

433.

and Mary, College of, 449. Wimpheling, Jacob, 391 n. Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, 402,
403. 417-

Wolf,
gen

F.

A., matriculation
2

at

GQttin-

of,

; 403,

404.

Valckenaer, Valla, Lorenzo

on

Ludwig

Caspar, 358.
;

Wolfflin,

Eduard,

416, 417.

della, 281

his

treatise

style, 281, 282;

his contemporaries,

281 ; his 282 ; his first

Ciceronianism,

281,

Woolsey, T. D., 451. Writing, Plato's opinion of, 19. Wyttenbach, Daniel, 358, 359.

suggestion
160;
;
as

of

Biblical

criticism, Varro,
M.

294.
as
a

Terentius,
160-161

an man

cyclopaedist, en-

of De Anworks

Xenophanes,
24.

rejectsHomeric

theology,

affairs, 160, Lingua

161 ;

his

treatise his

Latina,

162-164;
162

Xenophon,

the historian,37, 38.

tiquilatum Libri,
162 ; his Plautine Vatican Verner's Verrius Victorius Viermenner

; his other

Canon,

165.
273.

Library,
Law,
421.

the

founding of,
168-170.

Yale, Elihu, founder

449.

of Yale

College,

Flaccus, M., Scholien,

Petrus, 283, 284.

Z
114, 115.

Zeno, 24. Vipsanius Agrippa, M., 175. Zenodotus of cism enrichment Vocabulary, Latin, 141 ; of, Ephesus, 98; his criticographer, lexiof a 106; by Ennius, as by Plautus, 145-147 texts, 105, ; called AiopOurfy, by Lucretius, Cicero, 106; by 147 ; 141 ; 148 ; by Tertullian, 148 ; by Apuleius, 105.' 146, 148 ; Plebeian Latin, 156. Zeuxis, 83. 145, Voevodski, L. F., 401 n. Zumpt, K. G., 415.

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