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Electronic Devices
All electronic circuits use the devices in which a controlled flow of electrons can be obtained. Till about 1948 such devices were merely vacuum tubes (also called valves). These devices used metallic plates as electrodes. The metals emit electrons when heated, so the devices contain heated metallic cathodes for electron emission and one or more metallic electrodes for controlling the electron flow. The electron flow in these devices (thermionic emission) was controlled by applying suitable potential difference relative to cathode. In these devices the electrons flow only from cathode to anode (in one direction only); so these devices were called valves. The examples are diode valve containing two electrodes: cathode and anode plate; triode valve containing three electrodes: cathodes, control grid and anode plate etc. These vacuum tube devices are quite bulky, require high voltage for operation and consume high power. In 1948 transistors were discovered. A transistor is a solid state semiconductor device which contains charge carriers within the solid itself. In semiconductor devices simple excitations like light or small applied voltage can control the number of mobile charge carriers. These devices are very small in size, require low voltage for operation and consume low power. Moreover, these devices have long life and high reliability. Now a days all equipments e.g., television, computers are being constructed using solid state devices.

Semiconductors
The substances which contain free charge carrier are called conductors while the substances which do not contain any free charge carrier are called insulators. Semiconductors are intermediate to conductors and insulators. At NTP a semiconductor behaves as an insulator. The well known examples of semiconductors are germanium (Ge) and Silicon (Si).
Types of Semiconductors

The semi-conductors are of two types: (i) Intrinsic semiconductors: The pure semiconductors are called intrinsic semiconductors. Their conductivity is due to their own (internal) charge carriers. The well known intrinsic semiconductors are germanium (Ge), silicon (Si), i.e., they are tetravalent. The valency of each of Ge and Si is 4. The bonding between electrons of two neighboring atoms is covalent, therefore at NTP; there is no free charge carrier for conduction. When a semiconductor is heated, some covalent bonds break due to thermal agitation and thus some electrons get free for conduction. As soon as one electron gets free, there is a deficiency of electrons at its preceding position which acts as a positive charge and is called a hole. The number of holes is equal to the number of free electrons. Thus in an intrinsic semiconductor the conductivity is due to holes and electrons both, which increases with rise of temperature. At normal temperatures only 1 out of covalent bonds break, therefore the conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors is so small, that they cannot be used for practical purpose. The current in intrinsic semiconductors is of the order of micro amp A. In intrinsic semiconductor, the Fermi-level lies at the middle of forbidden energy band. (ii) Extrinsic semiconductors: If a small amount of trivalent or pentavalent impurity is introduced into a pure germanium (or silicon) crystal, the conductivity of the crystal increases appreciably. Such an impure semiconductor is called extrinsic semiconductor. The conductivity of an extrinsic semiconductor is due to impurities. Extrinsic semi-conductors are of two types:

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(a) nType (b) pType (a) n-Type semiconductors : When a pentavalent impurity like Phosphorus, Antimony, Arsenic is doped in pure-Germanium (or Silicon), then the conductivity of crystal increases due to surplus electrons and such a crystal is said to be n-type semiconductor, while the impurity atoms are called donors. Thus in n-type semiconductors the charge carriers are negatively charged electrons and the donor level lies near the bottom of the conduction band. (b) p-Type semiconductors : When a trivalent impurity like Aluminium, Indium, Boron, Gallium etc. is doped in pure Germanium (or silicon), then the conductivity of the crystal increases due to deficiency of electrons, i.e., holes and such a crystal is said to be p type semiconductor while the impurity atoms are called acceptors. Thus, in ptype semiconductors the charge carriers are holes. Acceptor level lies near the top of the valence band. The conductivity of a semiconductor is where e is charge on positive or negative charge carrier, are concentration of electrons and

holes, are mobilities of electrons and holes. The mobility (i.e., drift velocity per unit electric field) of holes is less than that of electrons.

Semiconductor Diode
A semiconductor having p-type impurity at one end and n-type impurity at the other end is known as junction diode. The junction at which p-type and n-type semiconductors combine is called p-n junction. There are a number of ways to prepare p-n junction e.g. (i) grown junction diode (ii) fused junction diode. In p-type region there is majority of holes and in n-type region there is majority of electrons.

At the junction there is diffusion of charge carriers due to thermal agitation; so that some of electrons of nregion diffuse to p-region while some of holes of p-region diffuse into n-region. Some charge carriers combine with opposite charges to neutralize each other. Thus near the junction there is an excess of positively charged ions in n-region and an excess of negatively charged ions in p-region. This sets up a potential difference and hence an internal electric field across the junctions. The field is directed from n-region to p-region. This field stops the further diffusion of charge carriers. Thus the layers

on either side of the junction becomes free from mobile charge carriers and hence is called the depletion layer. The symbol of p-n junction diode is shown in Fig. I-V Characteristics in Forward and Reverse Bias When a potential difference is applied across the junction, there is no flow of current. The external battery is connected across the junction in the following two ways: (1) Forward Bias: In this arrangement the positive terminal of battery is connected to p-end and negative terminal to n-end of the crystal, so that an external electric field E is established directed from P to n-end to oppose the internal field as shown in Fig. The external field E is much stronger than internal field

Under this arrangement the holes move along the field from p-region to n-region and electrons move opposite to field from n-region to p-region; eliminating the depletion layer. A current is thus set up in the junction diode. The following are the basic features of forward biasing. (i) Within the junction diode the current is due to both types of majority charge carriers but in external circuit it is due to electrons only. (ii) The current is due to diffusion of majority charge carriers through the junction and is of the order of mill amperes. (iii) The current voltage characteristic of junction diode under forward biasing is shown by F in fig. (d).

The current increases with increase of external potential difference. The graph between potential difference V and current I is non-linear. 2. Reverse Bias: In this arrangement the positive terminal of battery is connected to n-end and negative terminal to p-end of the crystal, so that the external field is established to help the internal field as shown in Fig. Under the biasing the holes in p-region and the electrons in n-region are pushed away from the junction to widen the depletion layer and hence increases the potential barrier, therefore the current flow stops. When the potential difference across the junction is increased a very small reverse current of the order to micro-amperes is found to flow. The reason is that due to thermal agitation some covalent bonds of pure semi-conductor break releasing a few holes in n-region and a few electrons in p-region called the minority charge carriers. The reverse bias opposes the majority charge carriers but aids the minority charge carriers to move across the junction. Hence a very small current flows.

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The basic features of reverse bias are: (i) Within the junction diode the current is due to both types of minority charge carriers but in external circuit it is due to electrons only. (ii) The current is due to leakage of minority charge carriers through the junction and is very small of the order of (iii) The graph of voltage V versus circuit I in reverse bias is shown by R in Fig. (d). Thus the diode offers very small resistance in the forward bias while very large resistance in reverse bias. Avalanche Break Down: If the reverse bias is made sufficiently high, the covalent bonds near the junction break down releasing free electrons and holes. These electrons and holes gain sufficient energy to break other covalent bonds. Thus a large number of electrons and holes get free. Then the reverse current increases abruptly to high value. This is called avalanche break down and may damage the junction. This phenomenon is used in Zener diode used in voltage regulators.

Diode as a Rectifier
The conversion of AC into DC is called the rectification. (i) Half Wave Rectifier: The circuit diagram for junction diode as half wave rectifier is shown in Fig. Let during first half the cycle the secondary terminal of

transformer be positive relative to then the junction diode is forward biased. Therefore the current flows and its direction in load resistance terminal is from In next half cycle the then the diode is in reverse

is negative relative to

bias, therefore no current flows in diode and hence there is no potential difference across load Therefore the output current in load flows only when is positive relative to That is during first half cycles of input a.c. signal there is a current in circuit and hence a potential difference across load resistance while no current flows for next half cycle. The direction of current in load is always from A to B. Thus a single p-n junction diode acts as a half wave rectifier. Half Wave Rectifier Formulae: If is forward resistance of junction diode, then current amplitude

Ripple factor: The output of a rectifier contains some ac components or ripples. The ratio of ac components to dc is called ripple factor.

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(ii) Full Wave Rectifier: For full wave rectifier we use two junction diodes. The circuit diagram for full wave rectifier using two junction diodes is shown in fig. Suppose during first half cycle of input ac signal the terminal is

positive relative to S and is negative relative to S, then diode I is forward biased and diode II is reverse biased. Therefore current flows in diode I and not in diode II. The direction of current diode I in load resistance to is directed from A to B. In next half cycle, the terminal due to

is negative relative

is positive relative to S. Then diode I is reverse biased and diode II is forward biased.

Therefore current flows in diode II and there is no current in diode I. The direction of current due to diode II in load resistance is again from A to B. Thus for input a.c. signal the output current is a continuous series of unidirectional pulses. This output current may be converted in fairly steady current by the use of suitable filters. Full Wave Rectifier Formulae: If is peak value of ac input voltage across secondary, then peak current

Remark: In full wave rectifier if the fundamental frequency of input ac signal is 50 Hz, then the fundamental frequency of output is 100 Hz.

L E D, Photodiode, Solar Cell, Zener Diode LED (Light Emitting Diode):

A light emitting diode is simply a forward biased p-n junction which emits spontaneous light radiation. When forward bias is applied, the electron and holes at the junction recombine and energy released is emitted in the form of light. For visible radiation phosphorus doped GaAs is commonly used. The advantages of LEDs are: (i) Low operational voltage and less power. (ii) Fast action with no warm up time. (iii) Emitted light is nearly monochromatic radiation. (iv) They have long life. I-V characteristics of LED are similar to that of Si junction diode but the threshold voltages are much higher and slightly different for each colour. The reverse breakdown voltages of LEDs are very low, about 5V.

Photodiode
It is a reversed biased p-n junction, illuminated by radiation. When p-n junction is reversed biased with no current, a very small reverse saturated current flows across the junction called the dark current. When the junction is illuminated with light, electron-hole pairs are created at the junction, due to which additional current begins to flow across the junction; the current is solely due to minority charge carriers. The characteristic curves of a photodiode for two different illuminations (c). are shown in fig.

Solar Cell
A solar cell is a junction diode which converts light energy into electrical energy. A p-n junction solar cell consists of a large junction with no external biasing. The surface layer of p-region is made very thin so that the incident photons may easily penetrate to reach the junction which is the active region. In an operation in the photovoltaic mode (i.e., generation of voltage due to bombardment of optical photons); the materials suitable for photocells are silicon (Si), gallium arsenide (GaAs), cadmium sulphide (CdS) and cadmium selenide (CdSe).

Working: When photons of energy greater than band gap energy are made incident on the junction, electron-hole pairs are created which move in opposite directions due to junction field. These are collected at two sides of junction, thus producing photo-voltage; this gives rise to photocurrent. The characteristic curve of solar cell is shown in fig. solar cells are used in satellites to recharge their batteries.

Zener Diode
A Zener diode is a specially designed heavily doped p-n junction, having a very thin depletion layer and having a very sharp breakdown voltage. It is always operated in breakdown region. Its breakdown voltage is less than 6V. Zener diode as a voltage Regulator: The Zener diode makes its use as a voltage regulator due to the following property: When a Zener diode is operated in the breakdown region, the voltage across it remains practically constant for a large change in the current. A simple circuit of a voltage regulator using a Zener diode is shown in the Fig. The Zener diode is connected across load such that it is reverse biased. The series resistance R absorbs the output voltage fluctuations so as to maintain constant voltage across the load. The operation of the circuit may be explained as follows : Let be the unregulated input voltage and be the

output voltage across to be regulated and be the Zener voltage of the diode. The value of the series resistance is so chosen that the diode operates in the breakdown region under the Zener voltage Let I be the current drawn from supply, through Zener diode and Then obviously If is Zener diode resistance, then we across it. the current

the current through load.

Applying Kirchhoffs law to the mesh containing resistance R, Zener diode and supply voltage have

When the input voltage is lower than the Zener voltage of diode, there is no current conduction

As input voltage is increased so that it becomes equal to the breakdown point is reached and the voltage across the diode becomes constant. A further increase of input voltage does not result in the corresponding increase in merely increases the voltage drop across Thus in breakdown region, we have Fig. (b) represents the plot of output voltage versus input voltage output voltage remains constant when the diode is in Zener region. but

It is clear from graph that the

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It may be pointed out that for maintaining constant regulated output, the series resistance R for a given range of input voltage be so chosen that (i) the diode operates in Zener region and (ii) current should not exceed a certain value to cause burn out of diode.

Junction Transistors
A junction transistor is a semi-conductor electronic device, discovered by Willium Shockly in 1951. It is made in two forms: (i) p-n-p Transistor (ii) n-p-n Transistor (i) p-n-p Transistor: It is a single crystal containing two p-n junctions such that there is very thin central layer of n-type semi-conductor enclosed on either side by p-type semiconductor. The central layer has a thickness of about and is called the base. The p-type semiconductors on left and right side of base are respectively called the emitter and collector. The p-n-p transistor and its symbol are shown in fig. The arrow in symbol is from emitter to base. Action of p-n-p Transistor: The emitter-base junction is given a small forward bias, while base collector junction is given a large reverse bias. Under the forward biasing of emitter-base region, the positive holes of Pregion move towards the base. Due to thin base most of holes (about 98%) entering it pass onto collector while a very few of them (nearly 2%) combine with the electrons of base. As soon as a hole combines with the electron, a fresh electron leaves the negative terminal of battery and enters the base. This causes a very small base current The holes entering the collector move under the aiding reverse bias towards terminal C. As a hole reaches terminal C an electron leaves the negative terminal of battery collector current Both these currents and neutralizes the hole. This causes the

and combine to form the emitter current

Obviously the holes are the charge carriers within the p-n-p transistor while the electrons are charge carriers in external circuit. (ii) n-p-n Transistor: It is a single crystal containing two p-n junctions such that there is a very thin central layer of p-type semi-conductor enclosed in either side by n-type semi-conductors. The n-p-n transistor and its symbol is shown in fig. The arrow in symbol is from base to emitter. Action of n-p-n Transistor: The emitter base junction is given a small forward bias while the base collector junction is given a large reverse bias. Under the forward bias of emitter base region the electrons of emitter region move towards the base. Due to base being very thin most of electrons (about 98%) entering it pass into the collector while a very few of them (nearly 2%) combine with the holes of base. As soon as an electron combines with the hole a

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covalent bond breaks within the base releasing an electron hole pair. The electron is attracted by positive terminal of battery and an electron leaves the negative terminal of the battery and enters to

emitter through terminal E. This process creates the base current and also a new hole in the base. The electrons entering the collector move under the aiding reverse bias towards terminal C and are finally attracted by battery This causes collector current an electron leaves the negative pole of is the sum of base current and

For each electron reaching the positive pole of battery battery

and enters the emitter. Obviously the emitter current

collector current The charge carriers in n-p-n transistor as well as in external circuit are electrons. Configurations of a Transistor: There are three configurations of a transistor: (1) Common Base Configuration (2) Common Emitter Configuration (3) Common Collector Configuration

Characteristics of a Transistor
In order to know the electrical behaviour of a transistor, the characteristic curves between various currents and voltages are plotted. The most important characteristics of common base configuration are its input and output characteristics. The circuit diagram for determining the static characteristic curves of p-n-p transistor in common base configuration is shown in fig. (a).

Input Characteristics: These characteristics are obtained by plotting the emitter current versus emitter base potential at constant collector-base potential The observations of against are

repeated for some other value of

Fig. (b) represents the input characteristics of common base p-n-p transistor at different collector-base potentials. These characteristics curves show: (i) The emitter current increases rapidly with small increase in

emitter-base voltage thereby indicating that the input resistance is very small. (ii) The emitter current is almost independent of collector base voltage (iii) The emitter current is finite at finite value of collector base voltage even when emitter-base voltage is zero. Therefore in order to reduce the emitter current to zero, the emitter must be reverse biased as shown by dotted lines. Input Resistance: It is the ratio of change in emitter base voltage

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to the corresponding change in emitter current

at constant collector-base voltage

Physically input resistance is the hindrance offered to the signal current. The input resistance is very small, of the order of a few ohms, because a small change in causes a large change in Output Characteristics: These characteristics are obtained by plotting the collector current voltage at constant emitter current versus collector-base

The observations are repeated for some other value of Fig. (c) represents the output characteristic curves of a common base p-n-p transistor at different emitter current These characteristics show: (i) The collector current varies with collector-base voltage

only at a very low voltage (<IV). This variation is insignificant because the transistor is never operated in this region. (ii) As the collector-base voltage is raised above 1 volt, the collector current becomes independent of

collector-base voltage but depends only upon the emitter current The transistor is always operated in this region. (iii) A very large change in collector-base voltage produces a very small change in collector current; thereby indicating that the output resistance is very high. Output Resistance: It is the ratio of change in collector-base voltage to the corresponding change in collector current at constant emitter current

The output resistance is very high, of the order of several-tens kilo ohm because a large change in collector-base voltage causes a very small change in collector current.

Current Gains of a Transistor

The current gain is defined as the ratio of change in collector current to the change in emitter current for constant value of collector voltage in common base configuration i.e.,

Practical value of

ranges from 0.9 to 0.99 for junction transistor.

The current gain is defined as the ratio of change in collector current to the change in base current for constant value of collector voltage in common emitter configuration i.e.,

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Transistor as Amplifier, Oscillator

Transistor as an Amplifier

An amplifier is an electronic device to increase the strength of a weak signal. The voltage gain of amplifier is the ratio of output voltage to input voltage

Voltage gain upto 1000 have been obtained in transistors. As a transistor has three terminals (emitter, base and collector). One of three leads is kept common to both the input and output circuits. Accordingly, we have three basic transistor circuits in which either the base or the emitter or the collector lead is kept common. They are termed as common-base, commonemitter and common-collector amplifier. Here we shall discuss only common emitter transistor amplifier. Common-Emitter Transistor Amplifier Common-emitter transistor amplifier gives the highest gain and hence it is the most commonly employed circuit. Fig. depicts the circuit for a transistor. In this circuit, the emitter lead is common to both the input (emitter-base) and output (collector-emitter) circuits and is grounded. The emitter-base circuit is forward biased and the base-collector circuit is reverse biased. In a common-emitter circuit, the collector-current is controlled by the base-current rather than the emittercurrent. Since in a transistor, a large collector-current corresponds to a very small base-current, therefore, when input signal is applied to base, a very small change in base-current provides a much larger change in collector-current and thus extremely large current gains are possible. Referring to fig., when positive half cycle is fed to the input circuit, it opposes the forward bias of the circuit which causes the collector current to decrease. It decreases the voltage drop across load and thus makes collector voltage more negative. Thus when input cycle varies through a positive half cycle, the output voltage developed at the collector varies through a negative half cycle and vice versa. Thus the output voltage in common-emitter amplifier is in antiphase with the input signal or the output and input voltages are 180 out of phase. Current Gain. The ratio of change in collector current defined as the alternating current gain denoted by to the change in base current is

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Voltage Gain. The ratio of change in output voltage to the corresponding change in input voltage is called the voltage gain. It is denoted by is given by The voltage gain of common-emitter transistor amplifier

which is also higher than that in case of common base amplifier. For large voltage gain from the current gain and the ratio of load resistance to internal resistance should be high. Frequency Response Curve: From equation (2) it appears that the voltage gain of a transistor amplifier is independent of frequency, but it is not so. Due to presence of junction capacitance and external capacitances connected in a transistor amplifier, the voltage gain of a transistor depends on the frequency of input signal. Fig. 21.47 shows the voltage gain of a transistor against logarithm scale of frequency. It shows that the gain is constant at mid frequencies both at low and at high frequencies. Voltage gain of amplifier is constant at mid frequency range and falls at low and high frequency range.
Transistor as an Oscillator

and gain decreases

A transistor may be used as an oscillator. An oscillator is a device which converts dc into ac. The essential parts of an oscillator are: (i) LC circuit usually called a tank current. (ii) Transistor Amplifier: It amplifies the oscillations produced in LC circuit. (iii) Positive feedback circuit : In this arrangement a fraction of output voltage or current is fed back to input circuit in the same phase as the input signal.

There are a variety of oscillator circuits. A typical oscillator circuit is shown in fig. The frequency of oscillations in LC circuit is

Transistor as a Switch
A switch is a device which can turn ON and OFF current in an electrical circuit. A p-n junction diode and a transistor can act as a switch. We are familiar that when a junction diode is forward biased, it conducts current but when junction diode is reverse biased, it does not conduct current. If we treat the junction diode as a switch, then during forward biasing; the switch is ON and during reverse biasing, the switch is OFF.

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In a similar manner a transistor can also be used to turn current ON or OFF rapidly in electrical circuits.

Operation : The circuit diagram of n-p-n transistor in CE configuration working as a switch is shown in fig. and Let are two dc supplies which bias base-emitter and emitter collector junctions respectively. be the input supply voltage. This is also input dc voltage The dc output voltage is taken

across collector-emitter terminals, is the load resistance in output circuit. Applying Kirchhoffs second law to input and output meshes (1) and (2), we get

Beyond voltage

V, the change in collector current and hence in output is non-linear and the transistor goes into saturation. With

further increase in the output voltage further decrease towards zero (though it never becomes zero).

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If we plot we get the graph as shown in fig. [This characteristics curve is also called transfer characteristic curve of base biased transistor.] The curve shows that there are non-linear regions. (i) between cut off state and active state and (ii) between active state and saturation state; thus showing that the transitions (i) from cut off to active state and from active to saturation state are not sharply defined. Now we are in the position to explain the action of transistor as a switch. When transistor is nonconducting , it is said to be switched off but when it is conducting ( is not zero); it is said to be switched ON. As long as input voltage is low and unable to overcome the barrier voltage of the emitter base junction, is high so the transistor is switched OFF and if it is high enough to derive the transistor into saturation is low, very near to zero, so the transistor is switched ON. Thus we can say low input switches the transistor is OFF state and high input switches it ON. The switching circuits are designed in such a way that the transistor does not remain in active state.