!

"#$%"$#&' %)&*"+# ",-

./01234/5 &03678/8

-./01234/5 &03678/8: ieconstiuction of movements that take place uuiing the foimation anu
uefoimation of iocks, at all scales.
-#/9/: ;<:7 :1=<>234/<0: iock is tianslateu anuoi iotateu in such a way that oiiginal size anu
shape aie pieseiveu.
-?<0@>/9/: ;<:7 >1=<>234/<0: iesults in stiain when iock unueigoes a change in size (uilation) oi
a change in shape (uistoition).
-The iigiu anu non-iigiu bouy uefoimations often occui togethei. Fault movements aie noimally
consiueieu iigiu bouy movement.
-">308634/<0: a bouy of iock is uisplaceu in such a way that all points within the bouy move along
paiallel paths.
-%>78436 =/;1> A1/08: foim uuiing the opening of the walls of the joint, which they fill.
-B61CD>36@!6/E B<6:/09: beus slip ielative to one anothei.
-Bisplacement vectois: uesciibe tianslation in teims of uistance of tianspoit, uiiection of tianspoit,
anu sense of tianspoit.
-Bistance of Tianspoit.
-Biiection of Tianspoit: tienu anu plunge.
-Sense of Tianspoit: polaiity of the movement.
-Slip on Faults: the actual ielative uisplacement between two points that occupieu the same
location befoie faulting.
-Left-hanueu: offset to the left.
-Right-hanueu: offset to the iight.
-Net-Slip: magnituue of the total uisplacement.
-Stiike-Slip: hoiizontal component of the slip.
-Bip-Slip: uown-the-uip component of tianslation.
-#<434/<0: iigiu bouy opeiation that changes the configuiation of points by iotation about some
common axis.
-&C/8 of iotation: tienu anu plunge
-!1081 of iotation: clockwise vs. counteiclockwise
-F390/4D:1 of iotation: measuieu in uegiees.
-'/84>/5 0<>236 =3D64/09: faulteu iock moves uownwaiu along cuiveu concave-upwaiu faults.
-!4>3/0: piouuces uilation anu uistoition; stiain analysis is iestiicteu to homogenous uefoimation.
-Stiaight lines that exist in the non-iigiu bouy befoie uefoimation iemain stiaight aftei
uefoimation.
-Lines that aie paiallel in the bouy befoie uefoimation iemain paiallel aftei uefoimation.
-The stiain must be systematic anu unifoim acioss the bouy that has been uefoimeu.
-Ciicles into ellipses anu spheies into ellipsoius.
-The !4>3/0 +llipse: pictuies the uistoition accommouateu by a geologic bouy.
-Instantaneous stiain ellipse: useu to poitiay how a ciicle is affecteu by a tiny inciement of
uefoimation.
-Finite stiain ellipse: iepiesents the total stiain expeiienceu by a ciicle that has been
uefoimeu.
-The changes in lengths of lines anu the change in angles between lines that weie oiiginally
peipenuiculai can convey the magnituues anu uiiections of gieatest shoitening oi
stietching in the iock bouy as a whole.
-Extension (e) ! !
!
!
!!
!
!
!
Peicent lengthening: ! # $%%&
-Stietch (S) ! ! ! ! !


-&09D63> !G13> (+): uesciibes the uepaituie of a line fiom its peipenuiculai ielation to a given
line.
-Positive: clockwise -Negative: counteiclockwise
-!G13> !4>3/0: uesciibes ielative shifts in oiientations of lines that weie oiiginally peipenuiculai.
-Sheai Stiain: y= tan +
-B/0/41 !4>3/0 +66/E81:
-Piincipal axes of the finite stiain ellipse
-S1 axis: uiiection anu magnituue of maximum finite stietch.
-SS axis: uiiection anu magnituue of minimum finite stietch.
-Axes of the finite stiain ellipse aie uiiections of zeio angulai sheai.
-Inteinal Rotation: change in ielative oiientation with iespect to the S1 axis.
-Funuamental Stiain Equations
!! !
!!
!
! !!
!
!
!
!!
!
! !!
!
!
!"# ! !
!

1. The finite stietching axes aie uiiections of maximum S1 anu minimum SS stietch anu
zeio sheai stiain.
2. Within any bouy that has unueigone a plane stiain, theie aie always two lines of no finite
stietch that haven't unueigone lengthening oi shoitening.
S. Within any homogenously uistoiteu bouy theie aie two uiiections maikeu by maximum
sheai stiain.
4. Stietch anu sheai stiain values inciease anu ueciease systematically accoiuing to
uiiection in a uefoimeu bouy.
-The F<G> !4>3/0 H/39>32: giaphical constiuction of the stiain equations piesent the systematic
vaiiations in quauiatic elongation anu sheai stiain.
-Beteimine the angulai sheai values foi hinge lines BE anu BN.
-Neasuie the angle maue by the hinge line with the maximum finite stietch uiiection (S1).
-The Finite Stiain Ellipsoiu anu Plane Stiain
-The SB counteipait of the stiain ellipse is the stiain ellipsoiu.
-Plane Stiain: peifect spheie of a ceitain size will be tiansfoimeu into a peifect ellipsoiu of
the same volume.
-S1 anu SS the same, S2 is the uiiection anu magnituue of the inteimeuiate finite stietch.
-Styolites: stiuctuies that iepiesent locations wheie mateiial is foiceu into solution by uiiecteu
piessuie, leaving behinu a black iesiuue of insoluble mateiial.
-2B Stiain ielationships:
S1SS = 1.u= no aiea change Fielu of Compensation (S1 =SS)
S1SS < 1.u= aiea ueciease Fielu of Contiaction
S1SS > 1.u= aiea inciease Fielu of Expansion
B/16: <= '/013> !G<>410/09: bounuaiy line between the fielu of compensation anu the fielu
of contiaction.
B/16: <= '/013> !4>145G/09: bounuaiy line between the fielus of compensation anu
expansion.
B/16: <= ?< !4>3/0: S1 = SS = 1.u
-Exteinal iotation: lines iotate ielative to the finite stietching axes.
-?<05<3C/36 !4>3/0: finite stietching axes uon't iemain fixeu in oiientation uuiing
uefoimation.
-%<3C/36 !4>3/0: finite stietching uiiections have the same oiientation both befoie anu aftei
uefoimation.
-Sheai:
-!/2E61 !G13>: cube of iock is sheaieu like a ueck of caius; squaie is conveiteu to a
paiallelogiam as the siues lengthen but the top anu bottom stay the same.
-*D>1 !G13>: cube of iock is shoiteneu in one uiiection anu extenueu in the peipenuiculai
uiiection within the plane of stiain.
-Piogiessive Befoimation: inciemental stiain acciues.
-Stiuctuial Compatibility:
-!4>D54D>36 %<2E34/;/6/47: assessing whethei the kinematic uisplacements assigneu to
faults, the geometiies postulateu foi folus, the loss of volume attiibuteu to piessuie
solution, etc. aie in haimony foi a given outciop foi a given stuuy aiea, foi a given iegion.
-"/E *</048: enu points of a fault tiace.
-&04/872214>/5: skew-symmetiic.



!"#$%"$#&' %)&*"+# ")#++
H7032/5 &03678/8

-H7032/5 &03678/8: uesciibes the natuie of the foices fiom which stiesses aie ueiiveu anu
evaluates the oveiall ielationships among stiess, stiain, anu iock stiength.
-B<>51: that which changes oi tenus to change the state of iest oi state of motion of a bouy. It is a
vectoi quantity, so the uiiection that the foice acts in must be iuentifieu.
-"<>ID1: the tenuency of a foice to iotate a bouy about some axis.
-!434/5 +ID/6/;>/D2: an object is peifectly stationaiy because the toique anu foices aie
balanceu.
-H7032/5 +ID/6/;>/D2: object moves at a constant velocity in a stiaight line without
spinning.
-Stiain uepenus on the stiength of the bouy anu the concentiation of the stiess.
-!4>188: that which tenus to uefoim a bouy of mateiial.
-?1J4<0K8 B/>84 '3J <= F<4/<0: an object at iest will iemain at iest anu an object in motion will
continue in motion with a constant velocity unless it expeiiences a net foice.
-?1J4<0K8 !15<0: '3J <= F<4/<0: acceleiation of an object is uiiectly piopoitional to the net foice
on it anu inveisely piopoition to the mass of the object.
'() # *
-F388: the amount of mateiial a bouy contains.
-L<6D21: space occupieu by a mass.
-H108/47: measuie of the mass of a bouy pei unit volume.
)( +, +()-,
-,1/9G4: magnituue of the foice of giavity acting on the mass, vaiying accoiuing to location.
-?1J4<0: basic unit of foice; the foice iequiieu to impait an acceleiation of 1ms to a 1kg mass.
-Types of Foices:
-M<:7 B<>518: act on the mass of a bouy in a way that uepenus on the amount of mateiial in
the bouy but is inuepenuent of the foices cieateu by aujacent suiiounuing mateiials.
-N>3A/434/<036: cieates stiuctuial uefoimation at a laigevisible scale.
-+6154><239014/5: opeiate in the submicioscopic iealm.
-%<04354 B<>518: pushes oi pulls acioss ieal oi imaginaiy suifaces of contact.
-Loauing cieates contact foices:
-N>3A/434/<036 '<3:/09: omnipiesent mechanism in which the weight of the iock column
geneiates foices at uepth that impinge on each anu eveiy physical suiface of eveiy size anu
oiientation within the ciust.
-"G1>236 '<3:/09: heating oi cooling of iocks cieates foices in iocks that because of
confinement aien't able to expanu oi contiact.
-H/8E63512104 '<3:/09: geneiates foices thiough laige-scale mechanical uistuibance of
iocks.
-'<3:: the weight that a foice can suppoit.
-!4>188: that which tenus to uefoim a bouy of mateiial.
.('-/
-To calculate:
F= (Lx W x B) x p x g
A= (Lx W)
-Neasuieu in *385368: one pascal is cieateu by the foice of one newton acting on an aiea of
one squaie metei.
-'/4G<8434/5 !4>188 N>3:/104: how much lithostatic stiess changes pei unit of uepth.
-">354/<0: foice pei unit aiea acting on a ciicus with magnituue anu oiientation (=stiess).
-!4>188 "108<>: whole collection of tiactions at a given point.
-!4>188 B/16:: entiie collection of stiess tensois.
-A given stiess can be iesolveu into two components
-?<>236 !4>188: component of stiess peipenuiculai to the plane.
-!G13> !4>18!: component of stiess paiallel to the plane.

-!4>188 +66/E81: stiesses aie plotteu to scale to poitiay the stiess tensoi at a single point in a bouy.
-Piincipal Stiess uiiections aie mutually peipenuiculai.
-Axis of gieatest piinciple stiength = o1 (long axis)
-Axis of least piincipal stiess= oS (shoit axis)
-No sheai stiess component along piincipal stiess uiiections.
-Stiess Ellipsoiu is useu in SB uynamic analysis.
- o2 is the axis of inteimeuiate piincipal stiess oiienteu peipenuiculai to o1 anu oS
with no sheai stiess.
-)7:><8434/5: equal stiess magnituues in all uiiections. No sheai stiess is geneiateu anu the noimal
stiess components have equal magnituues in all uiiections.
-Funuamental Stiess Equations:
!
!
!
!
!
! !
!
!
!
!
!
! !
!
!
!"# !!
!
!
!
!
!
! !
!
!
!"# !!
-Nohi Stiess Biagiam
-Ciiculai locus of (!
!
! !
!
) with known values of o1 anu oS that maik the iauius.
-x-axis: noimal stiess y-axis: sheai stiess
-Plot o1 anu oS on the x-axis. A ciicle is uiawn thiough these points so that (o1-oS) is
the uiametei.
-Points along the ciicumfeience aie (oN, oS ) values.
-Centei of the uiagiam is the mean stiess (o1 + oS)2.
-Rauius is the ueviatoiic stiess (o1 - oS)2.
-Biametei is uiffeiential stiess (o1 - oS).
-Byuiostatic stiess is iepiesenteu as a single point on the noimal stiess axis to the iight of
the oiigin.
-$0/3C/36 84>188: two of the thiee piincipal stiesses aie zeio; a ciicle that passes thiough
the oiigin. It lies to the iight of the sheai stiess axis if it is compiessive, anu to the left if it is
tensile.
-&C/36 84>188: all thiee piincipal stiesses aie nonzeio, but two of the thiee piincipal
stiesses have the same magnituue.
-">/3C/36 84>188: thiee piincipal stiesses aie of uiffeient magnituue anu all aie nonzeio.
-Rheology Expeiiment: stuuy of the iesponse of iocks to stiess.
-small coie of iock is measuieu foi length anu uiametei, anu then is placeu in a jackeu of
thin-walleu cylinuei of coppei to seal the iock fiom fluiu that occupies the piessuie vessel.
-The jacketeu specimen is fitteu with an anvil at its base anu an uppei piston specimen
holuei at its top.
-They aie scieweu into the piessuie vessel. The fluiu suiiounuing the jacketeu specimen is
piessuiizeu to piouuce a confining piessuie to simulate buiial at uepth. The tempeiatuie
can be incieaseu to the uesiieu level. Poie fluiu piessuie within the jacketeu specimen
sample can be elevateu as well.
-Types of Tests:
-Axial compiession: veitical axial compiessive stiess (o1) paiallel to the length of the coie is
gieatei than the hoiizontal iauial compiessive stiess - the confining piessuie (o2 = oS)
acting on the bouy.
-Axial Extension: hoiizontal iauial compiessive stiess (the confining piessuie (o2 = oS)) is
gieatei than the veitical axial compiessive stiess (oS) paiallel to the length of the sample.
-Tiiaxial Befoimation expeiiments: axial compiession anu axial extension tests.
-Tensile Stiength Tests: samples aie stietcheu to ueteimine the smallest amount of stiess
that will cause a iock to fail in tension.
-!4>3/0 #341 (c): the iate at which a iock is shoiteneu oi stietcheu
-If a iock uoesn't immeuiately spiing back to oiiginal length when the loau is iemoveu then
theie is a biief time lag in the iecoveiy (hysteiesis) anu the loop on a giaph is the hysteiesis
loop.
-*6384/5 H1=<>234/<0: piouuces a peimanent change in the shape of a soliu without failuie by
iuptuie.
-+6384/5 '/2/4: point of uepaituie fiom elastic behavioi to plastic behavioi.
-O/16: 84>1094G: the value of the elastic limit measuieu in stiess. Below this value a iock
behaves as an elastic soliu; above it the iock begins to flow.
-">D1 M>/4461 B3/6D>1: suuuen fiactuiing.
-!4>3/0 )3>:10/09: yielu stiength of a iock incieases anu moie stiess is iequiieu to piouuce each
new inciement of stiain.
-!4>3/0 !<=410/09: less stiess is iequiieu to piouuce each new inciement of stiain.
-Ruptuie by faulting occuis.
-$64/2341 !4>1094G: the gieatest stiess level that a iock can hanule.
-#DE4D>1 !4>1094G: the stiess level at which faulting occuis.
-!12/;>/4461 ><5P8: uefoim initially by elastic uefoimation anu ultimately fail by foimation
of uisciete fiactuies anu faults. They can hanule much moie plastic uefoimation aftei elastic
uefoimation is much gieatei than that foi biittle iock, as is the pieceuing failuie.
-HD54/61: elastic uefoimation followeu by sustaineu plastic uefoimation befoie failuie.

-Stiength anu Buctility: mechanical iesponse of stiess if uiffeient unuei uiffeient conuitions:
1. '/4G<6<97: iock lithologies can be aiiangeu in oiuei of incieasing stiength foi specific conuitions
anu aie influenceu by composition, textuie, anu geneial conuition of the iock.
-Anisotiopy, the natuie anu oiientations of mechanical heteiogeneity also influence
iock stiength.
-Incompetent: iocks most likely to behave in the most uuctile mannei unuei stiess.
-%<2E14104: iocks likely to foim in a biittle way with no obvious uuctile uefoimation.
2. %<0=/0/09 *>188D>1Q *<>1 B6D/: *>188D>1: confining piessuie can inciease the stiength anu
uuctility of a iock. The yielu stiength, ultimate stiength, iuptuie stiength, anu uuctility aie all
gieatei. The poie fluiu piessuie can offset this effect by uecieasing these values.
-+==154/A1 !4>188: the confining piessuie minus fluiu piessuie. Bigh effective stiess
means a iock will be ielatively stiong anu uuctile; if it is low the iock will be weak
anu less uuctile.
S. "12E1>34D>1: an inciease in tempeiatuie usually uecieases yielu stiength, incieases uuctility,
anu loweis ultimate stiength.
-0nuei high T some iocks may uefoim in a plastic oi viscous way anu unueigo laige
peimanent stiains without iuptuiing oi losing cohesion.
4. !4>3/0 #341: a iock can be foiceu to uefoim plastically at low levels of stiess if the iate of loauing
is slow. When the stiain iate is low, the amount of stiess iequiieu to piouuce plastic uefoimation
anu ultimate failuie is smallei than with high stiain iate.
-Cieep: Stiain piouuceu in expeiiments of long uuiation unuei uiffeiential stiesses
that aie well below the iuptuie stiength of the iock.
-Piimaiy Cieep: slightly uelayeu elastic uefoimation in which theie is a geneial
ueciease in the amount of stiain with time.
-Seconuaiy Cieep: plastic uefoimation in which stiain anu time of loauing aie
lineaily ielateu. The iocks uiamatically fatigues anu uiscloses an acceleiating iate of
stiain, leauing to failuie by iuptuie.
-Teitiaiy Cieep: viscous uefoimation.
S. "/21: If iocks conveit to plastic anu viscous substances unuei conuitions of long-uuiation
loauing, eventually they must fail by flow anu then by iuptuie, following acceleiateu teitiaiy cieep.
-Theie is anothei state outsiue of soliu, liquiu anu gas, being a iheiu: a substance
whose tempeiatuie is below the melting point, anu whose uefoimation by viscous
flow uuiing the time of the expeiiment is at least thiee oiueis of magnituue gieatei
than the elastic uefoimation unuei the given conuitions.
6. *>1@+C/84/09 ,13P018818: laigei bouies of iocks aie weakei than smallei bouies of iock
because of pie-existing inteinal flaws anu weaknesses. These will have a lot of influence unuei
conuitions of uefoimation that aie funuamentally biittle.
-The easeuifficulty with which pie-existing fiactuie suifaces can be activateu
uepenus on the combination of fiiction anu noimal stiess.
-When noimal stiesses on pie-existing fiactuie suifaces aie low, the fiiction along
the fiactuie suifaces is uepenuent upon suiface ioughness.
7. !/R1
-!4>D54D>36 %<2E34/;/6/47: assessing whethei the kinematic uisplacement assigneu to faults anu
othei iesults of sheai anu stiain aie in haimony foi a given iegion. If eveiything is in haimony then
a palinspastic ieconstiuction of the stiuctuial system will iesult in a peifectly iestoieu geological
image.



!"#$%"$#&' %)&*"+# B-$#
H1=<>234/<0 F15G30/828 30: F/5><84>D54D>18

-H1=<>234/<0 F15G30/828: piocesses that peimit iocks to uefoim at the micioscopic anu atomic
scales.
-F/5><84>D54D>18: fine-scale stiuctuies maue by uefoimation mechanisms.


-Bonuing anu the Lattice of Ciystals:
-'344/51: SB iepetitive aiiay of atoms, ions, oi molecules with systematic positioning
anu spacing of atoms within the lattice.
-+ID/6/;>/D2 %<0=/9D>34/<0: balances competing inteiatomic foices.
-M<0:8: attiacting foices that tenu to holu atoms togethei.
-%<A36104: two aujacent atoms shaie one oi moie election.
-S<0/5: atom loses one oi moie elections to anothei atom.
-F14366/5: elections move ielatively fieely thiough the mateiial.
-+6384/5 :1=<>234/<0 of a lattice: the noimal equilibiium spacing of atoms in a ciystalline lattice is
alteieu when the lattice is subjecteu to stiess.
-An iueal ciystal when hyuiostatically loaueu is foiceu to uefoim elastically, the uistance
between atoms is shoiteneu by an amount ielateu to the imposeu stiess anu the
inteiatomic foices.
-When the loau is iemoveu the stoieu potential eneigy in the compiesseu bonus causes the
lattice to iebounu to its oiiginal equilibiium configuiation. This is the same foi tensile
stiess. It woiks as long as the elastic limits of the ciystal aien't exceeueu.
-O<D09K8 F<:D6D8 + is the ease oi uifficulty of spiing-like elastic behavioi.
.(01
A stiff iueal ciystal has a high Young's mouulus because stiong bonus neeu a laige stiess to
achieve a given amount of stiain. A soft ciystal has a lowei Young's mouulus.
-MD6P F<:D6D8 . is the incompiessibility oi stiffness of a mateiial.
2 . (3 2,
A stiff ciystal with stiong bonus has high incompiessibility because a ielatively laige stiess
is neeueu foi a given volume ueciease, anu vice veisa foi soft ciystals.
-!G13> F<:D6D8 N shows the ease oi uifficulty of cieating an elastic sheai stiain in a
ciystal.
.4(5!
-An iueal ciystal with a high sheai mouulus u has ielatively iigiu, inflexible bonus compaieu
to a ciystal with a lowei sheai mouulus.
-If tensile stiess exceeus the tensile elastic limit of a ciystal a iow of bonus will be seveieu anu the
ciystal will fiactuiecleave.
-"108/61 !4>1094G: the stiess iequiieu to iuptuie the bonus in tension.
-If the magnituue of sheai stiain exceeus the elastic capacity of the lattice to shift, a fiactuie will
uevelop oi the lattice will slip.
-!6/E: atoms on one siue on the opposite siue of the plane suuuenly sheais with iespect to
atoms on the opposite siue of the plane.
-!6/E !784128 30: %>784366<9>3EG/5 %<04><6: the ciystallogiaphic plane along which slip occuis is
the slip plane anu the slip system is maue up of the slip plane anu the line of slip; slip is a moue of
inelastic uefoimation.
-The ciystallogiaphic uiiection along which a ciystal slips is contiolleu by the stiength anu
type of bonus anu by the geometiic aiiangement of atoms anu bonus in the lattice. It occuis
along planes of cleavage.
-!6/E !784128 30: M<0:/09: the uegiee of uevelopment of cleavage anu slip planes is ielateu to the
type of bonuing.
-Complex silicates will fiactuie oi slip along planes that bieak the weakest bonus oi the
fewest stiong bonus.
-"G1<>14/536 !4>1094G <= %>784368: ciystallogiaphy anu bonuing influence the oveiall yielu
stiength, how much elastic uefoimation a ciystal can hanule befoie it fiactuies oi slips.
-Covalent Bonus: stiongei than ionic bonus.
-Ionic Bonus: stiongei than metallic bonus.
-Ciystals have uefects anu flaws that affect the stiength of mineials anu the ways in which they can
uefoim. Befects govein the stiength of iocks anu mineials b concentiating stiess in ways that let
the mateiial to fiactuie at stiess levels below the theoietical yielu stiength. Niciociacks aie the
most influential uefects.

-Befects:
1. *</04 :1=1548: vacancies, inteistitial atoms, anu impuiities.
-L353057: an atom is missing fiom a lattice site that is noimally occupieu.
-S041>84/4/36: extia atoms that belong in the lattice but aie in the wiong place.
-S2ED>/4/18: atoms in spots that shoulu be occupieu by anothei element.
-!<6/:@!4341 H/==D8/<0: a ciystal changes its shape anu volume in iesponse to
uiiecteu stiess by the migiation of atoms away fiom suifaces of gieatest stiess
towaiu suifaces of least stiess.
-vacancies make it easiei foi atoms to move within a lattice uuiing soliu-state
uiffusion.
-Inteistitial atoms anu impuiities can make it haiuei foi a mineial to uefoim.
2. '/01 H1=1548: lineai uefects oi uislocations that become baiiieis to the otheiwise smooth
movement of planes of atoms.
-H/86<534/<08: pait of a lattice stiuctuie slips, pait of it uoesn't; the uislocation is the
line that sepaiates the pait that moveu fiom the pait that uiun't. It can be stiaight oi
cuiveu.
S. *6303> H1=1548: inteiiupt the continuity of the lattice.
-uiain Bounuaiies, sub-giains (slightly mis-oiienteu iegions within a ciystal),
mechanical twins, anu stacking faults (wheie the iegulai iepeating pattein of a
lattice is inteiiupteu by the inseition oi omission of a paitial plane of atoms).
-F/5><5>35P8: most impoitant flaws.

-H1=<>234/<0 F15G30/828: these incluue mineialogy, giain size, tempeiatuie, confining piessuie,
fluiu piessuie, uiffeiential stiess, anu stiain iate.
1. Niciofiactuiing, Cataclasis, anu Fiictional Sliuing: involve the foimation, lengthening, anu
inteiconnecting of miciociacks. Fiictional sliuing along miciociacks anu giain bounuaiies anu the
foimation anu flow of peivasively fiactuieu iock anu ciystal fiagments.
-F/5><5>35P8:
-They aie biittle uefoimation mechanisms that opeiate at the giain anu subgiain
scales. Inuiviuual miciociacks foim, piopagate, anu acciue into miciofiactuies anu
fiactuies. Cataclasis (ciushing) of a iock can cieate cataclastic flow.
-At the atomic the initiation anu giowth of miciociacks involves the seveiing of
bonus.
-S04>39>30D63>: occui within a single giain along a cleavage plane anu foim wheie
the fiactuie stiength of the giain less than that of giain bounuaiies.
-S041>9>30D63>: exploit giain bounuaiies, piopagating aiouuni athei than thiough
giains.
-">3089>30D63>: miciociacks cut acioss aujacent giains anu theii mutual giain
bounuaiies favoieu by stiong giain bounuaiies anu similai oiientations of cleavage
in neighboiing giains.
-%3435638/8: peivasive biittle fiactuiing anu gianulation of iocks noimally along faults anu
fault zones. It cieates an aggiegate of highly fiactuies giains anu iock fiagments in a matiix
of smallei ciusheu giains.
-%34356384/5 =6<J: ciusheu iocks aie able to flow by iepeateu fiactuiing, fiictional
sliuing, anu iigiu bouy iotation of giains anu fiagments.
-It is analogous to gianulai flow that involves the fiictional sliuing anu iolling of
paiticles in ielatively unlithifieu seuiments, except the giains iemain intact.
-Cataclastic iocks have peivasive ciacks anu shaip, angulai giains anu fiagments.
-Cataclasis iesults in a piogiessive ueciease in giain size as laigei giains aie
continually bioken into smallei ones. It iesults in a ueciease in soiting anu an
inciease in volume (uilatancy).
2. Nechanical Twinning anu Kinking: stiain is achieveu by benuing of lattices.
-F15G30/536 "J/00/09: uefoimation mechanism that piouuces a benuing, iathei than
bieaking of a ciystalline lattice by sheaiing paiallel to a favoiable ciystallogiaphic plane.
-They aie miiioi-image ieflections.
-Stiesses can cause one pait of a ciystal iotates about an axis peipenuiculai to a
favoiable twin plane so two paits of a ciystal on opposite siues of a twin aie slightly
misaligneu by a pivoting motion.
-Theie must be a vulneiable twin plane acioss which sheaiing oi iotation can take
place anu the plane must be oiienteu so that the sheai stiess along the twin plane is
sufficient to uistoit the lattice.
-Eneigy intensive (benuing of the lattice), anu a iapiu piocess.
-The oiientation of the twins can be useu to ueteimine the oiientations of the
piincipal uiiections of stiain anu uiiectionmagnituue of piincipal stiesses.
-./0P/09: involves the benuing of a lattice using planes of weakness anu usually takes place
within a uisciete banu thiough a ciystal.
-./0P ;30:8 usually uisplay a ciystallogiaphic oiientation oi angle of extinction
that is uiffeient foim the iest of the mineial anu show up as extinction banus.
-Nicas anu platy mineials aie especially pione to kinking.
S. H/==D8/<0 %>11E: changes the shape anu size of ciystals thiough the movement of vacancies anu
atoms within ciystals anu along giain bounuaiies.
-Cieep is a slow time-uepenuent stiain occuis at uiffeiential stiesses well below the iuptuie
stiength of a iock.
-It involves the movement of atoms thiough the inteiioi of giains along giain bounuaiies
anu acioss poie fluius between giains.
-Atoms jump site by site thiough a mineial, anu the piocess is theimally activateu.
-It is a slow anu inefficient piocess in a ciystalline soliu.
-L<6D21@H/==D8/<0 %>11E: atoms anu ions move away fiom sites of high compiessive
stiess to neighboiing sites of lowei stiess, anu as vacancies move towaiu sites of high
compiessive stiess anu away fiom sites of lowei stiess.
-N>3/0@M<D0:3>7 H/==D8/<0 %>11E: mineials cieep by uiffusion of mateiial along giain
bounuaiies. Nateiial migiates fiom suifaces of high compiessive stiess anu accumulates on
suifaces of low stiess.
-!DE1>@E6384/5 %>11E: the combination of giain bounuaiy sliuing anu giain-bounuaiy
uiffusion. It achieves highei stiain iates anu inuiviuual giains aie moie oi less equant anu
inteinally unstiaineu.
4. H/88<6D4/<0 %>11E: changes the shape anu size of ciystals thiough uissolution anu ie-
piecipitation of mateiial aiueu by fluius along giain bounuaiies oi within poie spaces.
-It involves the selective iemoval, tianspoit, anu ie-piecipitation of mateiial thiough fluiu
films along giain bounuaiies oi poie fluius between giains.
-It uepenus on uissolution at the souice, uiffusionmigiation of the uissolveu mateiial along
some pathway, anu ie-piecipitation.
-uiains become piefeientially coiioueu along segments of giain bounuaiies that aie being
subjecteu to high compiessive stiess.
-Biffeiences in uissolution iates iesult in chemical concentiation giauients within the fluiu
causing uissolveu constituents to uiffuse away fiom the uissolution sites anu towaiu sites of
lowei compiessive stiess.
-Clues that a iock has expeiienceu uissolution cieep: styolites anu accumulations of less
soluble mateiial.
-Fibeis oi weuge-shapeu beaius of ciystal fibeis within piessuie shauows,
oveigiowths anu piessuie shauows foim in the piotecteu lee aieas next to laige
iigiu giains wheie compiessive stiesses aie low.
-Bissolution cieep can take place ovei a bioau iange of tempeiatuie-piessuie conuitions
pioviueu an intei-gianulai fluiu is piesent.
S. H/86<534/<0 %>11E: opeiates thiough intei-ciystalline slip of the lattice stiuctuie; it changes the
shape of mineial giains in iocks by a tempoiaiy uistoition of the lattice anu sheaiing of the lattice
along a favoiable ciystallogiaphic plane.
-The bonus on the slip plane aie bioken a small pait at a time. Bislocation is the line that
sepaiates the pait of the iug that has slippeu fiom that which hasn't slippeu.
-Bislocation cieep is the piouuction, motion, anu uestiuction of uislocations thiough
ciystals anu giains accommouateu by iecoveiy anu ieciystallization.
-Euge uislocations: oiienteu peipenuiculai to the uiiection of slip.
-H/86<534/<0 N6/:1: piocess of piopagation of a uislocation thiough a ciystal; a iecuiiing
cycle of foimation anu piopagation of euge uislocations.
-!5>1J H/86<534/<08: oiienteu paiallel to the uiiection of slip. Aujacent atoms connect in a
helical oi spiial pattein, winuing aiounu the sciew uislocation. The veitical slip plane
accommouates it.
-F/C1: H/86<534/<08: uislocations that consist of both euge anu sciew segments anu aie
oblique to the uiiection of slip.
-They can get caiiieu away anu foim closeu uislocation loops that enciicle the pait
of the ciystal that has slippeu.
-H/86<534/<0 "309618: a numbei of uislocations inteisect anu become pinneu in an
inteitwineu mess. They iesult in a stiain haiuening of the lattice, making uislocation gliue
incieasingly uifficult.
6. #15<A1>7 30: #15>784366/R34/<0: causes a healing of the ciystalline stiuctuie by eliminating as
many uefects as possible anu uepleting leftovei stoieu eneigy in the lattice.
-#15<A1>7: piomotes healing thiough the ieaiiangement anu uestiuction of uislocations.
-#15>78436/R34/<0 30: ?1<2/01>36/R34/<0: piomote healing by tiansfoiming olu uefective
giains into bianu new giains oi new configuiations of giains.
-Reciystallization takes place within a single giain oi aujacent giains of the same
mineialogy, while neomineialization foims new mineials oi changes the bounuaiy between
two uiffeient mineials that weie in contact.
-H7032/5 >15>784366/R34/<0: iecoveiy anu ieciystallization uuiing uefoimation.
-&00136/09: iecoveiy anu ieciystallization aftei uefoimation.
-H/86<534/<0 56/2;: the movement of a uislocation to a highei oi lowei slip plane when the
uiffusion of vacancies anu atoms lengthens oi shoitens the associateu extia half-plane of
atoms, which aius iecoveiy.
-%><88@!6/E: sciew uislocations bypass obstacles by changing ciystallogiaphic
planes thiough uislocation climb.
-It can let aujacent uislocations foim walls of low-angle bounuaiies between slightly
misoiienteu paits of a ciystal (subgiains).
-Subgiains can become moie misoiienteu uuiing uefoimation when then bounuaiy iemains
stationaiy anu collects uislocations, anu when the bounuaiy migiates thiough the mateiial
anu collects uislocations as it goes.
-#<434/<0 >15>784366/R34/<0: piocess of cieating new giains by the foimation anu
accentuation of low-angle bounuaiies anu subgiains.
-The piocess is favoieu by uiffeiential stiesses high enough to geneiatepiopagate
uislocations anu tempeiatuies high enough to suppoit uislocation climb.
-M<D0:3>7@F/9>34/<0 #15>784366/R34/<0: migiation of giain bounuaiies. It iequiies atoms
jump acioss the giain bounuaiy fiom one giain to anothei, which iequiies eneigy (fiom
uislocations oi uefoimation). It cieates stiongly cuiveu, sutuieu giain bounuaiies.
-The piocess is favoieu by moueiate to thigh tempeiatuies anu piesence of poie
fluius.
-Seiiateu giain bounuaiies can iesult when the iates of giain bounuaiy migiation
vaiies between aujacent giains anu uiffeient paits of the same giain.
-M>/4461@:D54/61 4>308/4/<0: the uepth at which uefoimation switches fiom uominantly biittle to
uominantly uuctile mechanisms. It is a giauational zone.
-M71>611K8 63J: the stiength of the ciust incieases lineaily with uepth.



!"#$%"$#&' %)&*"+# BSL+
T</048 30: !G13> B>354D>18

-T</048: ieasonably continuous anu thiough-going planai fiactuies along which theie ahs been
impeiceptible 'pull-apait' movement peipenuiculai to the fiactuie suiface.
-They aie piouucts of biittle failuie anu foim when the tensile stiength of stiesseu iock is
exceeueu.
-Nineials piecipitate in the foim of veins, which seals the fiactuie.
-The weakei the unit the moie closely spaceu the joints aie.
-Systematic joints: planai, paiallel, anu evenly spaceu joints.
-T</04 !78412: two oi moie sets of joints.
-?<0@87841234/5 U</048: joints iiiegulai in foim, spacing, anu oiientation so they can't
be gioupeu into uistinctive, thiough-going sets.
-!G13> B>354D>18: sheai paiallel to fiactuie suiface; offset geneially not visible to the eye.
-They can be uistinguisheu foim joints by the piesence of 86/5P106/018, ieflecting a
sheaiing movement paiallel to the suiface (as opposeu to peipenuiculai). They aie
geneially fine-scale iiuge-in gioove lineations oi coatings of ciystal fibeis giown in the
uiiection of sheai uisplacement.
-!4>D54D>36 :<23/08: subuivisions of iegional iock assemblages that contain theii own fiactuie
system. They aie uesignateu uue to geogiaphic bounuaiies, lithologic contacts, stiuctuial
subuivisions, iock foimation ages, etc.
-!G3441>1: iocks aie along nonsystematic extiemely closely spaceu fiactuies anu lack iegulai
oiientation anu spacing of fiactuie suifaces. They aie consiueieu fiactuies, but not joints.
-}oints, sheai fiactuies, anu faults allow foi ciiculation of fluius such as iain watei, giounuwatei,
pollutantscontaminants, hyuiotheimal mineializing solutions, geotheimal wateis, anu oil anu
natuial gas. They can also seive as ueposition sites foi metallic anu nonmetallic mineials.

}0INT S0RFACES
-Inuiviuual joints aie planai to cuiviplanai suifaces that inteisect the tops anu flanks of outciops as
lines. }oint faces aie ievealeu by eiosion anu spalling of iocks along joint suifaces.
-An iueal exposuie of an iueal joint is maue of a smooth, planai main joint face boiueieu by ioughly
hewn fiinges. The fiinges aie the outeimost maigins of a given joint suiface anu aie teiminations of
the main joint face.
-+0 15G16<0 U</048: closely spaceu joints that aie misaligneu to the main face, maikeu by thiee oi
moie shoit joints that aie paiallel anu oveilapping anu aiiangeu in a line, inteisecting the main
joint face at 2u-2S uegiees.
-->03210434/<0 on joint faces gives a basis foi inteipieting the kinematics of uevelopment of
inuiviuual joints.
-The oiigin of a joint site is the site of initial piopagation of the fiist movement, the place wheie
eneigy is fiist ieleaseu to foim the bieak.
-)35P618: lineai to systematically cuiveu maikings that can occui on joint faces conveiging
towaius the oiigin of the joint. They iecoiu the uiiection of ciack piopagation. They uisplay
feathei-like plumose stiuctuie, with hackle featheis iauiating fiom one oi moie axes.
-Stiaight E6D21 3C18 have a stiaight continuous axis that lies paiallel to the tiace of
beuuing with the hackles iauiating to eithei siue. The axis coinciues with the path of
piopagation of the tip of the fiactuie in the uiiection of the longest uimension of the
fiactuie suiface.
-Cuiving plume axes have a single cuiveu axis uiviueu into bianches that then uiviue
again anu again with hackles iauiating to eithei siue of the main axis anu the
seconuaiy bianches.
-#/;8 iepiesent positions of the joint fiont at some past point; they aie a fossil iecoiu of a
piopagating joint fiont. They aie paiabolically cuiveu spaceu maikings. They aie peipenuiculai to
hackles anu aie peipenuiculai to the plume axis when they inteisect.
-Thiee funuamental fiactuie moues useu as enu membeis to uesciibe any combination fo
movements that occui in the foimation anu piopagation of joints anu sheai fiactuies:
1. 0pening (F<:1 S): extension fiactuies that open peipenuiculai to the plane of the joint.
2. Sliuing (F<:1 SS): sheai fiactuies with a sliuing movement paiallel to the fiactuie suiface
anu peipenuiculai to the fiactuie fiont.
S. Scissois (F<:1 SSS): sheai fiactuies with scissois movement paiallel to the fiactuie
suiface anu paiallel to the fiactuie fiont.
-}oints can make oiientation coiiections thiough a tilt oi twist.
-&C/8 <= 4/64 is in the plane of the joint suiface anu peipenuiculai to the uiiection of joint
piopagation.
-&C/8 <= 4J/84 is in the plane of the joint suiface but paiallel to the uiiection of piopagation.
-%<6D203> T</048: piimaiy volcanic stiuctuies piouuceu by fiactuiing that allows foi contiaction
anu shiinking of the flow as it cools.
-The joint faces of each column uisplay banus that iun hoiizontally, paiallel to layeiing anu
peipenuiculai to the column. Each has its own complete plumose stiuctuie, each
iepiesenting a single fiactuie event.
-Since a flow cools fiom the outsiue in, banus foim at the same time fiom the top uown anu
the bottom up, meeting below the miuule of the flow.
-Theie aie common inteisections of joints:
-O@/041>8154/<08: typical of uiscontinuous contiaction joints that inteisect in Y-patteins at
12u uegiees, which iequiies minimum eneigy to achieve.
-V-/041>8154/<08: foims when systematic continuous joints inteisect at acute angles.
-"@/041>8154/<08: common in oithogonal joint systems wheie inuiviuual joint tiaces meet
at iight angles.
-}oints uie out in tiace expiessions.
-)<<P: they foim a hook anu stop oi foim a T-inteisection with an aujacent joint tiace
coming fiom the othei uiiection.
-When it uies out it may be ieplaceu by a seiies of en echelon fiactuies.


-L1/08:
-%>78436 =/;1> A1/08 aie maikeu by elongate fibei-like oi neeule-like aggiegates of fine-
giaineu mateiials that aie stiaight oi systematically cuiveu. They foim uue to an opening of
the walls of the fiactuie oi joint accompanieu by simultaneous vein filling. Elevateu fluiu
piessuies open the fiactuies.
-Ciystal fibei veins giow in the uiiection of uiffeiential uisplacement (uiiection of least
piincipal stiess).
-&04/43C/36 A1/08: youngest ciystals aie auueu inciementally (oluest on the insiue).
-!7043C/36 A1/08: youngest ciystals auueu along meuial line (oluest on the outsiue).
-%>35P@8136 A1/08: iepeateu, iecuiient fiactuies followeu by new vein mineialization each
time.
-)7:>3D6/5 =>354D>/09: fluiu piessuie builus, uecieasing effective stiess foiming a ciack;
mineial fibeis aie uepositeu inciementally fiom fluius moving thiough the ciackeu iock.
The ciack becomes sealeu until fluiu piessuies builu again (piocess iepeats).
-F/5><5>35P8: micioscopic ciacks that ueteimine the mechanics of fiactuiing of iocks. They
weaken iesistance to fiactuiing by concentiating the stiess.
-They occui within inuiviuual giains as intiagianulai ciacks although they can be
tiansgianulai oi inteigianulai. They aie ianuomly oiienteu.
-Stiesses opeiating fiom a uistance (iemote stiess) can be amplifieu to cieate a local stiess big
enough to cieate a joint.
-!4>3/0 8<=410/09: stiess level steauily ueclines as the iock moves swiftly to failuie by ciacking,
ieflecting the piolifeiation of miciociacking as the aiea beyonu the tip became tiansfoimeu into a
piocess zone (swaim of miciociacking ueveloping as the ciack comes closei anu closei to
piopagating).

REuI0NAL }0INTINu
-0plift can cieate jointing when lateial expansion is involveu.
-Regional stiess patteins can cieate joints of tectonic oiigin anu can be peituibeu by faults that
foim as a iesponse to the iegional stiess.
-}ointing anu sheai fiactuiing can accompany intiusion befoie final ciystallization finishes.
-Plutons that contain piimaiy flow stiuctuie show funuamental types of piimaiy fiactuies:
-%><88 U</048: long, planai fiactuies, evenly spaceu anu often coateu with mineials oiienteu
peipenuiculai to lineation that accommouate elongation paiallel to lineation.
-'<09/4D:/036 =>354D>18: steeply uipping anu stiike peifectly paiallel to the tienu of
lineation.
-!4>145G/09 8D>=3518: uppei ieaches of a pluton; low-uipping sheai suifaces maikeu by
stiiations that tienu in the uiiection of lineation.
-!G3441> 5<018: unusual, lineaily etcheu fiactuies with uistinctive conical shapes associateu with
ciateis foimeu by impacts. The apices of the cones point towaiu the impact site.



!"#$%"$#&' %)&*"+# !SV
B3D648

-B3D648: fiactuies along which theie is visible offset by sheai uisplacement paiallel to the fiactuie
suiface.
-B3D64 R<01: countless sub-paiallel anu inteiconnecting closely spaceu fault suifaces.
-B3D64/09: biittle mechanisms foi achieving sheai uisplacement.
-!G13> R<018: auias at ueep ciustal levels wheie iocks tenu to uefoim plastically unuei conuitions
of elevateu tempeiatuie anu confining piessuie anu sheai uisplacement occuis.
-B/88D>18: laige fiactuies that have accommouateu conspicuous uilational opening wheie active
tectonic piocesses cieate local stietching anu pull-apait.
-Faulting that ieaches the suiface makes offset of objects.
-B3D64 !53>E8: step sin the lanu suiface that coinciue with locations of faults. The height of a fault
scaip appioximates the sum of the most iecent uisplacements.
-B3D64@6/01 853>E8: locateu along oi neai the tiace of a fault anu aie maikeu by a topogiaphic ielief
that ieflects the uiffeiential iesistance to eiosion of the iocks biought into contact by faulting.
-">/309D63> =35148: physiogiaphic signatuies that shoulu the location of fault contacts.
-B3D64 !D>=351: uisciete fiactuie bieak showing the uisplacement along a fault.
-Fault suifaces aie commonly finely polisheu slickensiueu suifaces fiom the uiffeiential movement.
They aie smooth oi shiny fault suifaces fiom fiictional polishing oi neomineial coatings.
-!6/5P106/018 aie lines on a fault suifaces that iecoiu the uiiection of slip.
-!4>/34/<08 aie foimeu by fiictional abiasion along the fault suiface.
-Sciatches anu fuiiows aie maue when haiu 38E1>/418 (piojections) scoie lines on the
opposite siue.
-Fine ciusheu uebiis cieates stieaks that pile up aiounu haiu aspeiites to cieate tails,
spikes, anu othei micioiiuges of mateiial.
-Fault giooves aie stiiations that aie laige anu coaise, aka fault mullions.
-Ciystal fibei lineations oi slip-fibei lineations aie maue by the piefeiieu uiiectional
giowth of mineials uuiing the faulting anu in the uiiection of movement.
-!6/5P<6/418: foim on fault suifaces wheie fault movement in combination with stylolitic
solution iesults in iemoval of mateiial thiough uissolution cieep. They cieate a lineation on
the fault suiface anu iecoiu the uiiection of slip.
-%G3441> F3>P8: foim on the suifaces of faults; small, asymmetiical, step-like featuies
oiienteu peipenuiculai to stiiations.
-B3D64 W<018: numeious closely spaceu fault suifaces commonly sepaiating masses of bioken iock.
-The thickei the fault zone, the laigei the amount of uisplacement on the zone.
-B3D64 #<5P8: foimeu by piocesses involving peivasive ciushing anu comminution of iock anu
mineials fiom iepeateu fiactuiing, giinuing, anu fiictional sliuing along miciociack netwoiks.
-M>155/3 !1>/18: angulai clasts in a finei matiix with no piefeiieu oiientation anu ianuom
fabiic. They aie noncohesive anu compacteu unless mineializeu oi silicifieu.
-Bilation anu volume inciease- low confining piessuie anuoi high fluiu piessuie.
-Bieccia uikes foim when poie fluiu piessuie elevate uuiing faulting flushing
biecciateu mateiial into tensional openings.
-%3435638/41 !1>/18: angulai clasts in a finei matiix with no piefeiieu oiientation. They aie
cohesive anu stiongly inuuiateu.
-*81D:<435G76/41: cieateu by fiictional melting, glassy to ciyptociystalline anu biown,
giay, oi black in coloi. Theie may be tiny ciystals in an isotiopic glassy giounumass. It
occuis in vein-like aiiays. They aie veiy fine-giaineu.
-Requiies high stiain iates anu ieasonably high confining piessuie.
-N<D91: light-coloieu veiy fine-giaineu clay-y fault iock founu along fault suifaces anu in
fault zones. It foims unuei low-tempeiatuie anu low-piessuie conuitions.
-ueologic Nap Expiessions:
-Piesence of faults can be iecognizeu thiough inconsistent stiatigiaphic patteins. Faults can
be iecognizeu by iepetition anu omission of stiata.
-Seismic waves can be useu to uetect faults as they aie capable of causing sounu waves to be
ieflecting.

TBE NANINu 0F FA0LTS
-Slip anu Sepaiation:
-!6/E is foimeu by the uiiection, sense, anu magnituue of uisplacement. It is the actual
ielative uisplacement.
-!1E3>34/<0: the appaient ielative uisplacement.
-Slip Classification:
-!4>/P1@86/E =3D648: hoiizontal slip between aujacent blocks (iight-hanueu oi left-hanueu).
-H/E@86/E =3D648: tianslation uiiectly up oi uown the uip of the fault suiface.
-)309/09 J366: fault block towaiu which the fault uips.
-B<<4J366: fault block on the unueisiue of the fault.
-?<>236@86/E =3D64: hanging wall moves uown with iespect to the footwall.
-Low-angle noimal-slip faults: uip less than 4S uegiees.
-"G>D84@86/E 30: >1A1>81@86/E =3D648: movement of the hanging wall upwaiu
ielative to the hanging wall.
-Thiust-slip faults uip less than 4S uegiees, ieveise-slip gieatei than 4S.
--;6/ID1@86/E =3D648: inclineu between stiike-slip anu uip-slip.
-#<434/<036 =3D64: changes both in its magnituue of slip anu in its sense of slip along a
stiike.
-!1E3>34/<0: offset obseiveu along faults. It is the appaient ielative movement.
-!4>34/9>3EG/5 4hiow: the thickness of the stiatigiaphic inteival between two beus that aie
biought into contact by faulting.
-Besciibeu as noimal, thiust, ieveise, left-lateial, oi iight-lateial.

BETERNINATI0N 0F SLIP 0N FA0LTS
-Constiucting a veitical cioss section paiallel to the tienu of the slip uiiection anu measuiing the
uistance between the footwall cutoff anu the hanging-wall cutoff ueteimine the actual magnituue of
slip.
-H>39 B<6:8: uistoition of beuuing oi othei layeiing iesulting fiom sheaiing of iock bouies past one
anothei.
-!/92</:36 uiag folus: each enu of a fault-bounueu layei is cuileu by uiag.
-#<66<A1> 304/56/01: oiiginally hoiizontal beuuing in the hanging wall of a noimal-slip fault become
folueu so that it uips towaiu the fault suiface.
-'/84>/5 B3D648: cuiveu faults that flatten with uepth.
-Antithetic faulting:

-&0:1>8<0K8 "G1<>7 <= B3D64/09: Eaith's suiface is a plane with no sheai stiesses, so one piincipal
stiess must be peipenuiculai to Eaith's suiface.
-Noimal Fault: o1 is veitical.
-Thiust Fault: oS is veitical.
-Stiike-Slip Fault: o2 is veitical.

TBR0ST FA0LTINu
-"G>D84 8G1148: iegional packages of iocks above thiust faults.
-&66<5G4G<0<D8 ><5P8: iegional tiust sheets that have moveu gieat uistances.
-&D4<5G4G<0<D8: iocks that ietain theii oiiginal location that haven't been thiusteu.
-Thiust faults sepaiate allochthons fiom autochthons.
-,/0:<J8 show autochthons anu P6/EE18 show allochthons.
-H15<6612104: the uetachment of the uppei covei fiom its substiatum.
-Thiust faults step up in the uiiection of tianspoit. Stepsiamps connect wheie the fault cuts
obliquely acioss competent beus.
-B3D64@;10: =<6:8: faulteu hanging wall stiata aie tianslateu to the top of the step oi iamp to the
position wheie the fault once again assumes a layei-paiallel position making an anticline.
-Ramp-flat geometiy: inuiviuual fault suifaces step fiom layei-paiallel segments within soft,
incompetent layeiing anu cut obliquely acioss stiff, competent beus en ioute to the next favoiable
incompetent unit.
-%D4<== 309618: acute angles maue when a thiust fault iamps up thiough the beuuing.
-%D4<== 6/018: maik the inteisection of the thiust with the stiatigiaphic hoiizon that is cut.
The hanging-wall cutoff moves up anu ovei the footwall cutoff as faulting pioceeus.
-'341>36 #32E8: a thiust fault abiuptly cuts up section lateially as iamp until it ieaches a
highei gliue hoiizon wheie it once again becomes a flat.
-Najoi thiusts split off fiom one anothei at bianch points to make in-sequence
faulting with youngei faults in the uiiection of tectonic tianspoit.
-M6/0: 4G>D84: thiust uoesn't make it to the suiface but is ieplaceu by a folu anu the tip line
of the thiust is unueigiounu.
-)<>818: set of thiusts that all uip in the same geneial uiiection.
-Imbiicate fans: sole thiust uownwaiu into which a swaim of cuiveu tiiangulai thiust slices
conveige.
-HDE61C18: tilteu imbiicate set of hoises.
-Above the ioof thiust aie flat-lying unuistuibeu stiata anu below the flooi thiust aie flat-
lying unuistuibeu stiata.
-?<>236 HDE61C: slice length is gieatei than fault slip anu the hoises uip gently backwaiu
opposite the uiiection of oveiall thiust tianspoit.
-&04/=<>236 :DE61C: slice length anu fault slip aie the same wheie the hoises aie aicheu.
-B<>J3>:@:/EE/09 :DE61C: fault slip exceeus slip length.
-"13> =3D64: tiansveise stiike-slip faults wheie it is impossible to tianslate a huge iock mass as a
single unit.

N0RNAL FA0LTINu
-Noimal faults accommouate extension. It cieates a youngei-on-oluei ielationship.
-Examples: iifteu continental maigins, spieauing centeis, etc.
-Noimal faults geneially uip close to 6u uegiees with the hanging wall moving uown with iespect to
the footwall.
-)<>848: ielatively uplifteu un-iotateu blocks bounueu by outwaiu-uipping noimal faults on eithei
siue.
-N>3;10: ielatively uown uioppeu un-iotateu blocks bounueu on eithei siue by inwaiu uipping
noimal faults.
-H1435G2104 =3D648: low-angle faults that aie cut anu offset by high-angle noimal faults.
-Tilteu fault blocks aie cieateu by systems of faults of steeply tilteu hanging wall stiata that iest on
gently uipping fault suifaces.
-H10D:34/<036 =3D648: faults that place high-level ielatively young iocks on ueep-level ielatively
olu iocks.

INvERSI0N TECT0NICS
-S0A1>8/<0 "154<0/58: noimal faults become thiust anu ieveise faults.
-Regional geologic system in extension is foiceu to shoiten by ieveising the uisplacement
on the pie-existing faults.


STRIKE-SLIP FA0LTINu
-">308=<>2 =3D648: majoi stiike-slip faults in continental settings.
-%<0UD9341 84>/P1@86/E =3D64/09: faults occui in two inteisecting sets that aie cooiuinateu
kinematically. Each set is uistinctive in oiientation anu sense of sheai (one iight-hanueu anu one
left-hanueu).
-#/1:16 8G13>8: geometiic fiactuie pattein commonly associateu with stiike-slip fault systems.
They aie aiiangeu in echelon anu foim at an acute angle of 1S uegiees to the main line of faulting.
-Antithetic stiike-slip faults aie conjugate Rieuel sheais (R' sheais) at a high angle (7S
uegiees) to the main line of faulting.
-*@8G13>8: synthetic sheias that foim at a small acute angle of 1u uegiees to the main line of
faulting.
-Bianching anu biaiuing of faults is minimal.
-Fault cuivatuie is uesciibeu by ;10:8 anu U<98.
-#16138/09 ;10:8 cieate open space.
-#184>3/0/09 ;10:8 aie sites of ciowuing.
-Weuges of iock foim uiuing the natuial evolution of a benu.
-!41E<A1>8: one stiike-slip fault segment enus anu anothei one of the same tienu begins.
-Pull-apait basins anu pop-ups foim at stepoveis as ieleasing anu iestiaining locations,
iespectively.
-#G<2;<5G382: a veiy ueep uepiession bounueu by mastei stiike-slip faults that aie steppeu.



!"#$%"$#&' %)&*"+# !+L+?
B<6:8

BEFINITI0NS
-&04/56/01: folu that is convex in the uiiection of the youngest beus in the folueu sequence.
-!7056/01: folu that is convex in the uiiection of the oluest beus in the folueu sequence.
-&04/=<>2: a folu that is convex upwaiu (Stiatigiaphic oiuei is unknownunceitain).
-!70=<>2: folu that is concave upwaiu (stiatigiaphic oiuei is unknownunceitain).
-Folus can be uesciibeu as anticlinal, synclinal, iecumbent, oi isoclinal.
-#15D2;104: the folu lies on its siue.
-S8<56/036: the limbs of the folu aie equally inclineu.
-'/2;8: flanks of folus joineu at the hinge.
-)/091 R<01: maximum cuivatuie achieveu along the folueu suiface.
-S0=6154/<0 *</048: points wheie cuiveu limb segments of opposite convexity join.
-)/091 6/01: all the hinge points along a single folueu suiface.
-&44/4D:1: oiientation of a folu.
-&C/36 !D>=351: passes thiough the successive hinge lines in a stacking of folueu suifaces.
-&C/36 E6301: planai axial suiface.
-&C/36 4>351: line of inteisection of the axial suiface with any othei suiface.
-B<6: 3C/8: geometiic (imaginaiy) lineai stiuctuial element without a fixeu location.
-Folus with axes aie cylinuiical folus.
-Folus without folu axes aie non-cylinuiical folus with limbs anu hinge zones iiiegulai in
oiientation.
-X@:/39>328 anu Y@:/39>328 can be useu to ueteimine the oiientation of a folu on a steionet.

-Common Folu Shapes:
-%G1A><0: planai limbs that meet at a sunabgulai hinge zone oi uisciete hinge point.
-%D8E341 folu: cuiveu limbs that aie opposite in the sense of cuivatuie of most oiuinaiy
folus.
-They can also be in the shapes of : ciiculai, elliptical, box, anu teaiuiop.
-Folu Tightness:
-Folu tightness is uesciibeu in teims of the inteilimb angle
-N10461 folus (17u-18u uegiees)
--E10 folus (9u-17u uegiees)
-"/9G4 folus (1u-9u uegiees)
-S8<56/036 folus (u-1u uegiees)
-Folu Size:
-Folu size is ueteimineu by wavelength anu amplituue.
-They aie uesciibeu by folu height anu wiuth by making use of the meuian suiface (passes
thiough all inflection points of a given folueu suiface) anu the meuian tiace (tiace of the meuian
suiface in the piofile view of the folu).
-Folus aie eithei symmetiical oi asymmetiical.
-%<05104>/5 B<6:8: inuiviuual folueu layeis with unifoim thickness. (Aka paiallel folus).
-!/2/63> B<6:8: inuiviuual folueu layeis that uisplay thickening in the hinge anu thinning on the
limbs.
-%6388 S B<6:8: cuivatuie of the innei aic is gieatei than that of the outei aic.
Z&: layei thickness in the hinge is less than layei thickness in the limbs.
ZM: iueal concentiic folus with unifoim layei thickness.
Z%: mouest thickening in the hinge anu mouest thinning on the limbs.
%6388 SS B<6:8: iueal similai folus with iuentical cuivatuies of innei anu outei aics.
%6388 SSS B<6:8: cuivatuie of the outei aic is gieatei than that of the innei aic.
-H/E S8<9<08 connect points of equal inclination on the outei anu innei bounuing suifaces of a
folueu layei to ueteimine the folu classification.


KINENATIC ANALYSIS 0F F0LBINu
-B61CD>36 =<6:/09: mechanical influence of layeiing in a iock is veiy stiong anu the layeis actively
paiticipate in the foluing by benuing anu flexing.
-B61CD>36@86/E =<6:/09 accommouates the buckling by layei-paiallel slip along contacts
between layeis.
-The uiiection of ielative slip is peipenuiculai to the hinge of the folu.
-The outei aic unueigoes layei-paiallel stietching anu the innei aic unueigoes
layei-paiallel shoitening.
-B61CD>36@=6<J =<6:/09 accommouates the buckling by layei-paiallel flow oi sheai within
mechanically soft layeis between stiff units.
-*388/A1 =<6:/09: favoieu mechanism when the mechanical influence of layeiing in a sequence of
iocks is veiy weak. The layeis unueigo uistoition without much iesistance. The folus have
penetiative cleavage, an aiiay of closely spaceu aligneu seconuaiy uiscontinuities that cut the
folueu layeis in a uiiection paiallel to the axial suifaces of folus.
-H>39 B<6:8 [*3>38/4/5 B<6:8): asymmetiic minoi folus whose axes aie paiallel to the axis of the
laigei associateu folu. S anu Z Folus
-M<D:/08: foim in sequence of alteinating soft anu stiff layeis that have been flatteneu an extenueu.
They aie sausage-shapeu stiuctuies fiom when stiff compositional alyeis suiiounueu by softei
layeis neck anu pull apait.
-*/05G@30:@8J166 84>D54D>18: symmetiical bouuins.

}0INTINu ANB FLEX0RAL-SLIP F0LBINu
-%><88 Toints: Noue I joints that aie aligneu peipenuiculai to the axis of foluing. They iepiesent
extensional stietching of biittle iock uuiing hinge-paiallel elongation of folueu layeis.
-'<09/4D:/036 T</048: Noue I joints oiienteu sub-paiallel to the axial suifaces of folus that aie
thiough-going, planai, continuous stiuctuies.
-They aie ielease joints that open up in folueu layeis when folu-foiming shoitening
stiesses aie ieleaseu.
--;6/ID1 T</048: two conjugate sets of sheai joints (Noue II oi III) that aie symmetiically inclineu
to the hinge anu axial suiface of a given folu. They foim in folueu layeis in iesponse to shoitening
peipenuiculai to the axial suiface of a folu.

-MD5P6/09:
-Instability uevelops when layeis of uiffeient mechanical piopeities aie subjecteu to
layei-paiallel stiesses, which leaus to a buckling of the stiffest layei(s) in the sequence of
iocks.
*Buckling can't happen in peifectly planai multilayeis that aie shoiteneu by stiesses
that aie peifectly layei paiallel.
-Stiength, thickness, anu layei-paiallel stiain (aka stietch) aie impoitant vaiiables to be
consiueieu when analyzing buckling mechanisms.
-%<2E141057 5<04>384: contiast between a competent layei anu the incompetent
mateiial above anu below.
-./0P =<6:8: small folus maikeu by shaip hinges, stiaight limbs, anu an asymmetiy with a shoit
limb connecting two longei limbs.
-W@8G3E1:= uextial !@8G3E1:=sinistial
-Kink folus stait as asymmetiic folus within kink banus (naiiow zones wheie foliation is
kinkeu) that uevelop at an angle to the uiiection of shoitening anu obliquely to the
penetiative planai anisotiopy.

-MD5P61 =<6:/09 is a fiee foluing: the folus uisplay piofile foims that uepenu entiiely on the
physical-mechanical piopeities of the layeis that aie compiesseu.
1. Layei paiallel stiesses aie accommouateu by layei-paiallel elastic anu inelastic
shoitening.
2. Buckling instability uevelops anu the chaiactei of the folu is ielateu to the mechanical
chaiactei anu locations of uiffeient stiengths of layeis.
S. The folu is amplifieu anu the multilayei sequence unueigoes flexuial-slip foluing.
-B<>51: B<6:/09: geometiic chaiacteiistics anu oveiall foim of the folus aie foiceu on the layeis by
viitue of the oiientation anu foim of the faults with which the foluing is associateu.
-B3D64@;10: B<6:/09: beus aie uisplaceu along thiust faults with iamp-flat geometiies.
-B3D64 *><E3934/<0 B<6:/09: piocess zone at the auvancing tip of a fault. The folu shape is
ueteimineu by fault shape. The iamp thiust is ieplaceu by an asymmetiic folu that is
oveituineu in the uiiection of tianspoit.
-F<0<56/036 B<6:/09: asymmetiic with two hinges (one anticlinal anu one synclinal)
connecteu by a miuule limb. Nonoclines aie associateu with ancient, ieactivateu, steeply
uipping fault zones.
-Folus in a stiuctuial system aie foimeu by multiple mechanisms.








!"#$%"$#&' %)&*"+# +SN)"
%613A391\ B<6/34/<0\ 30: '/0134/<0

I. CLEAvAuE
-%613A391: closely spaceu, aligneu, planai to cuiviplanai suifaces that tenu to be associateu with
folus anu oiienteu paiallelsub-paiallel to the axial suifaces of folus.
-Cleavage foims without appaient loss of cohesion.
-Cleavage suifaces aie eithei peifectly paiallel to the axial suiface of foluing oi they aie inclineu
symmetiically about the axial suiface in a fan of oiientations. They compiise an axial plane
cleavage.
*An axial plane cleavage that uips in the same uiiection as beuuing, but less steeply than beuuing, is
a sign that beuuing may be oveituineu.
-The oiientation of cleavage suifaces in the hinge of a folu is a close appioximation to the axial
suiface of the folu.
-Cleavage can benu (iefiact) as it passes between two iocks with uiffeiing mechanical E><E1>4/18.
-Fabiic: total sum of giain shape, giain size, anu giain configuiation in a iock.
-Nineialogy anu fabiic change to accommouate uistoition of the iock bouy within which
cleavage is founu.
-H<23/036 84>D54D>1: stiuctuial lamination composeu of alteinating cleavage uomains anu
2/5><6/4G<0 uomains.
-Cleavage uomains: thin, anastomosing to sub-paiallel, mica-iich laminae within which
the fabiic of the oiiginal host iock has been stiongly ieaiiangeu anuoi paitially iemoveu.
-Niciolithons: naiiow lensoiual to tiapezoiual slices of iock whose mineialogy anu fabiic
of oiiginal host iock have been pieseiveu.

-%<04/0D<D8 %613A391:
1. !6347: veiy fine-giaineu politic iocks metamoiphoseu to low giaue. It allows iocks to be cleaveu
into peifectly tabulai thin plates oi sheets.
-F@:<23/08 (mica) make up the cleavage uomains, anu ]B :<23/08 (quaitz-
feluspai) aie the miciolithons.
-Flatteneu natuie of inuiviuual giains is accentuateu by oveigiowths of
chloiite anu quaitz (beaius) that giow fiom laigei giains of quaitz, feluspai,
anu pyiite.
-It foims as iesult as a uistoitional iesponse to extieme ciustal shoitening.
-Foluing anu slaty cleavage uevelopment aie synchionous.
-Slaty cleavage foims peipenuiculai to the uiiection of gieatest shoitening.
-Stiain Significance:
-Reciystallization: new mineial giowth takes place in the plane of cleavage in
the uiiection of inciemental extension. New mineial giowth happens in the
piessuie shauows next to laige iigiu mineial giains.
-volume losses of Su% anu moie aien't uncommon in highly cleaveu iocks.
-Nica can become aligneu by piefeiential giain size ieuuction at iight angles
to the uiiection of gieatest shoitening.

2. *G766/4/5 !4>D54D>1: inteimeuiate in giain size anu chaiactei to platy anu schistose cleavages.
They split neatly but not peifectly.
-N uomains anu QF uomains make up miciolithons anu cleavage uomains.

S. !5G/84<8/47: meuium-giaineu with flakes of mica. Rocks bieak off in the foim of uiscoiual to
ciuuely tabulai slabs.
-N uomains anu QF uomains make up miciolithons anu cleavage uomains.

-H/8UD054/A1 %613A391:
1. %>10D634/<0 %613A391: cuts a host iock that has a pie-existing continuous cleavage.
-H/85>141 %>10D634/<0 5613A391: uisjunctive cleavage in which veiy naiiow
cleavage uomains shaiply tiuncate the continuous cleavage of the
miciolithons.
-N-uomains aie naiiow micaceous laminae along which the
continuous cleavage of aujacent miciolithons is absiuptly anu shaipy
tiuncateu.
-W<036 %>10D634/<0 %613A391: wiuei cleavage uomains that coinciue with tight
appiesseu limbs of miciofolus in the pie-existing continuous cleavage
pieseiveu in miciolithons.
-N-uomains aie ielatively wiue anu seive as unbioken folu limbs
connecting miciofolus in the continuous cleavage of aujacent
miciolithons.
*Niciolithons aie QF uomains. Cleavage uomains aie N uomains packeu with aligneu inteilocking
micas suiiounuing lensoiual quaitz anu feluspai giains.
-Stiain Significance: theie is a physicalchemical ie-uistiibution of mineials as a function of ielative
solubilities anu chemical mobilities.
-Shoitening is achieveu thiough piogiessive uefoimation ovei time as miciofolus aie
buckleu into existence by shoitening of pie-existing continuous cleavage.
-Cleavage uomains aie sub-paiallel aligneu by piogiessive stiain.

-!E351: %613A391: an aiiay of paiallel to anastomosing, stylolitic to smooth, fiactuie-like paitings
that aie often occupieu by clay-ey anu caibonaceous mattei.
-Chaiacteiizeu by offset of beuuing maikeis along the cleavage.
-Cleavage uomains aie fiactuie-like uiscontinuities lineu with seams oi films
of clay-ey anuoi caibonaceous mateiial.
-Stiain Significance: it is a piouuct of piessuie solution (as eviuenceu by stylolites).
-The teeth anu cones of stylolitic suifaces aie oiienteu peipenuiculai to axial
suifaces of foluing.

-*388/A1 =<6:/09 is veiy closely associateu with cleaveu iocks. They aie Class 1C, 2, oi S with an
axis that is tienu anu plunge of the line of inteisection of cleavage anu beuuing.
-Foims wheie theie aie unifoimly soft, weak layeis (geneially hyuio-plastic) with high
mean uuctility anu low uuctility contiast.
-Cleavage uevelopment anu passive foluing occuis aftei buckling anu flexuial foluing.
Piessuie solution allows the iock to shoiten at which the mateiial begins to folu as flattening
occuis.
-M1::/09 ">308E<8/4/<0: tight foluing of the oiiginal beus is accompanieu by slip paiallel
to the axial planes of ueveloping flexuies. It cieates a pseuuostiatigipahy of uisiupteu anu iotateu
segment of once-continuous beus.

II. F0LIATI0N
-B<6/34/<0: any mesoscopically penetiative paiallel alignment of planai fabiic elements in a iock
(usually metamoiphic).
-*>/23>7 B<6/34/<08: foim in lava, magama oi wet seuiment fbefoie consoliuation into iock.
-Ex: flow banuing anu ciuue axial plane cleavage.
-Eutaxitic stiuctuie: foliation cieateu thiough compaction flattening of pumice
fiagments anu gas bubbles as volcanic unit flattens uuiing cooling anu congealing.
-Flow foliation: igneous iocks as a iesult of viscous flow of magma against wall iock.
-!15<0:3>7 B<6/34/<0: foim as a iesult of the micioscopically penetiative uefoimation anu
uistoition of seuimentaiy, volcanic, oi intiusive igneous iocks.
-F76<0/4/5 B<6/34/<08: associateu with sheai zones foimeu by highly concentiateu stiain.
-Foliation in metamoiphic iocks:
-Cleavage: slaty, phyllitic, anu schistose.
-N01/88/5 84>D54D>1: uevelops as a iesult of ieciystallization of igneous oi seuimentaiy
iocks uuiing metamoiphism. It has compositional banuing, piefeiieu planai oiientation of
platytabulaipiismatic mineials anu sub-paiallel lenticulai mineial giains anu giain aggiegates.
-F/9234/41: swiileu mixeu up appeaiing iock.
-Foliations in mylonitic iocks:
-F76<0/41 81>/18: Piotomylonite, mylonite, mylonite.
-Nylonitic iocks aie a type of fault iock wheie giain size has been ieuuceu by intense
sheaiing.
-Nylonitization occuis within the high stiain enviionment of uuctile sheai zones.
-Foliation is planai-paiallel aiiangement of flatteneu giains, mineial aggiegates, bioken
mineial giains, anu small sheai suifaces. They contain veiy lenticulai, inuiviuual ciystals
(iibbons).

III. LINEATI0N
-'/0134/<0: the sub-paiallel to paiallel alignment of elongate lineai fabiic elements in a iock bouy
commonly penetiative to the visible eye.
-Piimaiy lineations: piouuceu in seuiments, lava oi magma piioi to lithification.
-Seconuaiy lineation: foims when seuimentaiy, igneous oi metamoiphic iocks aie uefoimeu uuiing
metamoiphism anuoi sheaiing.

Types of Lineation
1. S041>8154/<0 '/0134/<0: geometiic lines cieateu by the inteisection of two oi moie foliations, the
inteisection f foliation anu any compositional layeiing, oi the inteisection of foliation oi
compositional layeteiing with the outciop suiface.
2. %>10D634/<0 '/0134/<0: bunules of tiny, closely spaceu folu hinges. It is an aiiay of stiaight to
slightly cuiveu uiscontinuous ciests anu tioughs of folus.
S. F/01>36 '/0134/<0: stieaky, fibei-like lineation uue to piefeiieu uiiectional ciystallization of
mineials.
-Lineai alignment is paitly uue to comminution (mechanical bieakuown) of once- laigei
elements.

Types of Lineai Stiuctuie
1. !4>145G1:@E1;;61 5<096<21>341: closely packeu elongate clasts maue by the uistoition of
cobbles anu pebbles.
2. #<::/09: penetiative aiiay of paiallel, highly elongate bouies of iock.
S. FD66/<0: iegulai, iepeateu folu-like foims with cuspate-lobate foims. They occui along the
inteiface between a mechanically soft anu mechanically stiff layei.
-They aie maue by buckling instability fiom layei-paiallel shoitening.
4. *105/6 !4>D54D>1: outciops aie stiewn with unnatuial-looking 'pencils' of iock. It is foimeu by
the inteisection of beuuing fissility anu cleavage.
S. M<D:/0: foim as a iesponse to layeiupaiallel extension of stiff layeis envelopeu by mechanically
soft layeis. It occuis by tension fiactuiing, sheai fiactuiing, oi uuctile necking.
-Rectangulai anu ihombic bouuins foim wheie theie is a laige uuctility contiast.
-Baiiel-shapeu bouuins ieflect uuctile necking.
-Fish-heau bouuins aie stiongly uefoimeu aftei sepaiation causing the lateial walls to
collapse inwaiu.
-Pinch-anu-swell anu lenticulai bouuins foim when theie is veiy small stiength
contiast.

ANALYSIS 0F F0LIATI0N ANB LINEATI0N
-S: foliation
Su: beuuing
Sn: cleavage (in oiuei that it occuiieu)
-L: lineation oi lineai stiuctuie
Lu: piimaiy lineations oi stiuctuies
-F: folus
Fu: folus of piimaiy oiigin pieseiveu in low giaue metamoiphic iocks
-Bn: uisciete events oi phases of a piogiessive uefoimation in successive oiuei.
-Tectonites: iocks that aie peivaueu by cleavage, foliation, anuoi lienation.
-S-tectonites: tectonites maikeu by foliation but no lineation. They aie piouucts of
flattening so that S1=S2>SS.
-LS-tectointes: lineation anu foliation (most common). They aie piouucts of noncoaxial
stiain so that S2=1 anu S1>S2>SS.
-L-tectonites: lineation but no foliation. They aie piouucts of stietching so that
S1>S2=SS.
-Reuuction of giain size uuiing uefoimation is veiy impoitant.
-Piogiaue metamoiphism: iocks become piogiessively ueepei anu hottei.
-Regiogiaue metamoiphism: iocks aie uplifteu.
-*>1P/01234/5 intiusion: emplaceu befoie uefoimation anu metamoiphism.
-!70P/01234/5 intiusion: emplaceu uuiing uefoimation.
-*<84P/01234/5 intiusion: emplaceu aftei uefoimation.
-N>11084<01 ;1648: stiongly foliateu anu ueeply infolueu iegionally metamoiphoseu metavolcanic
anu metaseuimentaiy iocks flankeu by ueep exposuies of enoimous batholithic complexes of
gianitic gneiss.
-F30461: 901/88 :<218: tectonite complexes that occui along oiogenic belts with uomes anu
aiches of high giaue gneissic tectonites that aie oveilain by stiongly uefimeu, high giaue layeieu
gneisses anu schists.



!"#$%"$#&' %)&*"+# ?S?+
!G13> W<018 30: *><9>188/A1 H1=<>234/<0

-!G13> W<01: tabulai to sheet-like, planai to cuiviplanai zone composeu of iocks that aie moie
highly stiaineu than iocks aujacent to the zone.
-They ieflect the localizationconcentiation of uefoimation into a naiiow zone. It means
that the uistiibution of stiain was heteiogeneous as opposeu to homogeneous within a
given iock mass.
-%<04/0D<D8: ueciease in stiain away fiom the zone is giauual without any uistinct physical
bieak.
-H/85<04/0D<D8: ueciease away fiom the zone is abiupt.
-Sheai zones commonly aie aiiangeu in netwoiks oi sets of many inuiviuual sheai zones. They
occui in sub-paiallel sets, anastomose patteins, oi ciosscut anu uisplace one anothei.
-Sheai zones offset oi ueflects pie-existing featuies. It is geneially stiuctuially thickeneu oi thinneu
anu changeu in oiientation within the sheai zone.
-Theie aie stiike-slip faults (uextial oi sinistial), noimal-slip, ieveise-anu thiust-slip faults.
0blique sheai zones aie pait stiike-slip anu uip-slip.

TYPES 0F SBEAR Z0NES
1. M>/4461 !G13> W<018: fiactuies anu othei featuies foimeu by biittle uefoimation mechanisms in
the shallow paits of the ciust.
-It is favoieu by iapiu stiain iates of seismic events.
-They have closely spaceu faults, numeious joints anu sheai fiactuies, anu biecciation.
-They aie basically fault zones with fault gouge anu othei membeis of bieccia seiies.
-Theie aie abiupt uiscontinuous maigins that tiuncate anu offset maikeis.
2. HD54/61 !G13> W<018: stiuctuies such as foliation anu lineation that have a metamoiphic aspect
anu iecoiu sheaiing by uuctile flow.
-Buctile sheai zones foim unuei metamoiphic conuitions anu iesult in metamoiphoseu
iocks with metamoiphic mineials anu foliation.
-The sheaieu iocks aie often tectonites oi mylonitic iocks.
S. !12/@;>/4461 !G13> W<018: en echelon veins anu stylolites anu involve mechanisms such as
piessuie solution anu cataclastic flow.
-They have Noue I fiactuies filleu by veins.
4. M>/4461@:D54/61 !G13> W<018: have both biittle anu uuctile uefoimation that foim wheie
conuitions uuiing sheaiing weie eithei inteimeuiate oi changeu between uuctile anu biittle.
-They contain bouuins, iock fiagments, anu poiphyioclasts of the moie biittle mineials anu
iock types.
-They foim when:
-Physical conuitions peimit biittle anu uuctile uefoimation to occui at the same time,
-uiffeient paits of a iock have uiffeient mechanical piopeities,
-a sheai zone stiain haiuens,
-a shoit-teim change in physical conuitions causes the iock to switch fiom uuctile to
biittle mechanisms oi vice veisa,
-physical conuitions change systematically uuiing uefoimation, oi
-a sheai zone is ie-activateu unuei physical conuitions uiffeient fiom the oiiginal.
S0FTENINu IN B0CTILE SBEAR 0NES
1. !<=410/09 HD1 4< N>3/0 !/R1 #1:D54/<0
-Aftei uefoimation theie is a ieuuction of giain size. Befoimation mechanisms aie most
efficient in fine-giaineu iocks, so this leaus to stiain softening anu continueu localization of
sheai.
-It also allows foi a change in the uefoimation mechanism.
2. N1<214>/5 !<=410/09
-uiains iotate uuiing uefoimation until theii slip systems aie moie favoiably oiienteu foi
slip. This leaus to a ciystallogiaphic piefeiieu oiientation anu oveiall weakening of the
iock.
S. #1354/<0 !<=410/09
-Befoimation is accompanieu by the foimation of new mineials that uefoim moie easily
than the oiiginal mineials.
4. B6D/:@#16341: !<=410/09
-Fluius may uissolve anu iemove giains that otheiwise iesist uuctile uefoimation.
-Fluius may ueposit new mineials that aie weakei than pie-existing mineials. veins can
concentiate fuithei stiain because they aie weakei, finei giaineu, anu less uefoimeu.
-It can cause hyuiolytic weakening.
-An inciease in the abunuance of fluius may cause cieep which causes fuithei uefoimation.

-Stiain haiuening in uuctile sheai zones: in oiuei foi a sheai zone to wiuen it must be moie uifficult
to continue uefoiming iocks tin the sheai zone than it is to uefoim the aujacent wall iocksit must
unueigo stiain haiuening ielative to the wall iocks.

STRAIN IN SBEAR Z0NES
-Befoimation within sheai zones is accommouateu by uisplacement on uisciete bieaks, stiaining of
iocks within oi aujacent to the sheai one, anu by iotation of iigiu objects in the sheai zone.
-Stiain in sheai zones may have components of uistoition anu uilation anu is heteiogeneous.
-It can involve coaxial uefoimation (puie sheai) oi noncoaxial uefoimation (simple sheai)
oi both.
-!G13> *6301QB6<J *6301: the common plane that paiticles flow towaiu unuei sheai stiain. It is
any one of a family of planes that is oiienteu paiallel to the sheai zone anu to the flow plane of the
uefoimation.
-S05>1210436QS084304301<D8 !4>3/0 +66/E81: poitiays how a ciicle is affecteu by a small inciement
of uefoimation.
Instantaneous Stietching Axes:
S1: uiiection anu magnituue of most iapiu extension.
SS: uiiection anu magnituue of most iapiu shoitening.
-%<3C/36: in puie sheai the axes aie paiallel anu peipenuiculai to the sheai plane (finite anu
instantaneous axes aie aligneu).
-Notion of paiticles about the sheai zone is symmetiical.
-L<>4/5/47 is zeio.
- ?<0@%<3C/36: in simple sheai the axes aie inclineu at 4S uegiees to the sheai plane at the
beginning anu then iotate (finite anu instantaneous axes aien't aligneu).
-Notion of paiticles about the sheai zone is asymmetiical.
-voiticity isn't zeio.

BETERNININu SENSE 0F SBEAR
-!G13>@81081 /0:/534<>8: featuies that ieveal the sense of sheai foi a uefoimation.
-Fiame of iefeience: which uiiection to look. This can be the sheai zone itself, the foliation, etc.
-Line of tianspoit: the uiiection within the sehai zone along which ielative uisplacement
occuiieu.
-Sense-of-sheai plane: the plane we inspect foi sheai-sense inuicatois.
1. -==814 F3>P1>8: ueteimine the amount anu sense of uisplacement.
2. H1=6154/<0 <= 23>P1>8: obseive how a maikei is ueflecteu as it goes fiom the wall iocks into the
sheai zone; it ieflects the sense of sheai of the zone if you aie looing at the sense-of-sheai plane.
-ueometiy can be useu to ueteimine the amount of uisplacement.
S. B<6/34/<0 *3441>08:
-Foliation is inclineu to the sheai zone foi non-coaxial uefoimation anu leans ovei in the
sense of sheai. It has a cuiveu oi sigmoiual shape acioss a sheai zone with a sense of
ueflection consistent with the oveiall sense of sheai.
4. Sheai Banus, S-C Fabiics, anu 0blique Nicioscopic Foliation
-!G13> ;30:8: thin zones of veiy high sheai stiain within the main sheai zone. Foliation is
ueflecteu towaiu paiallelism with the banus; the foliation patteins mimic the patteins of
the sheai zone.
-Synthetic: inclineu in the same uiiection as the oveiall sense of sheai.
-Antithetic: inclineu in the opposite uiiection of the oveiall sense of sheai.
-Extensional: sheai banus with noimal uisplacement.
-!@% =3;>/58: two sets of planes oi suifaces (foliation (S) anu sheai banus (C)). S-suifaces
ueflect towaiu paiallelism with a C-suiface as they appioach it anu have a uistinct sigmoiual
shape between aujacent C-suifaces.
--;6/ID1 2/5><85<E/5 =<6/34/<0: aligneu sub-giains oblique to the long axis of laigei
inuiviuual giains anu iibbons.
S. F/53 B/8G: lenticulai poiphyioclasts of muscovite anu biotite. They aie asymmetiic to mylonitic
foliation anu sheai banus. They lean ovei in the sense of sheai anu aie aligneu with S-suifaces.
6. S056D8/<08: uisciete objects that aie lithologicallymechanically uistinct in some way fiom the
matiix of the sheai zone. They aie moie iigiu than theii suiiounuings. The shape of an inclusion
ieflects its oiiginal shape anu inuicates whethei it was iigiu oi uefoimable uuiing sheaiing.
-Inclusions pioviue sense-of-sheai info by the way they iotate, uefoim, ie-ciystallize, anu
inteiact with theii matiix.
-An inclusion may have an asymmetiy ieflecting its set of iotation.
7. *>188D>1 !G3:<J8: weuge-shapeu aieas composeu of less uefoimeu matiix oi mineials that
giewie-ciystallizeu uuiing uefoimation in shielueu aieas.
-Antitaxial giowth: fibeis giow fiom the matiix inwaiu towaiu the inclusion.
-Syntxial giowth: fibeis giow outwaiu fiom the inclusion.
-Composite: outei fiinge of antitaxial fibeis anu syntaxial fibeis by the inclusion.
-Bisplacement-contiolleu fibeis: fibeis within piessuie shauows giow paiallel to the local
uisplacement uiiection between the inclusion anu its matiix.
-They foim paiallel o the axis of maximum instantaneous extension.
8. Poiphyioclasts anu Poiphyioblasts:
-*<>EG7><563848 (ielics of piotolith) gain wings uuiing uefoimation; the wings initially
uevelop paiallel to the maximum instantaneous extension uiiection anu become uiawn out
in the uiiection of maximum finite extension.
-*<>EG7><;63848 (giains that giew uuiing oi aftei uefoimation): inclusion tiails of
poiphyioblasts ieveal the iotation of the inclusion anu uocuments the sense of sheai.
9. B<6/34/<0 Fish: lenticulai oi sigmoiual masses that aie uiscontinuity-bounueu mateiials ieflect
the sense of sheai.
1u. B>354D>1: 30: -==814 N>3/08: sense of uisplacement can be a sheai-sense inuicatoi, but not
entiiely ieliable.
11. L1/08: aie goou sheai-sense inuicatois because theii oiientations aie commonly contiolleu by
the instantaneous stietching axes. They aie oiienteu peipenuiculai to the axis of maximum
instantaneous uiiection. They foim in the same oiiginal oiientation even aftei uefoimation, so that
multiple geneiations can be compaieu to the oiiginal.'
-Fibeis in veins giow paiallel to the uiiection of maximum instantaneous extension anu
lean ovei in the sense of sheai.
12. B<6:8: asymmetiic intia-folial folus ieflect the sense of sheai.
-Sheath folus: non-cylinuiical folus that have a long axis paiallel to lineation anu theii shape
ieflects the sense of sheai.

uE0NETRY ANB BSTRIB0TI0N 0F STRAIN IN SBEAR Z0NES
-!/2E61 8G13>: iock masses aie uiviueu nto uomains in which the uefoimation can be consiueieu
homogeneous. Each uomain is uefineu by a finite stiain ellipse.
-The stiain ellipses become moie elliptical towaiu the centei of the zone, iecoiuing a
continuous stiain giauient peipenuiculai to the sehai zone.
-Theie is no stiain giauient paiallel to the sheai zone.
-!4>3/0 %<2E34/;/6/47: lateial vaiiations in stiain aie systematic; stiain can vaiy within a
heteiogeneously uefoimeu mateiial without causing stiuctuial uiscontinuities oi anomalies.

FABRIC BEvEL0PNENT ANB TBE AN00NT 0F STRAIN IN SBEAR Z0NES
-Stiain in sheai zones iesults in the foimation of fabiics uefineu by the shapes of uefoimeu objects.
1. !4>3/0@!108/4/A1 !G3E1 B3;>/58: paiallel to the finite stiain ellipse anu iecoiu the total finite
stiain of the mateiial in which they aie founu.
-Foi simple sheai, the angle between foliation anu the sheai zone, as measuieu paiallel to
the sheai uiiection on the sense-of-sheai plane, is uiiectly ielateu to the sheai stiain.
2. !4>3/0@/08108/4/A1 !G3E1 B3;>/58: iecoiu some of the finite stiain.
-Nicioscopic oblique foliation leans ovei in the sense of sheai, although it is a highei angle
to the sheai zone than the main stiain-sensitive foliation. They aie inteimeuiate in position
between finite anu instantaneous stiain ellipses.
S. Composite Shape Fabiics: contain sheai banus anu a stiain-sensitive oi -insensitive fabiic.
-!@% B3;>/58: foliation anu sheai banus that aie at an angle to one anothei, inuicating the
sense of sheai. S-Suifaces aie the stiain-sensitive fabiic. C-suifaces aie aligneu paiallel to
the sheai zone.
-"7E1 S: S-suifaces aie stiain-sensitive foliation anu C-suifaces cioss-cut sheai
banus.
-"7E1 SS: S-suifaces aie stiain-insensitive anu C-suifaces aie thin sheai ones with
tiails of uefoimeu mica sheaieu off the mica fish in the foliation.
-+C4108/<036 !G13> M30:8: oblique to the main sheai one that cioss-cut the main foliation.
-They occui in one uominant set that is synthetic to the oveiall sheai sense of the
main sheai zone.