GENDER RELATIONS in LATE COLONIAL INDONESIA: A BRIEF OVERVIEW and THEIR PORTRAYAL in THREE MODERN INDONESIAN NOVELS Nur

Wulan*)
Abstract In late colonial period of Dutch colonisation in the Indies, reformative policies in education and marriage potentially opened up more room for womens autonomy. These policies challenged the full autonomy of indigenous men. However, the growth of the nationalist spirit of the period had the effect of re-asserting hegemonic masculinity. The ambivalences and ambiguities accompanying the interference of the colonial authority in gender-related matters, such as marriage and education for girls, can be seen in the representation of male protagonists in three novels written in the late phase of Dutch colonisation. These novels are Belenggu, Layar Terkembang, and Manusia Bebas. There are clear indications in all three novels that modern values are important and are to be embraced. Yet, reluctance to adopt modern ideas emerges when they can potentially reduce the privileges and autonomy that have been long enjoyed by men. This emerges in the writers portrayals of their female characters as they pursue and enact their own ideals of autonomy. In all cases, the novels represent changes which are occurring in gender relations among the urban, nationalist elite of the time. They do not speak for changes in Indonesian society as a whole, but they point towards changes that were to affect broader segments of Indonesian society in the postcolonial period. Keyword: gender relation, colinal indonesia, novel

Introduction Colonialism is a form of cultural contact which is influential in the construction of gender relations. Beside Indian and Islamic influences, European influences brought about by Dutch colonialism were pivotal in the construction of gender relations during the process of state formation that eventually resulted in the modern nation state of Indonesia. In relation to the construct of masculinities, the rising awareness of womens rights as one of the impacts of m od er ni t y i ntr oduced by Dutc h colonisation needs to be taken into account. The awareness emerged as Dutch colonial policies to reform the wellbeing of indigenous people became
*)

institutionalised in the late phase of colonial period.This article discusses the ways these reformative policies affected womans identity and how they challenged indigenous masculinities in the late stages of the colonial encounter. Sources discussed are drawn both from historical accounts on the impacts of the policies on education for girls and marriage, as well literary representations that touch on related issues. Colonial intrusion and its impacts on gender relations and masculinities In late colonial period, both in Indonesia and elsewhere, female colonial subjects often became the object and site of the imposition of reformative colonial policies. In the minds of reformist and

Departemen sastra Inggris Fakultas sastra UNAIR telp (031) 5035676, email wulaneka@yahoo.com

28