P

a
g
e
1

Topics by Chapter for Semester I Final Exam: Units A, B, C and D (Ch 1-11, 13 and 25)
Ch 1 &2: Measurement, Mixtures, Separation (emphasis on particulate diagrams) and Naming
Ch 3: Stoichiometry, Limiting Reactants, Percent Composition, Percent Yield, Mole Relationships, Empirical and
Molecular Formula
Ch 4: Molarity, Strong Acid- Strong Base Titrations, Types of Reactions, Net Ionic Equations
Ch 5: Thermochemistry, Specific Heat, Hesss Law, Coffee-cup Calorimetry, Enthalpies of Formation and
Combustion
Ch 6: Wave Nature of Light, Wave length and frequency relationship, Bohrs Model of Hydrogen atom, Calculating
Energy of an Electron, Electron Configurations, Paramagnetism and Diamagnetism,
Ch 7: Periodic Trends- Atomic Radius, Ionization Energy, Electron Affinity, Metallic Character, Boiling/ Melting
Points and Electronegativity, Coulombs Law, Group Trends for common groups
Ch 8: Chemical Bonding- Ionic, Molecular, Metallic and Covalent Network Bonding, Lattice Energy, Bond Energy,
MO theory
Ch 9: Lewis Structures, Bond Polarity and dipole moments, Molecular Geometries, VSEPR model, Hybridization
Ch 10: Gases, Ideal Gas Law, Maxwells Distribution, Gas stoichiometry, Collecting gas over water, partial
pressure, KMT, Real Gases
Ch 11: Intermolecular Forces- H bond, Dipole-dipole attraction, LDFs , Vapor Pressure, Properties of liquids-
viscosity and surface tension
Ch 12: Not included
Ch 13: Properties of solutions: Molarity and Solubility Curves
Ch 25: Organic Chemistry: Naming Hydrocarbons, alkanes, alkenes, alkynes (nomenclature), Isomerism- structural
and geometric, Addition and Substitution Reactions




























AP Chemistry: Review for I Semester Final Exam 2013

P
a
g
e
2

Unit: 1
Chapter: 1





Elements Substances that cannot be decomposed further
Coumpounds Substances composed of two or more elements
Mixtures Combinations of two or more substances
Solid-Solid Hand Seperation
Solid-Liquid
Solid-Solid
Filtration
Shake it, let it sit
Used to seperate immiscible Liquids
Parts seperate out, removed one by one
Seperating Funnel
Heavier Particles on bottom, lighter particles on top
Solid liquid
Centrifugation
Differences in boiling points to seperate homogenous mixture
Liquid-Liquid
Distillation
Seperate Homogenous Mixtures on basis of solubility
Stationary, mobile phase, where mobile phase acts as a solvent
Extend of seperation depends on solubility of mobile phase.
Chromatography
Separation of Mixtures

P
a
g
e
3

Extensive
Properties
Depends on the amount of
matter present
Examples: mass, heat, color,
volume
Intensive
Properties
Does not depend on the amount
of matter present
Examples: melting point, boiling
point, density, conductivity

























P
a
g
e
4

- Laws
















-





A: Mass number (protons + neutrons)
Z: Atomic number (number of protons, number of electrons)
- 1 AMU is 1/12 the mass of one C-12 atom






A pure compound always contains the same elements in the same
proportions by mass.
Law of Definite
Proportions
Mass is neither created nor destroyed during ordinary chemical or
physical reactions.
Law of Conservation
of Mass
When elements combine to form more than a single compound, the
ratios of the masses of the combining elements can be expressed by a
ratio of small whole numbers.
Law of Multiple
Proportions
EX: Prove that SO
2
and SO
3
obey the law of multiple proportions":
SO
2
32:32 (1:1) ratio
SO
3
32:48 (1:1.5) ratio
The ratio of oxygen is 1:1.5, or 2:3, which is a whole number ratio.

Z
E
A
- Calculates the
average atomic mass
of all the isotopes of
a particular element
- Tells us roughly the
weight compared to
other atoms.
- Weighted average
of the atomic masses
of naturally occuring
isotopes of an
element
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

A
o
m
i
c

M
a
s
s

A
v
e
r
a
g
e

A
t
o
m
i
c

M
a
s
s


P
a
g
e
5



- Significant Figures
o All digits known with certainty, plus one digit, which is somewhat uncertain:
o 31.23: (31.2 is known for certain. The .03 is approximated)
o IF DECIMAL POINT IS PRESENT (PACIFIC)
Count digits from left side, starting with the first nonzero digit.
EX: 4.5600 5 sigfigs
o IF NO DECIMAL POINT IS ABSENT (ATLANTIC)
Count digits from right side, starting from first nonzero digit.
EX: 1200 2 sigfigs

P
a
g
e
6

o Operations
Addition, Subtraction:
- Answer rounded to the smaller number of digits past the decimal point
from the two numbers
- EX: 56.31g 14.1g = 42.2
Multiplication, Division
- Answer must have the same number of sigfigs as the least certain
number.
- EX: 2.4/15.82 = 38









P
a
g
e
7

Chapter 2:














Democritus, 400 BC
Everything is made up of a few simple particles called atomos
(uncuttable)
envisioned atomos as small, solid particles of many different sizes
and shapes.
Ideas rejected by Aristotle, who supported earth, wind, water, and
fire approach .
Dalton, 1808
SEE DALTONS ATOMIC THEORY in vocab
Successfully explained the three laws below.
JJ Thomson
(1897)
Discovery of electrons
Cathode ray tube experiment
Cations (+) and Anions (-) (ions)
Also deduced that Atoms must have positively charged particle
Charge to mass ratio (e/m)
Propsed Plum Pudding model, with electrons embedded in a
positively charged spherical cloud .
Ernest Rutherford
(1911)
Gold foil experiment, bombarding thin gold foil with alpha particles
Most of space in atom was empty
In center of atom, there was a small, positively charged nucleus.
Other Scientists
Millikan: Charge of electron
Goldstein: Discoverd the Proton, through canal waves.
Chadwick: Neutron

P
a
g
e
8

- Common monatomic ions
1+ 2+ 3+ 4+
Sodium Na
+
Magnesium Li
2+
Aluminum Al
3+
Lead(IV) Pb
4+

Potassium K
+
Calcium Mg
2+
Chromium(III) Cr
3+
Vanadium(IV) V
4+

Rubidium Rb
+
Strontium Sr
2+
Iron(III) Fe
3+
Tin(IV) Sn4
+

Cesium Cs
+
Barium Ba
2+
Lead(III) Pb
3+

Copper (I) Cu
+
Cadmium Cd
2+
Vanadium(III) V
3+

Silver Ag
+
Chromium(II) Cr
2+

Lithium

Li
+
Cobalt(II) Co
2+

Copper(II) Cu
2+

Iron(II) Fe
2+

Lead(II) Pb
2+

Manganese(II) Mn
2+

Mercury(II) Hg
2+

Nickel(II) Ni
2+

Tin(II) Sn
2+

Vanadium(II) V
2+

Zinc Zn
2+


- Common Polyatomic ions:
1- 2+ 3+
Acetate CH
3
COO
-
Carbonate CO
2
2-
Phosphate PO
4
3-

Bromate BrO
3
-
Chromate CrO
4
2-

Arsenate AsO
4
3-

Chlorate CLO
3
-
Dichromate Cr
2
O
7
2-


Chlorite CLO
2
-
Hydrogen
Phosphate
HPO
4
2-


Cyanide CN
-
Oxalate C
2
O
4
2-


Dihydrogen
Phosphate
H
2
PO
4
-
Peroxide O
2
2-

Hydrogen
Carbonate
HCO
3
-
Sulfate SO
4
2-


Hydrogen
Sulfate
HSO
4
-

Sulfite SO
3
2-


Hydroxide OH
-


Hypochlorite CLO
-
1+ 2+
Nitrate NO
3
-

Ammonium NH
4
-
Dimercury Hg
2
2+

Nitrite NO
2
-

Perchlorate CLO
4
-


Permanganate MnO
4
-




P
a
g
e
9








Binary
Ionic
Compound
Compounds composed of two different ions,
nonmetal and metal
Naming: Name of cation, plus name of anion. If
the ion has multiple charges, name it with the
charge in Roman Numerals.
(Anions named with
stem of name + ide
added to the end.)
ex: NACL:
Sodium Chloride
Binary
Molecular
Compound
Compounds composed of two different nonmetals
Naming: Name of two elements with prefix
attached.
(For the first element,
only add a prefix if > 1)
ex: P
4
O
10
:
TetraPhosphorous
Decoxide
Ternary
Ionic
Compound
Compounds composed of two different ions, with at
least one being a polyatomic ion.
Naming: Name of first ion, plus name of
second ion.
Suffix of monotomic
anions are changed to -
ide
ex: (NH
4
)
3
PO
4
:
Ammonium Phosphate
Binary Acid
Compounds with two nonmetallic ionic elements, the
first being Hydrogen
Naming: Hydro + stem or root of nonmetal + ic

+
___Acid
(There can be multiple
Hydrogens)
ex: HCL
Hydrochloric Acid
Ternary
Acid
Compounds with two nonmetallic ionic compounds,
the first being Hydrogen.
Naming: If polyatomic ion has suffix of -ate or -ide,
<root> + ic + acid
If the ion has suffix
ite, <root> + ous

+
acid
ex: HNO
2

Nitrous Acid
Hydrate
Compound Hydrated with Water
Naming: Name the compound,
then the Greek prefix, and
then add -hydrate.
ex: CuSO
4
5 H
2
O
copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate

P
a
g
e
1
0


P
x
Q
y

YES NO
Does it start with
H?
Does it start with
H?
Does it start with
a metal?
YES NO
Y
N
Y
N
Binary
Acid
Binary
Ionic
Binary
Molecular
Ternary
Ionic
Ternary
Acid

P
a
g
e
1
1

Chapter 3:
Formula weight (FW): same as MW, except for ionic substances in which no molecule
exists. Then, FW is the simplest integer ratio of moles of each element (ions) present.
Ex: NaCl is a 3D array of ions
FW = 22.99 + 35.453 = 58.44 amu
Stoichiometry, Limiting Reactants, Percent Composition, Percent Yield, Mole Relationships, Empirical and
Molecular Formula problems
Chapter 4:

















Molarity (M) = moles solute = mol
volume of solution L
Since volume of a solution changes with temperature, M of a solution changes with
temp. too. M is a good unit in measuring the conc. of a solution under constant
temp conditions like during an experiment in the lab. Ex. Titration
Molality (m) = moles solute = mol
kg of solvent kg
Since mass of a solution is temp. independent, m does not change with change in
temp, hence m is a good unit to use for solution conc. when temp is changing. Ex.
B.P. Elevation, F.P. Depression
*Normality (N): associated with acid & base
strength. Normality = molarity x n (where n = the
number of protons exchanged in a reaction).
= (moles solute)(# of acid/base equivalents) =
volume of solution
mol/L
Ex. N of 1M H2SO4 will be 2N.
N was used earlier to express concentration of acids/bases
but is obsolete now.


P
a
g
e
1
2









Dilution: MV = MV


TITRATION
-It is a method to determine the molarity of unknown acid or base
- In titration, an acid or base of unknown molarity is titrated against a standard solution (whose M is known)
of acid or base.
- The end point in a titration is indicated by a color change by the indicator. Indicators are weak acids or
bases and are added in small quantity (1-3 drops) to indicate the end point.
- At equivalence point (which should be close to end point),
moles of H+ = moles of OH-
M1V1= M2 V2 (sometimes used to get moles , M= moles/L , so moles= M XV)
-What other ways can you get the moles- for a solid acid or base? For a gas?
-color change by indicator indicates end point
-end point and equivalence points should be close. Equivalence point is defined when moles of acid and base
become equal in a titration and end point is where the indicator changes color.

P
a
g
e
1
3

Unit: 2
Chapter: 5





Thermochem
Enthalpy change: Depends on physical state of
substance.
Calorimetry: Measuring enthalpy change.
Specific Heat: Amount of energy required to raise the
temperature of one substance by 1 degree kelvin
The heat evolved or absorbed
in a chemical process is the
same whether the process
takes place in one or in
several steps.
energy changes are state
functions
Hess's
Law
Breaking bonds is an endothermic
process
Making bonds is an exothermic
process

P
a
g
e
1
4

System
Isolated portion of
study
Surroundings
Everything else
Force
A push or pull on an
object
Work
Energy transferred to
move an object
W = FD
Heat
Energy transferred
from a hotter ovject to
a colder one.
AE > 0 Increase
in energy of
system (gained
from
surroundings)
Endothermic
AE < 0 Decrease
in energy of
system (lost to
surroundings)
Exothermic
DE = q + w

P
a
g
e
1
5



q
rxn
+ q
solution
= 0









q > 0: Heat is added to system
q < 0 : Heat is removed from system
(into surroundings)
w > 0: Work done to system
w < 0: System does work on
surroundings

P
a
g
e
1
6

Chapter 6
LIGHT:























- For waves traveling at the same velocity (longer
the wavelength, the smaller the frequency):
o Wavelength: Distance between two
consecutive peaks or troughs in a wave.
o Frequency: Shows how many waves pass
a given point per second.
o Speed: Indicates how fast a given peak is
moving through space.
o Speed of light ,c= ,where l=wave length
and n =frequency
- Two properties that exhibit the wave like
behavior of light are interference and diffraction.

- The wave nature of light does not explain how an
object can glow when its temperature increases.
o Max Planck explained it by assuming that
energy comes in packets called quanta.
Einstein Discovered E = h
E = energy of radiation
h= Plancks constant (6.626 x 1034 J-s.)
v= frequency of radiation


Wave Particle
Electromagnetic Radiation
Electromagnetic radiation is one of the ways in which energy travels through space. All forms of EMR
compose the electromagnetic radiation spectrum, which includes sun rays, microwaves, X- rays, visible
spectrum, UV rays and IR rays.

All electromagnetic
radiation travels at the
same velocity: the speed
of light (c), 3.00 10
8

m/s.
Therefore, c = v
Quantization of
Energy:

P
a
g
e
1
7














- Einstein and DeBroglie both talked about dual wave particle nature.

- Photoelectric effect:
It refers to the emission of electrons from a metal, when the light shines on the metal. For each
metal the frequency of light needed to release the electrons is different. But the wave theory of
light could not explain it. The photoelectric effect led scientists to think about the dual nature of
light i.e. as a wave and a particle both.
Bohrs Model of the Hydrogen Atom
An excited atom can release some or all of its excess energy by emitting a
photon, thus moving to a lower energy state.
The lowest possible energy state of an atom is called the ground state.
Different wavelengths of light carry different amount of energy per photon. Ex.
A beam of red light has a lower energy photons than beam of blue light.
Electrons in an atom can only occupy certain orbits (corresponding to certain
energies).
Electrons in permitted orbits have specific, allowed energies; these energies
will not be radiated from the atom.
Energy is only absorbed or emitted in such a way as to move an electron from
one allowed energy state to another; the energy is defined by
E = hv
Black Body Radiation
Blackbody: object that absorbs all EM radiation that
strikes it; it can radiate all possible wavelengths of EM;
below 700 K, very little visible EM is produced; above
700 K visible E is produced starting at red, orange,
yellow, and white before ending up at blue as the
temperature increases
discovery that light intensity (energy
emitted per unit of time) is proportional
to T
4
; hotter = shorter wavelengthS

P
a
g
e
1
8


- Principles:






Impossible to determine simultaneously both the position and
velocity of an electron or other particle.
Heisenburg
Uncertainty
Principle
Mathematically: The wave properties of electrons or other very
small particles
Quantum Theory
Orbitals with the lowest energy fill up first. Aufbau Principle
No two electrons in the same orbital can have exactly the same
energy, so no two electrons in the same atom have the same exact
four quantum #'s.
Pauli Exclusion
Principle
When electrons are put into orbitals having the same energy,
degenerate orbitals, one electron is put into each orbital before
putting a second electron into an orbital.
Hunds Rule
n
i
= initial orbital of e-
n
f
= final orbital of e- in its transition
Movie on e transition
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
A
=
2
f
2
i
H
n
1
n
1
h
R
h
E
v

P
a
g
e
1
9



Electron Configuration: Shows energy level of electron, plus subshell



- Electron Configuration:









S
c
h
r
o
d
i
n
g
e
r
s

Q
u
a
u
n
t
u
m

M
e
c
h
a
n
i
c
a
l

M
o
d
e
l


The energy of electrons in atoms is quantized.
The number of possible energy levels for electrons in atoms of different
elements is a direct consequence of wave-like properties of electrons.
The position and momentum of an electron cannot both be determined
simultaneously.
The region in which an electron with a specific energy will most
probably be located is called an atomic orbital.
Shows energy of orbitals,
in order of smallest to
greatest, increasing by
the arrow
4p
5


Energy
level
(n)


P
orbital
5 electrons in the orbital

P
a
g
e
2
0




- Orbital diagrams


























Each box in the diagram represents one
orbital.
Half-arrows represent the electrons.
The direction of the arrow represents the
relative spin of the electron.
VOCAB
Ground State: Lowest energy state of an atom
Excited State: A state in which an atom has a
higher potential energy then it has in its ground
state
Orbital: A 3D region around the nucleus that
indicates the probable location of an electron

Notable Exceptions:
Cr & Mo: *Ar+ 4s
1
3d
5
not *Ar+ 4s
2
3d
4

Cu, Ag, & Au: *Ar+ 4s
1
3d
10
not *Ar+ 4s
2
3d
9


P
a
g
e
2
1

Chapter 7























S block elements: Group 1 & 2

- Chemically reactive metals, group 1 more reactive than group 2. Group Configuration: ns
1-2

o Alkali metals: silvery appearance, soft enough to cut with a knife, not found in nature as free
elements. Hydrogen shares electron configuration, but not properties.
o Alkaline-earth metals: harder, denser, stronger, and have a higher melting point than group 1.
Too reactive to be found uncombined in nature. Helium shares electron- configuration but not
properties.
P block elements: Group 13-18
- Includes all the three types of elements: metals, non-metals and metalloids. Group Configuration:
ns
2
np
1-6

o Includes Halogens, most reactive of the nonmetals. React vigorously with most metals to form
salts.
o P block metals are generally harder & denser than s block metals, but softer & less dense than
d block metals. They are found in nature solely as compounds, except for bismuth.

D block elements: Group 3-12
- Transition Elements: metals with typical properties; good conductors, high luster.
o Less reactive than s block, many existing in nature as free elements.
o Electrons added to the d sublevel of the preceding energy level (n-1).
o Group configuration: (n-1)d1-10ns 0-2
o Some deviations from orderly d sublevel filling occur in group 4-11(s electrons jumping to d
sublevel)

F-block elements
- F-block elements are wedged between groups 3 and 4 in the sixth and seventh period, consisting of
lanthanides and actinides
o Most elements are radioactive
o Trans Uranium elements are all synthetic
o Group Configuration: ns 0-2 (n-1) d 0-1 (n-2)f 1-14
o orderly d sublevel filling occur in group 4-11(s electrons jumping to d sublevel)


P
a
g
e
2
2

- Atomic Properties
o Effective Nuclear Charge: approximate net nuclear charge felt by the highest energy
electrons.
E
eff
= Z S
S = shielding effect (e present between nucleus and valence shell
electrons), Z = number of protons
o Ionic Radii
Cation = positive ion
Anion = negative ion


Atomic Radius
Half the distance
between the nuclei of
two atoms of the same
element
Decreases Across
The increase in positive
charge of each
succesive element pulls
in the electrons closer
and closer, as they
remain the same
distance from the
nucleus
Increases Down
Electrons are farther
away from the nucleus,
and there is a greater
number of electrons
between energy levels.
Ionization Energy
Amount of energy
required to remove an e
from a neutral atom in
its gaseous state.
Increases Across
Across the period, there
is a stronger E
eff
, so
there is a stronger
connection between the
valence shell and the
nucleus. Therefore, it
becomes harder to pull
electrons away.
Decreases Down
Since the charge
decreases down the
group, it becomes easier
to pull the electron
away, as there is less of
an attraction.

Electron Affinity
Amount of energy
released when e is
added to a gaseous
atom in its neutral state
Increases Across
Because the E
eff
is
stronger across a
period, the charge
between the nucleus
and the valence shell is
stronger. Therefore,
when an electron is
taken, more energy is
released
Decreases Down
The atomic radii
increases, indicating
that there is not much
attraction down a
group. Therefore, less
charge means less
energy released when
an electron is added.
Electronegativity
The measure of the
ability of an atom in a
chemical compound to
attract electrons.
Increases Across
As you go across a
period, the E
eff
is
stronger. The nucleus is
more easily able to hold
another electron, and
the resulting diffusion of
charge will still result in
a high charge for the
nucleus
Decreases Down
As the atomic radii
increases, the total
distance increases
between the valence
and the nucleus, so it
becomes harder to
attract and retain
electrons.
Flourine is arbitrarily
assigned a value of 4.0

P
a
g
e
2
3

- Explanation of Trends






P
a
g
e
2
4

MO Theory



Antibonding, Higher in
Energy

P
a
g
e
2
5

The more overlap between AOs the lower the energy of the bonding orbital they create and
the higher the energy of the antibonding orbital.

Coulombs Law

where Q
1
represents the quantity of charge on object 1 (in Coulombs), Q
2
represents the
quantity of charge on object 2 (in Coulombs), and d represents the distance of separation
between the two objects (in meters). The symbol k is a proportionality constant known as the
Coulomb's law constant.