The Rehabilitation of Violence Fanon

The Rehabilitation of Violence and the Violence of Rehabilitation: Fanon and Colonialism Author(s): Messay Kebede Source: Journal
of Black Studies, Vol. 31, No. 5 (May, 2001), pp. 539-562 Published by: Sage Publications, Inc. Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2668075 . Accessed: 27/11/2013 14:47
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Sage Publications, Inc. is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Journal of Black Studies.
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded from 200.89.69.121 on Wed, 27 Nov 2013 14:47:02 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
THE REHABILITATION OF VIOLENCE AND THE VIOLENCE OF REHABILITATION Fanon and Colonialism
MESSAY KEBEDE
University ofDayton
in thespecific It is generally admitted that case of self-defense involving persons or nations, recourse to violenceis a legitimate choice.Outsidesuchcases of self-defense, has the onlythestate to it legitimate power use violence, being assumed that themonophowindividuals oly of violenceby thestateis precisely giveup own right to violenceand agreeto come undera political their suchas Marxism, havealso approved authority. However, theories, violenceas a legitimate expression of revolutionary movements. as a midwife violence ofhistory Theyidentify whereby emerging social demands overthrow higher outdated andreactionary social systems. Frantz Fanonprovided us with a newlegitimation of violence from thespecific case ofcolonialoppression. issuing that Arguing is qualitatively from colonialism different forms ofconprevious Fanonrecommended violenceforreasons questand subjugation, thenecessity ofself-defense ortheremoval ofa rotten surpassing socialsystem. He seesviolence as a necessary for a cultural therapy The diseasebrought about colonial mere by subjugation. departure of thecolonizer is notenough;liberation and dignity cannot be unless the colonizedget involved in violentperforrecovered mances. Thisarticle first examines the reasons andexperiences that a curative with effect andthen evaluled Fanontoendowviolence ofhisinterpretation. atestheconsistency
JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES, Vol. 31 No. 5, May 2001 539-562 ? 2001 Sage Publications, Inc. 539
540 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MAY 2001
THE NEED FOR REHABILITATION
The almost-universal agreement of native as well as Western onthenecessity ofrehabilitation scholars underlines that colonialismhasbeena qualitatively different form ofconquest. Thedeparture ofthecolonizer or theconquest ofpolitical independence is onlya first step.Colonialdiscourse andrulehaveso dehumanized haveto go through and degraded colonizedpeoplesthat they the ofrelearning tobe human. Thetagofprimitiveness wholeprocess for onthem, thecontempt andcomplete destruction oftheir affixed into their forced assimilation theEuropean culture cultural legacy, intheinculcation, all haveresulted the ata reduced price, deepinto soulofeachcolonized ofa devastating person, inferiority complex. Not onlydoes thisinferiority all thedynamic complex paralyze colonized but italsoinstitutes a permanent state forces ofthe world, ofdependency, which further theinability ofcolonized aggravates the togo outoftheir and peoplestoeffect necessary changes misery existence. To show how the peripheral deep-seated phenomenon of a scholar alienation under colonialruleis for Fanon, wrote,
whatnewinstitutions taketheplace oftheold,thepsyNo matter ofoppression effects continue tolinger, for chological perhaps cenEvenafter is declared, colonialism continturies. "independence" ues to residein the mindsof the nativepeople. Fanon's work of a thanthecolonization thateven moreterrible demonstrates is thecolonization ofthemind. country (Schoolman, 1979,p. 43)
In agreement with Fanonattributed thedistheprevailing view, tinctive feature ofcolonialism toitsracist ideology. Although previousforms ofconquest haveall entailed thecolonial subjugation, thecultural of hadtheparticularity ofdestroying enterprise legacy oftheconthenative peoplesinthenameoftheracialsuperiority In addition theright civilization. togiving theconquerors quering toconsider the natives as primitive, the racial uncivilized, hierarchy the ofthe natives so as to allowed fashioning byallmeans necessary Giventhisforceful harness them to theEuropean engine. practice a prominent ofNegritude, of estrangement, Aime figure namely, is notautomatic....It "Decolonization Cesaire(1959),concluded,
Kebede/VIOLENCE AND REHABILITATION 541
is alwaystheresult of a struggle, theresult of strenuous efforts. Eventhemost peaceful form ofdecolonization is always theresult ofa rupture" (pp. 125-126). Indeed, thecolonizers didnotleavebehind a state ofthings that canbe usedtobuild a newfuture. Thedevastation is suchthat notha resolute ingless than andforceful disengagement from itsafterInparticular, math is required. itnecessitates a wholework ofrehawhich the over and the bilitation above reappropriation by natives, ofbeing A major relearn the task human. moment ofindependence, is therestoration oftheir ofthis reacquaintance dignity bya reevalwhich havebeenexposed andcultural uation oftheir history legacy, anddebasement. to a systematic misinterpretation this ofrehabilitation as "a return Cesaire(1956) defined program tothesources" totheinspiration ofNegritude (p. 195).Itgavebirth hasbeencalledethnophilosophy. andtowhat onthe Thus, stressing theprominent ofNegritude, taskofrehabilitation, thinker Leopold as "theawareness, SedarSenghor (1970),characterized Negritude of African cultural defense anddevelopment values"(p. 179). For thebestwaytorefute thecolonialthesis ofprimitiveness Senghor, into a claimtoOtherness. Thecolonialalleis toturn theallegation wereitdemofbackwardness would be squarely gation dismissed, what as primitive that thecolonizer considers is onlythe onstrated a on of different civilization based dissimilar valuesand expression The comparative and evolutionary of people orientation. ranking no senseifitis proven that civilizations wereadvancing not makes onthesamelineofevolution butondivergent Oncetheplupaths. rality ofcivilizations is admitted, the Western technological superino as an with ority appears idiosyncratic development qualification orinferior torank as deficient tofollow difpeopleswhohappened The erection ofan idiosyncratic character intoa ferent directions. norm is nothing butan aberrant universal usurpation. ofrehabilitation of stretched thisstrategy to thepoint Senghor theracialdistinction BlackandWhite between endorsing peoples. his now famousracial distinction on the episteHe grounded and reason.According to between emotion mologicaldisparity "ata distance, Senghor (1995),Western rationality keepsthe object immobilizes itoutside time andinsomesenseoutside it space,fixes
ata way"doesnot keeptheobject whereas the African andslaysit," does notanalyzeit"but'feelsit" (p. 118). In Senghor's distance, and that of an epistemological divergence, mind, theacceptance lag without technological alone, can accountfor the African ofBlackpeoples. theinferiority thereby implying Senghor's line scholars resented many African Unsurprisingly, The claimtoemotional they said,does no knowledge, ofdefense. confirm thecolonialallegation oftheinferiority ofthe morethan that the oforiginality Senghor is trying Blackrace.No matter point todissociate Blackness from therational thevery attempt tomake, comesup againstthegoal of rehabilitation. typeof knowledge thevalorization ofthe AntaDiop (1970) eveninterpreted Cheikh of thedegreeto which"the as an indication emotional aptitude has lost"confidence in his ownpotential and Negrointellectual" that ofhisrace"(p. 23). thecolonialist that theBlack racehas proTo refute argument tothejobofdemonnogreat down duced Diop settled civilizations, civilization. ThetheAfrican ofancient the Egyptian origin strating technical of vindicated theoriginal inspiration sis ofBlack Egypt aneternal itturns into debtor Blackrace.Butfurther the Europe yet, scientific as well that theGreeks owetheir ofAfrica bysuggesting Farfrom endorsas philosophical to BlackEgyptians. inspiration oftheBlackrace,Diop operates an inveringthenontechnicality themerit of technical civilization to itsrightful restores sionthat an inversion ofsuchproportions initiator. Needlesstosay, African To quote Diop witha formidable redemptive power. is credited (1974),
willdiscover andsatisfaction, he [the To hisgreat African] surprise oftheideasusedtoday todomesticate, that most atrophy, dissolve, To become were conceived orstealhis"soul," byhisownancestors. a genuine thefirst consciousof thatfactis perhaps steptoward is thegeneral without it intellectual of himself; sterility retrieval what ofthesubhubearI know not orelsethe creations imprint rule, man.(p. xv)
andperfectly with thegoal ofrehabilitation Fanonsympathized as wellas the ofOtherness ofthestrategy themeaning understands
passionatesearchfora splendid past. Howeverdifferent these all aimatpersuading approaches many be,they Africans that they haveno reason toputup with thedegrading interpretation oftheir shouldreinterpret past.On thecontrary, they their pastin a way with their In thus consonant andinterests. thedispride countering abilities induced bycolonial rule, Africans prepare themselves for a promising future. Fanon(1982) concluded that the purpose ofthe return to thesource is to show,
to be ashamed ofinthepast, Therewas nothing butrather dignity, inthe Theclaimtoa national culture glory, andsolemnity. pastdoes that nation andserveas a justification forthe notonlyrehabilitate In thesphere national culture. ofpsycho-affective hopeofa future an important in thenative. itis responsible for equilibrium change (p. 210)
thescheme ofa return tothe withUnfortunately, pastbackfires, In theeyesofFanon, sometangible results. outevenproducing the ofthepast, itis,is a dangerous rehabilitation laudable though trap. irrelevance totheconcrete ofthestruggle is Itscomplete demands its immediate defect.Those African scholarswho assurethat Africa hadknown andadvanced brilliant ofciviprecolonial forms lization do notindicate to what extent this is relevant discovery to Africa from liberate itspresent andsubjugation. The memmisery In what ofa glorious over disabilities. ory pasthasnopower present ofa wonderful Fanon will"the sense, (1982) asked, proofs Songhai civilization the fact that the areunderfed ... change today Songhais headsand thrown between andwater with andilliterate, sky empty is thealleged empty eyes?"(p. 209). Notonly glorious pastpoweritdistracts Afriless toremove butworseyet, present disabilities, onthem a bygone cansfrom thetask athandbyconferring dignity. that ofthinking oftheir as something needto Instead dignity they willtend hereandnowbyconcrete Africans to conquer struggles, that had.Thisretrospective sitbackon a glory they already glory thetaskof dilutestheir anger, just as it movesthem awayfrom a newfuture. inventing Fanon(1967) insisted on theirrelevancy of ofthecanonization "a correspondence thepast.Evenifitis proven that hadflourished
and Plato,"stillhe "can absosomeNegrophilosopher between in thelivesof the notsee howthiswouldchangeanything lutely or of Martinique children wholaborin thecane fields 8-year-old to the past Guadeloupe"(p. 230). The pointis thatthe return notto say that is onlytheoretical, ofrehabilitation a form involves rhetbya shaky allegation ofa colonial Itis a refutation imaginary. sitand demeaning runs from the intricate away moreover, oricthat, of Giventhenature find themselves. inwhich thecolonized uation outoftheslumis notverwhat canpullthecolonized thesituation, their desfull buttheir identification with present bal regeneration, irreverent, and alonemakesthem rebellious, really which titution and revolutionary Theirwretchedness shapes their antithetical. that andarenothing havenothing Itis becausethey spirit. fighting intoquestion. By burdening are disposedto call everything they with a commitment to pastvalues,thebackwardtheir desolation Oncewretchedness spirit. weakens the revolutionary glory looking and itsnegativity it loses a contentment, of up with layer is covered notbe allowedto ethos. The valuesofthepastmust transforming upsidedown. everything in a struggle intent on turning interfere theextent of into detriment. ForFanon, grows Thusirrelevance thecolowhenwe takenotethat becomesevident thedrawback with themselves identify nolonger that they nizedhaveso changed abanto tradition or bring oneself thepast."The desireto attach "does not to lifeagain,"Fanon(1982) warned, donedtraditions butalso opposing thecurrent of history onlymeangoingagainst or an armed struggle one's ownpeople.Whena peopleundertakes the a relentless significolonialism, evena political against struggle colonialism words, cance of tradition changes" (p. 224). In other haveputpeoplein a situation colonialism andthestruggle against The successof thestruggle new and daring responses. requiring that of the the on posis,onthe appropriateness responses, depends that peopleare able to achieve.Such itiveand adequatechanges has becomeirrelewith a pastthat peopledo notwantto identity areoutto newvaluesandambitions, they vant. Havingdeveloped a todo with hasnothing Their restoring a newworld. create struggle the of The scheme it have been. sublime however may pastsociety, area dialectical thecolonized failstosee that return tothesources
of a pastsociety. Fanon product of colonialism andnota vestige that itis possible tocreate a Blackculture is toforsaid,"Tobelieve aredisappearing, justas those peoplewhobrought getthat niggers thebreakup oftheir economic andculthem intobeingareseeing tural supremacy" (p. 234). by Instead ofunderstanding Blackidentity as anoutcome forged theprocess oftheactualstruggle, Negritude resorts to a fixed and raceattribute, evenattheexpense ofendorsing colonial ahistorical of the Black The is definition result the ofAfrientity. descriptions interms that makeitalientomodem so can identity requirements What Africa andEuropeis further enlarged. that thegap between a defeatist attitude? This elsecancomeoutofthis estrangement but theeffects oftheestrangement: is howFanon(1967) depicted
himself onthis, andenlarging thedifHe [the Negro] congratulates theincomprehension, thedisharmony, hefinds inthem the ference, ofhisrealhumanity.... Anditis with ragein hismouth meaning in his heart in thevastblack that he buries himself and abandon so heroically absolute, abyss. We shall see thatthis attitude, thepresent inthenameofa mystical renounces andthefuture past. (p. 16)
Andifthedenialofrationality andtechnicalness hadsomeuseIthasnone, sinceeveninterms ofmysticism theAfrifuloutcome! anassured willhave is lessthan cansuperiority position. Europeans suchas you "Wehavehadearth theeasygameofretorting: mystics what is African willnever p. 129).Indeed, approach" (Fanon,1967, of reached to the by depth mystic eccentricity mysticism compared a stage abandoned a longtime medieval agone?Thuswhen Europe, a positive attribute Africans themselves justtoavoidtheevodeny areshown that hasdonebetter Europe lutionary interpretation, they Andwhen claim eveninthat denial. Africans, rejecting Otherness, civilizations to the these that had comparable West, appearas they toa toa form oflifethat Europehasdeveloped clumsy aspirations "Thus my Fanon(1967) noted, degreeunreachable by Africans. with 'realreason'. with unreason wascountered reason, myreason the claimto wasa losing hand for me"(p. 132).Neither hand Every the colonial disofrationality refutes Otherness northepaternity
course:WhatAfricans can brandish as their uniqueand glorious achievement invariably turns into an inferior performance ofwhat Europe realized better a longtime ago.Farfrom achieving rehabilithewholeideaofreviving tation, thepastbecomesa confirmation ofinferiority andan invitation to a defeatist attitude.
THE THERAPY OF VIOLENCE
IfAfrican toresemble ordiffer attempts from the West backfire, what elseis left for Africans but tosettle theissuebymeans ofconTo understand frontation? theroleofviolence, we must beginby indicating whyforFanontherelationship between thecolonized andthecolonizer cannot be translated interms ofHegelian dialectics.Hegel'sdialectics between master andslaverelate a situation in whichtheneed forrecognition setsone human beingagainst human another refers here tothedesire being. Recognition ofeach individual tobe accepted as a free being, for "Unlike animals, men in their desirenotonlyto preserve to existthewaythings being, also imperiously desireto be recognized exist;they as self-conraised above purely animal life" sciousness, as something initial (Hyppolite, 1974,p. 169).Atthis stageofthedialectics, the can gain recognition from only way by whichone individual is toshowthat another individual heorshe"is nottied life" upwith of one's readiness to sacrifice (Hegel, 1971,p. 232). The extent is a demonstration one'slife offreedom, the that oneis indeed proof mere existence. To use Hegel's (1971) words, beyond
Its is solelybyrisking lifethat freedom is obtained; onlythusis it tried and proved that theessential nature of self-consciousness is notbareexistence, is notmerely inwhich immediate form itatfirst in theexpanseof makesitsappearance, is notitsmereabsorption life.(p. 233)
for thestruggle forrecognition turns intoa fight Accordingly, his lifeanddeath. Theindividual whobacksdownfrom sacrificing that the defeat andbecomes a slave.Thismeans orherlifeaccepts for inexchange for thepreservaslaveaccepts themaster working
tion ofhisorher life. Inthus placing between himself orherself and nature a human tool, the master is relieved ofthe necessity ofworkcan fully ingand,therefore, assert and enjoyhis or herfreedom. Thisis not, however, theendofthestory. Through toiling andthe subsequent mastery ofnature, theslavereappropriates thesenseof andfreedom. In shaping thetoiling dignity nature, consciousness "only becomesawareofitsownproper negativity, itsexistence on itsownaccount, as an object, that through thefact it cancelsthe it"(Hegel,1971,p. 239). By contrast, actualform confronting the is in a precarious situation. Foronething, thefreedom master that he or she enjoysis recognized humanbeing.For by an unfree thechoiceofa modeoflife tothemere another, reduced consumpofthe tion ofnature accelerates the master ontheslave, dependence ofthemaster "a dependent theautonomy into conthereby turning sciousness" (Hegel,1971,p. 237). The logicofthis dialectics thus a doubleprocess: It is headedfor therehabilitation ofthe exhibits slave even as it knocksthe masteroffthe pedestal.All this the ofa historical leadannounces beginning process progressively infavor dissolution ofbondage andlordship ofthe univeringtothe sal recognition ofequality andfreedom. WhatHegel established thatviolenceis a necessary is, then, in thehistory oftherecognition ofhuman This moment freedom. initiatesa contradictory history outcome:It assertsfreedom thenegation offreedom. the through However, slavery generates ofitsemancipation so that the moves the conditions toward process Itis a negation ofservitude of mutual cancellation anddomination. inits thenegation: Thenegation that instituted is negated bondage Thislastnegation a developed, more universalist notion turn. yields it offers of freedom: In place of freedom mutual versusslavery, recognition. itis this outcome ofmutual Letitbe saidatoncethat recognition it is by the blocked as the colonial situation cannot that deliver, of the inferiority of the colonized peoples. The assumption ofdefeat the as a result situation describes lossoffreedom Hegelian itdoesnotportray a situation twocontending between individuals; In thecolonial as subhuman. theone partner is considered where of inferioritself as an defeat is construed expression that situation,
of In thedialectics as Hegelsawit,as a lackofcourage. ity andnot, in is never ofthecontenders for thehumanity recognition, struggle freeto defend is aboutknowing whois ready thefight question; one's life. ofrisking domtothepoint itexhibits Although different is thecolonial situation. Radically thesamediadesire for itdoesnotfallunder recognition, a similar than an rather is a loss offreedom rules. Becausebondage lectical his or her theHegelianslavecan recover of inferiority, attribute whoareslavebynature, colonized, Notso the from defeat. freedom Here,sercannever remove their subhumanity. Toiling so tospeak. thatis, mutual without possiblesynthesis, vitudeis a dialectics recognition. dialectics that ofcolonialism as anobstructed Itis this awareness of violence.As one scholarputit, explainsFanon'sphilosophy is notexpresthat thecolonialsituation understood Fanonclearly of theslave in to that forrecognition "similar sive of a struggle Whereas Hegel'sslave andBondage'paradigm. Hegel's 'Lordship tobe Fanon's aspires Negro into the andsubmission, withdraws object pp.34-35). (Masolo,1994, freedom" heaspires toward master, like the forthe human outcome has no positive, Why?Because servitude ofthe desire for freeThedemonstration itis a deadlock. colonized; theonlyoption. one'sliferemains domandrecognition byrisking selfofanyhopeof thecolonized racism deprives Becausecolonial some such absence of positiveoutcome obtaining recognition, the where ofconfrontation backtotheinitial stage dialectics brings that ofone'sfreedom. Showing todie decidesthefate willingness offreelifebecomestheonlyassertive expression one is beyond domanddignity. lords do thecolonial theHegelian that unlike Be itnoted master, is recogthat their superiority bythefact notseemtobe disturbed themore andunfree peoples.On thecontrary, nizedbydependent andsatisis the the into pride higher theother nothingness, plunges laborand the of coloniallords.In thecolonialsituation, faction offreeandassertion donot bounce as experience ofnature shaping races attributes to different which dom.The racist interpretation, as a racialattribute andhierarchical different toiling tasks, depicts and The coloniallaboris notlearning function. with no liberating
discipline; ithasno positive consequence for thetoiling subjectiva recognition ity. Itis rather ofanontological rank stating that inferior creatures must serve superior ones.Becausethecolonialsituationdoes notinterpret servitude as a temporary loss of freedom, is no passage from there bondageto autonomy. Petrified by the notion ofrace,thetoiling subjectivity canno longer bounce. From the colonial is a racial viewpoint, bondage property, not the result of fear. No better todissolve this racist to wayexists sealed, ranking than return to theinitialstageof confrontation. For Fanon,violence thecolonialmaster beginsitsdissolving impact by subjecting to Thisfear than fear. doesmore theassurance ofthe suspending colointhem niallords; italsoinculcates the ofthat which respect prefers servitude. death tocontinued Thisviolence becomes decisive as the themselves withtheir colonized, fully identifying wretchedness, that havenothing tolose.TheHegelian understand slavehasa they that hisorherlaborshaped stake intheworld andhenceaspires to becomea fullmember. Suchis notthecase ofthecolonized, who togainas a result havenothing ofracialexclusion. of Dispossessed andpossessions, their essenceis their attributes wretchedness. To assumethiswretchedness is for to acquire theexperience of them as absolute puresubjectivity negativity. Thislevelofidentification defines the colonized bythe readiness No identity from this torisk their life. drawn the new pastcanreach Itis pure Ithasnoother definition than this readiness: freedom self. life. In relating to more than themselves becauseitvaluesfreedom indicate the readiness todie,the colonized freedom through clearly to be defined consent whatit is at stakehere.Theyno longer by fixed for as belonging toa raceorhaving this or attributes, instance, havefailed, andthecolonized that glorious past.Allthese attempts showtheir notinanincarnated must form butinitspure, humanity, as ready todie for in short, universal transcendent, form, freedom, "I as untamable. "No,"saidFanon(1967),inthecolonialsituation, tobe a Negro.... I haveoneright alone:That do nothavetheright from the other"(p. 229). What of demanding humanbehavior butthehumanity is nottherecognition ofparticularity comesfirst Itis human thestruggle for as ofthecolonized, recognition beings.
a struggle for human rights notfor therecognition ofdifference or sameness. Violence expresses this disincarnate, ethereal freedom. Itis how freedom exists less as an attribute than as thevery subject exacting recognition through therisking oflife.The rehabilitating valueof violence liesintheequation that thecolonized areready torisk the only andmost precious thing they have, namely, their life, for their Itbrings andequality. thewholeissueoftheemancipation dignity toa final showdown: Theawe-inspiring actofvioofthecolonized lencecleansthedisabilities inflicted bycolonial ruleoff thesoulof It forces on thecolonizer, butmoreimporthecolonized. respect itbrings thecolonizedthemselves to theidea oftheir round tant, of ethnoown self-respect. themethod Completely disavowing which theriseofpride anddarefrom philosophy, expects cultural revival, Fanon(1982) maintained, "Violence alone,violence committed violence andeducated bythepeople, organized byitsleadfor makes itpossible themassestounderstand socialtruths ers, and to them" givesthekey (p. 147). itis essential Atthis stage, tounderstand that theviolence ofthe is onlyan outcome oftheviolence colonized ofthecolonizer. So is this induced violence that Fanon(1982) saidthat it"has rampant in his [thecolonized] his ownpeobeendeposited bonesagainst theaggressiveness ofthe a trait recple."(p. 52). Indeed, colonized, directed toward ognizable by"emotional sensitivity" (p. 56) is first African conflicts. Thisaimless violence other peoplesinintertribal of a spasmsubsequent to thedestruction reveals thepresence by andacculturation thecolonized colonialconquest ofall what used if theseoffended to be. Is it surprising and humiliated peoples becomeextremely emotional andsensitive? Whentheviolence of there as thesole the colonizer takes remains awayeverything, anger of thehuman legacyof a degrading rule,as theonlyexpression the havebecome. andsystematic that colonized Constant wreckage themcan reachthepointof taking rootin thevictims brutality ownhuman self. selvesas thelasttiewith their Let there be no misunderstanding. Violenceheredoes notsiga natural Howthan itsignifies nify revenge anymore disposition. ithadbecomeindiscriminate tothe becausewejustsaw that ever,
violence this deposited Africans, against ofbeingunleashed point with theappropriitis provided unless thecolonized willconsume colviolence the valueofthe against thecathartic Hence, ateoutlet. is eating that of the aggressiveness It purges thecolonized onizer: thereal violencetoward theinternalized them. Because it steers violence that as theright remedy to a situation itemerges culprit, As AbiolaIrele(1981) putit, a therapy. It is a cure, created. itself
case; in thecircumis thusa pathological The colonizednative massestake is that the colonized the remedy only therefore, stances, as in order to recreate themselves overlords their up armsagainst roleofviolence. (p. 140) the creative isthen Theemphasis upon men.
violence of thenative, theaggressiveness In thuschanneling it Inparticular, rule. the drawbacks ofcolonial inundoing succeeds suffer. which the colonized from the complex dissolves inferiority ofinferiorthefeeling hadinternalized native thinkers We sawthat the All they coulddo was to demand Otherness. ityby endorsing tallies howequality however explaining ofraceswithout equality thewholeproceFanon(1967) found ofdifference. the notion with differentiating clearly Once more dureuselessandself-defeating. he wrote, that ofethnophilosophy, from hisproject
that theblackis ortowintheadmission, Itwouldbe easytoprove, WhatI is quitedifferent: But mypurpose theequal of thewhite. ofcomofthe arsenal himself black mantofree want todo is helpthe environment. (p. 30) bythecolonial hasbeendeveloped plexesthat
removed ofracesarefar on theequality discourses Putotherwise, do notattack that reason they for thesimple theright solution from ofraceis saddled. with which thenotion complex theinferiority theissueofraceandracism concerning Fanon's(1967) position form of efficient as theonly for hischoiceofviolence bestaccounts itoffers ofraceis debilitating; theconcept Forhim, rehabilitation. be canonly the colonized inracecoming from noescape.Thebelief WhenBlacks colonialmentality. of an internalized theproduct interitis a White itis todemand evenwhen equality, speakofrace, invented race is an that This is to say is speaking. nalizedvoicethat
"TheNegro isnot. the white man"(p. 231). Any more than concept: there is no wayby which thenotion of racecan be Accordingly, tosignify to itwas originally designed equality, given that brought Fanon foundstupidand and expresshierarchy. negateequality and ofrace;itwas an insult tosalvagethenotion naivetheattempt an insult. remains so. You do notrehabilitate is first to specify its exact theinsult The bestway to remove so as to avoidfighting Thismeansthe phantoms. against meaning ofthenotion ofrace.The result is that inferiority deconstruction complex "is the outcome of a double process:-primarily, theepitheinternalization-or better, economic-; subsequently, this that inferiority" (Fanon,1967,p. 13). Grant dermalization-of andit arejustified, is howeconomic inequalities racialdistinction theinternalization ofthosedistinctions bythe becomesclearthat becomes an endorsement of inferiority. colonized themselves ofthe andother for therecognition calling philosophies Negritude tojusofracesdo notseethat racesareoriginally designed equality Nordo they that theacceptance ofracial understand tify inequality. in disguising is an admission ofinferiority. classification Instead, ofraceas a natural these theories determinant, thesocialmeaning that ofdiverse inheritances theexposure strongly areledtobelieve in favor ofequal status. It nullifies thehierarchical conmilitates ofracebybringing outtheinitial ofthehuman dispersion ception essence. theprimary taskofnative scholars should havebeen ForFanon, into thetrap ofracist discourses. have Theyshould toavoidfalling the to thevery notion ofracebyexposing practices begun attacking affirmation of the whichit leads. Most of all, theunadulterated havebeentheir inlieuoftheequalization ofraces,should human, If they sucha resolute stand hadtaken dominant against purpose. to them as the thenotion of race,violencewouldhaveappeared As soon as affirmation of the human. unqualified onlynonracist, withthedefense of their connect themselves people exclusively is notto contheir as human response beings, subsequent dignity renaisForFanon,thepromised vincebutto remove oppressors. cultural redefia mere comethrough sanceofBlackpeoplecannot economicexclusion,its only nition.Insofaras race signifies
of the transformation thecomplete remedy is social revolution, Violence order. analysis: Here,Fanon joinstheMarxist economic system. Themerit anunjust socioeconomic is necessary todestroy in itputs everybody ofthe notion ofraceis that ofthesocialanalysis races as the same socioeconomicsystemand conceptualizes the notion ofraceas a ofunequal distribution. Itgrasps expressions In this andreduces to discrimination. itsmeaning socialconstruct theequalaffirmation through ofhuman rights thefight targets way, ofthenotion ofrace. theextirpation ofraceclassification intoitshuman andsocioThisbreakdown theregenerating of contents vindicates impact economic strongly from its valueof violenceoriginates violence.The irreplaceable in thenatives. to dissipate inculcated thedeference uniquepower of race and thedemand forracialequality bothferThe defense vently complywithcolonialviews. The colonizedcannotfree tobecomedaring from this deference unless learn they themselves And violenceis theway to such learning: It and disrespectful. and revere. whatthenatives to respect smashes havebeentaught attitude canthey thenatives suchan irreverent develop Onlywhen impact of the degrading oppress them. Byturning riseaboveallthat the crimeof violenceagainstthe colonialworld,theycommit which their Fanon(1982) says, unleashes autonomy. lese-majesty, from hisinferiority Itfrees the native "Violence is a cleansing force. itmakeshimfearless hisdespair andfrom andinaction; complex hisself-respect" andrestores (p. 94). ofcomfrom thearsenal cannot extract thecolonized Violence The same their without at the time historicity. inaugurating plexes is also theactbywhich thecolonized actbywhich becomedefiant subjects. Violence toexist for andso become themselves, they begin because"itis Itis transition tohistoricity thus attains self-creation. ofthecolonizer thecolonized theviolence when appropriates only that hereenters the forth hisownconcrete counterviolence andputs andhuman historical realm ofhistory becoming" (Serequeberhan, Fanon'spersonal is no doubt that participation 1994,p. 71). There in his underwar of liberation was instrumental in theAlgerian Resistance roleof violence. ofthetransforming against standing oforganization, form a newandhigher thecolonialarmy requires
amongtheparticinewforms of relationship just as it institutes peochange inwhich a wholeprocess ofculture pants. Itpromotes powtodefeat a more ofstruggle ple develop newideasandforms also On thebasis of their organization, they fighting erful army. a newsocialorder. imagine As Irele(1986) remarks,
of andpsychic energies In thegeneral mobilization ofthephysical to the situation were an entire people,old values inappropriate newvaluescreated, a newsocialorder. The presaging swept away, ofan immense processof thus tookon thesignificance revolution collective metamorphosis. (p. 138)
of theMarxist characterization To sumup,Fanongoes beyond of history." He readsintotheforceful violenceas the"midwife the the ofa historical resistance colonialism birth gestation, against the colothe violence directed attheir oppressors, subject. Through and their human selfinan autonomous nizedpeoplesreconstitute from colonial neurosis bychasunrestricted They emancipate way. they force ofarms. During thestruggle, through ingoutthesettler that social relationships also developefficient and morehumane fora newandjust social order. serveas a foundation can readily whenhe thewholeoutcome Jean Paul Sartre (1982) summarized northe for is neither soundandfury, wrote that Fanon,"violence it effect ofresentment: ofsavageinstincts, nor eventhe resurrection himself' (p. 21). is manrecreating
SUBLIMATING VIOLENCE
ofviolence hasbeensaidso far shows that Fanon'stheory What ofthecolois an original response to a no lessuniqueexperience whether the Thatsaid,the is toknow origproblem nizedhumanity. ofviothejustification authorizes ofthecolonialsituation inality rule becausecolonial important lence.Thequestion is all themore itcan be argued ofpermanent violence, beingonlytheapplication The principle it implicates a legitimate case of self-defense. that when thecolonized has no moral that force justifies validity fully
"What is taken they say, byviolence can,bythesamemeans, legitibe regained" mately (Serequeberhan, 1994,p. 71). Fanondoesnotraisetheissueofviolence Butrecallthat onlyas a meansofexpelling theruleof an outsider. He attributes to vioand creative lence a therapeutic value: It liberates thecolonized from inferiority complex andturns them into active makers ofhistory. Mypurpose is toquestion thealleged therapeutic andcreative valueofviolence. Let mebeginbysaying that Fanon'srejection oftherehabilitation ofthe pastsounds excessive. would havebeencorHisposition rectif,instead ofcharacterizing therehabilitation ofthepastas a thatit was not useless and detrimental he had implied attempt, Whatmakeshisargument to obtain enough liberation. the against ofthe is that rehabilitation pastevenlessreceivable more than anybodyelse,Fanonhas studied theprofound anddevastating effects onthecolonized ofinferiority His study complex peoples. suggests that thissenseofinferiority has beeninculcated bya deliberately onthehistory ofthese discourse Ifso,itis not disparaging peoples. clear whytheattempt to refute thecolonialdiscourse wouldbe without effect. Thediscredit ofthelegacy ofthecolonized peoples the itsrehabilitation should act induced having inferiority complex, as an antidote. Thisis to saythat Fanon'sresolution toconvince thecolonized haveno other that than recourse to violence is at best they option andhighly restrictive. themethod ofethnophiexaggerated True, and the subsequent losophy,notablythe claim to Otherness ofthenotion endorsement ofrace,can be debilitating. Still,other racial exist Suchis the classification todefend waysthan pluralism. ofcultural which draws from case,for instance, pluralism, diversity rather than inheritances. cultural Thisposition is all the biological moreconsistent themoreidentities are ascribed to inventions, a case inpoint To saythat thenigger does not beingFanonhimself. more than the White manis toholdthat what exist any distinguishes thanthe way they people is less their biologicaldeterminants themselves. Thisfact ofidentities constructs choosetodefine being topluralism. allowsthecultural approach
Sureenough, human beings can define themselves in a beneficial ordetrimental Fanonwas quitewithin way. hisrights when he maintained that rehabilitation cannot comefrom songsandpoems orwhen hecharged racial classification with detrimental outcomes. Butitis onething tosaythat cultural rehabilitation is notenough or and quiteanother misguided to suggest that therefutation of the isuseless. colonial discourse Atany rate, Fanon'sopposition toculrehabilitation tural doesnotyetindicate violence should take why thelead.His argument that the rehabilitation drawn from the pastis anillusory wealth that the distracts colonized from fully identifying their from with wretchedness andhence into a realrevolugrowing force can be seriously contested. Moreyet, thequestion of tionary is an efficient whether violence to thechalandrelevant response must be posedagainst lengeposedbyWestern hegemony the backof economic ground powerbeingthemajordriving forceof the modern world. No response is really defiant oftheWestifitdoes notpavethewaytoeconomic power. Thisissueofeconomic power is howHegeltookhisrevenge on outthat Fanon.Does itnotpoint themastery ofnature is theonly Unlike thedialectics of dialectical, progressive wayto liberation? theslavesubmits andturns his attention to work, Hegel in which the colonized torebel. Without Fanonwanted the ofviolent episode Fanonmaintained, thecolonizedwill nevergain confrontation, Freedom andself-respect. remains a mere ofthe colfreedom grant from them. and onizers so longas itis notwrenched Galvanizing thesnatching offreedom tobe,inthe however fulfilling may appear it overlooks ofcolonialandneocolonial one context domination, The colonizedareyetto underimportant aspectofthequestion: therealreason for their stand subordination. Theywillunderstand therealreasonifthey ascribe their to their to inferiority inability But then, theissue is notso muchtheviolent nature. dominate as theresolution torisetotheeconomic ofthecolonizer expulsion So longas theeconomic challenge. handicap persists, independwhenhe stated that indeFanonwas right ence remains illusory. but he stipulated that is notenough when pendence wrong regenerofviolent confrontation. themoment ationcannot occurwithout
attitude has led a genofrebellious theidealization If anything, their freedom ofThird scholars andleaders toassert World eration attitude the rejection of Western values. This defiant through It itwith submission. itidentifies oflearning; refuses thepatience that thedepiction oftheproblems oftheThird saying goeswithout interms ofbravado hasbeendetrimental toitsrealinterest. It World as wellas impaofbourgeois virtues hascausedthedevalorization Mostofall,ithasserved as a justification with tience expectations. as theonly numerous that dictatorship for those regimes presented toward defenseagainstimperialism. Antagonism appropriate ofa progresthemark virtue, becamea much-praised imperialism We hearan eventhough thedefiance was empty talk. siveregime, from Fanon(1982) himself when, orientation coming echoofthis combined he "The effort ofAfrican bourgeoisie, stated, speaking whoarehighly ledbya party andofintellectuals conmasses ofthe to bar the withrevolutionary ought principles scious and armed uselessandharmful middle class" (p. 175). waytothis theviolencethat thecolonized economic power, Yet,without Itremains the the West is anything but brandish frightening. against missiles andjet fighters. So ofarrows andspears against violence the whole is not backed byscience andtechnology, longas violence World as a rising force revolutionary idea ofconsidering theThird butlaughable. thedeveloped world is nothing intent on toppling with ofviolence that it as thepoorworld is granted a power Insofar canbejustifiably accusedofputting the Fanon doesnot possess, yet thehorse.In beingtechnologically the insignificant, cartbefore willbe countered to oftheThird World byrealviolence, violence it because canFanon. If violence thus resolves nothing paraphrase thenarwithout thepower oftechnology, notevenbe realviolence for as theonlyremedy of thetechnological gap emerges rowing ofthe the dissolvent inferiority hence, only Western and, hegemony ofbravado thedisease,theprescription Let alonecuring complex. of the real the administration remedy. retards thanthis.Fanon denounced But thereis moreto the matter colonial ofthe as aninternalization andethnophilosophy Negritude of thevalorization is toknowwhether The wholequestion world.
violence andthevisionofhuman relationships interms ofviolent confrontations arenotthemselves a projection oftheviolent colonialworld. Thequestion makes senseinviewofthe fact that Fanon endowed violencewitha curative mission. If violenceis an outcomeofcolonial rule, itis notclearhowitcanpossesscurative virtodecontaminate tues.The attempt one's soulfrom sucha perversionwouldbe theright attitude. The point, onemayobject, is that thedecontamination requires no doubt thephaseofviolent there that for response, being Fanon, neurosis the colonial willnot unless the frusdissipate accumulated tration is provided with anoutlet. Butthen, this ofviolence therapy howcapitulation to an impulse amounts needsto explain to a vicAll ethical overthat that teaches resistance tory impulse. thinking the willandthe toimpulses is the manner goodtriumph. Eventhose that resent admit that thebestwaytodeal with theories resistance uncontrolled is tosublimate that them impulses them, is,tochannel and creative intosuperior works. Fanonrightly tooknoteof the of thecolonized accumulated showshow anger peoplebutnever this immense couldbe transformed into a creative anger work. His was nottosublimate itwas rather toletitexplode. proposal anger; Butis capitulation toanger tohavea positive outcome when likely anoutlet todestructive What theThird itis but providing impulses? needsis togiveintoitsanger lessandtochannel itinto conWorld works. Thesublimation ofviolence, andthat would structive alone, roleof to thecurative andcreative be theright therapy. Alluding Mahatma theapostle ofnonviolence, sublimation, namely, Gandhi, hadthefollowing words:
I havelearned a period ofclose upon bybitter experience, through theonesupreme toconserve thirty years, lesson, namely, myanger, into tocontrol conserved is transmuted so it,andjustas heat energy, ina power canresult also ouranger, conserved andcontrolled, that irresistible theworld. becomes throughout (Green, 1993,p. 230)
ofbeing andcontrolled, is given Wheninstead conserved anger hasrepeatedly conis rarely full the outcome vent, positive. History mania of violence. Guerilla movements firmed the sticking
often-generous interiorize violenceso deeplythatdespitetheir for thesimple reaendup byinstituting violent regimes goal,they havelostthesenseoftrue human relationships. Inthis sonthat they participant in case is instructive. As an active regard, theAlgerian warofliberation, Fanonbelieved theidealsofthe that theAlgerian of a modemand peaceful war will presideovertheemergence byviolent Thatindependent Algeria is stilltorn Algerian society. ina resolute ofmodernization andlittle engaged process conflicts theallegedcreative roleofviolence. invalidates toreflect onthetheory ofnonviolence as develThisis thetime lesson is that no andMartin Luther King.Themain opedbyGandhi is never ofoppression, the best human to matter the response degree itis rather torefuse their todecontamiworld, imitate oppressors; ofpositive human values.Opponateone'ssoulbytheaffirmation itunderstands becomes sition tooppression redeeming onlywhen it violently thatas one Gandhi'scommentator putsit,"To resist wouldbe to yieldto theconquerors's (Green,1993,p. ideology" with theaffirmatheassociation ofviolence 195).To tellthetruth, sounds Violence has more todo with tionofhumaneness strange. than The affirmation ofthehuman bywayof humanity. animality which is thevalueofthecolonizer, is what thecolonized violence, Because colonizers are acting likebeasts, shouldstrongly reject. is no reasonto aspireafter their values.Instead, one must there refuse tobecomebeastslikethem. ofthe is internalized, itwillsully all thebehavior Onceviolence behavein thesameviolent whowouldthen wayvis-acolonized, has a handinthefailure of Thisviolent vis each other. disposition Grant Third toinstitute democratic societies. most World countries with thepower andno reason exists violence toprovide solutions, do notfall theproblems of postcolonial societies to assumethat thesametreatment. Viewed from this ofcleansing necessity under souloftheaccumulated Negritude's appealto thecolonized anger, theparticular essenceof theBlack soul appearsas a protection a meaas an attempt to preserve colonialcontaminations, against in a world countenance sureofhuman byviolence. disfigured ofconis that Fanonmistakes therefusal Thecruxofthematter of nonviolent forsubmission. tamination Yet,Gandhi'sdoctrine
First, of submission. anyattitude implying is farfrom resistance torisk andwillingness commitment, courage, implies nonviolence make uptheseducthat inshort, allthe elements positive one'slife, form ina higher them Itevenreproduces option. tionoftheviolent inthe for andnoncooperation active disobedience becauseiturges greater conrequires ofsuchactivism Thepractice faceofinjustice. what asserts nonviolence squarely To showthat trol on one's fear. readicourage, dignity, wants toassert-namely, option theviolent hasthis follower andso on-a Gandhi's one'slife, nesstosacrifice to say:
theheroic virtues of disdainofperofmankind, Forthemajority a readiness tolose one'slifefor constant alertness, sonalcomforts, areforged on theanvilofthebattleone's self, cause transcending canforge these same innon-violent resistance Butthe believer field. of on theanvilof a moralequivalent forhimself heroicvirtues orcivildisofnon-violent non-cooperation war... thesubstitution 1952,p. 21) for violent warfare. (Muzumdar, obedience
resisnonviolent courageand dignity, to proving But in addition the barbarism ofthecoloofdenouncing tance hastheclearimpact linebetween thevalues a cleardemarcation thereby drawing nizer, Most of all, in and the ideals of liberation. of the oppressor a bright itgraciously prepares violence, andrejecting demystifying force willhaveno say. one where thevery future, anddemocratic as a violence endsup byvalorizing themyth ofviolence Whereas forever banishes nonviolent Gandhi's option resource, legitimate the colonizer Notevenagainst from human use offorce society. the itestablishes. that used:Suchis thenorm was violence theuse offorce is theonlyoption? no cases where Butarethere no offered clearly theNazi regime resistance against Forinstance, liberthat theresidual violent Granted other response. than option in the factor was a contributing alismof theBritish government of resisa similar form struggle, successof Gandhi'snonviolent ofHitler. a regime likethat suicidal against tancewouldbe simply idealizthe from position but thelackofchoiceis different Agreed, unavoidable, becomes whenviolence Putotherwise, ingviolence. ithasbeenimposed that with the understanding beexercised itmust
on thepeople.Waysmust be designed bywhich suchpeople, thus reduced to animality to fight fortheir freedom, regularly renew their reluctance. original Any attempt tovalorize violence bygoing mere fact of beyond the resigning oneself to it wouldonlyopen box. Pandora's of theinfluence of Gandhism Take Ali A. Mazrui'sstudy on African liberation movements. It beginsby reminding thatsuch African leadersas Kenneth Kaunda and Julius K. Nyerere had andusedtheGandhian ofnonviolence inthe optedfor inspiration But it also notestheproliferation forindependence. of struggle in suchcountries movements South as Kenya,Algeria, guerrilla and Angola.For Mazrui(1978), theseviolent Africa, Rhodesia, in thosecounlimit ofGandhism, indicate the options especially white inAfrica, tries "where settlers areineffective control locally inAfrica is designated orwhere thecolony as a legalextension of the mother country" (p. 118). He concludesthattheseviolent Fanonover Ganillustrate "the ofFantz Mohandas options triumph dhi"(p. 119). Butletus review these violent from thevantage of options point whether haveled tothetriumph oftheintegrity and knowing they ofthese countries. The answer interest is a loud"no":Mostofthe movements that in seizing succeeded guerrilla power proved particularly unable to establishstable and democratic regimes. andso on,arepatent Angola, Zimbabwe, Algeria, Eritrea, Ethiopia, with themore andthis contrasts examples, characteristically promevolution ofSouth Africa where rule ising majority wasestablished ofa violent the overthrow ofthe without episode apartheid regime. the To sumup,themoralization ofviolencecomesup against theuse offorce is never It simply the fact that institutes legitimate. as opposedto thehuman order that stateof nature, alwaysstarts with for the theruleoflaw.Fanon'sattempt to makean exception thelegitimacy of violenceof thecolonizedcan never go beyond self-defense without their ownhumanity. undermining Becausethe where ofnature thesurrender ofviohuman order that begins ends, human Unlessthecolonized lenceis whatinaugurates creativity. into theviolence that was instilled them extirpate bycolonialrule, will never activate their own Far from they suppressed creativity.
violence beinga cure, itis thevery diseasethat must be wipedoff thesoul ofthecolonized.
REFERENCES
InPresenceAfricaine. A. (1956).Culture andcolonisation. Cdsaire, Paris: Presence Africaine. A. (1959). Themanofculture andhisresponsibilities. InPrisence Cdsaire, Africaine. Paris: Presence Africaine. ofthe"Negro In I. L. Markovitz Diop, C. A. (1970). Thebirth myth." (Ed.),African politics New York: FreePress. and society. Diop, C. A. (1974). TheAfrican origin ofcivilization: Myth or reality? Chicago:Lawrence Hill. Fanon,F. (1967). Blackskinwhite masks. New York:Grove. Fanon, F. (1982). Thewretched oftheearth. New York:Grove. M. (1993). Gandhi:Voiceofa newage revolution. New York: Green, Continuum. ofmind. New York: Hegel,G.W.F.(1971). The phenomenology Humanities Press. Hyppolite, J.(1974). Genesisand structure ofHegel'sphenomenology ofspirit. Evanston, NE: Northwestern Press. University in literature Irele,A. (1981). TheAfrican experience and ideology. London:Heinemann. in French In I. J.Mowoe & R. Irele,A. (1986). Contemporary thought speaking Africa. and theWest. Bjornson (Eds.),Africa New York: Greenwood. Masolo,D. A. (1994). African philosophy insearchofidentity. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. A. A. (1978). Political valuesandthe educated Mazrui, classinAfrica. Berkeley: University ofCalifornia Press. H. T. (1952). Mahatma Gandhi. New York:Scribner. Muzumdar, J.P. (1982). Preface. In Thewretched New York:Grove. Sartre, oftheearth. and theAfrican In Christian M. (1979). The colonialoverlay P. Schoolman, response. and practiceof African NJ: Potholm (Ed.), The theory politics.EnglewoodCliffs, Prentice Hall. A humanism ofthetwentieth TheAfrican reader. L. S. (1970). Negritude: Senghor, century. New York:Vintage. InA. Mosley ofthe L. S. (1995). OnNegrohood: African Senghor, Psychology Negro. (Ed.), Selected NJ:Prentice Hall. African philosophy: readings. Englewood Cliffs, T. (1994). Thehermeneutics NewYork: Serequeberhan, ofAfrican philosophy. Routledge.
at the Department ofPhilosophy, currently teaching MessayKebedeis an Ethiopian His research interests are African philosophy, development, University ofDayton. (1994), Meaning andDevelopment Recent publications include and culture change. DisPresent: A Philosophical Ethiopia's Enigmatic Survival and Modernization, Modernity" inthe journalofSocial Ethnicity Toward course (1999),and "Directing Theory andPractice (2001).

The Rehabilitation of Violence Fanon

Hochgeladen von

Dokumentinformationen

Originalbeschreibung:

Copyright

Verfügbare Formate

Dieses Dokument teilen

Dokument teilen oder einbetten

Freigabeoptionen

Stufen Sie dieses Dokument als nützlich ein?

Sind diese Inhalte unangemessen?

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

The Rehabilitation of Violence Fanon

Hochgeladen von

Copyright:

Verfügbare Formate

The Rehabilitation of Violence and the Violence of Rehabilitation: Fanon and Colonialism Author(s): Messay Kebede Source: Journal

540 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MAY 2001

THE NEED FOR REHABILITATION

Kebede/VIOLENCE AND REHABILITATION 541

542 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MAY 2001

Kebede/VIOLENCE AND REHABILITATION 543

544 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MAY 2001

Kebede/VIOLENCE AND REHABILITATION 545

546 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MAY 2001

THE THERAPY OF VIOLENCE

Kebede/VIOLENCE AND REHABILITATION 547

548 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MAY 2001

Kebede/VIOLENCE AND REHABILITATION 549

550 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MAY 2001

Kebede/VIOLENCE AND REHABILITATION 551

552 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MAY 2001

Kebede/VIOLENCE AND REHABILITATION 553

554 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MAY 2001

Kebede/VIOLENCE AND REHABILITATION 555

556 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MAY 2001

Kebede/VIOLENCE AND REHABILITATION 557

558 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MAY 2001

Kebede/VIOLENCE AND REHABILITATION 559

560 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MAY 2001

Kebede/VIOLENCE AND REHABILITATION 561

562 JOURNALOF BLACK STUDIES /MAY 2001

Das könnte Ihnen auch gefallen