What is a Topographic Map . . .

What is a Map? A map is a way of representing on a two-dimensional surface, (a paper, a computer monitor, etc.) any real-world location or object. Many maps only deal with the two-dimensional location of an object without ta ing into account its ele!ation. Topographic maps on the other hand do deal with the third dimension by using contour lines to show ele!ation change on the surface of the earth, (or below the surface of the ocean). The concept of a topographic map is, on the surface, fairly simple. "ontour lines placed on the map represent lines of e#ual ele!ation abo!e (or below) a reference datum. To !isuali$e what a contour line represents, picture a mountain (or any other topographic feature) and imagine slicing through it with a perfectly flat, hori$ontal piece of glass. The intersection of the mountain with the glass is a line of constant ele!ation on the surface of the mountain and could be put on a map as a contour line for the ele!ation of the slice abo!e a reference datum. The title of the #uadrangle is printed in the upper and lower right corners of the map. %n addition to the title of the #uadrangle itself, the titles of adjacent #uadrangles are printed around the edges and at the corners of the map. This allows you to easily find a neighboring map if you are interested in an area not shown on your map. %n addition there is information about the projection and grid(s) used, scale, contour inter!als, magnetic and declination. The legend and margins of topographic #uadrangles contain a myriad of other useful information. Township and range designations, &TM coordinates, and minute and second subdi!isions are printed along the margins of the map. '(ection numbers (from the )*( system) appear as large numbers within a grid of lines spaced one mile apart. The legend also contains a road classification chart showing different types of roads (pa!ed, gra!el, dirt, etc.). )erhaps one of the most important sources of information on a topographic map is the date of re!ision, printed to the left of the scale. Although large scale topographic features (such as mountains) ta e millions of years to be formed and eroded, smaller scale features change on a much more rapid scale. The course of a ri!er channel may change fairly rapidly as a result of flooding, landslides may alter topography significantly, roads are added or go out of use, etc. +ecause of these changes, it is important to ha!e a fairly recent (or recently updated) topographic map to ensure accuracy. ,n most topographic maps, the date of the initial publication will be shown, along with the most recent re!ision of the map.

There are many other features (buildings, swamps, mines, etc.) that are designated on topographic maps, but which are not described in the map legend.

-eference .atum. . .
A reference datum is a nown and constant surface which can be used to describe the location of un nown points. ,n /arth, the normal reference datum is sea le!el. ,n other planets, such as the Moon or Mars, the datum is the a!erage radius of the planet. The term 0reference datum0 was used rather than 1abo!e (or below) the earth2s surface2 or 1abo!e (or below) sea le!el2. The reason for this is simple once you thin about it3%f you use the term 1abo!e the earth2s surface2, what e4actly does that mean5 %n other words, the earth2s surface where5

(imilarly, although we tend to thin of sea le!el as a constant, it is not the same e!erywhere on the globe, so sea le!el where5 and sea le!el when5 (high tide or low) become pertinent #uestions. (o, to a!oid these problems, a reference datum is needed that represents the same surface or ele!ation at all points on the earth and that remains constant o!er time. An e4ample of a datum that could be used for the earth is a sphere with a radius e#ual to the a!erage radius of the earth. (uch a sphere would pro!ide a constant surface to which ele!ations on the earth6s actual surface could be referenced. 7owe!er, the earth is not a perfect sphere8 the radius of the earth is greater at the e#uator and less at the poles. The resulting shape is what is nown as an 6oblate ellipsoid6. +y using an oblate ellipsoid as a datum for the earth we ha!e a shape that appro4imates the shape of the earth fairly well and pro!ides a datum to which points all o!er the earth6s surface can be referenced (hence the term 6reference datum6). Most 9.: minute topographic maps still in circulation use the ;A.-<9 (;orth American .atum, =><9) referencing system based on the "lar e ellipsoid of =?@@. Technological ad!ances that allowed more precise measurements of the earth resulted in modifications of the "lar e ellipsoid, producing the A-(-?B

(Aeographic -eferencing (ystem, =>?B). More recent maps commonly use the ;A.-?C referencing system which is based on the A-(-?B ellipsoid. The datum used for a map is printed on the front of a map. Although the reference ellipsoids used in the ;A.-<9 and ;A.-?C are different, the changes are slight on large-scale maps (scales will be discussed in greater detail later).

Dor a more indepth e4planation of the problems associated with an elipsoid !isit this site

%ntroduction E Materials . . .
Maps that deal with the surface changes on the earth are called topographic maps. This e4ercise will loo at how topographic maps are created, what information they contain, how you can use them with a compass to get where you want to go, and how to measure the relati!e positions of points of interest. Much of the information discussed is applicable to all types of maps, but for the e4ercises associated with this tutorial, the emphasis will be on information contained in a 9.: minute topographic map. Required Materials:

9.: minute series &.(. Aeological (ur!ey topographic #uadrangle map (=F<G,BBB scale) and perhaps a clipboard or other flat surface on which to write in the field. compass (capable of measuring a$imuth, borrow one if necessary) protractor (cheap) graph paper (including a sharp pencil and eraser, not a pen) field noteboo (optional)

NOTE: Hour map must represent a location that is accessible to you by car, truc , llama, or whate!er means of transportation is a!ailable. Ma e sure it has a few sites of interest to you, such as la es, streams, mountains, neighborhoods, etc. (just about anything is appropriate). Hou can buy these at local outfitter stores, some boo stores, your local +*M or Dorest (er!ice office or through the &.(. Aeological (ur!ey. Objective: Aain an understanding of what a map is, how a map is made, and how to use a topographic map and compass. What you will be required to do to complete this module: -ead through the entire tutorial, using lin s to !isit more e4tensi!e e4planations in the companion tutorial. Throughout the e4ercise, #uestions will be posed and answered. Hou will ma4imi$e what you get out of this e4ercise if you wor through the #uestions yourself before reading the answer, but you are not re#uired to turn in your results. At the end of the on-line tutorial there are a series of #uestions in the all-important Dield /4ercises. Hou will need to complete all of these e4ercises, answer the associated #uestions, and turn in your results.

&sing a Topographic Map . . .

Tips for u dersta di ! co tour li es" When first loo ing at a topographic map, it may appear somewhat confusing and not !ery useful. There are a few rules that topographic contours must obey, howe!er, and once you understand these rules the map becomes an e4tremely useful and easy to use tool. The rules are as follows: #$ /!ery point on a contour line represents the e4act same ele!ation (remember the glass inserted into the mountain). As a result of this e!ery contour line must e!entually close on itself to form an irregular circle (in other words, the line created by the intersection of the glass with the mountain cannot simply disappear on the bac side of the mountain). "ontour lines on the edge of a map do not appear to close on themsel!es because they run into the edge of the map, but if you got the adjacent map you would find that, e!entually, the contour will close on itself. %$ "ontour lines can ne!er cross one another. /ach line represents a separate ele!ation, and you can2t ha!e two different ele!ations at the same point. The only e4ception to this rule is if you ha!e an o!erhanging cliff or ca!e where, if you drilled a hole straight down from the upper surface, you would intersect the earth2s surface at two ele!ations at the same I,H coordinate. %n this relati!ely rare case, the contour line representing the lower ele!ation is dashed. The only time two contour lines may merge is if there is a !ertical cliff (see figure). &$ Mo!ing from one contour line to another always indicates a change in ele!ation. To determine if it is a positi!e (uphill) or negati!e (downhill) change you "lic on image for a larger image. must loo at the inde4 contours on either side (see )$ A series of closed figure). contours (the contours ma e '$ ,n a hill with a consistent slope, there are always a circle) represents a hill. %f four intermediate contours for e!ery inde4 contour. %f the closed contours are hatchured it indicates a there are more than four inde4 contours it means closed depression (see that there has been a change of slope and one or more contour line has been duplicated. This is most figure). common when going o!er the top of a hill or across *$ "ontour lines crossing a a !alley (see figure). stream !alley will form a 0J0 ($ The closer contour lines are to one another, the shape pointing in the uphill steeper the slope is in the real world. %f the contour (and upstream) direction. lines are e!enly spaced it is a constant slope, if they are not e!enly spaced the slope changes.

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Map (cale. . .
%ndi!idual topographic maps are commonly referred to as #uadrangles (or #uads), with the name of the #uadrangle gi!ing an idea of the amount of area co!ered by the map. The largest area co!ered by most topographic maps used for scientific mapping purposes (i.e. geologic mapping, habitat studies, etc.) are two degrees of longitude by one degree of latitude (see below). A map of this si$e is referred to as a 1two degree sheet2. ,ne, two degree sheet can be di!ided into four smaller #uadrangles, each co!ering one degree of longitude and =K< degree of latitude (1one degree sheet2). /ach one degree sheet is subdi!ided into eight 1fifteen minute #uadrangles2, measuring fifteen minutes of latitude and longitude.

Dinally, the smallest topographic #uadrangle commonly published by the &.(. geological sur!ey are 9.: minute #uadrangles, which measure 9.: minutes of latitude and longitude. There are four 9.: minute #uads per fifteen minute #uad, C< per one degree sheet, and =<? per two degree sheet. Hou can determine what type of #uadrangle you are loo ing at by subtracting the longitude !alue printed in the upper (or lower) left corner of the map from the longitude printed in the upper (or lower) right corner of the map. This can also be done using latitude !alues, just remember that a two degree sheet only co!ers one degree of latitude and and one degree sheet only co!ers thirty minutes of latitude. This information is also commonly printed in the upper right hand corner of a map, under the title of the map.

As alluded to abo!e, topographic (and other maps as well) come at a !ariety of scales. The scale of the map is determined by the amount of real-world area co!ered by the map. Dor e4ample, 9.: minute topographic #uadrangles put out by the &.(. Aeological (ur!ey ha!e a scale of =F<G,BBB. This type of scale is nown as a ratio scale and what it means is that one inch on the map is e#ual to <G,BBB inches (<BBB ft) in the real world (actually, it means that one of anything Lcm, foot, etc.) on the map is e#ual to <G,BBB of the same thing on the map). Another way of writing this would be a fractional scale of =K<G,BBB, meaning that objects on the map ha!e been reduced to =K<G,BBBth of their original si$e. ,ther map scales in common use for topographic maps are =F@<,:BB (=: minute #uadrangle), =F=BB,BBB (one degree sheet) and =F <:B,BBB (<M sheet). The smaller the ratio is between distances on the map and distances in the real world, the smaller the scale of the map is said to be. %n other words, a map with a scale of =F<:B,BBB is a smaller scale map than a =F<G,BBB scale map, but it co!ers a larger real-world area. The scale of a topographic map is printed below the map in the center of the page. %n addition to a ratio scale, a bar scale is also shown to allow measurement of distances on the map and con!ersion to real-world distances

Magnetic .eclination . . .
Another feature found in the legend of topographic maps is the magnetic declination. Magnetic declination is the difference between true north (the a4is around which the earth rotates) and magnetic north (the direction the needle of a compass will point) Magnetic north is determined by the earth2s magnetic field and is not the same as true (or geographic) north. The location of the magnetic north pole changes slowly o!er time, but it is currently northwest of 7udson2s +ay in northern "anada (appro4imately 9BB m LG:B miN from the true north pole). Maps are based on the geographic north pole because it does not change o!er time, so north is always at the top of a #uadrangle map. 7owe!er, if you were wal a straight line following the direction your compass needle indicates as north, you would find that you didn2t go from south to north on the map.

7ow far your path !aried from true north depends on where you started from8 the angle between a straight north-south line and the line you wal ed is the magnetic declination in the area you were wal ing. %n the e4ample below, if you wal ed =.<: miles toward magnetic north (i.e. you followed your compass without adjusting for magnetic declination) you would end up =KC of a mile away from where you would be if you wal ed =.<: miles toward true north. Dortunately, magnetic declination has been measured throughout the &.(. and can be corrected for on your compass (see below). The map below shows lines of e#ual magnetic declination throughout the &.(. and "anada. The line of $ero declination runs from magnetic north through *a e (uperior and across the western panhandle of Dlorida. Along this line, true north is the same as magnetic north. %f you are wor ing west of the line of $ero declination, your compass will gi!e a reading that is east of true north. "on!ersely, if you are wor ing east of the line of $ero declination, your compass reading will be west of true north. The e4act amount that you need to adjust the declination on your compass to reconcile magnetic north to true north is gi!en in the map legend to the left of the map scale.

Jertical (cale. . .

The scales discussed before only deal with the relationship between hori$ontal distances on the map and hori$ontal distances in the real world. +ecause topographic maps incorporate the third (!ertical) dimension of the earth2s surface, they also ha!e a !ertical scale. This scale is listed on a topographic map as the contour inter!al. The contour inter!al is the !ertical distance represented by consecuti!e contour lines on the map. %n general, the smaller the scale of the map (remember, small scale maps show a larger area of the earth2s surface) the larger the contour inter!al will be. Dor e4ample, the contour inter!al on a 9.: minute #uad is commonly GB feet, while on a one or two degree sheet it will often be =BB feet. %n order to ma e topographic maps more useful, there are e4ceptions to this rule of thumb. %n !ery flat areas, such as the plains of the midwest or the (na e -i!er )lain, contour inter!als of one hundred, or e!en forty, feet may not be !ery useful as they will be !ery widely spaced. %n areas such as these, supplemental contours are often added at fi!e or ten foot inter!als (supplemental contours appear on &(A( topographic maps as dashed lines). (imilarly, in !ery steep mountainous areas the contours may be more widely spaced to a!oid clustering of lines into unreadable masses. The contour inter!al used on a topographic map is printed below the scale in the map legend. -egardless of the contour inter!al chosen, you will notice that there are at least two types of contour lines on a topographic map. Thic contour lines, called inde4 contours, ha!e ele!ations printed on them periodically o!er their length. +etween each inde4 contour are four intermediate contours that are thinner lines than the inde4 contours. The ele!ation change between the intermediate contours is what is gi!en in the map legend. (o, if the contour inter!al listed in the map legend is forty feet, each intermediate contour represents forty feet and the ele!ation change between inde4 contours is <BB feet. ,n many topographic maps these will be the only types of contour lines shown. 7owe!er, as mentioned abo!e, some maps will ha!e supplementary contour lines representing smaller !ertical distances. %f supplementary contour lines are used, they will be dashed lines and the supplemental contour inter!al will be listed below the regular contour inter!al in the map legend. A final type of contour that may appear on a topographic map is a line representing a closed depression (such as a sin hole or a crater at the top of a !olcano). These contours will be hachured (they will ha!e small tic mar s perpendicular to the main contour line), with the tic mar s pointing downslope.

"reating Topographic )rofiles . . .

A !ery useful e4ercise for understanding what topographic maps represent is the construction of a topographic profile. A topographic profile is a cross-sectional !iew along a line drawn through a portion of a topographic map. %n other words, if you could slice through a portion of the earth, pull away one half, and loo at it from the side, the surface would be a topographic profile. ;ot only does constructing a topographic profile aid in understanding topographic maps, it is !ery useful for geologists when analy$ing numerous problems. To construct a topographic profile, you must first decide on a line that is of interest to you. This could be an area where you want to go for a hi e and want to now how steep to e4pect it to be, a line that shows the ma4imum relief (relief is the difference in ele!ation between the highest and lowest points) in the map area, or any other area in which you are interested. ,nce you ha!e determined where you want to draw your profile, use the following guidelines to construct your profile. #$ )encil the line of your interest in lightly on your map, or you can put mylar o!er the map and draw on it if you don6t wish to mar your map.
++,f you use mylar- it may be a !ood idea to mar. the cor ers of the map o the mylar so you ca reorie t the mylar o the map later if ecessary"++

%$ )lace a blan piece of paper along the line you ha!e drawn. Hou may want to tape the paper to the map using drafting tape to eep them from mo!ing relati!e to one another (don2t use any other ind of tape unless you don2t mind ta ing some of the map off with the tape later). &$ ,n both the blan paper and the map (or mylar), mar clearly the starting and ending points of your line of section. +elow these mar s, write down the ele!ation of the starting and ending points of your section"

'$ Ma e a tic mar where!er the paper crosses a contour line on the map, ma ing larger tics for the inde4 contours and smaller tics for the intermediate contours. Write the ele!ation of the inde4 contours below their tics on your paper3you might want to start off writing the ele!ation of the intermediate contours as well to a!oid confusion, but it will soon become tedious. Ma e a note of the highest and lowest points on the profile for use later. +e sure to eep trac of the number of intermediate contours between the major contours8 if there are more than four intermediate contours it means that there has been a change in slope and you need to chec to see if you crossed a hill or a !alley. ($ ,nce you are certain you ha!e all of the appropriate tic mar s and ele!ations, remo!e your paper from the map. Aet a piece of graph paper that is at least as long as your line of section (you can piece them together if you ha!e to, but ma e sure all the grids line up). %f you are using a map with a scale of =F<G,BBB you will want to use graph paper that has one inch grids to ma e your life much easier (because at a scale of =F<G,BBB, one inch on the paper is e#ual to <BBB feet). )lace your paper with the tic mar s on the graph paper (once again, you may want to tape it down) and mar the starting and ending points of your line of section on the graph paper.

)$ .raw !ertical lines abo!e your starting and ending points, these will be the boundaries of your profile. &se the ma4imum and minimum ele!ations along your line of section to determine how long to draw these lines. Dor e4ample, if your minimum ele!ation is GC<B ft and your ma4imum ele!ation is @<?B ft, you will want your !ertical line to be at least two inches long. -emember that one inch e#uals <BBB feet on a =F<G,BBB scale map. The difference between @<?B feet and GC<B feet is less than <BB feet, so it would be possible to draw your profile in just one inch. 7owe!er, it is much easier to construct a profile if your lowest ele!ation is a multiple of <BBB, so you would want to start at GBBB feet and go to ?BBB feet (two inches).

*$ +eginning with your starting ele!ation, go directly abo!e the tic mar on your paper and ma e a small dot on the graph paper at the corresponding ele!ation (if your graph paper has one inch s#uares di!ided into tenths, each smaller s#uare will represent <BB feet of ele!ation change8 each inde4 contour should lie along a hori$ontal grid line). Ma e a small dot for each tic mar on your paper. /$ "onnect the dots on the graph paper, and you ha!e a topographic profile.

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Jertical /4aggeration. . .

.epending on why you are creating your topographic profile, you may want to use !ertical e4aggeration when constructing it. Jertical e4aggeration simply means that your !ertical scale is larger than your hori$ontal scale (in the e4ample you could use one inch is e#ual to =BBB ft. for your !ertical scale, while eeping the hori$ontal scale the same). Jertical e4aggeration is often used if you want to discern subtle topographic features or if the profile co!ers a large hori$ontal distance (miles) relati!e to the relief (feet). To determine the amount of !ertical e4aggeration used to construct a profile, simply di!ide the real-world units on the hori$ontal a4is by the real-world units on the !ertical a4is. %f the !ertical scale is one =0O=BBB2 and the hori$ontal scale is =0O<BBB2, the !ertical e4aggeration is <4 (<BBB2K=BBB2).

"alculating a (lope . . .
.etermining the a!erage slope of a hill using a topographic map is fairly simple. (lope can be gi!en in two different ways, a percent gradient and an angle of the slope. The initial steps to calculating slope either way are the same. #$ .ecide on an area for which you want to calculate the slope (note, it should be an area where the slope direction does not change8 do not cross the top of a hill or the bottom of a !alley). %$ ,nce you ha!e decided on an area of interest, draw a straight line perpendicular to the contours on the slope. Dor the most accuracy, start and end your line on, rather than between, contours on the map. &$ Measure the length of the line you drew and, using the scale of the map, con!ert that distance to feet. (insert image with the line drawn on it, con!ersion calculation) '$ .etermine the total ele!ation change along the line you drew (subtract the ele!ation of the lowest contour used from the ele!ation of the highest contour used). Hou do not need to do any con!ersions on this measurement, as it is a real-world ele!ation change. To calculate a percent slope, simply di!ide the ele!ation change in feet by the distance of the line you drew (after con!erting it to feet). Multiply the resulting number by =BB to get a percentage !alue e#ual to the percent slope of the hill. %f the !alue you calculate is, for e4ample, <B, then what this means is that for e!ery =BB feet you co!er in a hori$ontal direction, you will gain (or lose) <B feet in ele!ation. To calculate the angle of the slope, di!ide the ele!ation change in feet by the distance of the line you drew (after con!erting it to feet). This is the tangent !alue for the angle of the slope. Apply an arctangent function to this !alue to obtain the angle of the slope (hit the 1in!2 button and then the 1tan2 button on most scientific calculators to get the slope angle). The angle you calculated is the angle between a hori$ontal plane and the surface of the hi

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. &sing a "ompass with a Map . . .

)ictured below are two different types of compasses. The compass at left is a +runton compass used by geologists and others for many speciali$ed mapping purposes. ,n the right is a more common type of compass used for general orienteering and some mapping purposes. The features of a compass that you need to understand are found on both types of compass (and most others as well). This section will gi!e an o!er!iew of how to use a compass with a topographic map to locate yourself on the map and how to get from one point in the map area to another.

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Aet a +earing. . .
A bearing is a measurement of direction between two points. +earings are generally gi!en in one of two formats, an a$imuth bearing or a #uadrant bearing. An a$imuth bearing uses all C@BM of a compass to indicate direction. The compass is numbered cloc wise with north as BM, east >BM, south =?BM, and west <9BM. (o a bearing of G<M would be northeast and a bearing of <BBM would be southwest, and so on. Dor #uadrant bearings the compass is di!ided into four sections, each containing >BM. The two #uadrants in the northern half of the compass are numbered from BM to >BM away from north (cloc wise in the east, countercloc wise in the west). %n the southern half of the compass, the two #uadrants are numbered away from south (countercloc wise in the east, cloc wise in the west). Puadrant bearings are gi!en in the format of ; GBM/ (northeast), ( <@MW (southwest), etc. Whene!er you measure a #uadrant bearing, it should always be recorded with north or south listed first, followed by the number of degrees away from north or south, and the direction (east or west) away from north or south. %n other words, you would ne!er gi!e a #uadrant bearing as / GBM; or W <GM(.

Hour compass may be an a$imuth compass or it may be di!ided into #uadrants. %f you ha!e an a$imuth compass and are gi!en a #uadrant bearing, you2ll ha!e to di!ide it into #uadrants in your head, and the same goes for #uadrant compasses if you are gi!en an a$imuth bearing.

Measuri ! a beari ! (o, you2re in the field with your map at point A and want to get to point +3how do you accomplish this5 The first thing you need to do is determine the bearing from point A to point +. There are two ways to go about this.

The easiest way, is to carry a protractor with you when you2re in the field. %f you ha!e a protractor with you, place it on the map so it is oriented parallel to a north-south gridline, with the center of the protractor on point A (or on a line drawn between points A and +). ,nce you ha!e done this, you can simply read the bearing you need to go off of the protractor. %f you don2t happen to ha!e a protractor with you, you can determine the bearing you need using your compass. To do this, place your compass on the map so that the edge of your compass is oriented parallel to a north-south gridline and the center of your compass is on the line between points A and +.

;ow rotate the map and compass together until the north arrow on the compass points to BM on the graduated circle. Hou can then appro4imate the bearing you need by estimating where the line between A and + crosses the graduated circle. %t is probably at about this point that, if you are using a +runton compass (and some others as well), you are probably noticing that the 1east2 label is on the wrong side of the compass (west of north). Hou are not hallucinating. %t is that way for a reason that will become clear in the ne4t section, hopefully.

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Dinding (elf on a Map . . .

;ow you now how to get from point A to point + on a map using your compass3but what if you are not sure where e4actly point A is (i.e. you are lost)5 +y far the easiest way to determine where you are on a map is to pull out your poc et A)( (global positioning system recei!er) and ha!e it gi!e you your map coordinates. %f, howe!er, you are li e a lot of people, you don2t want to shell out a few hundred buc s for a A)( and, unless you are in an area with !ery little topographic relief, you don2t need one. Hou can determine your position #uite accurately on a topographic map by using your compass to triangulate between three points. The first step in triangulation is to pic three topographic features that you can see and can identify on your map (mountains are ideal). (tart with the first feature you ha!e chosen and determine the bearing between you and it, as outlined abo!e. ,nce you ha!e determined its bearing, pencil in a line with the same bearing on your map that runs through the chosen feature (once again, ha!ing a protractor would be useful). -epeat this for the other two features, drawing lines for each. The point where the three lines intersect on the map is where you are. .epending on how accurate your sightings were and how accurately you drew your lines through the features, there will probably be a some error in your location. +e sure to double chec the map and reconcile it with what you see. %f the lines intersect in a !alley and you are on a hill, the location is ob!iously off a bit on the map. %t does gi!e a good appro4imation though and, by loo ing at your surroundings, you should be able to figure out which hill on which side of the !alley you are on. %f you ha!e an altimeter with you, you can also use it with the triangulation to help determine your e4act location more accurately.

/4ercise ,ne . . .
0urpose: +ecome familiar with all of the parts of your map and the information contained in your map. Dor this e4ercise, if you ha!e not done so already, obtain a =F<G,BBB scale map of an area near where you li!e or where you would li e to do field e4ercises. Topographic maps can be obtained at your local +*M or Dorest (er!ice office, as well as through the &.(. Aeological (ur!ey. %f possible, choose a map that has a fair amount of topographic relief and !ariability, as it will enable you to get more out of later e4ercises. ,nce you ha!e obtained a map, answer the following #uestions.

What is the name of your #uadrangle5 What are the names of the adjacent #uadrangles5 (Hou should ha!e eight of them) When was your #uadrangle first made into a topographic map5 7as it been re!ised5 What datum was used to create your map5 What is the contour inter!al on your map5 Are there supplemental contours5 What are the geographic coordinates (i.e., latitude and longitude) of the upper left-hand corner of your map5 What are the (&TM coordinates) of the lower right hand corner of your map5 What is the &TM $one in which you are located5 )ic a prominent named feature on your map and gi!e its coordinates in )*( coordinates. +e sure to include the name of the feature (such as "edar +utte, -oc y )oint, etc.) 7ow many different types of roads are there in your map area5 What is the highest point in your map area5 What is the lowest point5

What is the total relief5 What you will be required to do to complete this e1ercise: -ead and wor through the entire companion tutorial, using lin s to !isit more e4tensi!e e4planations. Throughout the e4ercise, #uestions will be posed and answered. Hou will ma4imi$e what you get out of the tutorial if you wor through the #uestions yourself before reading the answer, but you are not re#uired to turn in your results. At the end of the on-line tutorial there are a series of #uestions in the all-important 0Dield /4ercises0 using topographic maps. Hou will need to complete all of these e4ercises, answer the associated #uestions, and turn in your results.

ne4t e4ercise <.

TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS Topographic maps are graphic representations of the surface of the Earth. They provide: a plan (bird's-eye) view of the land scales to measure ground distances bearings to indicate directions coordinate systems to locate features symbols for natural and cultural features contour lines to show the elevation, slope, and relie of the landscape SCA!"S scale defines the ratio between distance on a map and corresponding distance on ground. ractional scale: numerical e!pression o eg: "#:#$$$" indicates that # unit of distance on map represents #$$$ of the same units on the ground verbal scale: written description o eg: "# cm to # %m" grap#ic scale: calibrated bar or line

$"ARI%GS

$earing: the direction between two points. True nort#: the bearing toward geographic north, where a!is intersects the Earth's surface Magnetic nort#: bearing toward magnetic north pole

COOR&I%AT" S'ST"MS Two types of coordinate systems are found on most topographic maps: latitude(longitude towns#ip(range The latitude-longitude system is universally used throughout the world. The townshiprange system is only used in western and southern states. !ATIT)&"(!O%GIT)&" The Earth's surface is divided by an imaginery coordinate grid. This grid is defined by two %inds of lines: latitude (or parallels): run east-west longitude (or meridians): run north-south The location of any point on the Earth's surface can be indicated by the numbers (coordinates) of the line of latitude and line of longitude that cross it. The coordinate numbers of latitude and longitude are angular measurements: coordinate of any line of latitude: angle between line and e&uator coordinate of any line of longitude: angle between line and prime meridian

The coordinate angles are measured in units of degrees, minutes, and seconds: # degree (') ( )$ minutes (') # minute (') ( )$ seconds (") Topo maps usually come in two si*es: *+,- .uadrangle: which e!tend +.,' (#-.') of latitude from north and south and +.,' of longitude from east to west /,- .uadrangle: which e!tend #,' (#-/') from north to south and from east to west MAP S'M$O!S Topographic maps use a variety of symbols to show the location of physiographic and cultural features, the type and density of vegetation, and the elevation of the land. The standard symbols (established by the 0nited 1tates 2eological 1urvey) are shown in Table ,-#. CO%TO)R !I%"S Topographic maps are distinctive from other maps in the use of contour lines to show the elevation, relief and slope of the land. elevation: vertical distance from sea level relief: difference in elevation between two points slope: change in elevation over a given hori*ontal distance Contour lines: imaginary lines connecting points of e&ual elevation. Contour interval: difference in elevation between two ad3acent contour lines: usually constant on any given map every contour line is a multiple of the contour interval

Inde0 contour: every fifth contour line is printed thic%er, and then mar%ed with its elevation for reference. R"A&I%G CO%TO)R !I%"S1 #. Every fifth line in a series of contours in an inde! contour (see point on 4igure ,-+) 5. The elevations of specific points are noted by benc#mar2s (see points 6 and 7) 8. The elevation of any point on a contour line is e&ual to the elevation of that contour line: 9hat is the elevation of point :; /. The elevation of any point that lies between two contour lines is estimated on the basis of its relative distances from these lines. 9hat is the elevation of point E; ,. The spacing of contour lines is proportional to the slope of the land. 7ontour E!ample= 1lope <epresentation 4ig.,-+ >evel ground ?o contours 4 2 @ A -

0niform slope E&ually spaced contours 2entle slope 1teep slope Bertical cliff 9idely spaced contours 7losely spaced contours Cerged contours

). Every point enclosed by a solid contour line is topographically higher than the line itself. 1olid contour lines enclose topograp#ic #ig#s (see point D). +. 7ontour lines which cross rivers and valleys form Bs that point in the upstream direction (point >). .. @achured lines are used to mar% the contours of closed depressions with no outlets such as ponds (see point E) F. Every point enclosed by a hachured contour line is topographically lower than that line. #$. The outer hachured contour line around a topographic low has the same elevation as the closest solid contour line. TOPOGRAPHIC PRO3I!"S Topographic maps provide a plan view of the shape of the Earth's surface.

different perspective on the shape of the Earth's surface is the cross-section view, called a topograp#ic pro ile. The creation of a topographic profile is shown in 4igure ,-.. 4"RTICA! "5AGG"RATIO% 4ertical e0aggeration (BE): the distortion of the vertical scale of a topographic profile to emphasi*e the relief and slope of the land. BE ( vertical scale divided by hori*ontal scale 4or e!ample, the vertical scale in 4igure ,-.c is #"(#$$'G the hori*ontal scale is #"(#$$$'.

ST"R"OPHOTOGRAPHS To use stereophotographs: #. >ocate a prominent point or feature that is present in both images. 5. Hlace center of stereoscope directly over the line separating the two images, and ad3ust the lenses so that they are directly over the same point in each image. 8. >oo% through stereoscope and rela! your eyes. The images will merge. Af they do not, twist the stereoscope until they do.

6ac% to the Hhysical 2eology >ab @omepage

6ac% to E17A ##5 >ab >ist ?ame :ate

Topograp#ic Maps !ab Introduction

Cost atlas maps are too "small-scaled" to show the details of landforms. The generali*ations of gross landform regions (mountains, hills, plateaus and plains) often obscure as much about a region as they tell us. Ine must turn to large-scale maps when it is necessary to show more precisely the local variations in slope and elevation. An the 0nited 1tates we depend heavily upon the detailed topographic maps prepared by the 0nited 1tates 2eological 1urvey (0121).

The 0121 was established by an ct of 7ongress in #.+F for the purpose of ma%ing a systematic study of the geology and natural resources of the nation and for classifying the public lands. 4rom the very beginning it was evident that no ade&uate classification of lands or conclusive geologic interpretations could be made without suitable base maps. general plan was adopted in #..5 for the production of a standard series of topographic maps. 0nder the plan, each map covers a &uadrangle of land bounded by lines of latitude and longitude by which the location of any point on the surface of the earth can be readily determined. Topographic maps with these standard boundaries are usually referred to as '&uadrangles' or '&uad maps'. The information shown on topographic maps is generally divided into three main classes that are distinguished by the colors in which they are printed, as follows: 6>0E J water features such as oceans, la%es, rivers, glaciers, canals, and swampsG 6> 7E J the wor%s of people including cultural features such as roads, trails, dams, transmission lines, buildings, airports, railroads, and boundary linesG and 6<I9? J the shape or configuration of the land surface, and on topographic maps the method of representation (contour lines) separates it from other types of maps. Cany common symbols are defined in the map legend, and can also be referenced in the official 0121 Topographic Cap 1ymbols leaflet. Contour !ines Contour Lines are a cartographer's way of adding a "third" dimension to a topographic map or flat piece of paper. There are other ways of showing relief but none is as potentially accurate and as easy to use as the contour map. contour may be defined as an imaginary line on the ground, every part of which is at the same elevation above a given level, usually mean sea level. The shoreline of any stable body of water such as a sea or la%e is, in effect, a contour. Af the level of the water rises or falls, the water's edge conforms to the shape of the land at the new level and traces out a new contour. 7ontour lines could be drawn at any elevation, but in practice, only the contours at certain regular intervals are shown. 4rom these contours, the height of each hill, the depth of each valley, and the appro!imate elevation and slope of the ground at any point can be determined. @achured contours indicate a depression. The contour interval, the vertical distance between one contour and the ne!t, is selected according to the steepness of the terrain and the scale of the map. The approved intervals for large scale maps in the 0nited 1tates are ,, #$, 5$, /$, and .$ feet, and 5,, ,$ and #$$ feet used for certain areas where they are appropriate. To ma%e the contours easy to read and interpret, every fifth one is made heavier than the others and is labeled with numbers showing its elevation above sea level. The contour interval used on each map is indicated in its lower margin, near the graphic scale.

The contour lines on 0121 topographic maps follow a set of loosely defined "rules" which you should learn and understand. 1everal of the most basic rules that will be used in this e!ercise are listed below: Hoints lying between contour lines must be interpolated to find their elevation. 4or e!ample, a point lying midway between contours ,,//$ and ,,/.$ would be ,,/)$' above sea level. 7ontour lines never intersect or cross one another, although in special cases they may be shown to be superimposed. 7ontour lines curve in an upstream direction when they cross a stream valley. Every contour line should eventually meet itself, either inside or outside the map area. 9here contours are spaced close together, the topography is steepG where they are far apart the slopes are gentler. An addition to contour lines and their elevations, the heights of many identifiable points, such as road intersections, mountain summits, and surfaces of la%es are shown on the map in printed figures, giving the elevation to the nearest foot. These individual elevations are commonly referred to as spot elevations. The map scale limits the amount of information that can be shown on a map. 0121 maps are intended to give as complete a picture of the terrain as can be legibly reproduced at publication scale. Cany relatively unimportant features are omitted and many small but important features are necessarily e!aggerated in si*e to ma%e them more readable. 1ome features are mapped because of their relative importance on a regional basis, such as wells and springs in the arid western states. The landscape and accompanying topographic map reproduced in 4igure # should assist in your understanding of these important rules.

3igure /

Public !and Survey System An addition to latitude and longitude, there are several other ways to describe the location of points on a topographic map. system in use in the 0nited 1tates is the 01 Hublic >and 1urvey 1ystem (H>11). This system was devised by Thomas Defferson and employs roughly s&uare tracts of different si*es. The smallest and most fundamental of these s&uare parcels of land is called a section, a s&uare, one mile on a side, containing )/$ acres. These mile s&uares may be subdivided into four more s&uares called quarter sections, and these may be further subdivided as shown in 4igure 5. 1ections are grouped into large s&uare parcels of land called townships, each township si! miles on a side and containing 8) sections. ?umbering of sections in each township begins with the northeast corner section, and proceeds west to section ), then to the south to ad3acent section +, and bac% to the east along the second tier of sections to section #5. This *ig*ag pattern continues until all 8) sections are numbered (4igure 5) Townships are also organi*ed into a grid system, being arranged along a north-south principal meridian and along an east-west baseline. Townships are arrayed both north and south of the baseline and are numbered accordingly, being given township numbers based on a given townshipKs relative pro!imity to the baseline. Townships are also arrayed along east-west lines. @ere, they are located by range numbers, depending on the position of the township east or west of the principle meridian.

/+ Map Interpretation
Ob6ective7 To e!plore the components of a topographic map, and use some analytical techni&ues. Materials %eeded7 0121 Cap of Ciner, CT, 7alculator, <uler, 1tring, 1canning Electron Cicroscope Problems7 #. 9hat is the name of the map you are using;

5. 9hat is the map scale; @ow many feet on the ground does one inch on the map represent;

8. 9hat is the map pro3ection;

/. 9hat is the contour interval; 9hat is the interval between inde! contours;

,. 9hich map would you need to obtain in order to see the terrain upstream of Lan%ee Dim 7anyon on the Lellowstone <iver;

). 4ind "Can's 4oot Countain". 9hat is its elevation; 2ive the coordinates of its summit in >atitude->ongitude to the nearest minute. 2ive the summit location in H>11 grid (&uarter section, section, township, range).

+. 4ind 9igwam 7ree%. 9hich direction (upstream or downstream) do the "B's" in the contour lines point;

.. @ow many feet does Tom Ciner 7ree% descend from the western edge of the map to its confluence with the Lellowstone <iver;

F. >ocate ":og Tooth <oc%". 7alculate the average slope from the summit to the benchmar% on the dirt road to the north. 2ive your answer as a ratio, as a percentage, and in degrees.

#$. >oo% at the south slope of :og Tooth <oc%. @ow does the steepness of the south slope compare to that of the north; ##. 9hat feature is located at 19 M, 1ec. ), T .1, < +E; @ow far is it (straightline distance) from the town of Ciner to this feature; @ow many miles would you travel if you were to drive to this feature from Ciner; 0se a string to measure the road distance.

8+ Topograp#ic Pro iles

Ob6ectives: To create a scaled topographic profile, visuali*e terrain represented by contour lines, and e!plore the concept of vertical e!aggeration. Materials %eeded: 0121 #:5,$$$$ 1cale Topographic Cap of @awaii, <uler, Hrotractor, 7alculator, ##!#+" 2raph Haper, Cas%ing Tape. Procedure7 Part I7 Create a topograp#ic pro ile beginning at 9ailua on t#e west and ending at Hono#ina in t#e east+ T#ere are bat#ymetric :undersea; contours on t#e map as well < continue your pro ile o s#ore at least to t#e irst undersea contour+ #. lign the graph paper with the endpoints and secure it. :raw a hori*ontal a!is at the bottom of the paper and title it. >abel East and 9est on the appropriate end of the a!is. 5. :etermine the range of elevations necessary to include on the vertical a!is. :raw in the vertical a!is on the left side of the sheet and label it with a title and elevations. 8. Transfer the inde! contours from the map to the top edge of the paper as tic% mar%s. 0se a ruler to transfer the tic% mar%s straight down to the corresponding elevation as indicated by the vertical a!is. /. 7onnect the points with a smooth curve.

,. >abel all distinguishing features on the profile (pea%s, rivers, la%es, cities, etc.) ). :etermine the scale of the vertical a!is (inches on the graph per feet on the ground). +. :ivide the hori*ontal a!is scale by the vertical a!is scale to get the vertical e!aggeration. .. 7reate a legend with the following information: ?ame of Hrofile (Endpoints and compass direction) ?ame of Cap @ori*ontal 1cale (7opy a graphic scale from the map) Bertical E!aggeration Part II7 Create a second pro ile t#e same as t#e irst one= but wit# #al t#e vertical e0aggeration+ 'ou may eit#er use t#e bac2 o t#e grap# paper= or create a second vertical a0is on t#e rig#t side o your original pro ile= and use t#e same #ori>ontal a0is :be sure to ma2e it clear w#ic# pro ile goes wit# w#ic# a0is?;+ #. 7ompare the two profiles. 9hich profile provides a more accurate representation of the landscape;

@+ Ma2ing a Topograp#ic Map

Ob6ective7 0sing survey points to create a topographic map. Materials %eeded7 Hencil, Cap of 1urvey Hoints. Procedure7 #. 0se the diagram of survey points below to create a contour map with a /AA( meter contour interval+ %OT"7 T#e BRim o CraterB is %OT a contour line?

5. An the space below, s%etch a profile of your new map from point A to point AC.

Topographic Caps
Introduction topographic map is a detailed and accurate two-dimensional representation of natural and human-made features on the Earth's surface. These maps are used for a number of applications, from camping, hunting, fishing, and hi%ing to urban planning, resource management, and surveying. The most distinctive characteristic of a topographic map is that the three-dimensional shape of the Earth's surface is modeled by the use of contour lines. 7ontours are imaginary lines that connect locations of similar elevation. 7ontours ma%e it possible to represent the height of mountains and steepness of slopes on a two-dimensional map surface. Topographic maps also use a variety of symbols to describe both natural and human made features such as roads, buildings, &uarries, la%es, streams, and vegetation

Contour !ines Topographic maps can describe vertical information through the use of contour lines (contours). contour line is an isoline that connects points on a map that have the same elevation. 7ontours are often drawn on a map at a uniform vertical distance. This distance is called the contour interval. The map in the 3igure 8d(/ shows contour lines with an interval of #$$ feet. ?ote that every fifth brown contour lines is drawn bold and has the appropriate elevation labeled on it. These contours are called inde! contours. In 3igure 8d(/ they represent elevations of ,$$, #$$$, #,$$, 5$$$ feet and so on. The interval at which contours are drawn on a map depends on the amount of the relief depicted and the scale of the map.

3igure 8d(/7 Hortion of the "To ino" #:,$,$$$ %ational Topograp#ic Series o Canada map. The brown lines drawn on this map are contour lines. Each line represents a vertical increase in elevation of #$$ feet. The bold brown contour lines are called inde! contours. The inde! contours are labeled with their appropriate elevation which increases at a rate of ,$$ feet. ?ote the blue line drawn to separate water from land represents an elevation of $ feet or sealevel.

7ontour lines provide us with a simple effective system for describing landscape configuration on a two-dimensional map. The arrangement, spacing, and shape of the contours provide the user of the map with some idea of what the actual topographic configuration of the land surface loo%s li%e. 7ontour intervals the are spaced closely together describe a steep slope. 2entle slopes are indicated by widely spaced contours. 7ontour lines that B upwards indicate the presence of a river valley. <idges are shown by contours that B downwards.

Topograp#ic Pro iles

topographic profile is a two-dimensional diagram that describes the landscape in vertical cross-section. Topographic profiles are often created from the contour information found on topographic maps. The simplest way to construct a topographic profile is to place a sheet of blan% paper along a hori*ontal transect of interest. 4rom the map, the elevation of the various contours is transferred on to the edge of the paper from one end of the transect to the other. ?ow on a sheet of graph paper use the !-a!is to represent the hori*ontal distance covered by the transect. The y-a!is is used to represent the vertical dimension and measures the change in elevation along the transect. Cost people e!aggerate the measure of elevation on the y-a!is to ma%e changes in relief stand out. Hlace the beginning of the transect as copied on the piece of paper at the intersect of the ! and y-a!is on the graph paper. The contour information on the paper's edge is now copied onto the piece of graph paper. 3igure 8d(8 shows a topographic profile drawn from the information found on the transect A($ above.

3igure /d(87 The following topographic profile shows the vertical change in surface elevation along the transect A$ from 3igure /d(/. vertical e!aggeration of about /.5 times was used in the profile (hori*ontal scale ( #:,$,$$$, vertical scale ( #:#5,$$$ and vertical e!aggeration ( hori*ontal scale-vertical scale).

Military Grid Re erence System and Map !ocation Two rectangular grid systems are available on topographic maps for identifying the location of points. These systems are the 0niversal Transverse Cercator ()TM) grid system and the Cilitary 2rid <eference 1ystem. The Military

Grid Re erence System is a simplified form of )niversal Transverse Mercator grid system and it provides a very &uic% and easy method of referencing a location on a topographic map. In a topographic maps with a scale #:,$,$$$ and larger, the Military Grid Re erence System is superimposed on the surface of map as blue colored series of e&ually spaced hori*ontal and vertical lines. Adentifying numbers for each of these lines is found along the map's margin. Each identifying number consists of two digits which range from a value of $$ to FF (3igure 8d(@). Each individual s&uare in the grid system represents a distance of a #$$$ by #$$$ meters and the total si*e of the grid is #$$,$$$ by #$$,$$$ meters. Ine problem associated with the Military Grid Re erence System is the fact that reference numbers must be repeat every #$$,$$$ meters. To overcome this difficulty, a method was devised to identify each #$$,$$$ by #$$,$$$ meter grid with two identifying letters which are printed in blue on the border of all topographic maps (note some maps may show more than one grid). 9hen ma%ing reference to a location with the Military Grid Re erence System identifying letters are always given before the hori*ontal and vertical coordinate numbers.

3igure 8d(@7 Hortion of a Military Grid Re erence System found on a topographic map. 7oordinates on this system are based on a 5 (hori*ontal increasing from left to right) and ' (vertical increasing from bottom to top) system. The symbol depicting a church is located in the s&uare D/DE. ?ote that the value along the 5-a!is (easting) is given first followed by the value on the '-a!is (northing). (Source: 7entre for Topographic Anformation, %atural Resources Canada).

Each individual s&uare in the Military Grid Re erence System can be further divided into #$$ smaller s&uares (ten by ten). This division allows us to calculate the location of an ob3ect to within #$$ meters. 3igure /d(E indicates that the church is si! tenths of the way between lines D/ and D8, and four tenths of the way between lines DE and D,. 0sing these values, we can state that the easting as being D/F and the northing as DEE. 6y convention, these two numbers are combined into a coordinate reference of D/FDEE.

3igure 8d(E7 4urther determination of the location of the church described in 3igure 8d(@. 0sing the calibrated ruler we can now suggest the location of the church to be D/F on the 5-a!is and DEE on the '-a!is. ?ote that the location reference always has an even number of digits, with the three digits representing the easting and the second three the northing. (Source: 7entre for Topographic Anformation, %atural Resources Canada).