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SECTION 2
MEASUREMENT

Contents
MEASUREMENTS - GENERAL........................................................................2
Direct Measurement.......................................................................................2
Indirect Measurement.....................................................................................3
Instrument Accuracy.......................................................................................4
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER DESIGN.....................................................................5
CURRENT TRANSFORMER DESIGN.....................................................................6
TERMINAL MARKINGS....................................................................................... 8
SPECIAL DANGERS WITH CURRENT TRANSFORMERS.........................................9
BURDEN.......................................................................................................... 11
Calculation of an instrument transformer burden.......................................11
Location of CTs and VTs..............................................................................12
Instruments...................................................................................................12
CURRENT AND VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS FOR PROTECTION......14
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS.....................................................................14
Design...........................................................................................................14
Operation......................................................................................................16
Open-Circuited Current Transformer..........................................................18
Short-Time Factor........................................................................................19
Accuracy Limit Factor..................................................................................19
Specification of Current Transformers........................................................20
Rated Secondary Current.............................................................................20
Secondary Winding Impedance....................................................................21
Primary Windings.........................................................................................21
Application...................................................................................................21
Effect of CT Magnetising Current on Relay Setting....................................23
Quadrature or Air-Gap Current Transformers............................................23
Summation Current Transformer.................................................................23
VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS.....................................................................23
Accuracy.......................................................................................................24
Protection.....................................................................................................24
Residual Connection.....................................................................................24
CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS...........................................................25

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Measurements - General
In a.c. power systems it is necessary continually to monitor the voltage, currents,
power and similar quantities in the various parts of the system. This is done by the
use of instruments - that is by indicating voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeters etc.
The same measured quantities are also used to protect the system by means of
relays, which are devices to detect when any of the quantities is going outside the
predetermined limit. They initiate whatever automatic action is necessary to
restore the situation or disconnect faulty or overloaded apparatus.
Almost all electrical instruments and relays depend for their action on
measurements of voltage or current or combinations of the two. Measurements of
frequency are obtained from analysing a voltage measurement.
Direct Measurement
2

V
1

Single Phase

Switch
Positions
1 R-Y
2 Y-B
3 B-R

Three Phase

(a) Voltage

Three Phase
Clip-on Ammeter
(any phase)

Single Phase

(b) Current
FIGURE 2.1 - DIRECT MEASUREMENT

Voltage and current samples are taken either directly or indirectly from the
conductors of the circuit to be monitored. In the simplest case (direct
measurement) the voltage is taken by tapping the main conductors. The
tappings must always be protected by fuses which, for a voltage-operated
instrument or relay, are quite lightly rated, though still able to deal with the full
fault capacity of the system. In the 3-phase case a selector switch may be used
to measure voltages between any desired phases, as shown in Figure 2.1(a).

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Direct measurement of current in a single-phase circuit is obtained by placing
the instrument's current-operated coil in series with a main conductor, shown in
Figure 2.1(b). In the 3-phase case it is not possible to select phases for current
measurement unless current transformers are used. It would otherwise be
necessary to break each phase to connect the ammeter, and this would not be
acceptable. Selection with the use of current transformers is shown under
'Indirect Measurement' in Figure 2.2. Alternatively three separate ammeters
may be used.
The currents in the separate phases can, however, be measured independently
by use of a clip-on type ammeter. Different ammeter instruments can be
plugged into the tongs to give current ranges from 10A to 1000A. On some
types the range is altered by a switch on the tester.
Direct measurement has serious disadvantages. In high-voltage systems the
instrument or relay would have to be insulated up to the full system voltage,
which for a normal sized switchboard instrument is not practical. Currentoperated instruments would not only have to be insulated up to the full system
voltage, they would also have to carry the full normal current of the circuit and
to withstand the extreme fault currents. This, too, is not practical except for the
lightest circuits.
Indirect Measurement
To overcome these objections indirect measurement is employed. Transformers
are used not only to scale down the quantities actually measured, but also to
isolate the instrument or relay from the main system voltage. Such
transformers, which are designed specifically for this purpose, are known as
instrument transformers.
Instrument transformers are of two types - 'voltage transformers' (VT) and
'current transformers' (CT). They are shown diagrammatically in Figure 2.2 for
both single-phase and 3-phase systems. For 3-phase there may be either three
separate single-phase VTs (with their ratios adjusted for the star connection), or
else a 3-phase unit, which is more usual. Current transformers are always
provided as separate single-phase units.
The secondary voltages and currents may be chosen as desired, but in practice
the VT secondary voltage is usually 110V line-to-line, and the CT secondary
current 5A or 1A (refer to a later paragraph in this section for special
precautions when dealing with CT secondaries).
To select the phases between which voltages are measured, a 3-position selector
switch is used, as in Figure 2.1(a), but connected to the VT secondaries.
Further positions may be provided to measure voltages between each phase and
neutral.
To select the phases in which currents are measured, a special selector switch is
used which inserts the ammeter into the CT secondary of the desired phase and
at the same time allows the secondary currents of the other two phases to pass.
To avoid open-circuiting the CT secondaries, all contacts are of the makebefore-break type. This is shown in Figure 2.2(b), bottom right.
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VT 110V
Voltage
Operated
VT 110V Relay

110V (line)

Wattmetric
Relay

V
CT
(5 or 1A)

Current
Operated
Relay
A

(a) Single Phase

Current
Operated
Relays

CTs
(5 or 1A)

Voltage
Operated
Relay

Wattmetric
Relay

(b) Three Phase

FIGURE 2.2 - INDIRECT MEASUREMENT WITH INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

A VT feeds, through secondary fuses (except in the earthed line), all voltageoperated instruments and relays in parallel, single- or 3-phase as required.
Current-operated instruments and relays are connected in series with the CT
secondary whose phase is being used. Fuses must never be used in a CT
secondary circuit (see special precautions). Instrument transformer secondaries
must always be earthed. With star-connected VT secondaries it is normal
practice to earth one phase (usually the yellow) and not the star-point. CT
secondaries are normally commoned at some point, and it is usual to earth this
common line, as shown in Figure 2.2(b).
Instrument Accuracy
Since the purpose of instruments and relays is to monitor the actual conditions
in the main power line, it is necessary that VTs and CTs reproduce those
conditions, to a stepped-down scale, as accurately as possible. That is to say
their voltage ratio or current ratio must be correct and constant over their whole
range of operation; they must not introduce undue phase shift while doing so
(important for wattmeters); and they must reproduce unbalance conditions
exactly.
The extent to which these conditions are met determines the accuracy class of
the instrument transformer. A distinction is drawn between 'measuring' and
'protective' types. For measurements, the accuracy within, and a little above,
the normal working range is important, but accuracy in the overcurrent and fault
ranges of current does not matter. On the other hand, a protective CT must
deliver accurate currents in the fault range, whereas accuracy in the working
range is unimportant. This gives rise to two different design concepts.

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The classes of accuracy are laid down by British Standards. For each type
different ranges of accuracy are specified for measurement and for protective
transformers according to the purpose for which they are to be used. The
ranges are as follows:
VTs
Class
Measurement
0.1
0.2
0.5
1
3
Protective
3P
6P

CTs

Voltage
Ratio Error

Phase
Displ

Class

Current Ratio
Error

Phase Displ

0.1%
0.2%
0.5%
1.0%
3.0%

15'
(angle)
10'
20'
40'
not spec.

0.1
0.2
0.5
1
3
5

10.25 - 0.1%
0.5 - 0.2%
1.0 - 0.5%
2.0-1.0%
3%
5%

10'-5'
20' - 10'
60' - 30'
120' - 60'
not spec.
not spec.

3%
6%

120'
240'

5P
10P

1%
3%
as specified

60'
60'

Special

Most indicating instruments on onshore and offshore switchboards are fed from
VTs and CTs of Class 0.5, and most protective relays from VTs Class 3P and
CTs Class 5P. There are, however, exceptions (for example differential relays
are fed from Class X CTs), and it is necessary to refer to drawings for particular
cases.
If it is ever necessary to check or recalibrate a switchboard instrument or relay,
it must always be done with instrument transformers of a class higher than those
with which it normally runs.

Voltage Transformer Design

A voltage transformer is made basically like an ordinary open-type power
transformer, with separate HV and LV windings. It is, of course, much smaller,
having ratings in the range 15 to 200VA per phase. The loading on a VT (or CT)
is termed 'burden', not 'load'; an instrument transformer burden is always measured
in volt-amperes, never in watts. At voltages up to those found on offshore
installations most VTs are dry-type, often embedded in synthetic resin. They are
usually located inside the switchboards. On shore equipments, especially when
associated with high-voltage oil circuit-breakers, VTs are often in oil-filled tanks.
The high-voltage VT primary fuses are of the HRC type. They have a low current
rating but are capable of breaking the full busbar fault current of the HV system.
They are located in the VT compartment and with some types are embodied in the
VT itself.
Access to the high-voltage VT and its fuses is through the VT compartment door.
This cannot be opened until the VT has been isolated. The manner of isolation
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varies with different manufacturers.

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Current Transformer Design

A current transformer can take one of two forms. One type is wound like an
ordinary transformer, with primary and secondary windings round a common core.
As a CT steps current down, it steps voltage up. The primary winding, though
connected in the system's high-voltage system, is in fact the LV (high current)
winding as far as the transformer is concerned, and the secondary is the HV (low
current) winding. Wound-primary CTs are used where the primary current is low
and where it is necessary to have several primary turns to achieve enough ampereturns in the CT. The examples shown in Figure 2.3(a) and (b) are typical; burdens
are in the range 5 to 30VA per phase. Wound-primary CTs must be able to
withstand the full voltage and fault current of the main system on their primary
windings.

FIGURE 2.3 - TYPICAL CURRENT TRANSFORMERS

An alternative form of CT is known as the 'bar' or 'ring' type. It has no primary

'winding' as such but uses the main conductor itself as a 'one-turn' primary. The
flux surrounding the conductor, due to the current it is carrying, links the closed
iron core of the CT and induces voltage in the secondary winding, which is wound
as a toroid around the circular core. The secondary circuit is closed through its
burden, and the current which flows in it is an exact scaled-down replica of the
primary current in the conductor.
Bar-type CTs are generally used whenever the current ratio (e.g. 1500/1A) is large
enough. They are also convenient in that several can easily be stacked over a
single existing conductor. It is very important that they be placed the right way up,
otherwise the secondary terminal voltages and current flow will be reversed. By
convention the secondary terminal S1 always has the same polarity as primary
terminal P1, or as that of the end of the bar emerging from the face marked P1.
This type of CT is shown in Figure 2.3(c). Its construction is not limited by the
fault current of the main system.

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FIGURE 2.4 - BAR TYPE CT SHOWING CONSTRUCTION DETAIL

Another important difference between a CT and other types of transformer lies in

its magnetisation. The magnetising current, and therefore the flux, of a power
transformer or a VT is constant and depends only on the applied voltage.
However a CT when it has no burden is effectively short-circuited, and no voltage
is present, whatever the primary current; therefore there is no core flux. If the
burden is increased, so also is the voltage for a given current, as explained below,
and this causes the magnetisation to increase. Thus with a current transformer the
magnetisation is variable not only with the current, but it also is increased
depending on the burden connected.
In the limit, if the burden is increased beyond the rating of the CT, the core will
saturate, and the current ratio of the CT will no longer hold; it will become
inaccurate. Moreover the iron losses will rise sharply and may cause severe
overheating of the CT and possibly damage to it.

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Terminal Markings
The terminals of a CT should be marked as indicated in Figure 2.4. The primary
current flows from P1 to P2 and it is standard to put P1 nearer to the circuit
breaker. The secondary current flows from S1 to S2 through the burden.

P1

P1

S1

S1
P2

S2

S4

P2

(a) Single Secondary

- No Tappings
P1

S2
S3

(b) Single Secondary

With Tappings

S1

P1

S1

S2
S3
P2

S4

(c) Multi Secondary

Windings

C1

S2
C

P2
(d) Primary in
Sections

FIGURE 2.5 - CT TERMINAL MARKINGS

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Special Dangers with Current Transformers

When a CT secondary circuit is closed, a current flows through it which is an exact
proportion of the primary current, regardless of the resistance of the burden. In
Figure 2.6(a) the secondary of the CT (assumed to have a ratio of 1000/5A and to
have 1000A flowing in the primary) is carrying exactly 5A, and, since the
secondary terminals S1 and S2 are short- circuited, there is no voltage between
them.
1000A
P1
CT
1000/5A
P2

5A
S1

Short
Circuit

S2

(a) Zero Burden

1000A
P1
CT
1000/5A
P2

P2

Burden 0VA

5A
S1

0.5

S2

(b) Typical Burden

1000A
P1
CT
1000/5A

0V

2.5V

Burden 12.5VA

5A
S1

S2

(c) High Burden

25V

Burden 125VA

FIGURE 2.6 - VOLTAGE AND BURDEN OF A CURRENT TRANSFORMER

If now the short-circuit be replaced by a resistance of, say, 0.5 ohm (as in Figure
2.6(b)), the same 5A will flow through, causing a volt-drop of 2.5V and a burden
of 5 x 2.5 = 12.5VA. If the resistance were increased to 5 ohms (as in Figure
2.6(c)), the terminal voltage with 5A flowing would rise to 25V and the burden to
125VA. The greater the resistance, the greater would be the voltage and burden
until, as it approached infinity (the open-circuit condition), so also in theory would
the voltage (and burden) become infinite. This cannot of course happen in practice
because the CT would saturate or the terminals flash over due to the very high
secondary voltage between them. But it does show the danger of open-circuiting
the secondary of a running CT. Lethal voltages can be produced at the point of
opening. This is why CT secondaries are never fused.

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The danger from an open-circuited CT is twofold. It can produce lethal voltages
and so is a very real danger to personnel. The high voltage across the secondary
winding could also cause insulation failure in that winding, leading at best to
inaccuracy and at worst to burnout or fire.
Before ever an instrument or relay is removed from the secondary loop of a
running CT (if such a thing had to be done), the wires feeding that instrument must
first be securely shortcircuited at a suitable terminal box or, better, at the CT itself.
Similarly, if a running CT is ever to be taken out of circuit, it must first be firmly
shorted. CTs with 1A secondaries are more dangerous than those with 5A, as the
induced voltages are higher.
To prevent this danger many CT secondaries are permanently short-circuited by a
'metrosil', which is a non-linear element with a high resistance at low voltages but
which breaks down to almost a short-circuit at the higher and dangerous voltages.
It does, however, somewhat reduce the accuracy of the CT and is not always
acceptable for this reason.
There is also a range of CTs designed to saturate if their burden becomes
excessive, so that even on open-circuit their secondary voltage will not exceed
about 100V. It is not safe, however, to assume that such CTs are fitted in any
particular case.
WARNING
WHENEVER POSSIBLE THE MAIN CIRCUIT SHOULD BE MADE
DEAD BEFORE INTERFERING WITH CT SECONDARIES OR THEIR
INSTRUMENTS OR RELAYS.

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Burden
The load of a current transformer is called the burden and can be expressed either
as a VA load or as an impedance. In the former case the VA is taken to be at the
CT nominal secondary current. For example, a 5VA burden on a 1A transformer
would have an impedance of 5 ohms:
5VA
= 5V
1A
5V
impedance =
1A

=5

or on a 5A current transformer:
5VA
5A

= 1V

impedance =

1V
5A

= 0.2

All burdens are connected in series and the increase in impedance increases the
burden on the current transformer. A current transformer is unloaded if the
secondary winding is short-circuited as under this condition the VA burden is zero
because the voltage is zero. The errors of transformation depend on the angle of
the burden as well as its impedance.
Calculation of an instrument transformer burden
Instrument transformers are rated according to the burden that they can carry
and still remain within their specified accuracy. The burdens are usually given in
VA units (i.e. power factor is ignored), and all burdens are simply added
together. Manufacturers of instruments and relays similarly state the burdens of
these devices in VA. Thus, if a CT operates an ammeter (2VA), a current relay
(3VA) and, say, the current coil of a kWh meter (4VA), the total burden on the
CT of these three devices will be 9VA.
The burden imposed by long secondary pilot leads, however, cannot be ignored.
If, for example, the total resistance of a CT secondary run were 0.5 ohms (go
and return) and the CT had a 5A secondary, the total volt-drop across the pilots
would be 0.5 x 5 = 2.5 V. With 5A current flowing in them, the burden of the
pilot leads would be 2.5V x 5A = 12.5VA, and this would need to be added to
that of the instruments (9VA above) to give a total burden on the CT of 12.5 +
9 = 21.5VA. It must therefore have a rating sufficient to meet this total burden.
In general, pilot leads impose far less VA burden on a 1A current transformer
than on a 5A.
In Figure 2.5 a 20VA CT with full-load secondary current of 5A supplies two
ammeters, a current relay, a wattmeter and a kWh meter with VA burdens as
shown. The pilot leads have a resistance of 0.1 ohm per core. Is the 20VA
rating of the CT sufficient?

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0.1
20VA

March 1997

kWh

2VA

2VA

3VA

2VA

4VA

5A

0.1
FIGURE 2.7 - CALCULATION OF CT BURDEN

Total instrument burden = 2 + 2 + 3 + 2 + 4 = 13VA.

Total pilot load resistance = 2 x 0.1 = 0.2.
With 5A secondary current, volt-drop in leads is 5 x 0.2 = 1 V.
Burden imposed by both leads = 5A x 1 V = 5VA.
Total burden on CT = 1 3 + 5 = 1 8VA.
As the CT is rated 20VA, it has sufficient margin.
The reader should work out for himself what would be the total burden if the
CT had a 1A secondary.
Location of CTs and VTs
Current and voltage transformers can be located anywhere desired where the
primary conductors are available, but in HV switchgear they are usually
incorporated in special chambers in the switchgear unit itself. Manufacturers'
arrangements vary a great deal and the relevant manuals should be consulted
before attempting to locate any current or voltage transformers
Instruments
A.C. instruments include voltmeters, ammeters, wattmeters, varmeters, power
factor meters, frequency meters and synchroscopes. Voltmeters, ammeters and
frequency meters are almost all of the moving-iron or transducer-operated type,
with an accuracy of 2% full-scale deflection. Wattmeters and varmeters are of
the dynamometer type, and power factor meters and synchroscopes have two
sets of fixed coils and a moving-iron armature. All voltage-operated coils
(except those for 415V or 440V or less which may be direct-fed) are fed
through VTs, and all current-operated coils through CTs at all voltages.
Since wattmeter, varmeter, power factor meter and frequency meter movements
tend to be expensive, an alternative which is often used is the transduceroperated instrument. Here the VT and CT signals are fed into static electronic
ac/dc transducers, and a d.c. voltage signal is produced from each which
faithfully represents the a.c. watts, vars, power factor or frequency. These are
led to simple d.c. voltmeter-type moving-coil instruments, but which are scaled
in watts, vars, power factor or hertz. Many such instruments can be connected
in parallel. Figure 2.8 shows typical connections.

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VT 110V

CTs
5A

Instrument
Transducers
D.C. Signals

var

var

cos

cos

Hz
Hz

FIGURE 2.8 - TRANSDUCER OPERATED INSTRUMENTS

Where two or more such instruments are used from the same transducer, they are
connected in parallel. Some instruments have their transducer in the instrument
case; others have the transducer in a separate box, especially if it operates more
than one instrument.
Kilowatt-hour or megawatt-hour meters are also fed through VTs and CTs whose
connections are the same as for a wattmeter.

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CURRENT AND VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS FOR

PROTECTION
CURRENT TRANSFORMERS
The current transformer is well established but it is generally regarded as merely a
device which reproduces a primary current at a reduced level. A current
transformer designed for measuring purposes operates over a range of current up
to a specific rated value, which usually corresponds to the circuit normal rating,
and has specified errors at that value. On the other hand, a protection current
transformer is required to operate over a range of current many times the circuit
rating and is frequently subjected to conditions greatly exceeding those which it
would be subjected to as a measuring current transformer. Under such conditions
the flux density corresponds to advanced saturation and the response during this
and the initial transient period of short-circuit current is important.
It will be appreciated, therefore that the method of specification of current
transformers for measurement purposes is not necessarily satisfactory for those for
protection. In addition an intimate knowledge of the operation current
transformers is required in order to predict the performance of the protection.
Current transformers have two important qualities:
1. They produce the primary current conditions at a much lower level so
that the current can be carried by the small cross-sectional area cables
associated with panel wiring and relays.
2. They provide an insulating barrier so that relays which are being used to
protect high voltage equipment need only be insulated for a nominal
600V.
Design
Current transformers conform to the normal transformer e.m.f. equation where
the average induced voltage is equal to the product of the number of turns and
the rate of change of magnetic flux (). The normal design criterion is to limit
the flux to the value where saturation commences-known as the knee-point flux
and therefore it is the maximum value of the magnetising current which
produces this flux. Magnetising current and consequently flux changes from
zero to maximum in cycle and therefore the rate of change of flux is:
- 0 = 4 webers/cycle

or at a frequency of f cycles/s
4 f webers/s
giving an average induced voltage of/

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giving an average induced voltage of:

March 1997

Vav = 4 f N
where N is the number of turns or in r.m.s. values the knee-point voltage is:
V = 4.44 f N as V = 1.11 Vav
also as flux = flux density, B(tesla) x core area, s (m2) the knee-point voltage
is
V = 4.44BsfN.
Example
The flux density of electrical sheet steel is about 1.5 tesla at knee-point which
for a ring-type current transformer of known ratio makes the knee-point voltage
fairly easy to estimate if the approximate dimensions of the core is known. For
example a CT ratio of 300/1 with a core area of 40 x 30 mm would have a
knee-point flux of:
1.5 x 40 x 30 x 10-6 = 0.0018 weber
which on a 50Hz system would produce a knee-point voltage of:
V = 4.44 x 0.0018 x 300 x 50 = 120V (or 144V on a 60Hz system)

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Operation
A representation of a ring-type current transformer is shown in Figure 2.9. R2 is
the secondary winding resistance, Ie the magnetising current and Rb, and Xb are
the burden resistance and reactance. The primary ampere-turns must equal the
sum of the secondary ampere-turns and the magnetising ampere-turns.
N1I1 = N2 (I2 + Ie )
In practice Ie is small compared to I2 and is therefore ignored in all CT
calculations with the exception of those concerned with ratio and phase angle
error.
The magnetising current depends on the voltage V2 which in turn depends on
the product of the secondary current and the impedance of the burden plus the
CT secondary winding resistance. That is, by Ohm's Law:
V2 = I2 (R2 + Rb +jXb)
Note. The term (R2 + Rb +jXb) is not a simple arithmetic sum as Xb is 90 out
of phase with R2 and Rb and so must be added by vectors. To denote this the
prefix "j", is used which literally means "advance by 90" The voltage I2Xb is
therefore 90 ahead of I2R2 and I2Rb and Vb = I2(Rb +jXb)

R2

I2

Ie
Rb
V2

Vb
Xb

FIGURE 2.9 - EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF A RING-TYPE CURRENT TRANSFORMER

If a vector diagram is drawn, Figure 2.9, then the ratio error, which is the
difference in magnitude of I1 and I2, and 0, the phase angle error, become apparent.
The magnetising current Ie lags V2 by 90. It can be seen that if the burden was
wholly resistive then the ratio error would be a minimum and phase-angle error
maximum, whereas if the burden was wholly reactive then the ratio error would be
maximum and the phase-angle error minimum.

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I1

Ie
Vb
I2R2
V2
I2
FIGURE 2.10 VECTOR DIAGRAM OF A RING-TYPE CURRENT TRANSFORMER

Figure 2.11 shows a magnetising characteristic for a 100/1A current transformer.

It has been previously stated that Ie is small compared to I2 up to and beyond the
knee-point of the characteristic. Hence the ratio and phase-angle errors will also
be small. This means that the primary-secondary current relationship will be
maintained to this point,
i.e. where the product I2 (R2 + Rb +jXb) is 120V,
e.g. if R2 = 1 and Rb +jXb = 7.5 +j0 then linearity would be maintained up to a
secondary current of
I2 =

V
= 14.1A or 14.1 x CT rating.
R2 + Rb +jXb

Alternatively, if linearity is required up to, say 20 x CT rating then the total

impedance should not exceed
R2 + Rb +jXb =

120
6 = 6

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140
10% increase

V KP

120

50%
increase

Voltage (V2)

100

80

60

40

20

0.05

0.10

0.15

0.20

0.25

Magnetising Current Ie (Amperes)

FIGURE 2.11 - CT MAGNETISING CHARACTERISTIC

Open-Circuited Current Transformer

If the impedance Rb +jXb is very high then the voltage calculated from
I2 (R2 + Rb +jXb) would be very large, well above knee-point value and Ie
would become significantly large in the ampere-turn balance equation
N1I1 = N2 (I2 + Ie) and I2 would be reduced. The limiting value is when the CT
secondary winding is open-circuited and I2 = 0. All the input ampere-turns will
he used as magnetising ampere-turns and will drive the current transformer Into
saturation. As can be seen from Figure 2.11 the greatly increased magnetising
current will not cause much increase to the average voltage. However, the
change in flux from zero to the knee-point value is not accomplished in cycle
but in perhaps 1/100 of this time. Thus the rate of change of flux and,
therefore, the induced voltage during this period would be about 100 times the
knee-point voltage. Insulation can be damaged by this high short-duration
voltage and overheating caused by the great increase of iron losses.

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Short-Time Factor
When a current transformer is used in a power system it may be subjected to
fault current many times larger than its primary rating and, therefore, it must he
able to withstand the effects of this current for the time for which it is likely to
persist. The maximum current which it can carry without mechanical and
thermal damage is expressed as a multiple of its rated current and is known as
the short-time factor. For example, a current transformer of ratio 200/5 which
is capable of withstanding a current of, say, 13,000 A would have a short-time
factor of 65. Such a short-time factor would always be associated with a period
of duration of the current for example 3 s. Smaller currents would be
permissible for longer periods, the permissible time increasing as the square of
the reduction of current. Larger currents, however, are not necessarily
permissible for any period of time, since electromagnetic forces have also to be
considered.
Accuracy Limit Factor
When a current transformer is used to energise a protective relay it must
maintain its characteristic ratio up to some multiple of its rated current. This
multiple, which depends on the type and characteristics of the protection, may
be 10, 20 or some even higher value and is known as the "Accuracy Limit
Factor".
The small ratio error introduced by the magnetising current is often
compensated for in the case of measuring current transformers by Slightly
modifying the ratio of primary to secondary turns from the nominal ratio. For
example, a 100/1 current transformer might have one primary turn and 98
secondary turns so that the transformation ratio would appear to he 100 to 1.02
A, but when it is used to supply its rated burden the secondary current is
reduced from the above value to 1 ampere by the magnetising losses.
Although the burden of a protective scheme is only a few VA at rated current, if
the accuracy limit factor is high the output required from the current
transformer may be considerable. On the other hand, it may be subjected to a
very high burden. For example, in the case of overcurrent and earth-fault
protection having elements of similar VA consumption at setting, if the
overcurrent elements are set at 100% an earth-fault element set at 10% would
have 100 times the impedance of the overcurrent elements. Although saturation
of the relay elements modify this somewhat, it will be seen that the earth-fault
element is a severe burden and the current transformer is liable to have
considerable ratio error in this case. For this reason it is not very much use
applying turns correction to current transformers used for protective purposes
and it is generally simpler and more satisfactory to wind them with turns
corresponding to the nominal ratio.

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Specification of Current Transformers

A method of specifying current transformers for protective purposes is detailed
in BS3938. In this specification they are defined in terms of rated burden,
accuracy class and accuracy limit.
Standard values of rated burden are:
2.5, 7.5, 10, 15 and 30 VA.
Two accuracy classes are quoted 5P and 10P which gives a composite error at
rated accuracy limit of 5% and 10% respectively.
Standard accuracy limit factors are:
5, 10, 15, 20 and 30.
The method of describing a current transformer is as follows: 15VA Class 5P20
which means that it is rated for a burden 5VA and will not have more than 5%
error at 20 times rated current.
It is frequently more convenient to refer directly to the maximum useful voltage
which can be obtained. In this connection, the knee-point of the magnetisation
curve is defined as that point at which an increase of 10% of secondary voltage
would increase the magnetising current by 50%. Design requirements for
current transformers for general protective purposes are frequently specified in
terms of knee-point voltage magnetising current at the knee-point or at some
other point, and secondary resistance. These are known in general as 'Class X',
current transformers.
Rated Secondary Current
Current transformers are usually designed to have rated secondary currents of
0.5A, 1A or 5A. Most burdens will require a definite amount of VA at rated
current and consequently will have an impedance which varies inversely as the
square of the rated current, so that the value of the rated secondary current does
not appear to be important. Many burdens, however, are situated at some
distance from the corresponding current transformers and, as the wire size of
the interconnecting leads is usually large enough to carry the current produced
by a current transformer of any secondary rating, the leads introduce a definite
resistance and therefore more burden at the higher rated currents, e.g. lead
resistance 1 ohm at 1A correspond to 1VA; lead resistance 1 at 5 A
corresponds to 25VA. Clearly in all cases where leads may be appreciable there
is a great advantage in using the lower rated current transformer. Modern
practice favours the use of the 1A secondary windings.

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Secondary Winding Impedance

Bearing in mind the high value of secondary current which a protective current
transformer may be required to deliver, it is desirable to make the secondary
winding resistance as low as practicable to limit copper tosses and therefore
heating.
In the case of wound primary-type current transformers winding reactance also
occurs, although its precise measurement and definition is a matter of some
difficulty. Ring-type current transformers with a single symmetrical primary
conductor and a uniformly distributed secondary winding have no secondary
reactance.
Primary Windings
To achieve a reasonable output from a current transformer having a primary
rating of 80A or less would require a large core area and therefore it is more
economical to increase the primary winding from a single turn to two, three or
more turns. This of course necessitates an increase in secondary turns which
increases knee-point voltage for a given core area. The additional primary turns
may be attained by passing the primary conductor through a ring-type
transformer a number of times or it may be a specially constructed transformer
with a primary winding.
Application
In specifying current transformers the connected burden and mode of operation
must be taken into account paying attention not only to the wide range of
devices which may be connected, but also to the variation of impedance over
the range of setting any relay. For example, the normal burden of an
overcurrent relay is 3VA at setting. The normal setting range of the relay is
50% to 200% of nominal current. Therefore a 1A relay set to 50% would have
a setting current of 0.5 A and the voltage across the coil at this current would
be
3VA
V = 0.5A = 6V
and the impedance would be
Z=

6V
0.5A = 12

At a setting of 200% the setting current would be 2 A, the voltage

V=

3VA
2A = 1.5V

and the impedance would be

Z=

1.5V
2A = 0.75

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If the characteristic of the relay is to be maintained up to 20 times the relay
setting, then a knee-point voltage not less than
20 x 6V = 120 V for a 50% setting
or 20 x 1.5V = 30 V for a 200% setting
would be required. The former is more onerous and therefore the lowest setting
must be taken into account when specifying the knee-point voltage. There is,
however, an alleviating factor in that a relay operating at 20 times its setting will
have saturated magnetically and therefore the impedance will be reduced. The
reduction for an overcurrent relay is about half the impedance at setting which
means that in the above case a knee-point voltage of 60 V would be satisfactory
In many cases the current transformers associated with the over-current
protection must also cater for earth-fault relays. An earth- fault relay having a
minimum setting of 20% would have voltage at setting of
3VA
0.2A = 15V
and the impedance would be
15V
= 75
0.2A
The maximum earth-fault level may be restricted to, say, twice the CT primary
rating and therefore 10 times the relay setting. The knee-point voltage should
therefore be greater than 10 x 15V = 150V, or allowing for saturation, 75V.
In this case the size is determined by the earth-fault relay. A suitable current
transformer would be a 7.5VA Class 5P10. This would produce a voltage of
7.5V at rated current when connected to a 7.5 burden and would have only
5% error at 10 times rated current, i.e. at a voltage of 10 x 7.5V = 75 V.
From the specification in the form 7.5 VA Class 5P10, the knee-point voltage
can be estimated. If it has a 5A secondary winding then at rated current it
would produce 1.5V across the rated burden and at 15 times rated current
22.5V. As a rough guide the knee-point voltage is the product of the VA rating
and the accuracy limit factor divided by the rated secondary current.
Class 5P is specified when phase-fault stability and accurate time grading is
required. When these are unimportant Class 10P is suitable.
It may be that more than one relay is to be connected to one set of current
transformers in which case the total burden must be calculated. It is generally
sufficient to add the burdens arithmetically but it should be borne in mind some
alleviation may be available by adding the burden vectorially in case of
difficulties in design.
It is not good engineering practice to specify a current transformer which is
substantially larger than necessary as there is no advantage in performance and
its cost would be higher and its dimensions greater.

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Effect of CT Magnetising Current on Relay Setting

The overall setting of a protection system is affected by the magnetising current
of the current transformers and, whilst the effect may not be significant in the
case of overcurrent relays, it can have some effect on the overall setting of an
earth-fault relay and can sometimes have a profound effect on differential
protection systems particularly where a large number of current transformers
are connected together. For example, a busbar zone protection scheme.
The primary operating current (P.O.C.) of a protection System is the sum of the
relay setting current and the magnetising current of all the connected current
transformers at the voltage across the relay at setting multiplied by the CT ratio.
Quadrature or Air-Gap Current Transformers
A quadrature or air-gap transformer is merely a current transformer with an air
gap so that most of the primary ampere-turns are used to magnetise the core.
This means that the flux, and therefore the secondary voltage, is proportional to
primary current. More correctly, the secondary voltage is proportional to the
rate of change of flux and therefore lags the primary current by 90 hence the
name quadrature current transformer.
Summation Current Transformer
There are two applications of the summation current transformer. One is the
adding together the secondary current from a number of current transformers
and is mainly used for measuring purposes. The other is used in pilot-wire
protection systems to convert the inputs from the current transformers in each
phase to a single output for comparison with a similar output from the remote
end via the pilot wires.
In the former case any input winding not in use must be left open-circuited.

VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS
The voltage transformer in use with protection has to fulfil only one requirement,
which is that the secondary voltage must be an accurate representation of the
primary voltage in both magnitude and phase.
To meet this requirement, they are designed to operate at fairly low flux densities
so that the magnetising current, and therefore the ratio and phase angle errors, is
small. This means that the core area for a given output is larger than that of a
power transformer, which increases the overall size of the unit. In addition, the
normal three- limbed construction of the power transformer is unsuitable as there
would be magnetic interference between phases. To avoid this interference a fivelimbed construction is used, which also increases the size. The nominal secondary
voltage is sometimes 110V but more usually 63.5V per phase to produce a line
voltage of 110V.

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Accuracy
Only in a few of the many protection applications is the phase angle and ratio
errors likely to be much significance. However the likelihood of a voltage
transformer being provided solely for protection is small and therefore the more
stringent accuracies of instrumentation and metering are usually required.
All voltage transformers are required by British Standard to have ratio and
phase-angle errors within prescribed limits over a 80% to 120% range voltage
and a range of burden from 25% to 100%.
For protection purposes accuracy of measurement may be important during
fault conditions when the voltage is greatly suppressed. Therefore a voltage
transformer for protection must meet the extended range of requirements over a
range of 5% to 80% rated voltage and, for certain applications, between 120%
and 190% rated voltage.
Protection
Voltage transformers are generally protected by HRC fuses on the primary side
and fuses or a miniature circuit-breaker on the secondary side. As they are
designed to operate at a low flux density their impedance is low and therefore a
secondary side short-circuit will produce a fault current of many times rated
current.
Residual Connection
It is important that a voltage of the correct magnitude and phase angle is
presented to directional earth-fault relays and the earth-fault elements of
impedance relays. As an earth-fault can be any one of the three phases it is not
possible to derive a voltage in the conventional manner. The solution is to use
the residual or broken delta connection as shown in Figure 2.12
r
y
b

Figure 2.10 - BROKEN DELTA CONNECTION OF A VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER

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Under three-phase balanced conditions the three voltages sum to zero. If one
voltage is absent or reduced because of an earth-fault on that phase, then the
difference between the normal voltage and that voltage is delivered to the relay. A
secondary winding for this type of connection is in addition to the normal
secondary winding.

Capacitor Voltage Transformers

At voltages of 132kV or more, the cost of electromagnetic voltage transformers is
very high. A more economical proposition is the capacitor voltage transformer.
This is virtually a capacitance voltage divider with a tuning inductance and an
auxiliary transformer as shown in Figure 2.11.
Any simple voltage-divider system suffers from the disadvantages that the output
voltage varies considerably with burden. If, however, C2 is tuned with a reactor,
the burden can be varied over a wide range with very low regulation. It is not
feasible to produce directly the usual 63.5 V as C2 would be impossibly large and
therefore a potential of around 12 kV is developed across C2. This is applied to
the electromagnetic unit and the 63.5 V derived from its secondary winding. This
method also has the advantage that a tapped winding can be provided to
accommodate the fairly wide tolerances of capacitors.

Line

C1
L
T
C2

Rb

Xb

Figure 2.11 - CAPACITOR VOLTAGE TRANSFORMER

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