Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Power Semiconductor
Devices
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Introduction
What are Power Semiconductor Devices (PSD)?
They are devices used as switches or rectifiers in
power electronic circuits
What is the difference of PSD and low-power
semiconductor device?
Large voltage in the off state
High current capability in the on state
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Classification
Fig. 1. The power semiconductor devices family
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Important Parameters
Breakdown voltage.
On-resistance.
Trade-off between breakdown voltage and
on-resistance.
Rise and fall times for switching between on
and off states.
Safe-operating area.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Power MOSFET: Structure
Power MOSFET has much higher current handling capability in
ampere range and drain to source blocking voltage(50-100V)
than other MOSFETs.
Fig.2.Repetitive pattern of the cells
structure in power MOSFET
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Power MOSFET: R-V Characteristics
An important parameter of a power MOSFET is on resistance:
, where
L
H
=
W C (V
V )
n ox GS T
Fig. 3. Typical R
DS
versus I
D
characteristics of a MOSFET.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Thyristor: Structure
Thyristor is a general class of a four-layer pnpn
semiconducting device.
Fig.4 (a) The basic four-layer pnpn structure.
(b) Two two-transistor equivalent circuit.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Thyristor: I-V Characteristics
Three States:
Reverse Blocking
Forward Blocking
Forward Conducting
Fig.5 The current-voltage
characteristics of the pnpn device.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Applications
Power semiconductor devices have widespread
applications:
Automotive
Alternator, Regulator, Ignition, stereo tape
Entertainment
Power supplies, stereo, radio and television
Appliance
Drill motors, Blenders, Mixers, Air conditioners
and Heaters
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Thyristors
Most important type of power
semiconductor device.
Have the highest power handling
capability.they have a rating of 1200V
/
1500A with switching frequencies ranging
from 1KHz to 20KHz.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Is inherently a slow switching device
compared to BJT or MOSFET.
Used as a latching switch that can be
turned on by the control terminal but
cannot be turned off by the gate.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Different types of Thyristors
Silicon Controlled Rectifier (SCR).
TRIAC.
DIAC.
Gate Turn-Off Thyristor (GTO).
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
SCR
Symbol of
Silicon Controlled
Rectifier
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
1
p
Structure
Gate Cathode
+ 19 -3
n 10 cm
J
3
-
+ 19 -3
n 10 cm
}
10m
17
p
10
J
2
13
n
10
-3
cm
14 -3
-5 x 10 cm
}
30-100m
}
50-1000m
J
17 -3
10 cm
+
19 -3
p
10 cm
}
30-50m
Anode
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Device Operation
Simplified model of a
thyristor
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
V-I
Characteristics
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Effects of gate current
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Two Transistor Model of SCR
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
E
C
A C
Considering PNP transistor
of the equivalent circuit,
I = I , I
1
= I
,
1
=
1
,
I
CBO
= I
CBO
, I
B
= I
B
1 1
I
B
= I
A
(
1
1
)
I
CBO
(
1
)
1 1
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
C
2
Considering NPN transistor
of the equivalent circuit,
I
C
= I
C
, I
B
= I
B
, I
E
= I
K
= I
A
+ I
G
2 2 2
I =
2
I
k
+ I
CBO
I
C
=
2
(
I
A
+ I
G
)
+
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
2
I
CBO
(
2
)
2 2
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
C B
From the equivalent circuit,
we see that
I = I
2 1
I
A
=
2
I
g
+ I
CBO1
+ I
CBO 2
1
(
1
+
2
)
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
1 2
Case 1: When I
g
= 0
I
A
=
I
CBO
+ I
CBO
1
(
1
+
2
)
Case 2: When I
G
0
I
A
=
2
I
g
+ I
CBO1
+ I
CBO 2
1
(
1
+
2
)
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Turn-on
Characteristics
t
o n
= t
d
+ t
r
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
c
V
AK
t
C
t
q
t
I
A
Anode current
begins to
decrease
Commutation
di
dt
Recovery Recombination
t
q
=device off time
t
1
t
2
t
3
t
4
t
5
t
Turn-off
t
c
=circuit off time
t
rr
t
gr
t
q
Characteristi
t
c
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Methods of Thyristor Turn-on
Thermal Turn-on.
Light.
High Voltage.
Gate Current.
dv/dt.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Thyristor Types
Phase-control Thyristors (SCRs).
Fast-switching Thyristors (SCRs).
Gate-turn-off Thyristors (GTOs).
Bidirectional triode Thyristors (TRIACs).
Reverse-conducting Thyristors (RCTs).
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Static induction Thyristors (SITHs).
Light-activated silicon-controlled rectifiers
(LASCRs).
FET controlled Thyristors (FET-CTHs).
MOS controlled Thyristors (MCTs).
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Phase Control Thyristor
These are converter thyristors.
The turn-off time t
q
is in the order of 50 to
100sec.
Used for low switching frequency.
Commutation is natural commutation
On state voltage drop is 1.15V for a 600V
device.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
They use amplifying gate thyristor.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Fast Switching
Thyristors
Also called inverter thyristors.
Used for high speed switching applications.
Turn-off time t
q
in the range of 5 to 50sec.
On-state voltage drop of typically 1.7V for
2200A, 1800V thyristor.
High dv/dt and high di/dt rating.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Bidirectional Triode
Thyristors (TRIAC)
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
MT (+)
Mode-I
Operation
2
P
1
G
(+)
N
1
Ig
P
2
V
Ig
N
2
MT
1
()
MT2 Positive,
Gate Positive
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Mode-II
Operation
MT
2
(+)
Initial
conduction
G
P
1
N
1
P
2
N
3
N
2
V
Final
conduction
MT
1
()
MT2 Positive,
Gate Negative
Ig
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
N
Mode-III Operation
MT
2
()
N
4
P
1
N
1
P
2
2
(+)
Ig
MT2 Negative,
Gate Positive
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Mode-IV Operation
MT
2
()
N
4
P
1
N
1
P
2
N
3
G
(-)
MT
1
(+)
MT2 Negative,
Gate Negative
Ig
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Triac Characteristics
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
heavily doped ~ 10^15
BJT structure
provides the carriers
lightly doped ~ 10^8 lightly doped ~ 10^6
note: this is a current of electrons (npn case) and so the
conventional current flows from collector to emitter.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
BJT characteristics
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
BJT characteristics
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
BJT modes of operation
Mode
EBJ
CBJ
Cutoff Reverse Reverse
Forward
active
Forward Reverse
Reverse
active
Reverse Forward
Saturation Forward Forward
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
BJT modes of operation
Cutoff: In cutoff, both junctions reverse biased. There is very little current flow, which
corresponds to a logical "off", or an open switch.
Forward-active (or simply, active): The emitter-base junction is forward biased and the
base-collector junction is reverse biased. Most bipolar transistors are designed to afford the
greatest common-emitter current gain, f in forward-active mode. If this is the case, the
collector-emitter current is approximately proportional to the base current, but many times
larger, for small base current variations.
Reverse-active (or inverse-active or inverted): By reversing the biasing conditions of the
forward-active region, a bipolar transistor goes into reverse-active mode. In this mode, the
emitter and collector regions switch roles. Since most BJTs are designed to maximise
current gain in forward-active mode, the f in inverted mode is several times smaller. This
transistor mode is seldom used. The reverse bias breakdown voltage to the base may be an
order of magnitude lower in this region.
Saturation: With both junctions forward-biased, a BJT is in saturation mode and facilitates
current conduction from the emitter to the collector. This mode corresponds to a logical
"on", or a closed switch.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
BJT structure (active)
current of electrons for npn transistor
I
E
I
C
conventional current flows from
collector to emitter.
E
-
V
BE
- V
CE
+
I
B
C
+
V
CB
+ -
B
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
MOSFET
NMOS: N-channel Metal
Oxide Semiconductor
W
GATE
L
L = channel length
W = channel width
Metal (heavily
doped poly-Si)
DRAIN
SOURCE
A GATE electrode is placed above (electrically insulated
from) the silicon surface, and is used to control the
resistance between the SOURCE and DRAIN regions
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
N-channel MOSFET
Gate
Source
I
S
n
I
G
gate
oxide insulator
p
Drain
I
D
n
Without a gate-to-source voltage applied, no current can
flow between the source and drain regions.
Above a certain gate-to-source voltage (threshold
voltage V
T
), a conducting layer of mobile electrons is
formed at the Si surface beneath the oxide. These
electrons can carry current between the source and drain.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
N-channel vs. P-channel
MOSFETs
NMOS PMOS
n+ poly-Si p+ poly-Si
n+ n+ p+ p+
p-type Si n-type Si
For current to flow, V
GS
> V
T
Enhancement mode: V
T
> 0
Depletion mode: V
T
< 0
Transistor is ON when V
G
=0V
For current to flow, V
GS
< V
T
Enhancement mode: V
T
< 0
Depletion mode: V
T
> 0
Transistor is ON when V
G
=0V
(n+ denotes very heavily doped n-type material; p+ denotes very heavily doped p-type material)
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
NMOS
MOSFET Circuit Symbols
G
G
n+ poly-Si
n+ n+
S S
p-type Si
PMOS
p+ poly-Si
p+ p+
G
G
Body
S S
n-type Si
Body
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
MOSFET Terminals
The voltage applied to the GATE terminal determines whether
current can flow between the SOURCE & DRAIN terminals.
For an n-channel MOSFET, the SOURCE is biased at a lower
potential (often 0 V) than the DRAIN
(Electrons flow from SOURCE to DRAIN when V
G
> V
T
)
For a p-channel MOSFET, the SOURCE is biased at a higher
potential (often the supply voltage V
DD
) than the DRAIN
(Holes flow from SOURCE to DRAIN when V
G
< V
T
)
The BODY terminal is usually connected to a fixed potential.
For an n-channel MOSFET, the BODY is connected to 0 V
For a p-channel MOSFET, the BODY is connected to V
DD
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
NMOSFET I
G
vs. V
GS
Characteristic
Consider the current I
G
(flowing into G) versus V
GS
:
V
GS
+
I
G
G
S D
oxide
semiconductor
V
DS
+
I
G
always zero!
V
GS
The gate is insulated from the
semiconductor, so there is no
significant steady gate current.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
NMOSFET I
D
vs. V
DS
Characteristics
Next consider I
D
(flowing into D) versus V
DS
, as V
GS
is varied:
S
V
GS
+
G
D
oxide
semiconductor
I
D
V
DS
+
I
D
V
GS
> V
T
zero if V
GS
< V
T
V
DS
Above threshold (V
GS
> V
T
):
inversion layer of electrons
appears, so conduction
between S and D is possible
Below threshold (V
GS
< V
T
):
no charge no conduction
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
The MOSFET as a Controlled Resistor
The MOSFET behaves as a resistor when V
DS
is low:
Drain current I
D
increases linearly with V
DS
Resistance R
DS
between SOURCE & DRAIN depends on V
GS
R
DS
is lowered as V
GS
increases above V
T
NMOSFET Example:
I
D
oxide thickness t
ox
V
GS
= 2 V
V
GS
= 1 V > V
T
V
DS
Inversion charge density Q
i
(x) = -C
ox
[V
GS
-V
T
-V(x)]
I
DS
= 0 if V
GS
< V
T
where C
ox
ox
/ t
ox
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
(
(
I
D
vs. V
DS
Characteristics
The MOSFET I
D
-V
DS
curve consists of two regions:
1) Resistive or Triode Region: 0 < V
DS
< V
GS
V
T
I = k
V
V
V
DS
(
V
D n
where
L
k
n
GS T
=
n
C
ox
2
DS
process transconductance parameter
2) Saturation Region:
V
DS
> V
GS
V
T
I
DSAT
=
k
n
2
W
V
GS
L
V
T
)
2
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
where k
n
=
n
C
ox
CUTOFF region: V < V
G T
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
The Evolution Of IGBT
Part I: Bipolar Power Transistors
Bipolar Power Transistor Uses Vertical Structure For
Maximizing Cross Sectional Area Rather Than Using Planar
Structure
Base Emitter
N
+
Collector
P
Base
N
+
N
-
Emitter
Collector
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
The Evolution Of IGBT
Part II:Power MOSFET
Power MOSFET Uses Vertical Channel Structure Versus
The Lateral Channel Devices Used In IC Technology
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Lateral MOSFET structure
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
The Evolution Of IGBT
Part III: BJT
(discrete)
+ Power MOSFET
(discrete)
Discrete BJT + Discrete Power MOSFET In Darlington
Configuration
C
N-MOSFET
D
S
G
NPN
B
E
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
The Evolution Of IGBT
Part IV: BJT
(physics)
+ Power MOSFET
(physics)
= IGBT
More Powerful And Innovative Approach Is To Combine
Physics Of BJT With The Physics Of MOSFET Within Same
Semiconductor Region
This Approach Is Also Termed Functional Integration Of
MOS And Bipolar Physics
Using This Concept, The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor
(IGBT) Emerged
Superior On-State Characteristics, Reasonable Switching
Speed And Excellent Safe Operating Area
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
The Evolution Of IGBT
IGBT Fabricated Using Vertical Channels (Similar To Both
The Power BJT And MOSFET)
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Device Operation
Operation Of IGBT Can Be Considered Like A PNP
Transistor With Base Drive Current Supplied By The
MOSFET
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
DRIVER CIRCUIT (BASE / GATE)
Interface between control (low power electronics) and (high power) switch.
Functions:
amplifies control signal to a level required to drive power switch
provides electrical isolation between power switch and logic level
Complexity of driver varies markedly among switches. MOSFET/IGBT drivers
are simple but GTO drivers are very complicated and expensive.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
ELECTRICAL ISOLATION FOR DRIVERS
Isolation is required to prevent damages on
the high power switch to propagate back to
low power electronics.
Normally opto-coupler (shown below) or high
frequency magnetic materials (as shown in
the thyristor case) are used.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
ELECTRICAL ISOLATION FOR DRIVERS
Power semiconductor devices can be categorized into 3
types based on their control input requirements:
a) Current-driven devices BJTs, MDs, GTOs
b) Voltage-driven devices MOSFETs, IGBTs, MCTs
c) Pulse-driven devices SCRs, TRIACs
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
CURRENT DRIVEN DEVICES (BJT)
Power BJT devices have low current gain due to
constructional consideration, leading current than would
normally be expected for a given load or collector current.
The main problem with this circuit is the slow turn-off time.
Many standard driver chips have built-in isolation. For
example TLP 250 from Toshiba, HP 3150 from Hewlett-
Packard uses opto-coupling isolation.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
ELECTRICALLY ISOLATED DRIVE CIRCUITS
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
EXAMPLE: SIMPLE MOSFET GATE DRIVER
Note: MOSFET requires V
GS
=+15V for turn on and 0V to
turn off. LM311 is a simple amp with open collector
output Q
1
.
When B
1
is high, Q
1
conducts. V
GS
is pulled to ground.
MOSFET is off.
When B
1
is low, Q
1
will be off. V
GS
is pulled to V
GG
. If
V
GG
is set to +15V, the MOSFET turns on.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
UNIT II
PHASE CONTROLLED
CONVERTERS
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Phase-Control Converters
Single-Phase
Semiconverter
Three-Phase
Full converter
Dual converter
Semiconverter
Full converter
Dual converter
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Semiconverter
..is a one-quadrant converter and it has one polarity
Full converter
..is a two-quadrant converter and the polarity of its
output can be either positive or negative.
However
the output current of full converter has
one polarity only
Dual converter
..can operate in four quadrants ; both the output
voltage and current can be either positive or negative
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( ) ( )
}
+ = =
t
o
o
t
e e
t
cos 1
2
sin
2
1
m
m dc
V
t td V V
Average Output Voltage
t
m
dm
V
V =
Maximum
Output Voltage
( ) o cos 1 5 . 0 + = =
dm
dc
n
V
V
V
Normalizing
Output Voltage
( )
|
.
|
\
|
+ = =
}
2
2 sin 1
2
sin
2
1
2 2
o
o t
t
e e
t
t
o
m
m rms
V
t td V V
RMS Output Voltage
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
If the converter has a purely resistive load of R and
the delay angle is , determine
(a) the rectification efficiency
(b) the form factor FF
(c) the ripple factor RF
and (d) the peak inverse voltage PIV of thyristor T
1
2 / t o =
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( )
( )
( )
% 27 . 20
3536 . 0
1592 . 0
3536 . 0
2
2
2
sin
2
1
2
1592 . 0
2
cos 1
2
sin
2
1
2
2
2
2
2
= = =
=
|
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
=
|
.
|
\
|
+ = =
}
m
m
rms
dc
m
m
rms
m dc
m
m dc
V
V
V
V
V
V
V
V V
V
t td V V
q
t
t
t
t
t
t
e e
t
t
t
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
If the converter has a purely resistive load of R and
the delay angle is , determine
(a) the rectification efficiency
(b) the form factor FF
(c) the ripple factor RF
and (d) the peak inverse voltage PIV of thyristor T
1
2 / t o =
221 . 2
1592 . 0
3536 . 0
= = =
m
m
dc
rms
V
V
V
V
FF
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
If the converter has a purely resistive load of R and
the delay angle is , determine
(a) the rectification efficiency
(b) the form factor FF
(c) the ripple factor RF
and (d) the peak inverse voltage PIV of thyristor T
1
2 / t o =
983 . 1 1 221 . 2 1
2 2
= = = FF RF
m
V PIV =
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Semiconverter
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Single-Phase Semiconverter
( ) ( )
( )
}
}
=
+ = =
t
o
t
o
e e
t
o
t
e e
t
t td V V
V
t td V V
m rms
m
m dc
2 2
sin
2
2
cos 1 sin
2
2
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Single-Phase Semiconverter (RL-load)
( )
(
= = =
= + +
e
o
e
o
o e
L
R
L
R
L L L
L
L
e
R
E
e I t i I
E Ri
dt
di
L
1
0
0 1 1
1
1
( ) ( )
t L
R
S
L
S
L
S L
L
e
Z
V
R
E
I
R
E
t
Z
V
I
t V E Ri
dt
di
L
+ + =
= + +
e
o
u o u e
e
sin
2
sin
2
sin 2
1 2
2
2
Mode 1
o e s s t 0
Mode 2
t e o s s t
R
L e
u
1
tan
=
( )
2
2
L R Z e + =
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Single-Phase Semiconverter (RL-load)
RMS Current
for Thyristor
( )
}
=
t
o
e
t
t d i I
L R
2
2
2
1
RMS Current
for Thyristor
( )
}
=
t
o
e
t
t d i I
L A 2
2
1
RMS Output
Current
( ) ( )
} }
+ =
t
o
o
e
t
e
t
t d i t d i I
L L rms
2
2
0
2
1
2
1
2
1
AVG Output
Current
( ) ( )
} }
+ =
t
o
o
e
t
e
t
t d i t d i I
dc 2
0
1
2
1
2
1
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
The single-phase semiconverter has an RL load of
L = 6.5mH, R = 2.5 Ohm, and E = 10 V. The input
voltage is V
S
= 120 V(rms) at 60 Hz. Determine
(a) the load current I
L0
at , and the load
current I
L1
at ,
(b) the average thyristor current I
A
(c) the rms thyristor current I
R
(d) the rms output current I
rms
and (e) the average output current I
dc
0 = t e
= = 60 o et
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Single-Phase
Full Converter
Rectification
Mode
Inversion
Mode
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Single-Phase Full Converter
( )
( )
2
sin
2
2
cos
2
sin
2
2
2 2
m
m rms
m
m dc
V
t d t V V
V
t d t V V
= =
= =
}
}
+
+
e e
t
o
t
e e
t
o t
o
o t
o
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Single-Phase Full Converter (RL-load)
( ) ( )
t L
R
S
L
S
L
e
Z
V
R
E
I
R
E
t
Z
V
I
(
+ + =
e
o
u o u e sin
2
sin
2
0
Mode 1 = Mode 2
R
L e
u
1
tan
= ( )
2
2
L R Z e + =
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Single-Phase Full Converter (RL-load)
RMS Current
for Thyristor
( )
}
+
=
o t
o
e
t
t d i I
L R
2
2
1
RMS Current
for Thyristor
( )
}
+
=
o t
o
e
t
t d i I
L A
2
1
RMS Output
Current
R R R rms
I I I I 2
2 2
= + =
AVG Output
Current
A A A dc
I I I I 2 = + =
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Dual
Converter www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Single-Phase Dual Converter
High-Power Variable-Speed Drives
2 1
2 2
1 1
cos
2
cos
2
dc dc
m
dc
m
dc
V V
V
V
V
V
=
=
=
o
t
o
t
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Three-Phase
Semiconverter
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
3 Phase Controlled Rectifiers
Operate from 3 phase ac supply voltage.
They provide higher dc output voltage.
Higher dc output power.
Higher output voltage ripple frequency.
Filtering requirements are simplified for
smoothing out load voltage and load
current.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Extensively used in high power variable
speed industrial dc drives.
Three single phase half-wave converters
can be connected together to form a three
phase half-wave converter.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
3-Phase
Half Wave Converter
(3-Pulse Converter)
with
RL Load
Continuous & Constant
Load Current Operation
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Vector Diagram of
3 Phase Supply Voltages
V
AN
V
CN
V
BN
120
0
120
0
120
0
RN AN
YN BN
BN CN
v v
v v
v v
=
=
=
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
3 Phase Supply Voltage
Equations
We deifine three line to neutral voltages
(3 phase voltages) as follows
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( )
( )
( )
0
0
0
sin ;
Max. Phase Voltage
2
sin
3
sin 120
2
sin
3
sin 120
sin 240
RN an m
m
YN bn m
m
BN cn m
m
m
v v V t
V
v v V t
V t
v v V t
V t
V t
e
t
e
e
t
e
e
e
= =
=
| |
= =
|
\ .
=
| |
= = +
|
\ .
= +
=
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
v
an
v
bn
v
cn
v
an
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
i
o
=I
a
Constant Load
Current
I
a
I
a
Each thyristor conducts for 2t/3 (120
0
)
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
To Derive an
Expression for the
Average Output Voltage of a
3-Phase Half Wave Converter
with RL Load
for Continuous Load Current
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( )
( )
( )
0
1
0
2
0
3
0
30
6
5
150
6
7
270
6
2
Each thytistor conducts for 120 or radians
3
T is triggered at t
T is triggered at t
T is triggered at t
t
e o o
t
e o o
t
e o o
t
| |
= + = +
|
\ .
| |
= + = +
|
\ .
| |
= + = +
|
\ .
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( )
( )
5
6
6
5
6
6
3
sin .
2
3
cos
2
3 5
cos cos
2 6 6
m
dc
m
dc
m
dc
V
V t d t
V
V t
V
V
t
o
t
o
t
o
t
o
e e
t
e
t
t t
o o
t
+
+
+
+
(
(
=
(
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
| | | |
= + + +
| |
(
\ . \ .
}
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
0 0
0
Note from the trigonometric relationship
cos cos .cos sin .sin
5 5
cos cos sin sin
6 6
3
2
co
cos 150 cos sin 150 sin
3
2
cos 30
s .cos sin sin
6 6
.cos
m
dc
m
dc
A
V
V
B A B A B
V
V
t t
o o
t
t t
o
o
o
o
t
o
+ =
(
| | | |
+
| |
(
\ . \ .
(
=
(
| | | |
+
( | |
\ . \ .
+
=
( )
( )
0
sin 30 sin o
(
(
(
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0
0 0
0
0
0
0
0 0
Note: cos 1
cos 180 30 cos sin 180 30 sin
3
2
cos 30 .cos sin 30 sin
cos 30 cos sin 30 sin
3
2
cos 30 .cos sin 30 s
80 30 cos 30
sin 180 30 sin 30
in
m
dc
m
dc
V
V
V
V
o o
t
o o
o o
t
o o
=
(
+
(
=
(
+
(
+ +
(
=
(
+
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
0
3
2cos 30 cos
2
3 3
2 cos
2 2
3 3 3
3 cos cos
2 2
3
cos
2
Where 3 Max. line to line supply voltage
m
dc
m
dc
m m
dc
Lm
dc
Lm m
V
V
V
V
V V
V
V
V
V V
o
t
o
t
o o
t t
o
t
(
=
(
=
(
(
= =
=
= =
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( )
max
The maximum average or dc output voltage is
obtained at a delay angle 0 and is given by
3 3
2
Where is the peak phase voltage.
And the normalized average output voltage is
m
dm
dc
m
d
dcn n
V
V V
V
V
V V
o
t
=
= =
= = cos
c
dm
V
o =
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( )
( )
( )
1
5
2
6
2 2
6
1
2
The rms value of output voltage is found by
using the equation
3
sin .
2
and we obtain
1 3
3 cos 2
6 8
m
O RMS
m
O RMS
V V t d t
V V
t
o
t
o
e e
t
o
t
+
+
(
(
=
(
(
(
= +
(
}
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
3 Phase Half Wave
Controlled Rectifier Output
Voltage Waveforms For RL
Load
at
Different Trigger Angles
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
0
0
30
0
30
0
60
0
60
0
90
0
90
0
120
0
120
0
150
0
150
0
180
0
180
0
210
0
210
0
240
0
240
0
270
0
270
0
300
0
300
0
330
0
330
0
360
0
360
0
390
0
390
0
420
0
420
0
V
an
|
V
0
|
V
0
V
an
o
o
o=30
0
o=60
0
V
bn
V
bn
V
cn
V
cn
et
et
o=30
0
o=60
0
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
0
30
0
60
0
90
0
120
0
150
0
180
0
210
0
240
0
270
0
300
0
330
0
360
0
390
0
420
0
|
V
0
V
an
o
o=90
0
V
bn
V
cn
et
o=90
0
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
3 Phase Half Wave
Controlled Rectifier With
R Load
and
RL Load with FWD
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
a a
b b
c c
R
V
0
L
R
V
0
+
T
1
T
2
T
3
n n
T
1
T
2
T
3
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
3 Phase Half Wave
Controlled Rectifier Output
Voltage Waveforms For R Load
or RL Load with FWD
at
Different Trigger Angles
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
0
0
30
0
30
0
60
0
60
0
90
0
90
0
120
0
120
0
150
0
150
0
180
0
180
0
210
0
210
0
240
0
240
0
270
0
270
0
300
0
300
0
330
0
330
0
360
0
360
0
390
0
390
0
420
0
420
0
V
s
V
0
V
an
o
o=0
o=15
0
V
bn
V
cn
et
V
an
V
bn
V
cn
et
o=0
0
o=15
0
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
0
0
30
0
30
0
60
0
60
0
90
0
90
0
120
0
120
0
150
0
150
0
180
0
180
0
210
0
210
0
240
0
240
0
270
0
270
0
300
0
300
0
330
0
330
0
360
0
360
0
390
0
390
0
420
0
420
0
o
o
V
0
o=30
0
V
an
V
bn
V
cn
et
V
0
o=60
0
V
an
V
bn
V
cn
et
o=30
0
o=60
0
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
To Derive An
Expression For The Average Or
Dc Output Voltage Of A
3 Phase Half Wave Converter
With Resistive Load
Or
RL Load With FWD
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
0
1
0 0
1
0
2
0 0
2
0
30
6
30 180 ;
sin
5
150
6
150 300 ;
sin 120
O an m
O bn m
T is triggered at t
T conducts from to
v v V t
T is triggered at t
T conducts from to
v v V t
t
e o o
o
e
t
e o o
o
e
| |
= + = +
|
\ .
+
= =
| |
= + = +
|
\ .
+
= =
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( )
( )
( )
( )
0
3
0 0
3
0
0
7
270
6
270 420 ;
sin 240
sin 120
O cn m
m
T is triggered at t
T conducts from to
v v V t
V t
t
e o o
o
e
e
| |
= + = +
|
\ .
+
= =
= +
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
0
0
0
0
0
0
180
30
0 0
180
30
180
30
3
.
2
sin ; for 30 to 180
3
sin .
2
3
sin .
2
dc O
O an m
dc m
m
dc
V v d t
v v V t t
V V t d t
V
V t d t
o
o
o
e
t
e e o
e e
t
e e
t
+
+
+
(
=
(
(
= = = +
(
=
(
(
(
=
(
(
}
}
}
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( )
( )
0
0
180
30
0 0
0
0
3
cos
2
3
cos180 cos 30
2
cos180 1, we get
3
1 cos 30
2
m
dc
m
dc
m
dc
V
V t
V
V
V
V
o
e
t
o
t
o
t
+
(
=
(
(
(
= + +
=
(
= + +
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Three Phase Semiconverters
3 Phase semiconverters are used in
Industrial dc drive applications upto 120kW
power output.
Single quadrant operation is possible.
Power factor decreases as the delay angle
increases.
Power factor is better than that of 3 phase
half wave converter.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
3 Phase
Half Controlled Bridge Converter
(Semi Converter)
with Highly Inductive Load &
Continuous Ripple free Load
Current
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Wave forms of 3 Phase
Semiconverter for
o > 60
0
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
0 0
1
3 phase semiconverter output ripple frequency of
output voltage is 3
The delay angle can be varied from 0 to
During the period
30 210
7
, thyristor T is forward biased
6 6
S
f
t
t
o t
e
t t
e
s <
s <
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
1
1 1
If thyristor is triggered at ,
6
& conduct together and the line to line voltage
appears across the load.
7
At , becomes negative & FWD conducts.
6
The load current contin
ac
ac m
T t
T D
v
t v D
t
e o
t
e
| |
= +
|
\ .
=
1 1
ues to flow through FWD ;
and are turned off.
m
D
T D
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
1
2
1 2
If FWD is not used the would continue to
conduct until the thyristor is triggered at
5
, and Free wheeling action would
6
be accomplished through & .
If the delay angle , e
3
m
D T
T
t
T D
t
e o
t
o
| |
= +
|
\ .
s ach thyristor conducts
2
for and the FWD does not conduct.
3
m
D
t
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( )
( )
( )
0
0
0
We deifine three line neutral voltages
(3 phase voltages) as follows
sin ; Max. Phase Voltage
2
sin sin 120
3
2
sin sin 120
3
sin 240
RN an m m
YN bn m m
BN cn m m
m
v v V t V
v v V t V t
v v V t V t
V t
V
e
t
e e
t
e e
e
= = =
| |
= = =
|
\ .
| |
= = + = +
|
\ .
=
is the peak phase voltage of a wye-connected source.
m
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( )
( )
( )
( )
3 sin
6
5
3 sin
6
3 sin
2
3 sin
6
RB ac an cn m
YR ba bn an m
BY cb cn bn m
RY ab an bn m
v v v v V t
v v v v V t
v v v v V t
v v v v V t
t
e
t
e
t
e
t
e
| |
= = =
|
\ .
| |
= = =
|
\ .
| |
= = = +
|
\ .
| |
= = = +
|
\ .
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Wave forms of 3 Phase
Semiconverter for
o s 60
0
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
To derive an
Expression for the
Average Output Voltage
of 3 Phase Semiconverter
for o > t / 3
and Discontinuous Output Voltage
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( )
( )
7
6
6
7
6
6
For and discontinuous output voltage:
3
the Average output voltage is found from
3
.
2
3
3 sin
2 6
dc ac
dc m
V v d t
V V t d t
t
t
o
t
t
o
t
o
e
t
t
e e
t
+
+
>
(
(
=
(
(
| |
(
=
|
(
\ .
}
}
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( )
( )
( )
max
3 3
1 cos
2
3
1 cos
2
3 Max. value of line-to-line supply voltage
The maximum average output voltage that occurs at
a delay angle of 0 is
3 3
m
dc
mL
dc
mL m
m
dm
dc
V
V
V
V
V V
V
V V
o
t
o
t
o
t
= +
= +
= =
=
= =
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( )
( )
( )
1
7
2
6
2
6
The normalized average output voltage is
0.5 1 cos
The rms output voltage is found from
3
.
2
dc
n
dm
ac
O rms
V
V
V
V v d t
t
t
o
o
e
t
+
= = +
(
(
=
(
}
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Three Phase Dual Converters
For four quadrant operation in many industrial
variable speed dc drives , 3 phase dual
converters are used.
Used for applications up to 2 mega watt output
power level.
Dual converter consists of two 3 phase full
converters which are connected in parallel & in
opposite directions across a common load.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Outputs of Converters 1 & 2
During the interval (t/6 + o
1
) to (t/2 + o
1
),
the line to line voltage v
ab
appears across
the output of converter 1 and v
bc
appears
across the output of converter 2
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( )
( )
( )
0
0
0
We deifine three line neutral voltages
(3 phase voltages) as follows
sin ;
Max. Phase Voltage
2
sin sin 120
3
2
sin sin 120
3
sin 240
RN an m
m
YN bn m m
BN cn m m
m
v v V t
V
v v V t V t
v v V t V t
V t
e
t
e e
t
e e
e
= =
=
| |
= = =
|
\ .
| |
= = + = +
|
\ .
=
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( )
( )
( )
0
0
0
We deifine three line neutral voltages
(3 phase voltages) as follows
sin ;
Max. Phase Voltage
2
sin sin 120
3
2
sin sin 120
3
sin 240
RN an m
m
YN bn m m
BN cn m m
m
v v V t
V
v v V t V t
v v V t V t
V t
e
t
e e
t
e e
e
= =
=
| |
= = =
|
\ .
| |
= = + = +
|
\ .
=
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
To obtain an Expression for the Circulating
Current
If v
O1
and v
O2
are the output voltages of
converters 1 and 2 respectively, the
instantaneous voltage across the current
limiting inductor during the interval
(t/6 + o
1
) s et s (t/2 + o
1
) is given by
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
1 2
3 sin sin
6 2
3 cos
6
The circulating current can be calculated by
using the equation
r O O ab bc
r m
r m
v v v v v
v V t t
v V t
t t
e e
t
e
= + =
(
| | | |
= +
| |
(
\ . \ .
| |
=
|
\ .
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
1
1
6
6
1
max
1
.
1
3 cos .
6
3
sin sin
6
3
t
r r
r
t
r m
r
m
r
r
m
r
r
i t v d t
L
i t V t d t
L
V
i t t
L
V
i
L
e
t
o
e
t
o
e
e
t
e e
e
t
e o
e
e
+
+
=
| |
=
|
\ .
(
| |
=
|
(
\ .
=
}
}
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Four Quadrant Operation
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
There are two different modes of
operation.
Circulating current free
(non circulating) mode of operation
Circulating current mode of operation
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Non Circulating
Current Mode Of Operation
In this mode of operation only one converter is
switched on at a time
When the converter 1 is switched on,
For o
1
< 90
0
the converter 1 operates in the
Rectification mode
V
dc
is positive, I
dc
is positive and hence the
average load power P
dc
is positive.
Power flows from ac source to the load
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
When the converter 1 is on,
For o
1
> 90
0
the converter 1
operates in the Inversion mode
V
dc
is negative, I
dc
is positive and the
average load power P
dc
is negative.
Power flows from load circuit to ac
source.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
When the converter 2 is switched on,
For o
2
< 90
0
the converter 2 operates in
the Rectification mode
V
dc
is negative, I
dc
is negative and the
average load power P
dc
is positive.
The output load voltage & load current
reverse when converter 2 is on.
Power flows from ac source to the load
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
When the converter 2 is switched on,
For o
2
> 90
0
the converter 2 operates in the
Inversion mode
V
dc
is positive, I
dc
is negative and the average
load power P
dc
is negative.
Power flows from load to the ac source.
Energy is supplied from the load circuit to the ac
supply.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Both the converters are switched on at the same
time.
One converter operates in the rectification mode
while the other operates in the inversion mode.
Trigger angles o
1
& o
2
are adjusted such that
(o
1
+ o
2
) = 180
0
Circulating Current
Mode Of Operation
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
When o
1
< 90
0
, converter 1 operates
as a controlled rectifier. o
2
is made
greater than 90
0
and converter 2
operates as an Inverter.
V
dc
is positive & I
dc
is positive and
P
dc
is positive.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
When o
2
< 90
0
, converter 2 operates
as a controlled rectifier. o
1
is made
greater than 90
0
and converter 1
operates as an Inverter.
V
dc
is negative & I
dc
is negative and
P
dc
is positive.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
UNIT III
DC Choppers
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Introduction
Chopper is a static device.
A variable dc voltage is obtained from a
constant dc voltage source.
Also known as dc-to-dc converter.
Widely used for motor control.
Also used in regenerative braking.
Thyristor converter offers greater
efficiency, faster response, lower
maintenance, smaller size and smooth
control.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Choppers are of Two
Types
Step-down choppers.
Step-up choppers.
In step down chopper output
voltage is less than input voltage.
In step up chopper output
voltage is more than input
voltage.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Principle Of
Step-down Chopper
Chopper
i
0
+
V
R
V
0
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
A step-down chopper with resistive load.
The thyristor in the circuit acts as a switch.
When thyristor is ON, supply voltage
appears across the load
When thyristor is OFF, the voltage across
the load will be zero.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
v
0
V
V
dc
i
0
V/R
t
ON
t
OFF
T
t
I
dc
t
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
V
dc
I
dc
t
ON
= Average value of output or load voltage.
= Average value of output or load current.
= Time interval for which SCR conducts.
t
OFF
= Time interval for which SCR is OFF.
T = t
ON
+ t
OFF
= Period of switching or chopping period.
f =
1
=
T
Freq. of chopper switching or chopping freq.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
=
Average Output Voltage
V = V
|
t
ON
|
dc
|
\
t
ON
+ t
OFF .
V
dc
|
= V
t
ON
|
T
|
= V .d
\ .
but
|
t
ON
|
t
|
d
= duty cycle
\ .
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
o
T
Average Output Current
I
dc
=
V
dc
R
I =
V
|
t
ON
|
=
V
d
dc
R
T
|
R
\ .
RMS value of output voltage
V
O
=
1
t
ON
}
0
v
2
dt
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
T
But during t
ON
,
v
o
= V
Therefore RMS output voltage
V
O
=
V =
1
t
ON
}
V
0
V
2
t
2
dt
=
t
ON
.V
O
T
ON
T
V
O
=
d .V
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Output power
But
P
O
=
I
O
=
V
O
I
O
V
O
R
Output power
V
2
P
O
=
P
O
=
O
R
dV
2
R
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Effective input resistance of chopper
R
i
=
R
i
=
V
I
dc
R
d
The output voltage can be varied by
varying the duty cycle.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Methods Of Control
The output dc voltage can be varied by the
following methods.
Pulse width modulation control or
constant frequency operation.
Variable frequency control.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Pulse Width Modulation
t
ON
is varied keeping chopping frequency
f & chopping period T constant.
Output voltage is varied by varying the ON
time t
ON
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
V
0
V
t
ON
t
OFF
t
T
V
0
V
t
ON
t
t
OFF
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Variable Frequency Control
Chopping frequency f is varied keeping
either t
ON
or t
OFF
constant.
To obtain full output voltage range,
frequency has to be varied over a wide
range.
This method produces harmonics in the
output and for large t
OFF
load current may
become discontinuous
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
v
0
V
t
ON
v
0
t
OFF
t
T
V
t
ON
T
t
OFF
t
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Step-down Chopper
With R-L Load
Chopper
V
i
0
+
R
FWD
L
V
0
E
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
When chopper is ON, supply is connected
across load.
Current flows from supply to load.
When chopper is OFF, load current
continues to flow in the same direction
through FWD due to energy stored in
inductor L.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Load current can be continuous or
discontinuous depending on the values of
L and duty cycle d
For a continuous current operation, load
current varies between two limits I
max
and
I
min
When current becomes equal to I
max
the
chopper is turned-off and it is turned-on
when current reduces to I
min.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
v
0
V
t
ON
t
OFF
T
Output
voltage
t
i
0
I
max
I
min
i
0
Output
current
Continuous
current
t Output
current
Discontinuous
current
t
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Expressions For
Load Current
i
O
For Continuous Current
Operation When
Chopper Is ON (0 t t
ON
)
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
i
0
+
R
V
L
V
0
E
-
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
V = i
O
R + L
di
O
+ E
dt
Taking Laplace Transform
V
E
= RI
O
(
S
)
+
L
S.I
O
(
S
)
i
O
(
0
)
(
+
S
S
At t
= 0, initial current
i
O
(
0
)
=
I
min
I
(
S
)
=
V E
+
I
min
O
|
R
|
LS
S +
|
\
L
.
S +
R
L
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Taking Inverse Laplace Transform
V E
|
R
|
t (
|
R
|
t
L
|
L
|
i
O
(
t
)
=
1 e
(
+ I
min
e
\ . \ .
R
(
SI
O
(
S
)
i
O
(
0
)
(
+
Redefining time origin we have at t
S
= 0,
initial current i
O
(
0
)
=
I
max
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
S
I
(
S
)
=
I
max
E
O
R
|
R
|
S +
LS +
|
L
\
L
.
Taking Inverse Laplace Transform
i
O
(
t
)
=
I
max
e
R
t
L
E
1
R
t
(
e
L
(
R
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
The expression is valid for 0 t t
OFF
,
i.e., during the period chopper is OFF
At the instant the chopper is turned ON or at
the end of the off period, the load current is
i
O
(
t
OFF
)
=
I
min
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
O
To Find I
max
&
I
min
From equation
V E
|
R
|
t (
|
R
|
t
L
|
L
|
i
(
t
)
=
1 e
(
+ I
min
e
\ . \ .
R
(
At t = t
ON
= dT , i
O
(
t
)
=
I
max
I
max
=
V E
1
dRT
e
L
(
(
+ I
min
e
dRT
L
R
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
From equation
R
t
E
R
t
(
i
O
(
t
)
=
I
max
e
L
1 e
L
(
R
At t = t
OFF
= T t
ON
,
i
O
(
t
)
=
I
min
t = t
OFF
=
(
1 d
)
T
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
(
I
min
= I
max
e
(1 d ) RT
L
E
1
e
R
(1 d ) RT
L
(
(
Substituting for I
min
in equation
I
max
=
V E
1 e
dRT
L
(
(
+ I
min
e
dRT
L
we get,
R
dRT
(
I
max
V
1 e
L
(
E
=
R
RT
R
(
1 e
L
(
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
(
Substituting for I
max
in equation
I
min
we get,
= I
max
e
(
1 d
)
RT
L
dRT
(
E
1
R
(
1 d
)
RT
e
L
(
(
V
e
L
1
(
E
I
min
=
R
RT
e
L
(
R
1
(
(
I
max
I
min
)
is known as the steady state ripple.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Therefore peak-to-peak ripple current
I
=
I
max
I
min
Average output voltage
V
dc
= d .V
Average output current
I
dc
(
approx
)
=
I
max
+ I
min
2
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
t
|
Assuming load current varies linearly
from I
min
to I
max
instantaneous
load current is given by
i
O
=
I
min
(
I
)
.t
+
dT
for
0 t
t
ON
(
dT
)
i
O
=
I
min
+
|
I
max
I
min
|
dT
\ .
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
0
2
I
0
2
0
+
|
RMS value of load current
I
O( RMS )
=
I =
1
dT
dT
}
1
dT
i
2
dt
I
+
(
I
max
I
min
)
t (
dt
O( RMS )
dT
}
min
dT
(
0
1
dT
|
I I
|
2I
(
I I
)
t
(
I
O( RMS )
=
dT
}
2
min
\
max min
dT
.
t
2
+
min max min
dT
(
dt
(
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
0
T
RMS value of output current
1
I
O
(
RMS
)
(
I
=
I
min
+
I
)
2
3
+ I
min
(
I
max
(
2
I
min
)(
2 max min
RMS chopper current
I
CH
=
I =
1
dT
}
0
1
dT
i
2
dt
I
2
+
|
I
max
I
min
|
t
(
dt
CH
T
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
}
min
dT
| (
0
\ .
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
1
2
2
I = d I
2
(
I
max
I
min
)
+ + I
(
I
(
I
)
CH
min
I
CH
=
3
d I
O
(
RMS
)
min max min
(
(
Effective input resistance is
V
R
i
=
I
S
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Where
I
S
=
I
S
=
Average source current
dI
dc
R
i
=
V
dI
dc
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
A
Principle Of Step-up Chopper
I L
D
+
+
V
Chopper
L
C
O
V
O
D
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Step-up chopper is used to obtain a load
voltage higher than the input voltage V.
The values of L and C are chosen
depending upon the requirement of output
voltage and current.
When the chopper is ON, the inductor L is
connected across the supply.
The inductor current I rises and the
inductor stores energy during the ON time
of the chopper, t
ON
.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
When the chopper is off, the inductor
current I is forced to flow through the diode
D and load for a period, t
OFF
.
The current tends to decrease resulting in
reversing the polarity of induced EMF in L.
Therefore voltage across load is given by
dI
V
O
= V
+ L i.e.,
dt
V
O
> V
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
A large capacitor C connected across the
load, will provide a continuous output
voltage .
Diode D prevents any current flow from
capacitor to the source.
Step up choppers are used for
regenerative braking of dc motors.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Expression For Output Voltage
Assume the average inductor current to be
I during ON and OFF time of Chopper.
When Chopper is ON
Voltage across inductor L = V
Therefore energy stored in inductor
= V .I .t
ON
Where t
ON
= ON period of chopper.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
When Chopper is OFF
(energy is supplied by inductor to load)
Voltage across L = V
O
V
Energy supplied by inductor L =
(
V
O
V
)
It
OFF
where t
OFF
= OFF period of Chopper.
Neglecting losses, energy stored in inductor
L = energy supplied by inductor L
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
VIt
ON
=
(
V
O
V
)
It
OFF
V
O
=
V
[
t
ON
+ t
OFF
]
t
OFF
V = V
|
T
|
O
|
Where
\
T t
ON .
T = Chopping period or period
of switching.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
T = t
ON
+ t
OFF
| |
V
O
= V
1
\
1
|
|
t
ON
|
T .
|
1
|
V
O
= V
1 d
|
\ .
Where d =
t
ON
=
T
duty cyle
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
For variation of duty cycle ' d ' in the
range of 0 < d < 1 the output voltage V
O
will vary in the range V < V
O
<
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Performance Parameters
The thyristor requires a certain minimum time to
turn ON and turn OFF.
Duty cycle d can be varied only between a min.
& max. value, limiting the min. and max. value
of the output voltage.
Ripple in the load current depends inversely on
the chopping frequency, f.
To reduce the load ripple current, frequency
should be as high as possible.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Problem
A Chopper circuit is operating on TRC at a
frequency of 2 kHz on a 460 V supply. If
the load voltage is 350 volts, calculate the
conduction period of the thyristor in each
cycle.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
V = 460 V, V
dc
= 350 V, f = 2 kHz
Chopping period T =
1
f
T =
1
2 10
3
= 0.5
m sec
Output voltage
V =
|
t
ON
|
V
dc
T
|
\ .
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Conduction period of thyristor
t
ON
t
ON
=
T V
dc
V
0.5 10
3
=
460
350
t
ON
= 0.38 msec
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Problem
Input to the step up chopper is 200 V. The
output required is 600 V. If the conducting
time of thyristor is 200 sec. Compute
Chopping frequency,
If the pulse width is halved for constant
frequency of operation, find the new
output voltage.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
V = 200 V , t
ON
= 200 s, V
dc
= 600V
V = V
|
T
|
dc
|
\
T t
ON .
|
T
|
600 =
200
T
200 10
6
|
\ .
Solving for T
T = 300 s
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Chopping frequency
f =
1
T
f =
1
300 10
6
= 3.33KHz
Pulse width is halved
200 10
6
t
ON
= = 100s
2
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Frequency is constant
f = 3.33KHz
T =
1
f
= 300 s
Output voltage =
|
T
|
V
|
\
T t
ON .
|
300 10
6
|
= 200
|
= 300 Volts
\
(
300 100
)
10
6
.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Problem
A dc chopper has a resistive load of 20
and input voltage V
S
= 220V. When
chopper is ON, its voltage drop is 1.5 volts
and chopping frequency is 10 kHz. If the
duty cycle is 80%, determine the average
output voltage and the chopper on time.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
V
S
=
220V , R =
20 ,
f = 10 kHz
d =
t
ON
T
= 0.80
V
ch
= Voltage drop across chopper = 1.5 volts
Average output voltage
V =
|
t
ON
|
(
V V
)
dc
T
|
S ch
V
dc
\ .
= 0.80
(
220
1.5
)
= 174.8 Volts
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Chopper ON time, t
ON
= dT
Chopping period, T =
1
f
T =
1
10 10
3
= 0.110
3
secs
= 100 secs
Chopper ON time,
t
ON
t
ON
= dT
= 0.80 0.110
3
t
ON
= 0.08 10
3
= 80 secs
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Problem
In a dc chopper, the average load current
is 30 Amps, chopping frequency is 250
Hz, supply voltage is 110 volts. Calculate
the ON and OFF periods of the chopper if
the load resistance is 2 ohms.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
I
dc
= 30 Amps, f = 250 Hz, V = 110 V , R =
2
Chopping period, T =
1
f
=
1
250
= 4 10
3
= 4 msecs
I
dc
I
dc
=
V
dc
R
=
dV
R
& V
dc
= dV
d =
I
dc
R
V
=
30 2
110
= 0.545
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Chopper ON period,
t
ON
= dT = 0.545 4 10
3
= 2.18 msecs
Chopper OFF period,
t
OFF
= T t
ON
t
OFF
= 4 10
3
2.18 10
3
t
OFF
= 1.82 10
3
= 1.82 msec
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
A dc chopper in figure has a resistive load
of R = 10 and input voltage of V = 200
V. When chopper is ON, its voltage drop is
2 V and the chopping frequency is 1 kHz. If
the duty cycle is 60%, determine
Average output voltage
RMS value of output voltage
Effective input resistance of chopper
Chopper efficiency.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
i
Chopper
0
+
V
R
v
0
V = 200 V , R =
10 ,
Chopper voltage drop V
ch
= 2V
d = 0.60, f = 1 kHz.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Average output voltage
V
dc
= d
(
V V
ch
)
V
dc
= 0.60
[
200 2
]
= 118.8 Volts
RMS value of output voltage
V
O
=
d
(
V V
ch
)
V
O
=
0.6
(
200 2
)
= 153.37 Volts
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
v
ch
i
O
Effective input resistance of chopper is
R
i
=
V
=
I
S
V
I
dc
I
dc
=
V
dc
R
=
118.8
10
= 11.88 Amps
R =
V
=
V
=
200
= 16.83
I
S
I
dc
11.88
Output power is
P =
1
dT
2
}
0
dt =
1
dT
}
(
V V
)
2
dt
T
0
R T
0
R
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
ch
dT
O
P
O
=
d
(
V V
)
2
R
0.6
[
200 2
]
2
P
O
= =
10
2352.24 watts
Input power,
1
dT
P
i
=
T
}
Vi
O
dt
0
P =
1
}
V
(
V V
ch
)
dt
T
0
R
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
P
O
=
dV
(
V V
ch
)
R
0.6 200
[
200 2
]
P
O
= =
10
2376 watts
Chopper efficiency,
=
P
O
100
P
i
=
2
3
5
2
.24
2376
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
100
=
99%
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Problem
A chopper is supplying an inductive load with a
free-wheeling diode. The load inductance is 5 H
and resistance is 10 .. The input voltage to the
chopper is 200 volts and the chopper is operating
at a frequency of 1000 Hz. If the ON/OFF time
ratio is 2:3. Calculate
Maximum and minimum values of load current
in one cycle of chopper operation.
Average load current
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
L = 5 H , R =
10 ,
f = 1000 Hz,
V = 200 V , t
ON
: t
OFF
= 2 : 3
Chopping period,
T =
1
f
=
1
1000
= 1 msecs
t
ON
=
2
t
OFF
3
t
ON
2
= t
OFF
3
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
T = t
ON
+ t
OFF
2
T =
5
3
T =
t
OFF
t
OFF
3
3
+ t
OFF
t
OFF
= T
5
T =
3
5
110
3
= 0.6 msec
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
t
ON
= T t
OFF
t
ON
=
Duty cycle,
t
(
1 0.6
)
10
3
0.4 10
3
= 0.4 msec
ON
d = =
T
110
3
= 0.4
Maximum value of load current is given by
dRT
(
I
max
V
1 e
L
(
E
=
R
RT
R
(
1 e
L
(
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
(
10
Since there is no voltage source in
the load circuit, E = 0
dRT
(
I
max
V
1 e
L
(
=
R
RT
(
1 e
L
(
0.410110
3
200
1 e
5
(
I
max
=
1 e
10110
3
(
5
(
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
3
3
1
e
0.810
(
I
max
= 20
(
1 e
210
(
I
max
= 8.0047A
Minimum value of load current with E = 0
is given by
dRT
(
V
e
L
1
(
I
min
=
R
RT
e
L
(
1
(
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
10
0.410110
3
(
200
e
5
1
(
I
min
=
10110
3
e
5
1
(
= 7.995 A
(
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
(
Maximum value of load current is given by
dRT
(
I
max
V
1 e
L
(
E
=
R
RT
R
(
1 e
L
(
0.55110
3
I
max
=
200
5
1 e
510
3
5110
3
(
(
0
1 e
510
3
(
1 e
0.5
(
I
max
= 40
1 e
1
(
= 24.9 A
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Minimum value of load current is given by
dRT
(
V
e
L
1
(
E
I
min
=
R
RT
e
L
(
R
1
(
I
min
=
200
5
0.55110
3
e
510
3
5110
3
(
1
(
(
0
e
510
3
1
(
e
0.5
1(
I
min
= 40
e
1
1
(
= 15.1 A
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Average value of load current is
I
dc
=
I
1
+ I
2
2
for linear variation of currents
I
dc
=
24.9 + 15.1
=
2
20 A
RMS load current is given by
1
I
O
(
RMS
)
(
I
=
I
min
+
I
)
2
3
+ I
min
(
I
max
(
2
I
min
)(
2 max min
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
I
O
(
RMS
)
15.1
2
(
24.9 15.1
)
2
+
3
+15.1
(
24.9
1
(
2
15.1
)(
(
I
O
(
RMS
)
=
228.01 +
96.04
3
1
+147.98
(
2
(
= 20.2 A
RMS chopper current is given by
I
ch
=
d I
O
(
RMS
)
=
0.5 20.2 = 14.28 A
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Effective input resistance is
V
R
i
=
I
S
I
S
= Average source current
I
S
=
I
S
=
dI
dc
0.5 20
= 10 A
Therefore effective input resistance is
R
i
=
V
=
I
S
200
10
= 20
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Classification Of Choppers
Choppers are classified as
Class A Chopper
Class B Chopper
Class C Chopper
Class D Chopper
Class E Chopper
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
0
V V
Class A Chopper
i
0
v
0
+
Chopper
L
O
v
A
FWD
D
i
0
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
When chopper is ON, supply voltage V is
connected across the load.
When chopper is OFF, v
O
= 0 and the load
current continues to flow in the same
direction through the FWD.
The average values of output voltage and
current are always positive.
Class A Chopper is a first quadrant
chopper .
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Class A Chopper is a step-down chopper
in which power always flows form source
to load.
It is used to control the speed of dc motor.
The output current equations obtained in
step down chopper with R-L load can be
used to study the performance of Class A
Chopper.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
i
g
Thyristor
gate pulse
t
i
0
Output current
CH ON
v
0
FWD Conducts
t
Output voltage
t
ON
T
t
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
i
Class B Chopper
D
0
v
0
+
R
V
L
v
0
Chopper
E
i
0
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
When chopper is ON, E drives a current
through L and R in a direction opposite to
that shown in figure.
During the ON period of the chopper, the
inductance L stores energy.
When Chopper is OFF, diode D conducts,
and part of the energy stored in inductor L
is returned to the supply.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Average output voltage is positive.
Average output current is negative.
Therefore Class B Chopper operates in
second quadrant.
In this chopper, power flows from load to
source.
Class B Chopper is used for regenerative
braking of dc motor.
Class B Chopper is a step-up chopper.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
i
g
Thyristor
gate pulse
i
0 t
OFF
t
t
ON
T
I
max
I
min
D
t
Output current
conducts
Chopper
conducts
v
0
Output voltage
t
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Expression for Output Current
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
During the interval diode 'D' conducts
voltage equation is given by
V =
Ldi
O
+
dt
Ri
O
+ E
For the initial condition i.e.,
i
O
(
t
)
=
I
min
at t = 0
The solution of the above equation is obtained
along similar lines as in step-down chopper
with R-L load
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
i
O
(
t
)
=
V
E
|
1 e
R
t
L
|
|
+ I
min
e
R
t
L
0 < t
< t
OFF
R
\ .
At t = t
OFF
i
(
O
)
(
t
)
=
I
max
I
max
=
V E
|
1 e
R
t
L
OFF
|
|
+ I
min
e
R
t
L
OFF
R
\ .
During the interval chopper is ON voltage
equation is given by
0 =
Ldi
O
+
dt
Ri
O
+ E
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
t t
ON ON
Redefining the time origin, at t = 0 i
O
(
t
)
=
I
max
The solution for the stated initial condition is
i
O
(
t
)
=
I
max
e
R
t
L
E
|
1
R
t
|
e
L
|
0 < t
< t
ON
R
\ .
At t = t
ON
i
O
(
t
)
=
I
min
R
E
|
R
|
I = I e e
L
min max
1
L
|
R
\ .
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Class C Chopper
CH
1
V
CH
2
D
1
i
0
D
2
Chopper
v
0
+
R
L v
0
E
i
0
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Class C Chopper is a combination of Class A
and Class B Choppers.
For first quadrant operation, CH
1
is ON or D
2
conducts.
For second quadrant operation, CH
2
is ON or D
1
conducts.
When CH
1
is ON, the load current is positive.
The output voltage is equal to V & the load
receives power from the source.
When CH
1
is turned OFF, energy stored in
inductance L forces current to flow through the
diode D
2
and the output voltage is zero.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Current continues to flow in positive direction.
When CH
2
is triggered, the voltage E forces
current to flow in opposite direction through L
and CH
2
.
The output voltage is zero.
On turning OFF CH
2
, the energy stored in the
inductance drives current through diode D
1
and
the supply
Output voltage is V, the input current becomes
negative and power flows from load to source.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Average output voltage is positive
Average output current can take both
positive and negative values.
Choppers CH
1
& CH
2
should not be turned
ON simultaneously as it would result in
short circuiting the supply.
Class C Chopper can be used both for dc
motor control and regenerative braking of
dc motor.
Class C Chopper can be used as a step-up
or step-down chopper.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
i
g1
i
g2
i
0
Gate pulse
of CH
1
t
Gate pulse
of CH
2
t
Output current
t
D
1
CH
1
D
2
CH
2
D
1
CH
1
D
2
CH
2
ON ON ON ON
V
0
Output voltage
t
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Class D Chopper
CH
1
V
v
0
D
2
R
i
0
L
E
+
v
0
i
0
D
1
CH
2
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Class D is a two quadrant chopper.
When both CH
1
and CH
2
are triggered
simultaneously, the output voltage v
O
= V
and output current flows through the load.
When CH
1
and CH
2
are turned OFF, the
load current continues to flow in the same
direction through load, D
1
and D
2
, due to
the energy stored in the inductor L.
Output voltage v
O
= - V .
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Average load voltage is positive if chopper
ON time is more than the OFF time
Average output voltage becomes negative
if t
ON
< t
OFF
.
Hence the direction of load current is
always positive but load voltage can be
positive or negative.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
i
g1
i
g2
i
0
Gate pulse
of CH
1
Gate pulse
of CH
2
t
Output current
CH
1
,CH
2
D1,D2 Conducting
ON
v
0
V
Output voltage
Average v
0
t
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Avera ge v
0
i
g1
i
g2
i
0
Gate pulse
of CH
1
t
Gate pulse
of CH
2
t
Output current
CH
1
CH
2
v
0
V
D
1
, D
2
t
Output voltage
t
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
D D
Class E Chopper
CH
1
V
D
1
i
0
R
L
CH
3
D
3
E
+
CH
2
2
CH
4
4
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Four Quadrant Operation
v
0
CH
2
- D
4
Conducts
CH
1
- CH
4
ON
D
1
- D
4
Conducts
CH
4
- D
2
Conducts
i
0
CH
3
- CH
2
ON
D
2
-
D
3
Conducts
CH
2
- D
4
Conducts CH
4
- D
2
Conducts
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Class E is a four quadrant chopper
When CH
1
and CH
4
are triggered, output
current i
O
flows in positive direction
through CH
1
and CH
4
, and with output
voltage v
O
= V.
This gives the first quadrant operation.
When both CH
1
and CH
4
are OFF, the
energy stored in the inductor L drives i
O
through D
2
and D
3
in the same direction,
but output voltage v
O
= -V.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Therefore the chopper operates in the
fourth quadrant.
When CH
2
and CH
3
are triggered, the load
current i
O
flows in opposite direction &
output voltage v
O
= -V.
Since both i
O
and v
O
are negative, the
chopper operates in third quadrant.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
When both CH
2
and CH
3
are OFF, the
load current i
O
continues to flow in the
same direction D
1
and D
4
and the output
voltage v
O
= V.
Therefore the chopper operates in second
quadrant as v
O
is positive but i
O
is
negative.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Problem
For the first quadrant chopper shown in figure,
express the following variables as functions of V,
R and duty cycle d in case load is resistive.
Average output voltage and current
Output current at the instant of commutation
Average and RMS free wheeling diode current.
RMS value of output voltage
RMS and average thyristor currents.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Chopper
V
FWD
i
0
+
L
O
v
0
A
D
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Average output voltage, V
=
|
t
ON
|
V
= dV
dc
T
|
\ .
Average output current, I
=
V
dc
=
dV
dc
R R
The thyristor is commutated at the instant t = t
ON
output current at the instant of commutation is
V
R
since V is the output voltage at that instant.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
0
T
Free wheeling diode (FWD) will never
conduct in a resistive load.
Average & RMS free wheeling diode
currents are zero.
V
O
(
RMS
)
=
1
t
ON
}
0
v
2
dt
But v
O
= V
during t
ON
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
T
V
O
(
RMS
)
=
1
t
ON
}
0
V
2
dt
V
O
(
RMS
)
=
V
2
|
t
ON
|
T
|
\ .
V
O
(
RMS
)
= dV
Where duty cycle, d =
t
ON
T
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
RMS value of thyristor current
= RMS value of load current
V
O( RMS )
=
R
=
dV
R
Average value of thyristor current
= Average value of load current
=
dV
R
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.Vidyarthiplus.com
Simple DC-DC Converter Topologies
Buck Converter or
Step Down Converter
Boost Converter or
Step Up converter
Buck-Boost
Converter
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
SMPS benefits
Very wide input voltage range.
For example: most personal computer power supplies are
SMPSs - accepting AC input 90V to 250V.
Lower Quiescent Current than linear regulators
Less heat than an equivalent linear regulator.
Much Lower Green House Gas emissions
Overall Smaller geometry components are used
Lighter Weight
Lower running cost - Lower total cost of ownership (TCO).
Battery operated devices - longer lifetime.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
SMPS disadvantages
Significant Output Ripple
May need a post filter to decrease ripple
May need a secondary linear low drop out
regulator to ensure damaging voltage transients
keep away from voltage sensitive elements -
electronics.
An SMPS May add too much cost.
How much is too much?
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
UNIT-IV
INVERTERS
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Single-Phase Inverters
Half-Bridge Inverter
One of the simplest types of inverter. Produces a square wave output.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Single-Phase Inverters
(contd)
Full Bridge (H-bridge) Inverter
Two half-bridge inverters combined.
Allows for four quadrant operation.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Single-Phase Inverters
(contd)
Quadrant 1: Positive step-down converter
(forward motoring)
Q1-On; Q2 - Chopping; D3,Q1 freewheeling
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Single-Phase Inverters
(contd)
Quadrant 2: Positive step-up converter
(forward regeneration)
Q4 - Chopping; D2,D1 freewheeling
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Single-Phase Inverters
(contd)
Quadrant 3: Negative step-down converter
(reverse motoring)
Q3-On; Q4 - Chopping; D1,Q3 freewheeling
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Single-Phase Inverters
(contd)
Quadrant 4: Negative step-up converter
(reverse regeneration)
Q2 - Chopping; D3,D4 freewheeling
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Single-Phase Inverters
(contd)
Phase-Shift Voltage Control - the output of
the H-bridge inverter can be controlled by
phase shifting the control of the
component half-bridges. See waveforms
on next slide.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Single-Phase Inverters
(contd)
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Single-Phase Inverters
(contd)
The waveform of the output voltage v
ab
is a quasi-
square wave of pulse width . The Fourier series of v
ab
is given by:
v =
4V
d
|
n
sin
|
(
cos
(
nt
)
ab
|
(
n=1,3,5...
n
\
2
.
The value of the fundamental, a
1
=
4V
d
sin
(
/ 2
)
The harmonic components as a function of phase
angle are shown in the next slide.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
(contd)
Single-Phase Inverters
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Three-Phase Bridge
Inverters
Three-phase bridge inverters are widely
used for ac motor drives. Two modes of
operation - square wave and six-step. The
topology is basically three half-bridge
inverters, each phase-shifted by 2/3,
driving each of the phase windings.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
(contd)
Three-Phase Bridge Inverters
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
(contd)
Three-Phase Bridge Inverters
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Three-Phase Bridge Inverters
(contd)
The three square-wave phase voltages can
be expressed in terms of the dc supply
voltage, V
d
, by Fourier series as:
v
a 0
=
2V
d
n =1,3,5...
(1)
n +1
cos(nt )
v
b 0
=
2V
d
n=1,3,5...
(1)
n +1
cos(nt
2
)
3
v
c 0
=
2V
d
n =1,3,5...
(1)
n +1
cos(nt +
2
)
3
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Three-Phase Bridge Inverters
(contd)
The line voltages can then be expressed as:
v = v v =
2 3V
d
cos(t +
/ 6) cos(nt + 6)
ab a 0 b 0
n=1,3,5...
v = v v =
2 3V
d
cos(t
/ 2) cos(nt 2)
bc b 0 c 0
n =1,3,5...
v = v v =
2 3V
d
cos(t
+ 5
/ 6) cos(nt
5 6)
ca c 0 a 0
n =1,3,5...
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Three-Phase Bridge Inverters
(contd)
The line voltages are six-step waveforms and
have characteristic harmonics of 6n1,
where n is an integer. This type of inverter is
referred to as a six-step inverter.
The three-phase fundamental and harmonics
are balanced with a mutual phase shift of
2/3.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Three-Phase Bridge Inverters
(contd)
If the three-phase load neutral n is isolated from the the
center tap of the dc voltage supply (as is normally the
case in an ac machine) the equivalent circuit is shown
below.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Three-Phase Bridge Inverters
(contd)
In this case the isolated neutral-phase
voltages are also six-step waveforms with
the fundamental component phase-shifted
by /6 from that of the respective line
voltage. Also, in this case, the triplen
harmonics are suppressed.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Three-Phase Bridge Inverters
(contd)
For a linear and balanced 3 load, the line currents
are also balanced. The individual line current
components can be obtained from the Fourier series
of the line voltage. The total current can be obtained
by addition of the individual currents. A typical line
current wave with inductive load is shown below.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Three-Phase Bridge Inverters
(contd)
The inverter can operate in the usual inverting or
motoring mode. If the phase current wave, i
a
, is
assumed to be perfectly filtered and lags the phase
voltage by /3 the voltage and current waveforms are
as shown below:
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Three-Phase Bridge Inverters
The inverter can also operate in rectification or regeneration
mode in which power is pushed back to the dc side from the ac
side. The waveforms corresponding to this mode of operation
with phase angle = 2/3 are shown below:
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Three-Phase Bridge Inverters
(contd)
The phase-shift voltage control principle
described earlier for the single-phase
inverter can be extended to control the
output voltage of a three-phase inverter.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Three-Phase Bridge Inverters
(contd)
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Three-Phase Bridge Inverters
(contd)
The three waveforms v
a0
,v
b0
, and v
c0
are of
amplitude 0.5V
d
and are mutually phase-
shifted by 2/3.
The three waveforms v
e0
,v
f0
, and v
g0
are of
similar but phase shifted by .
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
s p
Three-Phase Bridge Inverters
(contd)
The transformers secondary phase voltages,
v
A0
, v
B0
, and v
c0
may be expressed as follows:
v
A0
v
B 0
= mv
ad
= mv
be
= m(v
a 0
= m(v
b 0
v
d 0
)
v
e 0
)
v
C 0
= mv
cf
= m(v
c 0
v
f 0
)
where m is the transformer turns ratio
(= N /N ). Note that each of these waves is a
function of angle.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Three-Phase Bridge Inverters
(contd)
The output line voltages are given by:
v
AB
v
BC
= v
A0
= v
B 0
v
B 0
v
C 0
v
CA
= v
C 0
v
A0
While the component voltage waves v
a0
, v
d0
, v
A0
etc. all
contain triplen harmonics, they are eliminated from the
line voltages because they are co-phasal. Thus the line
voltages are six-step waveforms with order of harmonics
= 6n1 at a phase angle .
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Three-Phase Bridge Inverters
(contd)
The Fourier series for v
A0
and v
B0
are given
by:
4mV
d
|
n
|
(
v
A0
=
sin
|
(
cos
(
nt
)
n=1,3,5...
n
\
2
.
4mV
d
|
n
|
(
v
B 0
=
sin
|
(
cos
(
nt
2
/ 3
)
n=1,3,5...
n
\
2
.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Three-Phase Bridge Inverters
(contd)
The Fourier series for v
AB
is given by:
v
AB
= v
A0
=
v
B 0
4mV
d
sin
|
n
|
(
cos
(
nt
)
cos n
|
t
2
|
(
|
(
|
(
n=1,5,7,11...
n
\
2
.
\
3
.
Note that the triplen harmonics are removed
in v
AB
although they are present in v
A0
and
v
B0
.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
PWM Technique
While the 3 6-step inverter offers simple
control and low switching loss, lower order
harmonics are relatively high leading to high
distortion of the current wave (unless
significant filtering is performed).
PWM inverter offers better harmonic control
of the output than 6-step inverter.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
PWM Principle
The dc input to the inverter is chopped by
switching devices in the inverter. The
amplitude and harmonic content of the ac
waveform is controlled by the duty cycle of
the switches. The fundamental voltage v
1
has max. amplitude = 4V
d
/ for a square
wave output but by creating notches, the
amplitude of v
1
is reduced (see next slide).
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
PWM Principle (contd)
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
PWM Techniques
Various PWM techniques, include:
Sinusoidal PWM (most common)
Selected Harmonic Elimination (SHE)
PWM
Space-Vector PWM
Instantaneous current control PWM
Hysteresis band current control PWM
Sigma-delta modulation
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Sinusoidal PWM
The most common PWM approach is
sinusoidal PWM. In this method a
triangular wave is compared to a
sinusoidal wave of the desired
frequency and the relative levels of the
two waves is used to control the
switching of devices in each phase leg
of the inverter.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Sinusoidal PWM
(contd)
Single-Phase (Half-Bridge) Inverter
Implementation
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
a0 T + - a0 d
Sinusoidal PWM (contd)
when v > v T on; T off; v = V
v
a0
< v
T
T
-
on; T
+
off; v
a0
= -V
d
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Sinusoidal PWM
(contd)
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
c
Sinusoidal PWM (contd)
Definition of terms:
Triangle waveform switching freq. = f
c
(also calle
carrier freq.)
Control signal freq. = f (also called modulation
freq.)
Amplitude modulation ratio, m = V
p
V
T
Frequency modulation ratio,
m
f
(P)=
w
f
ww.
/
Vid
f
yarthiplus.com
Peak amplitude
of control signal
Peak amplitude
of triangle wave
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Multiple Pulse-Width Modulation
In multiple-pulse modulation, all pulses are
the same width
Vary the pulse width according to the
amplitude of a sine wave evaluated at the
center of the same pulse
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Generate the gating signal
2 Reference Signals, v
r
, -v
r
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Comparing the carrier and reference signals
Generate g
1
signal by comparison with v
r
Generate g
4
signal by comparison with -v
r
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Comparing the carrier and reference signals
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Potential problem if Q
1
and Q
4
try
to turn ON
at the same time!
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
If we prevent the problem
Output voltage is low when g
1
and g
4
are
both high
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
This composite signal is difficult to generate
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Generate the same gate pulses with one
sine wave
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Alternate scheme
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
= V
m
V
2
rms output voltage
Depends on the modulation index, M
p
o S
p
V
S
m =1
Where
m
is the width of the mth pulse
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Fourier coefficients of the output voltage
B =
2 p
4V
sin
n
sin n
(
+
3
)
sin n
(
+
+
)
S m
m m
(
m =1
n 4
4
m
4
n m
n = 1, 3, 5, ..
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Harmonic Profile
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Compare with multiple-pulse case for p=5
Distortion Factor is considerably less
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Series-Resonant Inverter
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Operation
T
1
fired, resonant pulse of current
flows through the load. The current
falls to zero at t = t
1m
and T
1
is self
commutated.
T
2
fired, reverse resonant current
flows through the load and T
2
is also
self-commutated.
The series resonant circuit must be
underdamped,
R
2
< (4L/C)
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Operation in Mode 1 Fire T
1
L
di
1
+ Ri
+
1
i dt + v
(0) = V
dt
1
i
1
(0) = 0
C
}
1 C S
v
C
(0)
= V
C
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
1
i (t ) =
R
t
A e
2 L
sin t
1 1 r
1
|
1
r
=
LC
R
2
|
2
|
4L
2
\ .
di
1
dt
t =0
=
V
s
+ V
c
= A
r
L
i
1
(t ) =
V
s
+ V
c
r
L
e
t
sin
r
t
=
R
2L
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
m
To find the time when the current is
maximum, set the first derivative = 0
di
1
= 0
dt
| V
s
+ V
c
|
(
e
t
sin
t +
e
t
cos
t
)
= 0
| r r r
\
r
L
.
.....
r
=
tan
r
t
m
tan
1
r
t
m
=
r
t
m
t =
1
tan
1
r
2
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
C
}
To find the capacitor voltage, integrate the
current
v (t ) =
1
1
C
t
}
i
1
0
t
(t )dt
V
c
v (t ) =
1
| V
s
+ V
c
|
(
e
t
sin
t
)
dt V
C
1
...
C
0 \
| r C
r
L
.
v (t )
= (V
+ V )e
t
( sin
t +
cos
t ) / + V
C
1
s C r r r r s
0 t t
1m
( )
r
The current i
1
becomes = 0 @ t=t
1m
v (t
1
) = V
1
=
(
V + V
)
e
r
+ V
C
1
m C s C s
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Operation in Mode 2 T
1
, T
2
Both OFF
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
t
2m
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
C
Operation in Mode 3 Fire T
2
L
di
3
dt
+ Ri
3
+
1
C
}
i
3
dt
+ v (0) = 0
3
i
3
(0) = 0
v
C
(0)
= V
C
= V
C
3 2 1
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
C
C C
C
3
i
3
(t ) =
V
1
r
L
e
t
sin
r
t
v (t ) =
1
3
C
t
}
i
3
dt V
1
0
V e
t
(
sin
t +
cos t )
v (t ) =
3
C
1
r r r
0 t
r
t (
)
m
r
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
C 1 C
C
C
3
S
v (t
3
) = V = V
3
= V e
1
r
C
m
C C C
r
v (t ) = V
1 m 1
.
.
1
= (V
S
+ V
C
)e
+ V
S
V
C
= V
S
e
z
1
e
z
V = V
1
e
z
1
V
C
+ V
S
= V
1
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
V V
V
Space Vector Modulation
Space Vector Diagram
Active vectors: to
1 6
SE C T O R III
r
V
3
O P O
j
SE C T O R
II
r
V
2
r
V
ref
P P O
SE C T O R I
(stationary, not rotating)
r
V
4
O P P
P P P
O O O
r
V
1
P O O
Zero vector:
0
r
V
0
SE C T O R IV SE C T O R V I
Six sectors: I to VI
O O P
r
V
5
SE C T O R V
r
P O P
V
6
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Space Vector Modulation
Space Vectors
Three-phase voltages
v
AO
(t ) + v
BO
(t ) + v
CO
(t ) = 0
(1)
Two-phase voltages
cos 0
cos
2
cos
4
(
v
AO
(t )
(
(t )
(
2
3 3
(
(
v (t )
(
=
3
2 4
(
v
BO
(t )
(
(2)
sin 0
sin
3
sin
(
3
v
CO
(t )
Space vector representation
V (t ) = v
(t ) + j v
(t )
(3)
(2) (3)
r
V (t ) =
2
[ v
3
AO
(t ) e
j 0
+ v
BO
(t ) e
j 2 / 3
+ v
CO
(t) e
j 4 / 3
]
(4)
where e
jx
= cos x + j sin x
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
d
= V
= V
Space Vector Modulation
Space Vectors (Example)
Switching state [POO] S
1
, S
6
and S
2
ON
v
AO
(t) =
2
V
d
,
3
v
BO
(t ) =
1
V
3
and
v
CO
(t ) =
1
V
3
d
(5)
(5) (4)
r
V
3
O P O
j r
V
2
P P O
r
2
V e
j 0
1
3
d
(6)
SE C T O R III
SE C T O R
II
r
V
ref
SE C T O R I
r
Similarly,
r
V
4
O P P
P P P
O O O
V
1
P O O
r
2
V
k d
3
j ( k 1)
e
3
(7)
r
V
0
SE C T O R IV SE C T O R V I
SE C T O R V
k = 1, 2, ..., 6.
O O P
r
V
5
r
P O P
V
6
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Space Vector
Switching State
(Three Phases)
On-state Switch
Vector
Definition
Zero
Vector
r
V
0
[PPP] S
1
, S
3
, S
5
r
V
0
= 0
[OOO] S , S , S
Active
Vector
r
V
1
[POO]
S
1
, S
6
, S
2
r
2
j0
V
1
= V
d
e
3
r
V
2
[PPO]
S
1
, S
3
, S
2
r
2
j
V
2
= V
d
e
3
3
r
V
3
[OPO]
S
4
, S
3
, S
2
r
2
j
2
V
3
= V
d
e
3
3
r
V
4
[OPP]
S
4
, S
3
, S
5
r
2
j
3
V
4
= V
d
e
3
3
r
V
5
[OOP]
S
4
, S
6
, S
5
r
2
j
4
V
5
= V
d
e
3
3
r
V
6
[POP]
S
1
, S
6
, S
5
r
2
j
5
V
6
= V
d
e
3
3
Space Vector Modulation
Active and Zero Vectors
P
S
1
S
3
S
5
A
V
d
B
C
4 6 2
S
4
S
6
S
2
N
Active Vector: 6
Zero Vector: 1
Redundant switching
states: [PPP] and [OOO]
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
r
}
Space Vector Modulation
Reference Vector V
ref
Definition
r
j
r
V
3
O P O
j
SE C T O R
r
V
2
P P O
V
ref
= V
ref
e
SE C T O R III
II
r
V
ref
SE C T O R I
Rotating in space at r
V
1
= 2 f
(8)
V
4
O P P
P P P
O O O
r
P O O
Angular displacement
t
V
0
SE C T O R IV SE C T O R V I
(t ) = dt
0
(9)
O O P
r
V
5
SE C T O R V
r
P O P
V
6
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
V
2
T
Relationship Between V
ref
and V
AB
V
ref
is approximated by two active
r
and a zero vectors
V
ref
rotates one revolution,
T
r
r
V
AB
completes one cycle
b
V
2
T
s
V
ref
Length of V
ref
corresponds to
r
V
1
T
a
r
magnitude of V
AB
V
1
s
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
V
3
Dwell Time Calculation
r
V
2
Volt-Second Balancing
V
ref
T
s
= V
1
T
a
+ V
2
T
b
+ V
0
T
0
T
r
r
T
s
= T
a
+ T
b
+ T
0
(10)
b
V
2
T
s
V
ref
T
a
, T
b
and T
0
dwell times for
T
s
sampling period
Space vectors
V
1
, V
2
and
0
r
V
1
T
a
r
V
1
T
s
r
V
ref
= V
ref
e
j
,
r
2
V
1
= V
d
r
,
V =
2
j
V
d
e
and
V
0
= 0
(11)
(11) (10)
3
2
3
2 1
Re :
V
ref
(cos ) T
s
=
V
d
T
a
3
+ V
d
T
b
3
(
Im :
V
ref
(sin ) T
s
=
1
V T
3
d b
(12)
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Space Vector Modulation
Dwell Times
Solve (12)
3 T V
T
a
=
s ref
sin (
)
V
d
3
3 T V
T
b
=
s ref
sin
V
d
0 <
/ 3
(13)
T
0
= T
s
T
a
T
b
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
r
V
ref
Location
= 0
0 < <
6
=
6
< <
6 3
=
3
Dwell Times
T
a
> 0
T = 0
T
a
> T
b
T
a
= T
b
T
a
< T
b
T
a
= 0
T > 0
V
Space Vector Modulation
V
ref
Location versus Dwell Times
r
V
2
T
r
r
SE C T O R I
b
2
T
s
V
re f
Q
r
V
1
T
a
r
V
1
T
s
b b
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
V
=
Space Vector Modulation
Modulation Index
a
T
s
m
a
sin (
)
3
T
T = T m
sin
(15)
b s a
T
0
=
T
s
T
b
T
c
m =
3 V
ref
(16)
a
d
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Space Vector Modulation
Modulation Range
V
ref,max
SE C T O R III
r
V
3
O P O
j
SE C T O R
II
r
V
2
P P O
r
SE C T O R I
V
ref , max
=
2
V
3
d
3
=
2
V
d
3
(17)
r
V
4
O P P
P P P
r
V
0
O O O
V
ref
r
V
1
P O O
(17) (16)
SE C T O R IV S E C T O R V I
SE C T O R V
m
a,max
= 1
O O P
r
V
5
r
P O P
V
6
Modulation range: 0 m
a
1
(18)
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Space Vector Modulation
Switching Sequence Design
Basic Requirement:
Minimize the number of switchings per
sampling period T
s
Implementation:
Transition from one switching state to
the next involves only two switches in
the same inverter leg.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Space Vector Modulation
Seven-segment Switching Sequence
r r
V
0
V
1
r r
V
2
V
0
r r r
V
2
V
1
V
0
Selected vectors:
V
0
, V
1
and V
2
Dwell times:
T
s
= T
0
+ T
a
+ T
b
v
AN
0
v
BN
0
v
CN
OOO POO PPO PPP PPO POO OOO
V
d
V
d
V
d
0
T
0
T
a
T
b
T
0
T
b
T
a
T
0
4
2 2 2 2 2 4
T
s
Total number of switchings: 6
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Space Vector Modulation
Undesirable Switching Sequence
Vectors V
1
and V
2
swapped
r r
V
0
V
2
r r r
V
1
V
0
V
1
r r
V
2
V
0
v
AN
0
v
BN
0
v
CN
0
OOO
PPO POO PPP
V
d
V
d
V
d
POO PPO OOO
T
0
T
b
T
a
4 2 2
T
0
T
a
2 2
T
b
T
0
2 4
T
s
Total number of switchings: 10
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Space Vector Modulation
Switching Sequence Summary (7segments)
Sector
Switching Sequence
I
r
V
0
r
V
1
r
V
2
r
V
0
r
V
2
r
V
1
r
V
0
OOO POO PPO PPP PPO POO OOO
II
r
V
0
r
V
3
r
V
2
r
V
0
r
V
2
r
V
3
r
V
0
OOO OPO PPO PPP PPO OPO OOO
III
r
V
0
r
V
3
r
V
4
r
V
0
r
V
4
r
V
3
r
V
0
OOO OPO OPP PPP OPP OPO OOO
IV
r
V
0
r
V
5
r
V
4
r
V
0
r
V
4
r
V
5
r
V
0
OOO OOP OPP PPP OPP OOP OOO
V
r
V
0
r
V
5
r
V
6
r
V
0
r
V
6
r
V
5
r
V
0
OOO OOP POP PPP POP OOP OOO
VI
r
V
0
r
V
1
r
V
6
r
V
0
r
V
6
r
V
1
r
V
0
OOO POO POP PPP POP POO OOO
Note: The switching sequences for the odd and ever sectors are different.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Space Vector Modulation
Simulated Waveforms
S ector
V I
V
v
AB
0
V I
V
IV
III
II II
I I
V
d
2 3
IV
III
v
A O
0
2V
d
/ 3
i
A
0
2 3
f
1
= 60Hz, f
sw
= 900Hz, m
a
= 0.696, T
s
= 1.1ms
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Waveforms and FFT
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Space Vector Modulation
Waveforms and FFT (Measured)
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
r r r
V
0
V
5
V
4
v
AN
v
BN
v
CN
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
r r
V
3
V
2
r r
V
4
V
1
r r
V
5
V
6
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
v
v
AB
AO
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
r
V
0
OOO
r
V
1
POO
r
V
2
PPO
r
V
1
POO
r
V
0
OOO
V
d
V
d
T
2
T
a
2
T
b
T
a
2
T
2
T
s
V
Space Vector Modulation
Five-segment SVM
r
V
0
r
V
2
r
V
1
r
V
2
r
V
0
PPP
PPO
POO
PPO
PPP
V
d
0
v
BN
d
0
v
CN
V
0
0
(a) Sequence A
0
T
0
2
d
T
b
2
T
a
T
s
(b) Sequence B
T
b
2
T
0
2
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Space Vector Modulation
Switching Sequence ( 5-segment)
Sector
Switching Sequence (A)
I
r
V
0
r
V
1
r
V
2
r
V
1
r
V
0
v = 0
CN
OOO POO PPO POO OOO
I I
r
V
0
r
V
3
r
V
2
r
V
3
r
V
0
v = 0
CN
OOO OPO PPO OPO OOO
I I I
r
V
0
r
V
3
r
V
4
r
V
3
r
V
0
v = 0
AN
OOO OPO OPP OPO OOO
I V
r
V
0
r
V
5
r
V
4
r
V
5
r
V
0
v = 0
AN
OOO OOP OPP OOP OOO
V
r
V
0
r
V
5
r
V
6
r
V
5
r
V
0
v = 0
BN
OOO OOP POP OOP OOO
VI
r
V
0
r
V
1
r
V
6
r
V
1
r
V
0
v = 0
BN
OOO POO POP POO OOO
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Space Vector Modulation
Simulated Waveforms ( 5-segment)
v
g 1
v
g 3
v
g 5
2 / 3
2 4
v
A B
V
d
0
2 4
i
A
0
2 4
f
1
= 60Hz, f
sw
= 600Hz, m
a
= 0.696, T
s
= 1.1ms
No switching for a 120 period per cycle.
Low switching frequency but high harmonic distortion
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
UNIT V
AC voltage controller and
cycloconverter
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
4.1.1 Single-phase AC voltage controller
VT
1
VT
2
u1 uo
u
1
O
t
R
uo
(operation range of phase
delay angle):
0
O
t
io
O
t
u
VT
O
t
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
(
Resistive load, quantitative analysis
RMS value of output voltage
U =
1
2U sint)
2
d(t) =U
1
sin2 +
(4-1)
o
1
1
2
RMS value of output current
U
o
I
o
=
R
(4-2)
RMS value of thyristor current
2
I =
1
2U
1
sint
d(t) =
U
1
1
(1
+
sin2
)
(4-3)
T
2
R 2 2
Power factor of the circuit
=
P
=
U
o
I
o
=
U
o
=
1
sin 2 +
S U
1
I
o
U
1
2
(4-4)
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
VT
2
G1
t
t
Inductive (Inductor- resistor) load , operation principle
u
1
VT
1
O
t
i
o
u
R
u
1
u
o
L
The phase shift range:
O
u
G2
O
uo
O
t
io
O
u
VT
t
O
t
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
t
4.2 Other AC controllers
4.2.1 Integral cycle controlAC power controller
VT
1
i
o
VT
2
uo
2U
1
Conduction
angle
=
2
M
2
N
M
u
o
,i
o u
1
u1 uo
R
O
3
4
M
M M
Line period
Control period
= M *Line period
=2
Circuit topologies are the same as AC voltage controllers.
Only the control method is different.
Load voltage and current are both sinusoidal when thyristors are conducting.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
4.3 Thyristor cycloconverters
4.3.1 Single- phase thyristor-cycloconverter
Circuit configuration and operation principle
P N
Z
O utput A verage
uo
ap=
2
voltage ap= 0 output voltage
ap=
2
t
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
N
Single- phase thyristor-cycloconverter
Modes of operation
u o
u
o
,i
o i
o
i
P
i
N
uP
u
o
O
u
P
O
uN
u
N
O
i
P
O
i
N
O
t
1
t
2
t
3
t4
t
5
t
u
o
t
u o
t
t
t
P
Rectifi
cation
Inver
sion
blocking
Rectifi
blocking
cation
Inver
sion
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Typical waveforms
u
o
O
t
i
o
O
t
1 3
4 6
2
5
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
o o
Modulation methods for firing delay angle
Calculation method
For the rectifier circuit
u
o
= U
d0
cos
(4-15)
u2 u3 u4 u5 u6 u1
For the cycloconverter
output
t
ap3 ap4
u
o
=U
om
sin
o
t
(4-16)
us2
us3 us4 us5 us6 us1
uo
Equating (4- 15) and (4-16)
t
cos =
U
om
sin
t = sin t
U
d0
therefore
(4-17)
1
Principle of cosine
wave-crossing method
= cos ( sin
o
t)
(4-18)
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
90
Output voltage ratio
(Modulation factor)
1.0
0.9
.8
=
Uom
Ud 0
(0
1)
150
120
/( )
=0
60
30
0
=0.1
0.2
0.3
0.8
0.9
1.0
0
0.3
0.2
0.1
3
2
2
2
t
Output voltage phase angle
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
The configuration with common input line
4.3.2 Three- phase thyristor-cyclo converter
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
The configuration with star-connected output
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Typical waveforms
Output voltage
Input current with
Single-phase output
200t/ms
200 t/ms
Input current with
3-phase output
200t/ms
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Input and output characteristics
The maximum output frequency and the harmonics in the output voltage
are the same as in single-phase circuit. Input power factor is a little
higher than single-phase circuit. Harmonics in the input current is a
little lower thanthe single- phase circuit due to the cancellation of some
harmonics among the 3 phases.
To improve the input power factor:
Use DC bias or 3k order component bias on each of the 3 output
phase voltages
Features and applications
Features:
Direct frequency conversionhigh efficiency
Bidirectional energy flow, easy to realize 4- quadrant operation
Very complicatedtoo many power semiconductor devices
Low output frequency
Low input power factor and bad input current waveform
Applications:
High power low speed AC motor drive
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
4.4 Matrix converter
Circuit configuration
input
a b c
S1 S1
1 2
S2 S2
1 2
S3 S3
1 2
u
S
1
3
v
S
2
output
3
w
S3
3
S
ij
a) b)
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Usable input voltage
U1m
Um
1
Um
2
3
U1m
2
a) b) c)
a) Single-phase input
voltage
b) Use 3 phase voltages
to construct output
voltage
c) Use 3 line-line voltages
to construct output
voltage
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com
Features
Direct frequency conversionhigh efficiency can realize good input and
output waveforms, low harmonics, and nearly unity displacement
factor
Bidirectional energy flow, easy to realize 4- quadrant operation
Output frequency is not limited by input frequency
No need for bulk capacitor (as compared to indirect frequency converter)
Very complicatedtoo many power semiconductor devices
Output voltage magnitude is a little lower as compared to indirect
frequency converter.
www.eeecube.com
www.eeecube.com