LASER BEAM WELDING

Laser beam welding (LBW) is a welding technique used to join multiple pieces of metal through the use of a laser. The beam provides a concentrated heat source, allowing for narrow, deep welds and high welding rates. The process is frequently used in high volume applications, such as in the automotive industry. Laser welding is a high energy beam process and in this regard is similar to electron beam. With that exception they are unlike one another. The energy density of the laser is achieved by the concentration of light waves not electrons. The laser output is not electrical, does not require electrical continuity, is not influenced by magnetism, is not limited to electrically conductive materials and in fact can interact with any material whether it be metal, plastic, wood, ceramic, etc. Finally its function does not require a vacuum nor are x-rays produced. The focal spot (thousandths of an inch in diameter) is targeted on the weld joint surface or by focal length selection above or below it. At the surface the enormous concentration of light energy is converted to thermal energy. Surface melting occurs and progresses through the weld joint by thermal conductance. For welding, beam energy is maintained below the vaporization temperature of the weld joint material. For hole drilling or cutting vaporization is required. Because weld joint penetration is dependent on conducted heat the thickness of materials to be welded is generally less than .080 inches if the ideal metallurgical and physical characteristics of laser welding are to be realized. These benefits are narrow welds, no distortion, minimal heat affected zones and excellent metallurgical quality. As with electron beam the intense, concentrated energy produces melting and coalescence before a substantial heat affected zone can develop. Because the welds are narrow and therefore are of correspondingly low volume there is a minimal reservoir of heat for conductance into the adjacent area. When materials to be welded are thick and particularly if they have high thermal conductance (aluminum for example) this important metallurgical advantage of minimal heat affected zone can be detrimentally affected. It is claimed that since the source of energy is light of a specific wavelength contaminants in the weld pool or on the facing surfaces of the joint may be preferentially vaporized by their particular light absorbing characteristics resulting in a kind of weld purification. The excellent fatigue strength of laser welds is sometimes attributed to this purifying phenomenon. Energy distribution across the beam is generated by the design of the resonant cavity, including mirror curvatures or shape and their relative arrangement. This combination results in photon

oscillation within the cavity producing specific output beam energy distributions or patterns. These patterns are labeled transverse energy modes (TEM) and have specific identifying numbers. We cannot within this seminar describe their variety and effects. However, we will point out that the Gaussian mode TEM 00 is often preferred for welding inasmuch as its peak energy is in the center of the beam feathering off to its periphery. It might be likened to a pointer. The symmetry and profile of the Gaussian Beam is particularly suited for welding. We have learned how light energy is amplified in the solid state laser cavity and how the laser beam and its unique characteristics are formed. It is important to note before proceeding that the function of all lasers whether they be gas (carbon dioxide, helium neon, etc.) or other lasing sources is based on the principle of the excitation of atoms by means of intense light, electricity, electron beam, chemicals, etc., and the spontaneous and stimulated emission of photons. Depending on the lasing source, output frequencies differ widely and are capable of a great number of applications. These range from welding to critical surgery, resistance trimming, communication, etc. As a clear demonstration of the effect of light wave frequency, the beam of a neodymium YAG laser (l.06 micron wavelength) will pass through quartz lenses, clear plastic or glass and other transparent materials. However a carbon dioxide laser emitting a beam with a wavelength of 10.6 microns will not pass through the quartz lens etc. but rather will be absorbed by those materials resulting in their destruction. Carbon dioxide lasers must achieve focusing either by converging reflective optics or special salt based lens materials such as zinc selenide. We have discussed the role of the objective focusing lens and how it concentrates the beam energy into a focal spot as small as .005 inches in diameter or less. We have also reviewed how a laser weld is produced by conducted heat and the excellent quality of the weld. Because the energy density is so intense, in fact second only to the electron beam, the laser is capable of vaporizing metals such as tungsten or non-metallic materials such as ceramics. In fact, in conductance welding, care must be taken to prevent this vaporizing action. However, as with electron beam, lasers can produce deep penetration welds by the keyholing technique. Laser keyholing is limited to perhaps 3/4 to 1 1/2 inch thickness and for these depths a multi-kilowatt laser, such as the carbon dioxide type, must be used. We need to mention that although there are many laser types, the Nd:YAG and carbon dioxide lasers (CO2) are most common in production metal working. Carbon dioxide lasers utilize a combination of carbon dioxide, the primary lasing source, helium and nitrogen. The gas mixture circulates through a bank of electrodes, which is the energy source. The output wavelength is 10.6 microns. Carbon dioxide lasers have been developed with outputs exceeding 25 kilowatts. This high output of CO2 lasers is possible since they can be efficiently cooled. In contrast, cooling the solid state YAG laser crystal is difficult and critical. Considerable design attention is directed towards cooling, excitation lamps, their reflectors, cavity shape, materials, plating of reflectors, lens anti-reflection coatings, etc. This includes power supplies, which may be designed for continuous or for a pulsing output. Pulse repetition rates and pulse shaping are programmable. We must now continue our initial discussion of the interaction of the laser beam with metals. As stated, heat is generated by the conversion of light energy. All metals reflect light to some degree, with gold and silver high on the list and carbon steel low on the list. Gold, silver, copper, and aluminum are therefore difficult to weld requiring intense energy usually available from high energy peaking pulses or resorting to light absorbing coatings such as graphite on the weld joint surfaces to reduce their reflectivity. The 1.06 micron wavelength of the Nd:YAG laser is more readily absorbed than the longer 10.6 micron wavelength of the CO lasers, therefore, in this respect more suited for welding highly

reflective materials. However though metallic reflectivity is a factor, once melted, the reflectivity essentially disappears at the curie temperature (about 1425 degree F). Therefore most metals are readily welded. The intense energy of the beam quickly melts the surface, from which thermal conductance progresses to achieve penetration. Because the beam can be reflected from mirrored surfaces (reflective at the laser wavelength) it follows that beam manipulation is almost unlimited. It is this feature that makes marking or engraving lasers possible. Holes can be drilled or cut as square, round, any geometric pattern, size or dimensional proportions by mirror manipulation. Beam energy can be tailored to produce strategic pulse profiles. Energy can be continuous, or weld seams may be produced by overlapping individual pulses which tend to reduce heat input by the brief cool cycle between pulses, an advantage for producing welds in heat sensitive materials. A third arrangement is a continuous output with pulsing action superimposed by an acousto-optic (Q) switch located in the cavity. This device is capable of generating pulse rates in the tens of thousands and can increase cavity energy by interrupting the output thus causing a brief period of gain or storage in the laser crystal. Considering that photon oscillations within the cavity occur at the speed of light even a brief interruption of the output is extremely effective for increasing the gain. The manipulative ability of the laser establishes it as ideal for automation and robotics. Fiber optics dramatically adds to this versatility. Utilizing this capability, production assemblies on trays, fixtures or shuttles can be conveyorized while the laser focusing optics, incorporating the necessary axis of motion (x, y, z) including targeting and scanning, can track and follow the weld joint. This flexibility combined with motion and parameter programming is seemingly unlimited. Inert gas shielding of the weld is usually incorporated coaxially with the laser. However, inert gas trailers, underbead coverage and other strategic, and beneficial inert gas applications are easily adopted. If necessary assemblies can be placed in a vacuum chamber and the laser beam introduced through a quartz window. The raw beam can be focused through optics within the chamber or may be focused external to the chamber utilizing the appropriate focal distance. Alternately fiber optics may be utilized and routed through appropriate hardware in the chamber walls. The fiber optics can be terminated with focusing optics internal to the chamber. Many arrangements are possible. Like electron beam welding (EBW), laser beam welding has high power density (on the order of 1 MW/cm2) resulting in small heat-affected zones and high heating and cooling rates. The spot size of the laser can vary between 0.2 mm and 13 mm, though only smaller sizes are used for welding. The depth of penetration is proportional to the amount of power supplied, but is also dependent on the location of the focal point: penetration is maximized when the focal point is slightly below the surface of the workpiece A continuous or pulsed laser beam may be used depending upon the application. Millisecondlong pulses are used to weld thin materials such as razor blades while continuous laser systems are employed for deep welds. LBW is a versatile process, capable of welding carbon steels, HSLA steels, stainless steel, aluminum, and titanium. Due to high cooling rates, cracking is a concern when welding highcarbon steels. The weld quality is high, similar to that of electron beam welding. The speed of welding is proportional to the amount of power supplied but also depends on the type and thickness of the workpieces. The high power capability of gas lasers make them especially suitable for high volume applications. LBW is particularly dominant in the automotive industry.

Some of the advantages of LBW in comparison to EBW are as follows: the laser beam can be transmitted through air rather than requiring a vacuum, the process is easily automated with robotic machinery, x-rays are not generated, and LBW results in higher quality welds.

A derivative of LBW, laser-hybrid welding, combines the laser of LBW with an arc welding method such as gas metal arc welding. This combination allows for greater positioning flexibility, since GMAW supplies molten metal to fill the joint, and due to the use of a laser, increases the welding speed over what is normally possible with GMAW. Weld quality tends to be higher as well, since the potential for undercutting is reduced. Equipment for Laser Beam Welding : The two types of lasers commonly used are solid-state lasers and gas lasers (especially ruby lasers and YAG lasers). The first type uses one of several solid media, including synthetic ruby and chromium in aluminum oxide, neodymium in glass, and the most common type, crystal composed ofyttrium aluminum garnet doped with neodymium Gas lasers use mixtures of gases like helium, nitrogen, and carbon dioxide (CO2 laser) as a medium. Regardless of type, however, when the medium is excited, it emits photons and forms the laser beam.

Kinds of Laser Beam Welding :

Solid state laser Solid-state lasers operate at wavelengths on the order of 1 micrometer, much shorter than gas lasers, and as a result require that operators wear special eyewear or use special screens to prevent retina damage. Nd:YAG lasers can operate in both pulsed and continuous mode, but the other types are limited to pulsed mode. The original and still popular solid-state design is a single crystal shaped as a rod approximately 20 mm in diameter and 200 mm long, and the ends are ground flat. This rod is surrounded by a flash tube containing xenon or krypton. When flashed, a pulse of light lasting about two milliseconds is emitted by the laser. Disk shaped crystals are growing in popularity in the industry, and flashlamps are giving way to diodes due to their high efficiency. Typical power output for ruby lasers is 1020 W, while the Nd:YAG laser outputs between 0.046,000 W. To deliver the laser beam to the weld area, fiber optics are usually employed. Gas laser Gas lasers use high-voltage, low-current power sources to supply the energy needed to excite the gas mixture used as a lasing medium. These lasers can operate in both continuous and pulsed mode, and the wavelength of the laser beam is 10.6 m. Fiber optic cable absorbs and is destroyed

by this wavelength, so a rigid lens and mirror delivery system is used. Power outputs for gas lasers can be much higher than solid-state lasers, reaching 25 kW. Fiber laser In fiber lasers, the gain medium is the optical fiber itself. They are capable of power up to 50 kW and are increasingly being used for robotic industrial welding.

Laser beam delivery Modern laser beam welding machines can be grouped into two types. In the traditional type, the laser output is moved to follow the seam. This is usually achieved with a robot. In many modern applications, remote laser beam welding is used. In this method, the laser beam is moved along the seam with the help of a laser scanner, so that the robotic arm does not need to follow the seam any more. The advantages of remote laser welding are the higher speed and the higher precision of the welding process.

Characteristics of the laser beam

Monochromatic All of the photons which compose the beam are of the same energy and therefore the same wavelength. If the laser beam was directed through an optical prism it could not split up into the separate colors representing the wavelengths of the optical spectrum. Coherent The light waves are in phase (in step). Collimated The laser beam does not diverge. It can be projected great distances without significant spreading. For example, it is used for topographical surveys where elevations miles away can be measured from a single, central location. Collimation makes is possible for laser beams to target satellites, etc. at great distance. Because of these three characteristics the laser beam can be precisely focused to very small diameters, resulting in an enormous increase in energy density. From here we will proceed to understand how all of this activity i.e. the triggered release of photons by stimulated emission and the cascading effect resulting from the stimulating action of photons approaching other excited electrons of equal energy become the basis of the laser. The question now is how to harness, organize, control and concentrate the spatial motion of photons into a controlled beam of light capable of being projected without significant divergence, for miles and to contain a level of concentrated energy capable of vaporizing such high temperature materials as metals and ceramics. The atoms of reodymium are a stable source of lasing action. The YAG crystal which is grown as a boule is doped with the element neodymium. This crystal is precisely ground to a rod configuration. When assembled in a resonant cavity it becomes the basis for solid state laser action, emitting a laser beam having a light wavelength of 1.06 microns.

The diagram shows a neodymium doped YAG crystal absorbing energy from an intense light source resulting in the release of photons in random spatial directions by the combined mechanism of spontaneous and stimulated emission.