The Demon-Haunted World

Science as a Candle in the Dark

Carl Sagan
To Tonio, My grandson. I wish you a world Free of demons And full of light.

We wait for light, but behold darkness. Isaiah 5 !

It is better to light one candle than to curse the darkness. "dage

Preface #$ Teachers

It was a bluster$ fall da$ in %

& . In the streets outside the a'artment building, fallen lea(es were swirling in little whirlwinds, each with a life of its own. It was good to be inside and warm and safe, with m$ mother 're'aring dinner in the ne)t room. In our a'artment there were no older kids who 'icked on $ou for no reason. *ust the week before, I had been in a fight - I can+t remember, after all these $ears, who it was with, ma$be it was Snoon$ "gata from the third floor - and, after a wild swing, I found I had 'ut m$ fist through the 'late glass window of Schechter+s drug store. #r Schechter was solicitous! -It+s all right, I+m insured,+ he said as he 'ut some unbelie(abl$ 'ainful antise'tic on m$ wrist. #$ mother took me to the doctor whose office was on the ground floor of our building. With a 'air of twee.ers, he 'ulled out a fragment of glass. /sing needle and thread, he sewed two stitches. Two stitches0+ m$ father had re'eated later that night. He knew about stitches, because he was a cutter in the garment industr$, his 1ob was to use a (er$ scar$ 'ower saw to cut out 'atterns - backs, sa$, or slee(es for ladies+ coats and suits - from an enormous stack of cloth. Then the 'atterns were con(e$ed to endless rows of women sitting at sewing machines. He was 'leased I had gotten angr$ enough to o(ercome a natural timidit$. Sometimes it was good to fight back. I hadn+t 'lanned to do an$thing (iolent. It 1ust ha''ened. 2ne moment Snoon$ was 'ushing me and the ne)t moment m$ fist was through #r Schechter+s window. I had in1ured m$ wrist, generated an une)'ected medical e)'ense, broken a 'late glass window, and no one was mad at me. "s for Snoon$, he was more friendl$ than e(er. I 'u..led o(er what the lesson was. 3ut it was much more 'leasant to work it out u' here in the warmth of the a'artment, ga.ing out through the li(ing-room window into 4ower 5ew 6ork 3a$, than to risk some new misad(enture on the streets below.

"s she often did, m$ mother had changed her clothes and made u' her face in antici'ation of m$ father+s arri(al. We talked about m$ fight with Snoon$. The Sun was almost setting and together we looked out across the cho''$ waters. There are 'eo'le fighting out there, killing each other,+ she said, wa(ing (aguel$ across the "tlantic. I 'eered intentl$. -I know,+ I re'lied. -I can see them.+ -5o, $ou can+t,+ she re'lied, sce'ticall$, almost se(erel$, before returning to the kitchen. The$+re too far awa$.+ How could she know whether I could see them or not7 I wondered. S8uinting, I had thought I+d made out a thin stri' of land at the hori.on on which tin$ figures were 'ushing and sho(ing and duelling with swords as the$ did in m$ comic books. 3ut ma$be she was right. #a$be it had 1ust been m$ imagination, a little like the midnight monsters that still, on occasion, awakened me from a dee' slee', m$ '$1amas drenched in sweat, m$ heart 'ounding. How can $ou tell when someone is onl$ imagining7 I ga.ed out across the gre$ waters until night fell and I was called to wash m$ hands for dinner. When he came home, m$ father swoo'ed me u' in his arms. I could feel the cold of the outside world against his one-da$ growth of beard. 2n a Sunda$ in that same $ear, m$ father had 'atientl$ e)'lained to me about .ero as a 'laceholder in arithmetic, about the wickedsounding names of big numbers, and about how there+s no biggest number 9-6ou can alwa$s add one,+ he 'ointed out:. Suddenl$, I was sei.ed b$ a childish com'ulsion to write in se8uence all the integers from % to %,;;;. We had no 'ads of 'a'er, but m$ father offered u' the stack of gre$ cardboards he had been sa(ing from when his shirts were sent to the laundr$. I started the 'ro1ect eagerl$, but was sur'rised at how slowl$ it went. When I had gotten no farther than the low hundreds, m$ mother announced that it was time for me to take m$ bath. I was disconsolate. I had to get a thousand. " mediator his whole life, m$ father inter(ened! if I would cheerfull$ submit to the bath, he would continue the se8uence. I was o(er1o$ed. 3$ the time I emerged, he was a''roaching ;;, and I was able to reach %,;;; onl$ a little 'ast m$ ordinar$ bedtime. The magnitude of large numbers has ne(er ceased to im'ress me. "lso in % & m$ 'arents took me to the 5ew 6ork World+s <air. There, I was offered a (ision of a 'erfect future made 'ossible b$ science and high technolog$. " time ca'sule was buried, 'acked with artefacts of our time for the benefit of those in the far future -who, astonishingl$, might not know much about the 'eo'le of % & . The -World of Tomorrow+ would be sleek, clean, streamlined and, as far as I could tell, without a trace of 'oor 'eo'le. -See sound+ one e)hibit bewilderingl$ commanded. "nd sure

enough, when the tuning fork was struck b$ the little hammer, a beautiful sine wa(e marched across the oscillosco'e screen. -Hear light+ another 'oster e)horted. "nd sure enough, when the flashlight shone on the 'hotocell, I could hear something like the static on our #otorola radio set when the dial was between stations. =lainl$ the world held wonders of a kind I had ne(er guessed. How could a tone become a 'icture and light become a noise7 #$ 'arents were not scientists. The$ knew almost nothing about science. 3ut in introducing me simultaneousl$ to sce'ticism and to wonder, the$ taught me the two uneasil$ cohabiting modes of thought that are central to the scientific method. The$ were onl$ one ste' out of 'o(ert$. 3ut when I announced that I wanted to be an astronomer, I recei(ed un8ualified su''ort - e(en if the$ 9as I: had onl$ the most rudimentar$ idea of what an astronomer does. The$ ne(er suggested that, all things considered, it might be better to be a doctor or a law$er. I wish I could tell $ou about ins'irational teachers in science from m$ elementar$ or 1unior high or high school da$s. 3ut as I think back on it, there were none. There was rote memori.ation about the =eriodic Table of the >lements, le(ers and inclined 'lanes, green 'lant 'hotos$nthesis, and the difference between anthracite and bituminous coal. 3ut there was no soaring sense of wonder, no hint of an e(olutionar$ 'ers'ecti(e, and nothing about mistaken ideas that e(er$bod$ had once belie(ed. In high school laborator$ courses, there was an answer we were su''osed to get. We were marked off if we didn+t get it. There was no encouragement to 'ursue our own interests or hunches or conce'tual mistakes. In the backs of te)tbooks there was material $ou could tell was interesting. The school $ear would alwa$s end before we got to it. 6ou could find wonderful books on astronom$, sa$, in the libraries, but not in the classroom. 4ong di(ision was taught as a set of rules from a cookbook, with no e)'lanation of how this 'articular se8uence of short di(isions, multi'lications and subtractions got $ou the right answer. In high school, e)tracting s8uare roots was offered re(erentiall$, as if it were a method once handed down from #t Sinai. It was our 1ob merel$ to remember what we had been commanded. ?et the right answer, and ne(er mind that $ou don+t understand what $ou+re doing. I had a (er$ ca'able second-$ear algebra teacher from whom I learned much mathematics, but he was also a bull$ who en1o$ed reducing $oung women to tears. #$ interest in science was maintained through all those school $ears b$ reading books and maga.ines on science fact and fiction. College was the fulfilment of m$ dreams! I found teachers who not onl$ understood science, but who were actuall$ able to e)'lain it. I was luck$ enough to attend one of the great institutions of learning of the time, the /ni(ersit$ of Chicago. I was a 'h$sics student in a de'artment orbiting around >nrico <ermi, I disco(ered what true

mathematical elegance is from Subrahman$an Chandrasekhar, I was gi(en the chance to talk chemistr$ with Harold /re$, o(er summers I was a''renticed in biolog$ to H.*. #uller at Indiana /ni(ersit$, and I learned 'lanetar$ astronom$ from its onl$ full-time 'ractitioner at the time, ?.=. @ui'er. It was from @ui'er that I first got a feeling for what is called a backof-the-en(elo'e calculation! a 'ossible e)'lanation to a 'roblem occurs to $ou, $ou 'ull out an old en(elo'e, a''eal to $our knowledge of fundamental 'h$sics, scribble a few a''ro)imate e8uations on the en(elo'e, substitute in likel$ numerical (alues, and see if $our answer comes an$where near e)'laining $our 'roblem. If not, $ou look for a different e)'lanation. It cut through nonsense like a knife through butter. "t the /ni(ersit$ of Chicago I also was luck$ enough to go through a general education 'rogramme de(ised b$ Aobert #. Hutchins, where science was 'resented as an integral 'art of the gorgeous ta'estr$ of human knowledge. It was considered unthinkable for an as'iring 'h$sicist not to know =lato, "ristotle, 3ach, Shakes'eare, ?ibbon, #alinowski and <reud - among man$ others. In an introductor$ science class, =tolem$+s (iew that the Sun re(ol(ed around the >arth was 'resented so com'ellingl$ that some students found themsel(es ree(aluating their commitment to Co'ernicus. The status of the teachers in the Hutchins curriculum had almost nothing to do with their research, 'er(ersel$ - unlike the "merican uni(ersit$ standard of toda$ -teachers were (alued for their teaching, their abilit$ to inform and ins'ire the ne)t generation. In this head$ atmos'here, I was able to fill in some of the man$ ga's in m$ education. #uch that had been dee'l$ m$sterious, and not 1ust in science, became clearer. I also witnessed at first hand the 1o$ felt b$ those whose 'ri(ilege it is to unco(er a little about how the /ni(erse works. I+(e alwa$s been grateful to m$ mentors of the % 5;s, and tried to make sure that each of them knew m$ a''reciation. 3ut as I look back, it seems clear to me that I learned the most essential things not from m$ school teachers, nor e(en from m$ uni(ersit$ 'rofessors, but from m$ 'arents, who knew nothing at all about science, in that single faroff $ear of % & .

1
The #ost =recious Thing
"ll our science, measured against realit$, is 'rimiti(e and childlike and $et it is the most 'recious thing we ha(e. "lbert >instein 9%BC -% 55:

As I got off the 'lane, he was waiting for me, holding u' a scra' of
cardboard with m$ name scribbled on it. I was on m$ wa$ to a conference of scientists and TD broadcasters de(oted to the seemingl$ ho'eless 'ros'ect of im'ro(ing the 'resentation of science on commercial tele(ision. The organi.ers had kindl$ sent a dri(er. -Do $ou mind if I ask $ou a 8uestion7+ he said as we waited for m$ bag. 5o, I didn+t mind. -Isn+t it confusing to ha(e the same name as that scientist gu$7+ It took me a moment to understand. Was he 'ulling m$ leg7 <inall$, it dawned on me. -I am that scientist gu$,+ I answered. He 'aused and then smiled. -Sorr$. That+s m$ 'roblem. I thought it was $ours too.+ He 'ut out his hand. -#$ name is William <. 3uckle$.+ 9Well, he wasn+t exactly William <. 3uckle$, but he did bear the name of a contentious and well-known TD inter(iewer, for which he doubtless took a lot of good-natured ribbing.: "s we settled into the car for the long dri(e, the windshield wi'ers rh$thmicall$ thwacking, he told me he was glad I was -that scientist gu$+ - he had so man$ 8uestions to ask about science. Would I mind7 5o, I didn+t mind. "nd so we got to talking. 3ut not, as it turned out, about science. He wanted to talk about fro.en e)traterrestrials languishing in an "ir <orce base near San "ntonio, -channelling+ 9a wa$ to hear what+s on the minds of dead 'eo'le - not much, it turns out:, cr$stals, the 'ro'hecies of 5ostradamus, astrolog$, the shroud of Turin... He introduced each 'ortentous sub1ect with buo$ant enthusiasm. >ach time I had to

disa''oint him! -The e(idence is crumm$,+ I ke't sa$ing. -There+s a much sim'ler e)'lanation.+ He was, in a wa$, widel$ read. He knew the (arious s'eculati(e nuances on, let+s sa$, the -sunken continents+ of "tlantis and 4emuria. He had at his fingerti's what underwater e)'editions were su''osedl$ 1ust setting out to find the tumbled columns and broken minarets of a once-great ci(ili.ation whose remains were now (isited onl$ b$ dee' sea luminescent fish and giant kraken. >)ce't... while the ocean kee's man$ secrets, I knew that there isn+t a trace of oceanogra'hic or geo'h$sical su''ort for "tlantis and 4emuria. "s far as science can tell, the$ ne(er e)isted. 3$ now a little reluctantl$, I told him so. "s we dro(e through the rain, I could see him getting glummer and glummer. I was dismissing not 1ust some errant doctrine, but a 'recious facet of his inner life. "nd $et there+s so much in real science that+s e8uall$ e)citing, more m$sterious, a greater intellectual challenge - as well as being a lot closer to the truth. Did he know about the molecular building blocks of life sitting out there in the cold, tenuous gas between the stars7 Had he heard of the foot'rints of our ancestors found in E-million-$ear-old (olcanic ash7 What about the raising of the Himala$as when India went crashing into "sia7 2r how (iruses, built like h$'odermic s$ringes, sli' their D5" 'ast the host organism+s defences and sub(ert the re'roducti(e machiner$ of cells, or the radio search for e)traterrestrial intelligence, or the newl$ disco(ered ancient ci(ili.ation of >bla that ad(ertised the (irtues of >bla beer7 5o, he hadn+t heard. 5or did he know, e(en (aguel$, about 8uantum indeterminac$, and he recogni.ed D5" onl$ as three fre8uentl$ linked ca'ital letters. #r -3uckle$+ - well-s'oken, intelligent, curious - had heard (irtuall$ nothing of modern science. He had a natural a''etite for the wonders of the /ni(erse. He wanted to know about science. It+s 1ust that all the science had gotten filtered out before it reached him. 2ur cultural motifs, our educational s$stem, our communications media had failed this man. What societ$ 'ermitted to trickle through was mainl$ 'retence and confusion. It had ne(er taught him how to distinguish real science from the chea' imitation. He knew nothing about how science works. There are hundreds of books about "tlantis - the m$thical continent that is said to ha(e e)isted something like %;,;;; $ears ago in the "tlantic 2cean. 92r somewhere. " recent book locates it in "ntarctica.: The stor$ goes back to =lato, who re'orted it as hearsa$ coming down to him from remote ages. Aecent books authoritati(el$ describe the high le(el of "tlantean technolog$, morals and s'iritualit$, and the great traged$ of an entire 'o'ulated continent sinking beneath the wa(es. There is a -5ew "ge+ "tlantis, -the legendar$ ci(ili.ation of ad(anced sciences,+ chiefl$ de(oted to the -science+ of cr$stals. In a

trilog$ called Crystal Enlightenment b$ @atrina Aa'haell - the books mainl$ res'onsible for the cr$stal cra.e in "merica - "tlantean cr$stals read minds, transmit thoughts, are the re'ositories of ancient histor$ and the model and source of the '$ramids of >g$'t. 5othing a''ro)imating e(idence is offered to su''ort these assertions. 9" resurgence of cr$stal mania ma$ follow the recent finding b$ the real science of seismolog$ that the inner core of the >arth ma$ be com'osed of a single, huge, nearl$ 'erfect cr$stal - of iron.: " few books - Doroth$ Ditaliano+s Legends of the Earth, for e)am'le - s$m'atheticall$ inter'ret the original "tlantis legends in terms of a small island in the #editerranean that was destro$ed b$ a (olcanic eru'tion, or an ancient cit$ that slid into the ?ulf of Corinth after an earth8uake. This, for all we know, ma$ be the source of the legend, but it is a far cr$ from the destruction of a continent on which had s'rung forth a 'reternaturall$ ad(anced technical and m$stical ci(ili.ation. What we almost ne(er find - in 'ublic libraries or newsstand maga.ines or 'rime-time tele(ision 'rogrammes - is the e(idence from sea floor s'reading and 'late tectonics, and from ma''ing the ocean floor which shows 8uite unmistakabl$ that there could ha(e been no continent between >uro'e and the "mericas on an$thing like the timescale 'ro'osed. S'urious accounts that snare, the gullible are readil$ a(ailable. Sce'tical treatments are much harder to find. Sce'ticism does not sell well. " bright and curious 'erson who relies entirel$ on 'o'ular culture to be informed about something like "tlantis is hundreds or thousands of times more likel$ to come u'on a fable treated uncriticall$ than a sober and balanced assessment. #a$be #r 3uckle$ should know to be more sce'tical about what+s dished out to him b$ 'o'ular culture. 3ut a'art from that, it+s hard to see how it+s his fault. He sim'l$ acce'ted what the most widel$ a(ailable and accessible sources of information claimed was true. <or his nai(ete, he was s$stematicall$ misled and bamboo.led. Science arouses a soaring sense of wonder. 3ut so does 'seudoscience. S'arse and 'oor 'o'ulari.ations of science abandon ecological niches that 'seudoscience 'rom'tl$ fills. If it were widel$ understood that claims to knowledge re8uire ade8uate e(idence before the$ can be acce'ted, there would be no room for 'seudoscience. 3ut a kind of ?resham+s 4aw 're(ails in 'o'ular culture b$ which bad science dri(es out good. "ll o(er the world there are enormous numbers of smart, e(en gifted, 'eo'le who harbour a 'assion for science. 3ut that 'assion is unre8uited. Sur(e$s suggest that some 5 'er cent of "mericans are -scientificall$ illiterate+. That+s 1ust the same fraction as those "frican "mericans, almost all of them sla(es, who were illiterate 1ust before the Ci(il War - when se(ere 'enalties were in force for an$one who taught a sla(e to read. 2f course there+s a degree of arbitrariness

about an$ determination of illiterac$, whether it a''lies to language or to science. 3ut an$thing like 5 'er cent illiterac$ is e)tremel$ serious. >(er$ generation worries that educational standards are deca$ing. 2ne of the oldest short essa$s in human histor$, dating from Sumer some E,;;; $ears ago, laments that the $oung are disastrousl$ more ignorant than the generation immediatel$ 'receding. Twent$-four hundred $ears ago, the ageing and grum'$ =lato, in 3ook DII of the Laws, ga(e his definition of scientific illiterac$! Who is unable to count one, two, three, or to distinguish odd from e(en numbers, or is unable to count at all, or reckon night and da$, and who is totall$ unac8uainted with the re(olution of the Sun and #oon, and the other stars... "ll freemen, I concei(e, should learn as much of these branches of knowledge as e(er$ child in >g$'t is taught when he learns the al'habet. In that countr$ arithmetical games ha(e been in(ented for the use of mere children, which the$ learn as 'leasure and amusement ... I ... ha(e late in life heard with ama.ement of our ignorance in these matters, to me we a''ear to be more like 'igs than men, and I am 8uite ashamed, not onl$ of m$self, but of all ?reeks. I don+t know to what e)tent ignorance of science and mathematics contributed to the decline of ancient "thens, but I know that the conse8uences of scientific illiterac$ are far more dangerous in our time than in an$ that has come before. It+s 'erilous and foolhard$ for the a(erage citi.en to remain ignorant about global warming, sa$, or o.one de'letion, air 'ollution, to)ic and radioacti(e wastes, acid rain, to'soil erosion, tro'ical deforestation, e)'onential 'o'ulation growth. *obs and wages de'end on science and technolog$. If our nation can+t manufacture, at high 8ualit$ and low 'rice, 'roducts 'eo'le want to bu$, then industries will continue to drift awa$ and transfer a little more 'ros'erit$ to other 'arts of the world. Consider the social ramifications of fission and fusion 'ower, su'ercom'uters, data -highwa$s+, abortion, radon, massi(e reductions in strategic wea'ons, addiction, go(ernment ea(esdro''ing on the li(es of its citi.ens, highresolution TD, airline and air'ort safet$, foetal tissue trans'lants, health costs, food additi(es, drugs to ameliorate mania or de'ression or schi.o'hrenia, animal rights, su'erconducti(it$, morning-after 'ills, alleged hereditar$ antisocial 'redis'ositions, s'ace stations, going to #ars, finding cures for "IDS and cancer. How can we affect national 'olic$ - or e(en make intelligent decisions in our own li(es - if we don+t gras' the underl$ing issues7 "s I write, Congress is dissol(ing its own 2ffice of Technolog$ "ssessment the onl$ organi.ation s'ecificall$ tasked to 'ro(ide ad(ice to the House and Senate on science and technolog$. Its com'etence and integrit$ o(er the $ears ha(e been e)em'lar$. 2f the 5&5 members of the /S Congress, rarel$ in the twentieth centur$ ha(e as man$ as one 'er

cent had an$ significant background in science. The last scientificall$ literate =resident ma$ ha(e been Thomas *efferson.* [* "lthough claims can be made for Theodore Aoose(elt, Herbert Hoo(er and *imm$ Carter. 3ritain had such a =rime #inister in #argaret Thatcher. Her earl$ studies in chemistr$, in 'art under the tutelage of 5obel laureate Doroth$ Hodgkin, were ke$ to the /@+s strong and successful ad(ocac$ that o.one-de'leting C<Cs be banned worldwide.F So how do "mericans decide these matters7 How do the$ instruct their re'resentati(es7 Who in fact makes these decisions, and on what basis7 Hi''ocrates of Cos is the father of medicine. He is still remembered G,5;; $ears later for the Hi''ocratic 2ath 9a modified form of which is still here and there taken b$ medical students u'on their graduation:. 3ut he is chiefl$ celebrated because of his efforts to bring medicine out of the 'all of su'erstition and into the light of science. In a t$'ical 'assage Hi''ocrates wrote! -#en think e'ile's$ di(ine, merel$ because the$ do not understand it. 3ut if the$ called e(er$thing di(ine which the$ do not understand, wh$, there would be no end of di(ine things.+ Instead of acknowledging that in man$ areas we are ignorant, we ha(e tended to sa$ things like the /ni(erse is 'ermeated with the ineffable. " ?od of the ?a's is assigned res'onsibilit$ for what we do not $et understand. "s knowledge of medicine im'ro(ed since the fourth centur$ 3C, there was more and more that we understood and less and less that had to be attributed to di(ine inter(ention - either in the causes or in the treatment of disease. Deaths in childbirth and infant mortalit$ ha(e decreased, lifetimes ha(e lengthened, and medicine has im'ro(ed the 8ualit$ of life for billions of us all o(er the 'lanet. In the diagnosis of disease, Hi''ocrates introduced elements of the scientific method. He urged careful and meticulous obser(ation! -4ea(e nothing to chance. 2(erlook nothing. Combine contradictor$ obser(ations. "llow $ourself enough time.+ 3efore the in(ention of the thermometer, he charted the tem'erature cur(es of man$ diseases. He recommended that 'h$sicians be able to tell, from 'resent s$m'toms alone, the 'robable 'ast and future course of each illness. He stressed honest$. He was willing to admit the limitations of the 'h$sician+s knowledge. He betra$ed no embarrassment in confiding to 'oster-it$ that more than half his 'atients were killed b$ the diseases he was treating. His o'tions of course were limited, the drugs a(ailable to him were chiefl$ la)ati(es, emetics and narcotics. Surger$ was 'erformed, and cauteri.ation. Considerable further ad(ances were made in classical times through to the fall of Aome. While medicine in the Islamic world flourished, what followed in >uro'e was trul$ a dark age. #uch knowledge of anatom$ and surger$

was lost. Aeliance on 'ra$er and miraculous healing abounded. Secular 'h$sicians became e)tinct. Chants, 'otions, horosco'es and amulets were widel$ used. Dissections of cada(ers were restricted or outlawed, so those who 'ractised medicine were 're(ented from ac8uiring firsthand knowledge of the human bod$. #edical research came to a standstill. It was (er$ like what the historian >dward ?ibbon described for the entire >astern >m'ire, whose ca'ital was Constantino'le! In the re(olution of ten centuries, not a single disco(er$ was made to e)alt the dignit$ or 'romote the ha''iness of mankind. 5ot a single idea had been added to the s'eculati(e s$stems of anti8uit$, and a succession of 'atient disci'les became in their turn the dogmatic teachers of the ne)t ser(ile generation. >(en at its best, 're-modern medical 'ractice did not sa(e man$. Hueen "nne was the last Stuart monarch of ?reat 3ritain. In the last se(enteen $ears of the se(enteenth centur$, she was 'regnant eighteen times. 2nl$ fi(e children were born ali(e. 2nl$ one of them sur(i(ed infanc$. He died before reaching adulthood, and before her coronation in %C;G. There seems to be no e(idence of some genetic disorder. She had the best medical care mone$ could bu$. Diseases that once tragicall$ carried off countless infants and children ha(e been 'rogressi(el$ mitigated and cured b$ science -through the disco(er$ of the microbial world, (ia the insight that 'h$sicians and midwi(es should wash their hands and sterili.e their instruments, through nutrition, 'ublic health and sanitation measures, antibiotics, drugs, (accines, the unco(ering of the molecular structure of D5", molecular biolog$, and now gene thera'$. In the de(elo'ed world at least, 'arents toda$ ha(e an enormousl$ better chance of seeing their children li(e to adulthood than did the heir to the throne of one of the most 'owerful nations on >arth in the late se(enteenth centur$. Small'o) has been wi'ed out worldwide. The area of our 'lanet infested with malaria-carr$ing mos8uitoes has dramaticall$ shrunk. The number of $ears a child diagnosed with leukaemia can e)'ect to li(e has been increasing 'rogressi(el$, $ear b$ $ear. Science 'ermits the >arth to feed about a hundred times more humans, and under conditions much less grim, than it could a few thousand $ears ago. We can 'ra$ o(er the cholera (ictim, or we can gi(e her 5;; milligrams of tetrac$cline e(er$ twel(e hours. 9There is still a religion, Christian Science, that denies the germ theor$ of disease, if 'ra$er fails, the faithful would rather see their children die than gi(e them antibiotics.: We can tr$ nearl$ futile 's$choanal$tic talk thera'$ on the schi.o'hrenic 'atient, or we can gi(e him &;; to 5;; milligrams a da$ of chlo.a'ine. The scientific treatments are hundreds or thousands of times more effecti(e than the alternati(es. 9"nd e(en when the

alternati(es seem to work, we don+t actuall$ know that the$ 'la$ed an$ role! s'ontaneous remissions, e(en of cholera and schi.o'hrenia, can occur without 'ra$er and without 's$choanal$sis.: "bandoning science means abandoning much more than air conditioning, CD 'la$ers, hair dr$ers and fast cars. In hunter-gatherer, 're-agricultural times, the human life e)'ectanc$ was about G; to &; $ears. That+s also what it was in Western >uro'e in 4ate Aoman and in #edie(al times. It didn+t rise to E; $ears until around the $ear %BC;. It reached 5; in % %5, I; in % &;, C; in % 55, and is toda$ a''roaching B; 9a little more for women, a little less for men:. The rest of the world is retracing the >uro'ean increment in longe(it$. What is the cause of this stunning, un'recedented, humanitarian transition7 The germ theor$ of disease, 'ublic health measures, medicines and medical technolog$. 4onge(it$ is 'erha's the best single measure of the 'h$sical 8ualit$ of life. 9If $ou+re dead, there+s little $ou can do to be ha''$.: This is a 'recious offering from science to humanit$ -nothing less than the gift of life. 3ut micro-organisms mutate. 5ew diseases s'read like wildfire. There is a constant battle between microbial measures and human countermeasures. We kee' 'ace in this com'etition not 1ust b$ designing new drugs and treatments, but b$ 'enetrating 'rogressi(el$ more dee'l$ toward an understanding of the nature of life -basic research. If the world is to esca'e the direst conse8uences of global 'o'ulation growth and %; or %G billion 'eo'le on the 'lanet in the late twent$-first centur$, we must in(ent safe but more efficient means of growing food - with accom'an$ing seed stocks, irrigation, fertili.ers, 'esticides, trans'ortation and refrigeration s$stems. It will also take widel$ a(ailable and acce'table contrace'tion, significant ste's toward 'olitical e8ualit$ of women, and im'ro(ements in the standards of li(ing of the 'oorest 'eo'le. How can all this be accom'lished without science and technolog$7 I know that science and technolog$ are not 1ust cornuco'ias 'ouring gifts out into the world. Scientists not onl$ concei(ed nuclear wea'ons, the$ also took 'olitical leaders b$ the la'els, arguing that their nation whiche(er it ha''ened to be - had to ha(e one first. Then the$ manufactured o(er I;,;;; of them. During the Cold War, scientists in the /nited States, the So(iet /nion, China and other nations were willing to e)'ose their own fellow citi.ens to radiation - in most cases without their knowledge - to 're'are for nuclear war. =h$sicians in Tuskegee, "labama, misled a grou' of (eterans into thinking the$ were recei(ing medical treatment for their s$'hilis, when the$ were the untreated controls. The atrocious cruelties of 5a.i doctors are wellknown. 2ur technolog$ has 'roduced thalidomide, C<Cs, "gent 2range, ner(e gas, 'ollution of air and water, s'ecies e)tinctions, and industries so 'owerful the$ can ruin the climate of the 'lanet. Aoughl$

half the scientists on >arth work at least 'art-time for the militar$. While a few scientists are still 'ercei(ed as outsiders, courageousl$ critici.ing the ills of societ$ and 'ro(iding earl$ warnings of 'otential technological catastro'hes, man$ are seen as com'liant o''ortunists, or as the willing source of cor'orate 'rofits and wea'ons of mass destruction - ne(er mind the long-term conse8uences. The technological 'erils that science ser(es u', its im'licit challenge to recei(ed wisdom, and its 'ercei(ed difficult$, are all reasons for some 'eo'le to mistrust and a(oid it. There+s a reason 'eo'le are ner(ous about science and technolog$. "nd so the image of the mad scientist haunts our world - down to the white-coated loonies of Saturda$ morning children+s TD and the 'lethora of <austian bargains in 'o'ular culture, from the e'on$mous Dr <austus himself to Dr Frankenstein, Dr Strangelove, and urassic Park! 3ut we can+t sim'l$ conclude that science 'uts too much 'ower into the hands of morall$ feeble technologists or corru't, 'ower-cra.ed 'oliticians and so decide to get rid of it. "d(ances in medicine and agriculture ha(e sa(ed (astl$ more li(es than ha(e been lost in all the wars in histor$.* "d(ances in trans'ortation, communication and entertainment ha(e transformed and unified the world. In o'inion 'oll after o'inion 'oll science is rated among the most admired and trusted occu'ations, des'ite the misgi(ings. The sword of science is doubleedged. Its awesome 'ower forces on all of us, including 'oliticians, a new res'onsibilit$ - more attention to the long-term conse8uences of technolog$, a global and transgenerational 'ers'ecti(e, an incenti(e to a(oid eas$ a''eals to nationalism and chau(inism. #istakes are becoming too e)'ensi(e.
JK "t a large dinner 'art$ recentl$, I asked the assembled guests - ranging in age, I guess, from thirties to si)ties - how man$ of them would be ali(e toda$ if not for antibiotics, cardiac 'acemakers, and the rest of the 'ano'l$ of modern medicine. 2nl$ one hand went u'. It was not mine.F

Do we care what+s true7 Does it matter7 Lwhere ignorance is bliss, Tis foll$ to be wise wrote the 'oet Thomas ?ra$. 3ut is it7 >dmund Wa$ Teale in his % 5; book Circle of the Seasons understood the dilemma better! It is morall$ as bad not to care whether a thing is true or not, so long as it makes $ou feel good, as it is not to care how $ou got $our mone$ as long as $ou ha(e got it. It+s disheartening to disco(er go(ernment corru'tion and incom-

'etence, for e)am'le, but it is better not to know about it7 Whose interest does ignorance ser(e7 If we humans bear, sa$, hereditar$ 'ro'ensities toward the hatred of strangers, isn+t self-knowledge the onl$ antidote7 If we long to belie(e that the stars rise and set for us, that we are the reason there is a /ni(erse, does science do us a disser(ice in deflating our conceits7 In "he #enealogy of $orals, <riedrich 5iet.sche, as so man$ before and after, decries the -unbroken 'rogress in the self-belittling of man+ brought about b$ the scientific re(olution. 5iet.sche mourns the loss of -man+s belief in his dignit$, his uni8ueness, his irre'laceabilit$ in the scheme of e)istence+. <or me, it is far better to gras' the /ni(erse as it reall$ is than to 'ersist in delusion, howe(er satisf$ing and reassuring. Which attitude is better geared for our long-term sur(i(al7 Which gi(es us more le(erage on our future7 "nd if our nai(e self-confidence is a little undermined in the 'rocess, is that altogether such a loss7 Is there not cause to welcome it as a maturing and character-building e)'erience7 To disco(er that the /ni(erse is some B to %5 billion and not I to %G thousand $ears oldK im'ro(es our a''reciation of its swee' and grandeur, to entertain the notion that we are a 'articularl$ com'le) arrangement of atoms, and not some breath of di(init$, at the (er$ least enhances our res'ect for atoms, to disco(er, as now seems 'robable, that our 'lanet is one of billions of other worlds in the #ilk$ Wa$ gala)$ and that our gala)$ is one of billions more, ma1esticall$ e)'ands the arena of what is 'ossible, to find that our ancestors were also the ancestors of a'es ties us to the rest of life and makes 'ossible im'ortant - if occasionall$ rueful - reflections on human nature.
J* -5o thinking religious 'erson belie(es this. 2ld hat,+ writes one of the referees of this book. 3ut man$ -scientific creationists+ not onl$ belie(e it, but are making increasingl$ aggressi(e and successful efforts to ha(e it taught in the schools, museums, .oos, and te)tbooks. Wh$7 3ecause adding u' the -begats+, the ages of 'atriarchs and others in the 3ible gi(es such a figure, and the 3ible is -inerrant+.F

=lainl$ there is no wa$ back. 4ike it or not, we are stuck with science. We had better make the best of it. When we finall$ come to terms with it and full$ recogni.e its beaut$ and its 'ower, we will find, in s'iritual as well as in 'ractical matters, that we ha(e made a bargain strongl$ in our fa(our. 3ut su'erstition and 'seudoscience kee' getting in the wa$, distracting all the -3uckle$s+ among us, 'ro(iding eas$ answers, dodging sce'tical scrutin$, casuall$ 'ressing our awe buttons and chea'ening the e)'erience, making us routine and comfortable 'ractitioners as well as (ictims of credulit$. 6es, the world would be a more interesting 'lace if there were /<2s lurking in the dee' waters off

3ermuda and eating shi's and 'lanes, or if dead 'eo'le could take control of our hands and write us messages. It would be fascinating if adolescents were able to make tele'hone handsets rocket off their cradles 1ust b$ thinking at them, or if our dreams could, more often than can be e)'lained b$ chance and our knowledge of the world, accuratel$ foretell the future. These are all instances of 'seudoscience. The$ 'ur'ort to use the methods and findings of science, while in fact the$ are faithless to its nature M often because the$ are based on insufficient e(idence or because the$ ignore clues that 'oint the other wa$. The$ ri''le with gullibilit$. With the uninformed coo'eration 9and often the c$nical conni(ance: of news'a'ers, maga.ines, book 'ublishers, radio, tele(ision, mo(ie 'roducers and the like, such ideas are easil$ and widel$ a(ailable. <ar more difficult to come u'on, as I was reminded b$ m$ encounter with #r -3uckle$+, are the alternati(e, more challenging and e(en more da..ling findings of science. =seudoscience is easier to contri(e than science, because distracting confrontations with realit$ M where we cannot control the outcome of the com'arison M are more readil$ a(oided. The standards of argument, what 'asses for e(idence, are much more rela)ed. In 'art for these same reasons, it is much easier to 'resent 'seudoscience to the general 'ublic than science. 3ut this isn+t enough to e)'lain its 'o'ularit$. 5aturall$ 'eo'le tr$ (arious belief s$stems on for si.e, to see if the$ hel'. "nd if we+re des'erate enough, we become all too willing to abandon what ma$ be 'ercei(ed as the hea($ burden of sce'ticism. =seudoscience s'eaks to 'owerful emotional needs that science often lea(es unfulfilled. It caters to fantasies about 'ersonal 'owers we lack and long for 9like those attributed to comic book su'erheroes toda$, and earlier, to the gods:. In some of its manifestations, it offers satisfaction of s'iritual hungers, cures for disease, 'romises that death is not the end. It reassures us of our cosmic centralit$ and im'ortance. It (ouchsafes that we are hooked u' with, tied to, the /ni(erse.K Sometimes it+s a kind of halfwa$ house between old religion and new science, mistrusted b$ both.
J* "lthough it+s hard for me to see a more 'rofound cosmic connection than the astonishing findings of modern nuclear astro'h$sics! e)ce't for h$drogen, all the atoms that make each of us u' M the iron in our blood, the calcium in our bones, the carbon in our brains M were manufactured in red giant stars thousands of light $ears awa$ in s'ace and billions of $ears ago in time. We are, as I like to sa$, starstuff.F

"t the heart of some 'seudoscience 9and some religion also, 5ew "ge and 2ld: is the idea that wishing makes it so. How satisf$ing it would be, as in folklore and children+s stories, to fulfil our heart+s desire

1ust b$ wishing. How seducti(e this notion is, es'eciall$ when com'ared with the hard work and good luck usuall$ re8uired to achie(e our ho'es. The enchanted fish or the genie from the lam' will grant us three wishes M an$thing we want e)ce't more wishes. Who has not 'ondered M 1ust to be on the safe side, 1ust in case we e(er come u'on and accidentall$ rub an old, s8uat brass oil lam' M what to ask for7 I remember, from childhood comic stri's and books, a to'-hatted, moustachioed magician who brandished an ebon$ walking stick. His name was Natara. He could make an$thing ha''en, an$thing at all. How did he do it7 >as$. He uttered his commands backwards. So if he wanted a million dollars, he would sa$ -srallod noillim a em e(ig+. That+s all there was to it. It was something like 'ra$er, but much surer of results. I s'ent a lot of time at age eight e)'erimenting in this (ein, commanding stones to le(itate! -esir, enots.+ It ne(er worked. I blamed m$ 'ronunciation. =seudoscience is embraced, it might be argued, in e)act 'ro'ortion as real science is misunderstood - e)ce't that the language breaks down here. If $ou+(e ne(er heard of science 9to sa$ nothing of how it works:, $ou can hardl$ be aware $ou+re embracing 'seudoscience. 6ou+re sim'l$ thinking in one of the wa$s that humans alwa$s ha(e. Aeligions are often the state-'rotected nurseries of 'seudoscience, although there+s no reason wh$ religions ha(e to 'la$ that role. In a wa$, it+s an artefact from times long gone. In some countries nearl$ e(er$one belie(es in astrolog$ and 'recognition, including go(ernment leaders. 3ut this is not sim'l$ drummed into them b$ religion, it is drawn out of the en(elo'ing culture in which e(er$one is comfortable with these 'ractices, and affirming testimonials are e(er$where. #ost of the case histories I will relate in this book are "merican because these are the cases I know best, not because 'seudoscience and m$sticism are more 'rominent in the /nited States than elsewhere. 3ut the 's$chic s'oonbender and e)traterrestrial channeller /ri ?eller hails from Israel. "s tensions rise between "lgerian secularists and #uslim fundamentalists, more and more 'eo'le are discreetl$ consulting the countr$+s %;,;;; soothsa$ers and clair(o$ants 9about half of whom o'erate with a licence from the go(ernment:. High <rench officials, including a former =resident of <rance, arranged for millions of dollars to be in(ested in a scam 9the >lf-"8uitaine scandal: to find new 'etroleum reser(es from the air. In ?erman$, there is concern about carcinogenic ->arth ra$s+ undetectable b$ science, the$ can be sensed onl$ b$ e)'erienced dowsers brandishing forked sticks. -=s$chic surger$+ flourishes in the =hili''ines. ?hosts are something of a national obsession in 3ritain. Since World War Two, *a'an has s'awned enormous numbers of new

religions featuring the su'ernatural. "n estimated %;;,;;; fortunetellers flourish in *a'an, the clientele are mainl$ $oung women. "um Shinrik$o, a sect thought to be in(ol(ed in the release of the ner(e gas sarin in the Tok$o subwa$ s$stem in #arch % 5, features le(itation, faith healing and >S= among its main tenets. <ollowers, at a high 'rice, drank the -miracle 'ond+ water -from the bath of "sahara, their leader. In Thailand, diseases are treated with 'ills manufactured from 'ul(eri.ed sacred Scri'ture. -Witches+ are toda$ being burned in South "frica. "ustralian 'eace-kee'ing forces in Haiti rescue a woman tied to a tree, she is accused of fl$ing from roofto' to roofto', and sucking the blood of children. "strolog$ is rife in India, geomanc$ wides'read in China. =erha's the most successful recent global 'seudoscience - b$ man$ criteria, alread$ a religion - is the Hindu doctrine of transcendental meditation 9T#:. The so'orific homilies of its founder and s'iritual leader, the #aharishi #ahesh 6ogi, can be seen on tele(ision in "merica. Seated in the $ogi 'osition, his white hair here and there flecked with black, surrounded b$ garlands and floral offerings, he has a look! 2ne da$ while channel surfing we came u'on this (isage. -6ou know who that is7+ asked our four-$ear-old son. -?od.+ The worldwide T# organi.ation has an estimated (aluation of O& billion. <or a fee the$ 'romise through meditation to be able to walk $ou through walls, to make $ou in(isible, to enable $ou to fl$. 3$ thinking in unison the$ ha(e, the$ sa$, diminished the crime rate in Washington DC and caused the colla'se of the So(iet /nion, among other secular miracles. 5ot one smattering of real e(idence, has been offered for an$ such claims. T# sells folk medicine, runs trading com'anies, medical clinics and -research+ uni(ersities, and has unsuccessfull$ entered 'olitics. In its oddl$ charismatic leader, its 'romise of communit$, and the offer of magical 'owers in e)change for mone$ and fer(ent belief, it is t$'ical of man$ 'seudosciences marketed for sacerdotal e)'ort. "t each relin8uishing of ci(il controls and scientific education, another little s'urt in 'seudoscience occurs. 4eon Trotsk$ described it for ?erman$ on the e(e of the Hitler takeo(er 9but in a descri'tion that might e8uall$ ha(e a''lied to the So(iet /nion of % &&:! 5ot onl$ in 'easant homes, but also in cit$ sk$scra'ers, there li(es alongside the twentieth centur$ the thirteenth. " hundred million 'eo'le use electricit$ and still belie(e in the magic 'owers of signs and e)orcisms... #o(ie stars go to mediums. "(iators who 'ilot miraculous mechanisms created b$ man+s genius wear amulets on their sweaters. What ine)haustible reser(es the$ 'ossess of darkness, ignorance and sa(ager$0 Aussia is an instructi(e case. /nder the Tsars, religious su'erstition was encouraged, but scientific and sce'tical thinking - e)ce't b$ a few

tame scientists - was ruthlessl$ e)'unged. /nder Communism, both religion and 'seudoscience were s$stematicall$ su''ressed - e)ce't for the su'erstition of the state ideological religion. It was ad(ertised as scientific, but fell as far short of this ideal as the most unself-critical m$ster$ cult. Critical thinking -e)ce't b$ scientists in hermeticall$ sealed com'artments of knowledge - was recogni.ed as dangerous, was not taught in the schools, and was 'unished where e)'ressed. "s a result, 'ost-Communism, man$ Aussians (iew science with sus'icion. When the lid was lifted, as was also true of (irulent ethnic hatreds, what had all along been bubbling subsurface was e)'osed to (iew. The region is now awash in /<2s, 'oltergeists, faith healers, 8uack medicines, magic waters and old-time su'erstition. " stunning decline in life e)'ectanc$, increasing infant mortalit$, ram'ant e'idemic disease, subminimal medical standards and ignorance of 're(enti(e medicine all work to raise the threshold at which sce'ticism is triggered in an increasingl$ des'erate 'o'ulation. "s I write, the electorall$ most 'o'ular member of the Duma, a leading su''orter of the ultranationalist Dladimir Nhirino(sk$, is one "natol$ @ash'iro(sk$ a faith healer who remotel$ cures diseases ranging from hernias to "IDS b$ glaring at $ou out of $our tele(ision set. His face starts sto''ed clocks. " somewhat analogous situation e)ists in China. "fter the death of #ao Nedong and the gradual emergence of a market econom$, /<2s, channelling and other e)am'les of Western 'seudoscience emerged, along with such ancient Chinese 'ractices as ancestor worshi', astrolog$ and fortune telling - es'eciall$ that (ersion that in(ol(es throwing $arrow sticks and working through the hoar$ tetragrams of the % Ching! The go(ernment news'a'er lamented that -the su'erstition of feudal ideolog$ is re(i(ing in our countr$side+. It was 9and remains: a rural, not 'rimaril$ an urban, affliction. Indi(iduals with -s'ecial 'owers+ gained enormous follow-ings. The$ could, the$ said, 'ro1ect Hi, the -energ$ field of the /ni(erse+, out of their bodies to change the molecular structure of a chemical G,;;; kilometres awa$, to communicate with aliens, to cure diseases. Some 'atients died under the ministrations of one of these -masters of Hi ?ong+ who was arrested and con(icted in % &. Wang Hongcheng, an amateur chemist, claimed to ha(e s$nthesi.ed a li8uid, small amounts of which, when added to water, would con(ert it to gasoline or the e8ui(alent. <or a time he was funded b$ the arm$ and the secret 'olice, but when his in(ention was found to be a scam he was arrested and im'risoned. 5aturall$ the stor$ s'read that his misfortune resulted not from fraud, but from his unwillingness to re(eal his -secret formula+ to the go(ernment. 9Similar stories ha(e circulated in "merica for decades, usuall$ with the go(ernment role re'laced b$ a ma1or oil or auto com'an$.: "sian rhinos are being dri(en to e)tinction because their horns, when 'ul(eri.ed, are said to 're(ent im'otence, the

market encom'asses all of >ast "sia. The go(ernment of China and the Chinese Communist =art$ were alarmed b$ certain of these de(elo'ments. 2n 5 December % E, the$ issued a 1oint 'roclamation that read in 'art! J=Fublic education in science has been withering in recent $ears. "t the same time, acti(ities of su'erstition and ignorance ha(e been growing, and antiscience and 'seudoscience cases ha(e become fre8uent. Therefore, effecti(e measures must be a''lied as soon as 'ossible to strengthen 'ublic education in science. The le(el of 'ublic education in science and technolog$ is an im'ortant sign of the national scientific accom'lishment. It is a matter of o(erall im'ortance in economic de(elo'ment, scientific ad(ance, and the 'rogress of societ$. We must be attenti(e and im'lement such 'ublic education as 'art of the strateg$ to moderni.e our socialist countr$ and to make our nation 'owerful and 'ros'erous. Ignorance is ne(er socialist, nor is 'o(ert$. So 'seudoscience in "merica is 'art of a global trend. Its causes, dangers, diagnosis and treatment are likel$ to be similar e(er$where. Here, 's$chics 'l$ their wares on e)tended tele(ision commercials, 'ersonall$ endorsed b$ entertainers. The$ ha(e their own channel, the -=s$chic <riends 5etwork+, a million 'eo'le a $ear sign on and use such guidance in their e(er$da$ li(es. <or the chief e)ecuti(es of ma1or cor'orations, for financial anal$sts, for law$ers and bankers there is a s'ecies of astrologerP soothsa$erP's$chic read$ to ad(ise on an$ matter. -If 'eo'le knew how man$ 'eo'le, es'eciall$ the (er$ rich and 'owerful ones, went to 's$chics, their 1aws would dro' through the floor,+ sa$s a 's$chic from Cle(eland, 2hio. Ao$alt$ has traditionall$ been (ulnerable to 's$chic frauds. In ancient China and Aome astrolog$ was the e)clusi(e 'ro'ert$ of the em'eror, an$ 'ri(ate use of this 'otent art was considered a ca'ital offence. >merging from a 'articularl$ credulous Southern California culture, 5anc$ and Aonald Aeagan relied on an astrologer in 'ri(ate and 'ublic matters - unknown to the (oting 'ublic. Some 'ortion of the decision-making that influences the future of our ci(ili.ation is 'lainl$ in the hands of charlatans. If an$thing, the 'ractice is com'arati(el$ muted in "merica, its (enue is worldwide. "s amusing as some of 'seudoscience ma$ seem, as confident as we ma$ be that we would ne(er be so gullible as to be swe't u' b$ such a doctrine, we know it+s ha''ening all around us. Transcendental meditation and "um Shinrik$o seem to ha(e attracted a large number of accom'lished 'eo'le, some with ad(anced degrees in 'h$sics or engineering. These are not doctrines for nitwits. Something else is going on. What+s more, no one interested in what religions are and how the$

begin can ignore them. While (ast barriers ma$ seem to stretch between a local, single-focus contention of 'seudoscience and something like a world religion, the 'artitions are (er$ thin. The world 'resents us with nearl$ insurmountable 'roblems. " wide (ariet$ of solutions are offered, some of (er$ limited world(iew, some of 'ortentous swee'. In the usual Darwinian natural selection of doctrines, some thri(e for a time, while most 8uickl$ (anish. 3ut a few - sometimes, as histor$ has shown, the The continuum stretching from ill-'ractised science, 'seudo-science and su'erstition 95ew "ge or 2ld:, all the wa$ to res'ectable m$ster$ religion, based on re(elation, is indistinct. I tr$ not to use the word -cult+ in this book in its usual meaning of a religion the s'eaker dislikes, but tr$ to reach for the headstone of knowledge - do the$ reall$ know what the$ claim to know7 >(er$one, it turns out, has rele(ant e)'ertise. In certain 'assages of this book I will be critical of the e)cesses of theolog$, because at the e)tremes it is difficult to distinguish 'seudoscience from rigid, doctrinaire religion. 5e(ertheless, I want to acknowledge at the outset the 'rodigious di(ersit$ and com'le)it$ of religious thought and 'ractice o(er the millennia, the growth of liberal religion and ecumenical fellowshi' during the last centur$, and the fact that - as in the =rotestant Aeformation, the rise of Aeform *udaism, Datican II, and the so-called higher criticism of the 3ible - religion has fought 9with (ar$ing degrees of success: its own e)cesses. 3ut in 'arallel to the man$ scientists who seem reluctant to debate or e(en 'ublicl$ discuss 'seudo-science, man$ 'ro'onents of mainstream religions are reluctant to take on e)treme conser(ati(es and fundamentalists. If the trend continues, e(entuall$ the field is theirs, the$ can win the debate b$ default. 2ne religious leader writes to me of his longing for -disci'lined integrit$+ in religion! We ha(e grown far too sentimental... De(otionalism and chea' 's$cholog$ on one side, and arrogance and dogmatic intolerance on the other distort authentic religious life almost be$ond recognition. Sometimes I come close to des'air, but then I li(e tenaciousl$ and alwa$s with ho'e... Honest religion, more familiar than its critics with the distortions and absurdities 'er'etrated in its name, has an acti(e interest in encouraging a health$ ske'ticism for its own 'ur'oses... There is the 'ossibilit$ for religion and science to forge a 'otent 'artnershi' against 'seudo-science. Strangel$, I think it would soon be engaged also in o''osing 'seudo-religion. =seudoscience differs from erroneous science. Science thri(es on errors, cutting them awa$ one b$ one. <alse conclusions are drawn all the time, but the$ are drawn tentati(el$. H$'otheses are framed so the$ are ca'able of being dis'ro(ed. " succession of alternati(e

h$'otheses is confronted b$ e)'eriment and obser(ation. Science gro'es and staggers toward im'ro(ed understanding. =ro'rietar$ feelings are of course offended when a scientific h$'othesis is dis'ro(ed, but such dis'roofs are recogni.ed as central to the scientific enter'rise. =seudoscience is 1ust the o''osite. H$'otheses are often framed 'recisel$ so the$ are in(ulnerable to an$ e)'eriment that offers a 'ros'ect of dis'roof, so e(en in 'rinci'le the$ cannot be in(alidated. =ractitioners are defensi(e and war$. Sce'tical scrutin$ is o''osed. When the 'seudoscientific h$'othesis fails to catch fire with scientists, cons'iracies to su''ress it are deduced. #otor abilit$ in health$ 'eo'le is almost 'erfect. We rarel$ stumble and fall, e)ce't in $oung and old age. We can learn tasks such as riding a bic$cle or skating or ski''ing, 1um'ing ro'e or dri(ing a car, and retain that master$ for the rest of our li(es. >(en if we+(e gone a decade without doing it, it comes back to us effortlessl$. The 'recision and retention of our motor skills ma$, howe(er, gi(e us a false sense of confidence in our other talents. 2ur 'erce'tions are fallible. We sometimes see what isn+t there. We are 're$ to o'tical illusions. 2ccasionall$ we hallucinate. We are error-'rone. " most illuminating book called &ow 'e (now 'hat %sn)t So* "he Falli+ility of &uman ,eason in Everyday Life, b$ Thomas ?ilo(ich, shows how 'eo'le s$stematicall$ err in understanding numbers, in re1ecting un'leasant e(idence, in being influenced b$ the o'inions of others. We+re good in some things, but not in e(er$thing. Wisdom lies in understanding our limitations. -<or #an is a gidd$ thing,+ teaches William Shakes'eare. That+s where the stuff$ sce'tical rigour of science comes in. =erha's the shar'est distinction between science and 'seudoscience is that science has a far keener a''reciation of human im'erfections and fallibilit$ than does 'seudoscience 9or -inerrant+ re(elation:. If we resolutel$ refuse to acknowledge where we are liable to fall into error, then we can confidentl$ e)'ect that error -e(en serious error, 'rofound mistakes - will be our com'anion fore(er. 3ut if we are ca'able of a little courageous self-assessment, whate(er rueful reflections the$ ma$ engender, our chances im'ro(e enormousl$. If we teach onl$ the findings and 'roducts of science - no matter how useful and e(en ins'iring the$ ma$ be - without communicating its critical method, how can the a(erage 'erson 'ossibl$ distinguish science from 'seudoscience7 3oth then are 'resented as unsu''orted assertion. In Aussia and China, it used to be eas$. "uthoritati(e science was what the authorities taught. The distinction between science and 'seudoscience was made for $ou. 5o 'er'le)ities needed to be muddled through. 3ut when 'rofound 'olitical changes occurred and strictures on free thought were loosened, a host of confident or charismatic claims - es'eciall$ those that told us what we wanted to

hear - gained a (ast following. >(er$ notion, howe(er im'robable, became authoritati(e. It is a su'reme challenge for the 'o'ulari.er of science to make clear the actual, tortuous histor$ of its great disco(eries and the misa''rehensions and occasional stubborn refusal b$ its 'ractitioners to change course. #an$, 'erha's most, science te)tbooks for budding scientists tread lightl$ here. It is enormousl$ easier to 'resent in an a''ealing wa$ the wisdom distilled from centuries of 'atient and collecti(e interrogation of 5ature than to detail the mess$ distillation a''aratus. The method of science, as stodg$ and grum'$ as it ma$ seem, is far more im'ortant than the findings of science.

Science and Ho'e

Two men came to a hole in the sk$. 2ne asked the other to lift him u' ... 3ut so beautiful was it in hea(en that the man who looked in o(er the edge forgot e(er$thing, forgot his com'anion whom he had 'romised to hel' u' and sim'l$ ran off into all the s'lendour of hea(en. from an Iglulik Inuit 'rose 'oem, earl$ twentieth centur$, told b$ Inug'asug1uk to @nud Aasmussen, the ?reenlandic arctic e)'lorer

I was a child in a time of ho'e. I wanted to be a scientist from m$

earliest school da$s. The cr$stalli.ing moment came when I first caught on that the stars are might$ suns, when it first dawned on me how staggeringl$ far awa$ the$ must be to a''ear as mere 'oints of light in the sk$. I+m not sure I e(en knew the meaning of the word -science+ then, but I wanted somehow to immerse m$self in all that grandeur. I was gri''ed b$ the s'lendour of the /ni(erse, transfi)ed b$ the 'ros'ect of understanding how things reall$ work, of hel'ing to unco(er dee' m$steries, of e)'loring new worlds - ma$be e(en literall$. It has been m$ good fortune to ha(e had that dream in 'art fulfilled. <or me, the romance of science remains as a''ealing and new as it was on that da$, more than half a centur$ ago, when I was shown the wonders of the % & World+s <air. =o'ulari.ing science - tr$ing to make its methods and findings accessible to non-scientists - then follows naturall$ and immediatel$. .ot e)'laining science seems to me 'er(erse. When $ou+re in lo(e, $ou want to tell the world. This book is a 'ersonal statement, reflecting m$ lifelong lo(e affair with science. 3ut there+s another reason! science is more than a bod$ of knowledge, it is a wa$ of thinking. I ha(e a foreboding of an "merica in m$ children+s or grandchildren+s time - when the /nited States is a ser(ice and information econom$, when nearl$ all the ke$ manufacturing industries ha(e sli''ed awa$ to other countries, when awesome technological 'owers are in the hands of a (er$ few, and no one re'resenting the 'ublic interest can e(en gras' the issues, when the 'eo'le ha(e lost the abilit$ to set their own agendas or

knowledgeabl$ 8uestion those in authorit$, when, clutching our cr$stals and ner(ousl$ consulting our horosco'es, our critical faculties in decline, unable to distinguish between what feels good and what+s true, we slide, almost without noticing, back into su'erstition and darkness. The dumbing down of "merica is most e(ident in the slow deca$ of substanti(e content in the enormousl$ influential media, the &;-second sound bites 9now down to %; seconds or less:, lowest common denominator 'rogramming, credulous 'resentations on 'seudoscience and su'erstition, but es'eciall$ a kind of celebration of ignorance. "s I write, the number one (ideo cassette rental in "merica is the mo(ie Dum+ and Dum+er! /eavis and /ullhead remains 'o'ular 9and influential: with $oung TD (iewers. The 'lain lesson is that stud$ and learning - not 1ust of science, but of an$thing - are a(oidable, e(en undesirable. We+(e arranged a global ci(ili.ation in which most crucial elements trans'ortation, communications, and all other industries, agriculture, medicine, education, entertainment, 'rotecting the en(ironment, and e(en the ke$ democratic institution of (oting - 'rofoundl$ de'end on science and technolog$. We ha(e also arranged things so that almost no one understands science and technolog$. This is a 'rescri'tion for disaster. We might get awa$ with it for a while, but sooner or later this combustible mi)ture of ignorance and 'ower is going to blow u' in our faces. 0 Candle in the Dark is the title of a courageous, largel$ 3iblicall$ based, book b$ Thomas "d$, 'ublished in 4ondon in %I5I, attacking the witch-hunts then in 'rogress as a scam -to delude the 'eo'le+. "n$ illness or storm, an$thing out of the ordinar$, was 'o'ularl$ attributed to witchcraft. Witches must e)ist, "d$ 8uoted the -witchmongers+ as arguing, -else how should these things be, or come to 'ass7+ <or much of our histor$, we were so fearful of the outside world, with its un'redictable dangers, that we gladl$ embraced an$thing that 'romised to soften or e)'lain awa$ the terror. Science is an attem't, largel$ successful, to understand the world, to get a gri' on things, to get hold of oursel(es, to steer a safe course. #icrobiolog$ and meteorolog$ now e)'lain what onl$ a few centuries ago was considered sufficient cause to burn women to death. "d$ also warned of the danger that -the 5ations JwillF 'erish for lack of knowledge+. "(oidable human miser$ is more often caused not so much b$ stu'idit$ as b$ ignorance, 'articularl$ our ignorance about oursel(es. I worr$ that, es'eciall$ as the millennium edges nearer, 'seudoscience and su'erstition will seem $ear b$ $ear more tem'ting, the siren song of unreason more sonorous and attracti(e. Where ha(e we heard it before7 Whene(er our ethnic or national 're1udices are aroused, in times of scarcit$, during challenges to national self-esteem or ner(e, when we agoni.e about our diminished cosmic 'lace and 'ur'ose, or when fanaticism is bubbling u' around us - then, habits of

thought familiar from ages 'ast reach for the controls. The candle flame gutters. Its little 'ool of light trembles. Darkness gathers. The demons begin to stir. There is much that science doesn+t understand, man$ m$steries still to be resol(ed. In a /ni(erse tens of billions of light $ears across and some ten or fifteen billion $ears old, this ma$ be the case fore(er. We are constantl$ stumbling on sur'rises. 6et some 5ew "ge and religious writers assert that scientists belie(e that -what the$ find is all there is+. Scientists ma$ re1ect m$stic re(elations for which there is no e(idence e)ce't somebod$+s sa$-so, but the$ hardl$ belie(e their knowledge of 5ature to be com'lete. Science is far from a 'erfect instrument of knowledge. It+s 1ust the best we ha(e. In this res'ect, as in man$ others, it+s like democrac$. Science b$ itself cannot ad(ocate courses of human action, but it can certainl$ illuminate the 'ossible conse8uences of alternati(e courses of action. The scientific wa$ of thinking is at once imaginati(e and disci'lined. This is central to its success. Science in(ites us to let the facts in, e(en when the$ don+t conform to our 'reconce'tions. It counsels us to carr$ alternati(e h$'otheses in our heads and see which best fit the facts. It urges on us a delicate balance between no-holds-barred o'enness to new ideas, howe(er heretical, and the most rigorous sce'tical scrutin$ of e(er$thing - new ideas and established wisdom. This kind of thinking is also an essential tool for a democrac$ in an age of change. 2ne of the reasons for its success is that science has built-in, errorcorrecting machiner$ at its (er$ heart. Some ma$ consider this an o(erbroad characteri.ation, but to me e(er$ time we e)ercise selfcriticism, e(er$ time we test our ideas against the outside world, we are doing science. When we are self-indulgent and uncritical, when we confuse ho'es and facts, we slide into 'seudoscience and su'erstition. >(er$ time a scientific 'a'er 'resents a bit of data, it+s accom'anied b$ an error bar - a 8uiet but insistent reminder that no knowledge is com'lete or 'erfect. It+s a calibration of how much we trust what we think we know. If the error bars are small, the accurac$ of our em'irical knowledge is high, if the error bars are large, then so is the uncertaint$ in our knowledge. >)ce't in 'ure mathematics nothing is known for certain 9although much is certainl$ false:. #oreo(er, scientists are usuall$ careful to characteri.e the (eridical status of.their attem'ts to understand the world - ranging from con1ectures and h$'otheses, which are highl$ tentati(e, all the wa$ u' to laws of 5ature which are re'eatedl$ and s$stematicall$ confirmed through man$ interrogations of how the world works. 3ut e(en laws of 5ature are not absolutel$ certain. There ma$ be new circumstances ne(er before e)amined - inside black holes, sa$, or within the electron, or close to the s'eed of light -where e(en our (aunted laws of 5ature

break down and, howe(er (alid the$ ma$ be in ordinar$ circumstances, need correction. Humans ma$ cra(e absolute certaint$, the$ ma$ as'ire to it, the$ ma$ 'retend, as 'artisans of certain religions do, to ha(e attained it. 3ut the histor$ of science - b$ far the most successful claim to knowledge accessible to humans - teaches that the most we can ho'e for is successi(e im'ro(ement in our understanding, learning from our mistakes, an as$m'totic a''roach to the /ni(erse, but with the 'ro(iso that absolute certaint$ will alwa$s elude us. We will alwa$s be mired in error. The most each generation can ho'e for is to reduce the error bars a little, and to add to the bod$ of data to which error bars a''l$. The error bar is a 'er(asi(e, (isible selfassessment of the reliabilit$ of our knowledge. 6ou often see error bars in 'ublic o'inion 'olls 9-an uncertaint$ of 'lus or minus three 'er cent+, sa$:. Imagine a societ$ in which e(er$ s'eech in the Congressional ,ecord, e(er$ tele(ision commercial, e(er$ sermon had an accom'an$ing error bar or its e8ui(alent. 2ne of the great commandments of science is, -#istrust arguments from authorit$+. 9Scientists, being 'rimates, and thus gi(en to dominance hierarchies, of course do not alwa$s follow this commandment.: Too man$ such arguments ha(e 'ro(ed too 'ainfull$ wrong. "uthorities must 'ro(e their contentions like e(er$bod$ else. This inde'endence of science, its occasional unwillingness to acce't con(entional wisdom, makes it dangerous to doctrines less self-critical, or with 'retensions to certitude. 3ecause science carries us toward an understanding of how the world is, rather than how we would wish it to be, its findings ma$ not in all cases be immediatel$ com'rehensible or satisf$ing. It ma$ take a little work to restructure our mindsets. Some of science is (er$ sim'le. When it gets com'licated, that+s usuall$ because the world is com'licated - or because we)re com'licated. When we sh$ awa$ from it because it seems too difficult 9or because we+(e been taught so 'oorl$:, we surrender the abilit$ to take charge of our future. We are disenfranchised. 2ur self-confidence erodes. 3ut when we 'ass be$ond the barrier, when the findings and methods of science get through to us, when we understand and 'ut this knowledge to use, man$ feel dee' satisfaction. This is true for e(er$one, but es'eciall$ for children - born with a .est for knowledge, aware that the$ must li(e in a future moulded b$ science, but so often con(inced in their adolescence that science is not for them. I know 'ersonall$, both from ha(ing science e)'lained to me and from m$ attem'ts to e)'lain it to others, how gratif$ing it is when we get it, when obscure terms suddenl$ take on meaning, when we gras' what all the fuss is about, when dee' wonders are re(ealed. In its encounter with 5ature, science in(ariabl$ elicits a sense of re(erence and awe. The (er$ act of understanding is a celebration of

1oining, merging, e(en if on a (er$ modest scale, with the magnificence of the Cosmos. "nd the cumulati(e worldwide build-u' of knowledge o(er time con(erts science into something onl$ a little short of a transnational, trans-generational meta-mind. -S'irit+ comes from the 4atin word -to breathe+. What we breathe is air, which is certainl$ matter, howe(er thin. Des'ite usage to the contrar$, there is no necessar$ im'lication in the word -s'iritual+ that we are talking of an$thing other than matter 9including the matter of which the brain is made:, or an$thing outside the realm of science. 2n occasion, I will feel free to use the word. Science is not onl$ com'atible with s'iritualit$, it is a 'rofound source of s'iritualit$. When we recogni.e our 'lace in an immensit$ of light $ears and in the 'assage of ages, when we gras' the intricac$, beaut$ and subtlet$ of life, then that soaring feeling, that sense of elation and humilit$ combined, is surel$ s'iritual. So are our emotions in the 'resence of great art or music or literature, or of acts of e)em'lar$ selfless courage such as those of #ohandas ?andhi or #artin 4uther @ing *r. The notion that science and s'iritualit$ are somehow mutuall$ e)clusi(e does a disser(ice to both. Science ma$ be hard to understand. It ma$ challenge cherished beliefs. When its 'roducts are 'laced at the dis'osal of 'oliticians or industrialists, it ma$ lead to wea'ons of mass destruction and gra(e threats to the en(ironment. 3ut one thing $ou ha(e to sa$ about it! it deli(ers the goods. 5ot e(er$ branch of science can foretell the future - 'alaeontolog$ can+t - but man$ can and with stunning accurac$. If $ou want to know when the ne)t ecli'se of the Sun will be, $ou might tr$ magicians or m$stics, but $ou+ll do much better with scientists. The$ will tell $ou where on >arth to stand, when $ou ha(e to be there, and whether it will be a 'artial ecli'se, a total ecli'se, or an annular ecli'se. The$ can routinel$ 'redict a solar ecli'se, to the minute, a millennium in ad(ance. 6ou can go to the witch doctor to lift the s'ell that causes $our 'ernicious anaemia, or $ou can take (itamin 3%G. If $ou want to sa(e $our child from 'olio, $ou can 'ra$ or $ou can inoculate. If $ou+re interested in the se) of $our unborn child, $ou can consult 'lumb-bob danglers all $ou want 9left-right, a bo$, forward-back, a girl - or ma$be it+s the other wa$ around:, but the$+ll be right, on a(erage, onl$ one time in two. If $ou want real accurac$ 9here, 'er cent accurac$:, tr$ amniocentesis and sono-grams. Tr$ science. Think of how man$ religions attem't to (alidate themsel(es with 'ro'hec$. Think of how man$ 'eo'le rel$ on these 'ro'hecies, howe(er (ague, howe(er unfulfilled, to su''ort or 'ro' u' their beliefs. 6et has there e(er been a religion with the 'ro'hetic accurac$ and reliabilit$ of science7 There isn+t a religion on the 'lanet that doesn+t long for a com'arable abilit$ - 'recise, and re'eatedl$ demonstrated before

committed sce'tics - to foretell future e(ents. 5o other human institution comes close. Is this worshi''ing at the altar of science7 Is this re'lacing one faith b$ another, e8uall$ arbitrar$7 In m$ (iew, not at all. The directl$ obser(ed success of science is the reason I ad(ocate its use. If something else worked better, I would ad(ocate the something else. Does science insulate itself from 'hiloso'hical criticism7 Does it define itself as ha(ing a mono'ol$ on the -truth+7 Think again of that ecli'se a thousand $ears in the future. Com'are as man$ doctrines as $ou can think of, note what 'redictions the$ make of the future, which ones are (ague, which ones are 'recise, and which doctrines - e(er$ one of them sub1ect to human fallibilit$ - ha(e error-correcting mechanisms built in. Take account of the fact that not one of them is 'erfect. Then sim'l$ 'ick the one that in a fair com'arison works best 9as o''osed to feels: best. If different doctrines are su'erior in 8uite se'arate and inde'endent fields, we are of course free to choose se(eral - but not if the$ contradict one another. <ar from being idolatr$, this is the means b$ which we can distinguish the false idols from the real thing. "gain, the reason science works so well is 'artl$ that built-in errorcorrecting machiner$. There are no forbidden 8uestions in science, no matters too sensiti(e or delicate to be 'robed, no sacred truths. That o'enness to new ideas, combined with the most rigorous, sce'tical scrutin$ of all ideas, sifts the wheat from the chaff. It makes no difference how smart, august or belo(ed $ou are. 6ou must 'ro(e $our case in the face of determined, e)'ert criticism. Di(ersit$ and debate are (alued. 2'inions are encouraged to contend - substanti(el$ and in de'th. The 'rocess of science ma$ sound mess$ and disorderl$. In a wa$, it is. If $ou e)amine science in its e(er$da$ as'ect, of course $ou find that scientists run the gamut of human emotion, 'ersonalit$ and character. 3ut there+s one facet that is reall$ striking to the outsider, and that is the gauntlet of criticism considered acce'table or e(en desirable. There is much warm and ins'ired encouragement of a''rentice scientists b$ their mentors. 3ut the 'oor graduate student at his or her =hD oral e)am is sub1ected to a withering crossfire of 8uestions from the (er$ 'rofessors who ha(e the candidate+s future in their gras'. 5aturall$ the students are ner(ous, who wouldn+t be7 True, the$+(e 're'ared for it for $ears. 3ut the$ understand that at this critical moment, the$ ha(e to be able to answer searching 8uestions 'osed b$ e)'erts. So in 're'aring to defend their theses, the$ must 'ractise a (er$ useful habit of thought! the$ must antici1ate 8uestions. The$ ha(e to ask! where in m$ dissertation is there a weakness that someone else might find7 I+d better identif$ it before the$ do. 6ou sit in at contentious scientific meetings. 6ou find uni(ersit$ collo8uia in which the s'eaker has hardl$ gotten thirt$ seconds into the talk before there are de(astating 8uestions and comments from the

audience. 6ou e)amine the con(entions in which a written re'ort is submitted to a scientific 1ournal for 'ossible 'ublication, then is con(e$ed b$ the editor to anon$mous referees whose 1ob it is to ask! did the author do an$thing stu'id7 Is there an$thing in here that is sufficientl$ interesting to be 'ublished7 What are the deficiencies of this 'a'er7 Ha(e the main results been found b$ an$bod$ else7 Is the argument ade8uate, or should the 'a'er be resubmitted after the author has actuall$ demonstrated what is here onl$ s'eculated on7 "nd it+s anonymous* the author doesn+t know who the critics are. This is the e(er$da$ e)'ectation in the scientific communit$. Wh$ do we 'ut u' with it7 Do we like to be critici.ed7 5o, no scientist en1o$s it. >(er$ scientist feels a 'ro'rietar$ affection for his or her ideas and findings. >(en so, $ou don+t re'l$ to critics, wait a minute, this is a reall$ good idea, I+m (er$ fond of it, it+s done $ou no harm, 'lease lea(e it alone. Instead, the hard but 1ust rule is that if the ideas don+t work, $ou must throw them awa$. Don+t waste neurons on what doesn+t work. De(ote those neurons to new ideas that better e)'lain the data. The 3ritish 'h$sicist #ichael <arada$ warned of the 'owerful tem'tation to seek for such e(idence and a''earances as are in the fa(our of our desires, and to disregard those which o''ose them... We recei(e as friendl$ that which agrees with JusF, we resist with dislike that which o''oses us, whereas the (er$ re(erse is re8uired b$ e(er$ dictate of common sense. Dalid criticism does $ou a fa(our. Some 'eo'le consider science arrogant - es'eciall$ when it 'ur'orts to contradict beliefs of long standing or when it introduces bi.arre conce'ts that seem contradictor$ to common sense, like an earth8uake that rattles our faith in the (er$ ground we+re standing on, challenging our accustomed beliefs, shaking the doctrines we ha(e grown to rel$ u'on, can be 'rofoundl$ disturbing. 5e(ertheless, I maintain that science is 'art and 'arcel humilit$. Scientists do not seek to im'ose their needs and wants on 5ature, but instead humbl$ interrogate 5ature and take seriousl$ what the$ find. We are aware that re(ered scientists ha(e been wrong. We understand human im'erfection. We insist on inde'endent and - to the e)tent 'ossible 8uantitati(e (erification of 'ro'osed tenets of belief. We are constantl$ 'rodding, challenging, seeking contradictions or small, 'ersistent residual errors, 'ro'osing alternati(e e)'lanations, encouraging heres$. We gi(e our highest rewards to those who con(incingl$ dis'ro(e established beliefs. Here+s one of man$ e)am'les! the laws of motion and the in(erse s8uare law of gra(itation associated with the name of Isaac 5ewton are 'ro'erl$ considered among the crowning achie(ements

of the human s'ecies. Three hundred $ears later we use 5ewtonian d$namics to 'redict those ecli'ses. 6ears after launch, billions of miles from >arth 9with onl$ tin$ corrections from >instein:, the s'acecraft beautifull$ arri(es at a 'redetermined 'oint in the orbit of the target world, 1ust as the world comes ambling b$. The accurac$ is astonishing. =lainl$, 5ewton knew what he was doing. 3ut scientists ha(e not been content to lea(e well enough alone. The$ ha(e 'ersistentl$ sought chinks in the 5ewtonian armour. "t high s'eeds and strong gra(ities, 5ewtonian 'h$sics breaks down. This is one of the great findings of "lbert >instein+s S'ecial and ?eneral Aelati(it$, and is one of the reasons his memor$ is so greatl$ honoured. 5ewtonian 'h$sics is (alid o(er a wide range of conditions including those of e(er$da$ life. 3ut in certain circumstances highl$ unusual for human beings - we are not, after all, in the habit of tra(elling near light s'eed - it sim'l$ doesn+t gi(e the right answer, it does not conform to obser(ations of 5ature. S'ecial and ?eneral Aelati(it$ are indistinguishable from 5ewtonian 'h$sics in its realm of (alidit$, but make (er$ different 'redictions - 'redictions in e)cellent accord with obser(ation - in those other regimes 9high s'eed, strong gra(it$:. 5ewtonian 'h$sics turns out to be an a''ro)imation to the truth, good in circumstances with which we are routinel$ familiar, bad in others. It is a s'lendid and 1ustl$ celebrated accom'lishment of the human mind, but it has its limitations. Howe(er, in accord with our understanding of human fallibilit$, heeding the counsel that we ma$ as$m'toticall$ a''roach the truth but will ne(er full$ reach it, scientists are toda$ in(estigating regimes in which ?eneral Aelati(it$ ma$ break down. <or e)am'le, ?eneral Aelati(it$ 'redicts a startling 'henomenon called gra(itational wa(es. The$ ha(e ne(er been detected directl$. 3ut if the$ do not e)ist, there is something fundamentall$ wrong with ?eneral Aelati(it$. =ulsars are ra'idl$ rotating neutron stars whose flicker rates can now be measured to fifteen decimal 'laces. Two (er$ dense 'ulsars in orbit around each other are 'redicted to radiate co'ious 8uantities of gra(itational wa(es, which will in time slightl$ alter the orbits and rotation 'eriods of the two stars. *ose'h Ta$lor and Aussell Hulse of =rinceton /ni(ersit$ ha(e used this method to test the 'redictions of ?eneral Aelati(it$ in a wholl$ no(el wa$. <or all the$ knew, the results would be inconsistent with ?eneral Aelati(it$ and the$ would ha(e o(erturned one of the chief 'illars of modern 'h$sics. 5ot onl$ were the$ willing to challenge ?eneral Aelati(it$, the$ were widel$ encouraged to do so. "s it turns out, the obser(ations of binar$ 'ulsars gi(e a 'recise (erification of the 'redictions of ?eneral Aelati(it$, and for this Ta$lor and Hulse were coreci'ients of the % & 5obel =ri.e in =h$sics. In di(erse wa$s, man$ other 'h$sicists are testing ?eneral Aelati(it$, for e)am'le b$ attem'ting directl$ to detect the elusi(e gra(itational wa(es. The$

ho'e to strain the theor$ to the breaking 'oint and disco(er whether a regime of 5ature e)ists in which >instein+s great ad(ance in understanding in turn begins to fra$. These efforts will continue as long as there are scientists. ?eneral Aelati(it$ is certainl$ an inade8uate descri'tion of 5ature at the 8uantum le(el, but e(en if that were not the case, e(en if ?eneral Aelati(it$ were e(er$where and fore(er (alid, what better wa$ of con(incing oursel(es of its (alidit$ than a concerted effort to disco(er its failings and limitations7 This is one of the reasons that the organi.ed religions do not ins'ire me with confidence. Which leaders of the ma1or faiths acknowledge that their beliefs might be incom'lete or erroneous and establish institutes to unco(er 'ossible doctrinal deficiencies7 3e$ond the test of e(er$da$ li(ing, who is s$stematicall$ testing the circumstances in which traditional religious teachings ma$ no longer a''l$7 9It is certainl$ concei(able that doctrines and ethics that ma$ ha(e worked fairl$ well in 'atriarchal or 'atristic or medie(al times might be thoroughl$ in(alid in the (er$ different world we inhabit toda$.: What sermons e(en-handedl$ e)amine the ?od h$'othesis7 What rewards are religious sce'tics gi(en b$ the established religions - or, for that matter, social and economic sce'tics b$ the societ$ in which the$ swim7 Science, "nn Dru$an notes, is fore(er whis'ering in our ears, -Aemember, $ou+re (er$ new at this. 6ou might be mistaken. 6ou+(e been wrong before.+ Des'ite all the talk of humilit$, show me something com'arable in religion. Scri'ture is said to be di(inel$ ins'ired - a 'hrase with man$ meanings. 3ut what if it+s sim'l$ made u' b$ fallible humans7 #iracles are attested, but what if the$+re instead some mi) of charlatanr$, unfamiliar states of consciousness, misa''rehensions of natural 'henomena and mental illness7 5o contem'orar$ religion and no 5ew "ge belief seems to me to take sufficient account of the grandeur, magnificence, subtlet$ and intricac$ of the /ni(erse re(ealed b$ science. The fact that so little of the findings of modern science is 'refigured in Scri'ture to m$ mind casts further doubt on its di(ine ins'iration. 3ut of course I might be wrong. Aead the following two 'aragra'hs - not to understand the science described, but to get a feeling for the author+s st$le of thinking. He is facing anomalies, a''arent 'arado)es in 'h$sics, -as$mmetries+ he calls them. What can we learn from them7 It is known that #a)well+s electrod$namics - as usuall$ understood at the 'resent time - when a''lied to mo(ing bodies, leads to as$mmetries which do not a''ear to be inherent in the 'henomena. Take, for e)am'le, the reci'rocal electrod$namic action of a magnet and a conductor. The obser(able 'henomenon here de'ends onl$ on

the relati(e motion of the conductor and the magnet, whereas the customar$ (iew draws a shar' distinction between the two cases in which either the one or the other of these bodies is in motion. <or if the magnet is in motion and the conductor at rest, there arises in the neighbourhood of the magnet an electric field with a certain definite energ$, 'roducing a current at the 'laces where 'arts of the conductor are situated. 3ut if the magnet is stationar$ and the conductor in motion, no electric field arises in the neighbourhood of the magnet. In the conductor, howe(er, we find an electromoti(e force, to which in itself there is no corres'onding energ$, but which gi(es rise - assuming e8ualit$ of relati(e motion in the two cases discussed - to electric currents of the same 'ath and intensit$ as those 'roduced b$ the electric forces in the former case. >)am'les of this sort, together with the unsuccessful attem'ts to disco(er an$ motion of the earth relati(e to the -ether+, suggest that the 'henomena of electrod$namics as well as of mechanics 'ossess no 'ro'erties corres'onding to the idea of absolute rest. The$ suggest rather that, as has alread$ been shown to the first order of small 8uantities, the same laws of electrod$namics and o'tics will be (alid for all frames of reference for which the e8uations of mechanics hold good. What is the author tr$ing to tell us here7 I+ll tr$ to e)'lain the background later in this book. <or now, we can 'erha's recogni.e that the language is s'are, technical, cautious, clear, and not a 1ot more com'licated than it need be. 6ou would not offhand guess from how it+s 'hrased 9or from its unostentatious title, -2n the >lectrod$namics of #o(ing 3odies+: that this article re'resents the crucial arri(al of the theor$ of S'ecial Aelati(it$ into the world, the gatewa$ to the trium'hant announcement of the e8ui(alence of mass and energ$, the deflation of the conceit that our small world occu'ies some -'ri(ileged reference frame+ in the /ni(erse, and in se(eral different wa$s an e'ochal e(ent in human histor$. The o'ening words of "lbert >instein+s % ;5 'a'er are characteristic of the scientific re'ort. It is refreshingl$ unselfser(-ing, circums'ect, understated. Contrast its restrained tone with, sa$, the 'roducts of modern ad(ertising, 'olitical s'eeches, authoritati(e theological 'ronouncements - or for that matter the blurb on the co(er of this book. 5otice how >instein+s 'a'er begins b$ tr$ing to make sense of e)'erimental results. Where(er 'ossible, scientists e)'eriment. Which e)'eriments suggest themsel(es often de'ends on which theories currentl$ 're(ail. Scientists are intent on testing those theories to the breaking 'oint. The$ do not trust what is intuiti(el$ ob(ious. That the >arth is flat was once ob(ious. That hea($ bodies fall faster than light ones was once ob(ious. That bloodsucking leeches cure most diseases was once ob(ious. That some 'eo'le are naturall$ and b$ di(ine

decree sla(es was once ob(ious. That there is such a 'lace as the centre of the /ni(erse, and that the >arth sits in that e)alted s'ot was once ob(ious. That there is an absolute standard of rest was once ob(ious. The truth ma$ be 'u..ling or counterintuiti(e. It ma$ contradict dee'l$ held beliefs. >)'eriment is how we get a handle on it. "t a dinner man$ decades ago, the 'h$sicist Aobert W. Wood was asked to res'ond to the toast, -To 'h$sics and meta'h$sics+. 3$ -meta'h$sics+, 'eo'le then meant something like 'hiloso'h$, or truths $ou could recogni.e 1ust b$ thinking about them. The$ could also ha(e included 'seudoscience. Wood answered along these lines! the 'h$sicist has an idea. The more he thinks it through, the more sense it seems to make. He consults the scientific literature. The more he reads, the more 'romising the idea becomes. Thus 're'ared, he goes to the laborator$ and de(ises an e)'eriment to test it. The e)'eriment is 'ainstaking. #an$ 'ossibilities are checked. The accurac$ of measurement is refined, the error bars reduced. He lets the chi's fall where the$ ma$. He is de(oted onl$ to what the e)'eriment teaches. "t the end of all this work, through careful e)'erimentation, the idea is found to be worthless. So the 'h$sicist discards it, frees his mind from the clutter of error, and mo(es on to something else.K
JK "s the 'ioneering 'h$sicist 3en1amin <ranklin 'ut it, -In going on with these e)'eriments, how man$ 'rett$ s$stems do we build, which we soon find oursel(es obliged to destro$7+ "t the (er$ least, he thought, the e)'erience sufficed to -hel' to make a (ain #an humble+.F

The difference between 'h$sics and meta'h$sics, Wood concluded as he raised his glass high, is not that the 'ractitioners of one are smarter than the 'ractitioners of the other. The difference is that the meta'h$sicist has no laborator$. <or me, there are four main reasons for a concerted effort to con(e$ science - on radio and TD, in mo(ies, news'a'ers, books, com'uter 'rograms, theme 'arks and classrooms - to e(er$ citi.en. In all uses of science, it is insufficient - indeed it is dangerous - to 'roduce onl$ a small, highl$ com'etent, well-rewarded 'riesthood of 'rofessionals. Instead, some fundamental understanding of the findings and methods of science must be a(ailable on the broadest scale. Q Des'ite 'lentiful o''ortunities for misuse, science can be the golden road out of 'o(ert$ and backwardness for emerging nations. It makes national economies and the global ci(ili.ation run. #an$ nations understand this. It is wh$ so man$ graduate students in science and engineering at "merican graduate schools - still the best in the world are from other countries. The corollar$, one that the /nited States sometimes fails to gras', is that abandoning science is the road back

into 'o(ert$ and backwardness. Q Science alerts us to the 'erils introduced b$ our world-altering technologies, es'eciall$ to the global en(ironment on which our li(es de'end. Science 'ro(ides an essential earl$ warning s$stem. Q Science teaches us about the dee'est issues of origins, natures and fates-of our s'ecies, of life, of our 'lanet, of the /ni(erse. <or the first time in human histor$ we are able to secure a real understanding of some of these matters. >(er$ culture on >arth has addressed such issues and (alued their im'ortance. "ll of us feel goosebum's when we a''roach these grand 8uestions. In the long run, the greatest gift of science ma$ be in teaching us, in wa$s no other human endea(our has been able, something about our cosmic conte)t, about where, when and who we are. Q The (alues of science and the (alues of democrac$ are concordant, in man$ cases indistinguishable. Science and democrac$ began - in their ci(ili.ed incarnations - in the same time and 'lace, ?reece in the se(enth and si)th centuries 3C. Science confers 'ower on an$one who takes the trouble to learn it 9although too man$ ha(e been s$stematicall$ 're(ented from doing so:. Science thri(es on, indeed re8uires, the free e)change of ideas, its (alues are antithetical to secrec$. Science holds to no s'ecial (antage 'oints or 'ri(ileged 'ositions. 3oth science and democrac$ encourage uncon(entional o'inions and (igorous debate. 3oth demand ade8uate reason, coherent argument, rigorous standards of e(idence and honest$. Science is a wa$ to call the bluff of those who onl$ 'retend to knowledge. It is a bulwark against m$sticism, against su'erstition, against religion misa''lied to where it has no business being. If we+re true to its (alues, it can tell us when we+re being lied to. It 'ro(ides a mid-course correction to our mistakes. The more wides'read its language, rules and methods, the better chance we ha(e of 'reser(ing what Thomas *efferson and his colleagues had in mind. 3ut democrac$ can also be sub(erted more thoroughl$ through the 'roducts of science than an$ 're-industrial demagogue e(er dreamed. <inding the occasional straw of truth awash in a great ocean of confusion and bamboo.le re8uires (igilance, dedication and courage. 3ut if we don+t 'ractise these tough habits of thought, we cannot ho'e to sol(e the trul$ serious 'roblems that face us and we risk becoming a nation of suckers, a world of suckers, u' for grabs b$ the ne)t charlatan who saunters along. "n e)traterrestrial being, newl$ arri(ed on earth - scrutini.ing what we mainl$ 'resent to our children on tele(ision and radio and in mo(ies, news'a'ers, maga.ines, comics and man$ books -might easil$ conclude that we are intent on teaching them murder, ra'e, cruelt$, su'erstition, credulit$ and consumerism. We kee' at it, and through constant re'etition man$ of them finall$ get it. What kind of societ$ could we create if, instead, we drummed into them science and a

sense of ho'e7

The #an in the #oon and the <ace on #ars

The moon lea's In the ?reat Ai(er+s currentL <loating on the wind, What do I resemble7 Du <u, Tra(elling at 5ight+ 9China, Tang D$nast$, CI5:

Each field of science has its own com'lement of 'seudo-science.

?eo'h$sicists ha(e flat >arths, hollow >arths, >arths with wildl$ bobbing a)es to contend with, ra'idl$ rising and sinking continents, 'lus earth8uake 'ro'hets. 3otanists ha(e 'lants whose 'assionate emotional li(es can be monitored with He detectors, anthro'ologists ha(e sur(i(ing a'e-men, .oologists ha(e e)tant dinosaurs, and e(olutionar$ biologists ha(e 3iblical literalists sna''ing at their flanks. "rchaeologists ha(e ancient astronauts, forged runes and s'urious statuar$. =h$sicists ha(e 'er'etual motion machines, an arm$ of amateur relati(it$ dis'ro(ers, and 'erha's cold fusion. Chemists still ha(e alchem$. =s$chologists ha(e much of 's$choanal$sis and almost all of 'ara's$cholog$. >conomists ha(e long-range economic forecasting. #eteorologists, so far, ha(e long-range weather forecasting, as in the suns'ot-oriented Farmer)s 0lmanac 9although long-term climate forecasting is another matter:. "stronom$ has, as its most 'rominent 'seudoscience, astrolog$ 3ut because I work mainl$ with 'lanets, and because I+(e been interested in the 'ossibilit$ of e)traterrestrial life, the 'seudo-sciences that most often 'ark themsel(es on m$ doorste' in(ol(e other worlds and what we ha(e come so easil$ in our time to - the disci'line out of which it emerged. The 'seudosciences sometimes intersect, com'ounding the confusion as in tele'athic searches for buried treasures from "tlantis, or astrological economic forecasting. 3ut because I work mainl$ with 'lanets, and because I+(e been interested in the 'ossibilit$ of e)traterrestrial life, the 'seudo-sciences that most often 'ark themsel(es on m$ doorste' in(ol(e other worlds and what we ha(e come so easil$ in our time to call -aliens+. In the cha'ters immediatel$ following, I want to la$ out two recent,

somewhat related 'seudoscientific doctrines. The$ share the 'ossibilit$ that human 'erce'tual and cogniti(e im'erfections 'la$ a role in decei(ing us on matters of great im'ort. The first contends that a giant stone face from ages 'ast is staring e)'ressionlessl$ u' at the sk$ from the sands of #ars. The second maintains that alien beings from distant worlds (isit the >arth with casual im'unit$. >(en when summari.ed so baldl$, isn+t there a kind of thrill in contem'lating these claims7 What if such hoar$ science fiction ideas resonant surel$ with dee' human fears and longings -actuall$ were coming to 'ass7 Whose interest can fail to be aroused7 Immersed in such material, e(en the crassest c$nic is stirred. "re we absolutel$ sure, be$ond the shadow of a doubt, that we can dismiss these claims7 "nd if hardened debunkers can sense the a''eal, what must those untutored in scientific sce'ticism, like #r -3uckle$+, feel7 <or most of histor$ - before s'acecraft, before telesco'es, when we were still largel$ immersed in magical thinking - the #oon was an enigma. "lmost no one thought of it as a world. What do we actuall$ see when we look u' at the #oon with the naked e$e7 We make out a configuration of irregular bright and dark markings - not a close re'resentation of an$ familiar ob1ect. 3ut, almost irresistibl$, our e$es connect the markings, em'hasi.ing some, ignoring others. We seek a 'attern and we find one. In world m$th and folklore, man$ images are seen! a woman wea(ing, stands of laurel trees, an ele'hant 1um'ing off a cliff, a girl with a basket on her back, a rabbit, the lunar intestines s'illed out on its surface after e(isceration b$ an irritable flightless bird, a woman 'ounding ta'a cloth, a four-e$ed 1aguar. =eo'le of one culture ha(e trouble understanding how such bi.arre things could be seen b$ the 'eo'le of another. The most common image is the #an in the #oon. 2f course, it doesn+t reall$ look like a man. Its features are lo'sided, war'ed, droo'ing. There+s a beefsteak or something o(er the left e$e. "nd what e)'ression does that mouth con(e$7 "n -2+ of sur'rise7 " hint of sadness, e(en lamentation7 Doleful recognition of the tra(ails of life on >arth7 Certainl$ the face is too round. The ears are missing. % guess he+s bald on to'. 5e(ertheless, e(er$ time I look at it, I see a human face. World folklore de'icts the #oon as something 'rosaic. In the 're"'ollo generation, children were told that the #oon was made of green 9that is, smell$: cheese, and for some reason this was thought not mar(ellous but hilarious. In children+s books and editorial cartoons, the #an in the #oon is often drawn sim'l$ as a face set in a circle, not too different from the bland -ha''$ face+ of a 'air of dots and an u'turned arc. 3enignl$, he looks down on the nocturnal frolics of animals and children, of the knife and the s'oon. Consider again the two categories of terrain we recogni.e when we

e)amine the #oon with the naked e$e! the brighter forehead, cheeks and chin, and the darker e$es and mouth. Through a telesco'e, the bright features are re(ealed to be ancient cratered highlands, dating back, we now know 9from the radioacti(e dating of sam'les returned b$ the 01ollo astronauts:, to almost E.5 billion $ears ago. The dark features are somewhat $ounger flows of basaltic la(a called maria 9singular, mare - both from the 4atin word for ocean, although the #oon, we now know, is dr$ as a bone:. The maria welled u' in the first few hundred million $ears of lunar histor$, 'artl$ induced b$ the highs'eed im'act of enormous asteroids and comets. The right e$e is #are Imbrium, the beefsteak droo'ing o(er the left e$e is the combination of #are Serenitatis and #are Tran8uilitatis 9where 01ollo 11 landed:, and the off-centre o'en mouth is #are Humorum. 95o craters can be made out b$ ordinar$, unaided human (ision.: The #an in the #oon is in fact a record of ancient catastro'hes, most of which took 'lace before humans, before mammals, before (ertebrates, before multicelled organisms, and 'robabl$ e(en before life arose on >arth. It is a characteristic conceit of our s'ecies to 'ut a human face on random cosmic (iolence. Humans, like other 'rimates, are a gregarious lot. We en1o$ one another+s com'an$. We+re mammals and 'arental care of the $oung is essential for the continuance of the hereditar$ lines. The 'arent smiles at the child, the child smiles back, and a bond is forged or strengthened. "s soon as the infant can see, it recogni.es faces, and we now know that this skill is hardwired in our brains. Those infants who a million $ears ago were unable to recogni.e a face smiled back less, were less likel$ to win the hearts of their 'arents and less likel$ to 'ros'er. These da$s, nearl$ e(er$ infant is 8uick to identif$ a human face and to res'ond with a goon$ grin. "s an inad(ertent side effect, the 'attern-recognition machiner$ in our brains is so efficient in e)tracting a face from a clutter of other detail that we sometimes see faces where there are none. We assemble disconnected 'atches of light and dark and unconsciousl$ try to see a face. The #an in the #oon is one result. #ichelangelo "ntonioni+s film /lowu1 describes another. There are man$ other e)am'les. Sometimes it+s a geological formation, such as the 2ld #an of the #ountain at <ranconia 5otch, 5ew Ham'shire. We recogni.e that, rather than some su'ernatural agenc$ or an otherwise undisco(ered ancient ci(ili.ation in 5ew Ham'shire, this is the 'roduct of erosion and colla'se of a rock face. "n$wa$, it doesn+t look much like a face an$more. There+s the De(il+s Head in 5orth Carolina, the S'hin) Aock in Wast Water, Cumbria, >ngland, the 2ld Woman in <rance, the Dartan Aock in "rmenia. Sometimes it+s a reclining woman, as #t I)taccihuatl in #e)ico. Sometimes it+s other bod$ 'arts, as the ?rand Tetons in

W$oming -a''roached from the West, a 'air of mountain 'eaks named b$ <rench e)'lorers. 9"ctuall$ there are three.: Sometimes it+s changing 'atterns in the clouds. In late medie(al and renaissance S'ain, (isions of the Dirgin #ar$ were -confirmed+ b$ 'eo'le seeing saints in cloud forms. 9While sailing out of Su(a, <i1i, I once saw the head of a trul$ terrif$ing monster, 1aws aga'e, set in a brooding storm cloud.: 2ccasionall$, a (egetable or a 'attern of wood grain or the hide of a cow resembles a human face. There was a celebrated egg'lant that closel$ resembled Aichard #. 5i)on. What shall we deduce from this fact7 Di(ine or e)traterrestrial inter(ention7 Ae'ublican meddling in egg'lant genetics7 5o. We recogni.e that there are large numbers of egg'lants in the world and that, gi(en enough of them, sooner or later we+ll come u'on one that looks like a human face, e(en a (er$ 'articular human face. When the face is of a religious 'ersonage - as, for e)am'le, a tortilla 'ur'orted to e)hibit the face of *esus - belie(ers tend 8uickl$ to deduce the hand of ?od. In an age more sce'tical than most, the$ cra(e reassurance. Still, it seems unlikel$ that a miracle is being worked on so e(anescent a medium. Considering how man$ tortillas ha(e been 'ounded out since the beginning of the world, it would be sur'rising if a few didn+t ha(e at least (aguel$ familiar features.K
JK These cases are (er$ different from that of the so-called Shroud of Turin, which shows something too close to a human form to be a misa''rehended natural 'attern and which is now suggested b$ carbon-%E dating to be not the death shroud of *esus, but a 'ious hoa) from the fourteenth centur$ - a time when the manufacture of fraudulent religious relics was a thri(ing and 'rofitable home handicraft industr$.F

#agical 'ro'erties ha(e been ascribed to ginseng and mandrake roots, in 'art because of (ague resemblances to the human form. Some chestnut shoots show smiling faces. Some corals look like hands. The ear fungus 9also un'leasantl$ called -*ew+s ear+: indeed looks like an ear, and something rather like enormous e$es can be seen on the wings of certain moths. Some of this ma$ not be mere coincidence, 'lants and animals that suggest a face ma$ be less likel$ to be gobbled u' b$ creatures with faces - or creatures who are afraid of 'redators with faces. " -walking stick+ is an insect s'ectacularl$ well disguised as a twig. 5aturall$, it tends to li(e on and around trees. Its mimicr$ of the 'lant world sa(es it from birds and other 'redators, and is almost certainl$ the reason that its e)traordinar$ form was slowl$ moulded b$ Darwinian natural selection. Such crossings of the boundaries between kingdoms of life are unner(ing. " $oung child (iewing a walking stick can easil$ imagine an arm$ of sticks, branches and trees marching for some ominous 'lant$ 'ur'ose.

#an$ instances of this sort are described and illustrated in a % C book called .atural Likeness b$ *ohn #ichell, a 3ritish enthusiast of the occult. He takes seriousl$ the claims of Aichard Sha(er, who - as described below - 'la$ed a role in the origin of the /<2 e)citement in "merica. Sha(er cut o'en rocks on his Wisconsin farm and disco(ered, written in a 'ictogra'hic language that onl$ he could see, much less understand, a com'rehensi(e histor$ of the world. #ichell also acce'ts at face (alue the claims of the dramatist and surrealist theoretician "ntonin "rtaud, who, in 'art under the influence of 'e$ote, saw in the 'atterns on the outsides of rocks erotic images, a man being tortured, ferocious animals and the like. -The whole landsca'e re(ealed itself,+ #ichell sa$s, -as the creation of a single thought.+ 3ut a ke$ 8uestion! was that thought inside or outside "rtaud+s head7 "rtaud concluded, and #ichell agrees, that the 'atterns so a''arent in the rocks were manufactured b$ an ancient ci(ili.ation, rather than b$ "rtaud+s 'artl$ hallucinogen-induced altered state of consciousness. When "rtaud returned from #e)ico to >uro'e, he was diagnosed as mad. #ichell decries the -materialist outlook+ that greeted "rtaud+s 'atterns sce'ticall$. #ichell shows us a 'hotogra'h of the Sun taken in R-ra$ light which looks (aguel$ like a face and informs us that -followers of ?urd1ieff see the face of their #aster+ in the solar corona. Innumerable faces in trees, mountains and boulders all o(er the world are inferred to be the 'roduct of ancient wisdom. =erha's some are! it+s a good 'ractical 1oke, as well as a tem'ting religious s$mbol, to 'ile stones so from afar the$ look like a giant face. The (iew that most of these forms are 'atterns natural to rockforming 'rocesses and the bilateral s$mmetr$ of 'lants and animals, 'lus a little natural selection - all 'rocessed through the human-biased filter of our 'erce'tion - #ichell describes as -materialism+ and a -nineteenth-centur$ delusion+. -Conditioned b$ rationalist beliefs, our (iew of the world is duller and more confined than nature intended.+ 3$ what 'rocess he has 'lumbed the intentions of 5ature is not re(ealed. 2f the images he 'resents, #ichell concludes that their m$ster$ remains essentiall$ untouched, a constant source of wonder, delight and s'eculation. "ll we know for sure is that nature created them and at the same time ga(e us the a''aratus to 'ercei(e them and minds to a''reciate their endless fascination. <or the greatest 'rofit and en1o$ment the$ should be (iewed as nature intended, with the e$e of innocence, unclouded b$ theories and 'reconce'tions, with the manifold (ision, innate in all of us, that enriches and dignifies human life, rather than with the culti(ated single (ision of the dull and o'inionated. =erha's the most famous s'urious claim of a 'ortentous 'attern

in(ol(es the canals of #ars. <irst obser(ed in %BCC, the$ were seemingl$ confirmed b$ a succession of dedicated 'rofessional astronomers 'eering through large telesco'es all o(er the world. " network of single and double straight lines was re'orted, crisscrossing the #artian surface and with such uncann$ geometrical regularit$ that the$ could onl$ be of intelligent origin. >(ocati(e conclusions were drawn about a 'arched and d$ing 'lanet 'o'ulated b$ an older and wiser technical ci(ili.ation dedicated to conser(ation of water resources. Hundreds of canals were ma''ed and named. 3ut, oddl$, the$ a(oided showing u' on 'hotogra'hs. The human e$e, it was suggested, could remember the brief instants of 'erfect atmos'heric trans'arenc$, while the undiscriminating 'hotogra'hic 'late a(eraged the few clear with the man$ blurr$ moments. Some astronomers saw the canals. #an$ did not. =erha's certain obser(ers were more skilled at seeing canals. 2r 'erha's the whole business was some kind of 'erce'tual delusion. #uch of the idea of #ars as an abode of life, as well as the 're(alence of -#artians+ in 'o'ular fiction, deri(es from the canals. I m$self grew u' stee'ed in this literature, and when I found m$self an e)'erimenter on the $anner 3 mission to #ars -the first s'acecraft to orbit the red 'lanet - naturall$ I was interested to see what the real circumstances were. With $ariner 3 and with 4iking, we were able to ma' the 'lanet 'ole-to-'ole, detecting features hundreds of times smaller than the best that could be seen from >arth. I found, not altogether to m$ sur'rise, not a trace of canals. There were a few more or less linear features that had been made out through the telesco'e - for e)am'le, a 5,;;;-kilometre-long rift (alle$ that would ha(e been hard to miss. 3ut the hundreds of -classical+ canals carr$ing water from the 'olar ca's through the arid deserts to the 'arched e8uatorial cities sim'l$ did not e)ist. The$ were an illusion, some malfunction of the human hand-e$e-brain combination at the limit of resolution when we 'eer through an unstead$ and turbulent atmos'here. >(en a succession of 'rofessional scientists - including famous astronomers who had made other disco(eries that are confirmed and now 1ustl$ celebrated - can make serious, e(en 'rofound errors in 'attern recognition. >s'eciall$ where the im'lications of what we think we are seeing seem to be 'rofound, we ma$ not e)ercise ade8uate self-disci'line and self-criticism. The #artian canal m$th constitutes an im'ortant cautionar$ tale. <or the canals, s'acecraft missions 'ro(ided the means of correcting our misa''rehensions. 3ut it is also true that some of the most haunting claims of une)'ected 'atterns emerge from s'acecraft e)'loration. In the earl$ % I;s, I urged that we be attenti(e to the 'ossibilit$ of finding the artefacts of ancient ci(ili.ations, either those indigenous to a gi(en worlds or those constructed b$ (isitors from elsewhere. I didn+t imagine that this would be eas$ or 'robable, and I

certainl$ did not suggest that, on so im'ortant a matter, an$thing short of iron-clad e(idence would be worth considering. 3eginning with *ohn ?lenn+s e(ocati(e re'ort of -fireflies+ surrounding his s'ace ca'sule, e(er$ time an astronaut re'orted seeing something not immediatel$ understood, there were those who deduced -aliens+. =rosaic e)'lanations - s'ecks of 'aint flecking off the shi' in the s'ace en(ironment, sa$ - were dismissed with contem't. The lure of the mar(ellous blunts our critical faculties. 9"s if a man become a moon is not mar(el enough.: "round the time of the 01ollo lunar landings, man$ none)'erts owners of small telesco'es, fl$ing saucer .ealots, writers for aeros'ace maga.ines - 'ored o(er the returned 'hotogra'hs seeking anomalies that 5"S" scientists and astronauts had o(erlooked. Soon there were re'orts of gigantic 4atin letters and "rabic numerals inscribed on the lunar surface, '$ramids, highwa$s, crosses, glowing /<2s. 3ridges were re'orted on the #oon, radio antennas, the tracks of enormous crawling (ehicles, and the de(astation left b$ machines able to slice craters in two. >(er$ one of these claims, though, turns out to be a natural lunar geological formation mis1udged b$ amateur anal$sts, internal reflections in the o'tics of the astronauts+ Hasselblad cameras, and the like. Some enthusiasts discerned the long shadows of ballistic missiles - So(iet missiles, it was ominousl$ confided, aimed at "merica. The rockets, also described as -s'ires+, turn out to be low hills casting long shadows when the Sun is near the lunar hori.on. " little trigonometr$ dis'els the mirage. These e)'eriences also 'ro(ide fair warning! for a com'le) terrain scul'ted b$ unfamiliar 'rocesses, amateurs 9and sometimes e(en 'rofessionals: e)amining 'hotogra'hs, es'eciall$ near the limit of resolution, ma$ get into trouble. Their ho'es and fears, the e)citement of 'ossible disco(eries of great im'ort, ma$ o(erwhelm the usual sce'tical and cautious a''roach of science. If we e)amine a(ailable surface images of Denus, occasionall$ a 'eculiar landform swims into (iew - as, for e)am'le, a rough 'ortrait of *ose'h Stalin disco(ered b$ "merican geologists anal$sing So(iet orbital radar imager$. 5o one maintains, I gather, that unreconstructed Stalinists had doctored the magnetic ta'es, or that the former So(iets were engaged in engineering acti(ities of un'recedented and hitherto unre(ealed scale on the surface of Denus - where e(er$ s'acecraft to land has been fried in an hour or two. The odds are o(erwhelming that this feature, whate(er it is, is due to geolog$. The same is true of what seems to be a 'ortrait of the cartoon character 3ugs 3unn$ on the /ranian moon "riel. " Hubble s'ace telesco'e image of Titan in the near-infrared shows clouds roughl$ configured to make a world-si.ed smiling face. >(er$ 'lanetar$ scientist has a fa(ourite e)am'le. The astronom$ of the #ilk$ Wa$ also is re'lete with imagined likenesses - for e)am'le, the Horsehead, >skimo, 2wl, Homunculus,

Tarantula and 5orth "merican 5ebulae, all irregular clouds of gas and dust, illuminated b$ bright stars and each on a scale that dwarfs our solar s$stem. When astronomers ma''ed the distribution of gala)ies out to a few hundred million light $ears, the$ found themsel(es outlining a crude human form which has been called -the Stickman+. The configuration is understood as something like enormous ad1acent soa' bubbles, the gala)ies formed on the surface of ad1acent bubbles and almost no gala)ies in the interiors. This makes it 8uite likel$ that the$ will mark out a 'attern with bilateral s$mmetr$ something like the Stickman. #ars is much more clement than Denus, although the 4iking landers 'ro(ided no com'elling e(idence for life. Its terrain is e)tremel$ heterogeneous and di(erse. With %;;,;;; or so close-u' 'hotogra'hs a(ailable, it is not sur'rising that claims ha(e been made o(er the $ears about something unusual on #ars. There is, for e)am'le, a cheerful -ha''$ face+ sitting inside a #artian im'act crater B kilometres 95 miles: across, with a set of radial s'lash marks outside, making it look like the con(entional re'resentation of a smiling Sun. 3ut no one claims that this has been engineered b$ an ad(anced 9and e)cessi(el$ genial: #artian ci(ili.ation, 'erha's to attract our attention. We recogni.e that, with ob1ects of all si.es falling out of the sk$, with the surface rebounding, slum'ing and reconfiguring itself after each im'act, and with ancient water and mudflows and modern windborne sand scul'ting the surface, a wide (ariet$ of landforms must be generated. If we scrutini.e %;;,;;; 'ictures, it+s not sur'rising that occasionall$ we+ll come u'on something like a face. With our brains 'rogrammed for this from infanc$, it would be ama.ing if we couldn+t find one here and there. " few small mountains on #ars resemble '$ramids. In the >l$sium high 'lateau, there is a cluster of them - the biggest a few kilometres across at the base - all oriented in the same direction. There is something a little eerie about these '$ramids in the desert, so reminiscent of the ?i.eh 'lateau in >g$'t, and I would lo(e to e)amine them more closel$. Is it reasonable, though, to deduce #artian 'haraohs7 Similar features are also known on >arth in miniature, es'eciall$ in "ntarctica. Some of them would come u' to $our knees. If we knew nothing else about them, would it be fair to conclude that the$+(e been manufactured b$ scale-model >g$'tians li(ing in the "ntarctic wasteland7 9The h$'othesis loosel$ fits the obser(ations, but much else we know about the 'olar en(ironment and the 'h$siolog$ of humans s'eaks against it.: The$ are, in fact, generated b$ wind erosion - the s'latter of fine 'articles 'icked u' b$ strong winds blowing mainl$ in the same direction and, o(er the $ears, scul'ting what once were irregular hummocks into nicel$ s$mmetrical '$ramids. The$+re called dreikanters, from a ?erman word meaning three sides. This is order

generated out of chaos b$ natural 'rocesses - something we see o(er and o(er again throughout the /ni(erse 9in rotating s'iral gala)ies, for instance:. >ach time it ha''ens we+re tem'ted to infer the direct inter(ention of a #aker. 2n #ars, there is e(idence of winds much fiercer than an$ e(er e)'erienced on >arth, ranging u' to half the s'eed of sound. =lanetwide duststorms are common, carr$ing fine grains of sand. " stead$ 'itter-'atter of 'articles mo(ing much faster than in the fiercest gales of >arth should, o(er ages of geological time, work 'rofound changes in rock faces and landforms. It would not be too sur'rising if a few features - e(en (er$ large ones - were scul'ted b$ aeolian 'rocesses into the '$ramidal forms we see. There is a 'lace on #ars called C$donia, where a great stone face a kilometre across stares unblinkingl$ u' at the sk$. It is an unfriendl$ face, but one that seems recogni.abl$ human. In some re'resentations, it could ha(e been scul'ted b$ =ra)iteles. It lies in a landsca'e where man$ low hills ha(e been moulded into odd forms, 'erha's b$ some mi)ture of ancient mudflows and subse8uent wind erosion. <rom the number of im'act craters, the surrounding terrain looks to be at least hundreds of millions of $ears old. Intermittentl$, -The <ace+ has attracted attention, both in the /nited States and in the former So(iet /nion. The headline in the G; 5o(ember % BE 'eekly 'orld .ews, a su'ermarket tabloid not celebrated for its integrit$, read! S2DI>T SCI>5TIST+S "#"NI5? C4"I#! A/I5>D T>#=4>S <2/5D 25 #"AS. S="C> =A23> DISC2D>AS A>#"I5S 2< 5;,;;;-6>"A-24D CIDI4IN"TI25. The re(elations are attributed to an anon$mous So(iet source and breathlessl$ describe disco(eries made b$ a none)istent So(iet s'ace (ehicle. 3ut the stor$ of -The <ace+ is almost entirel$ an "merican one. It was found b$ one of the 4iking orbiters in % CI. There was an unfortunate dismissal of the feature b$ a 'ro1ect official as a trick of light and shadow, which 'rom'ted a later accusation that 5"S" was co(ering u' the disco(er$ of the millennium. " few engineers, com'uter s'ecialists and others - some of them contract em'lo$ees of 5"S" - worked on their own time digitall$ to enhance the image. =erha's the$ ho'ed for stunning re(elations. That+s 'ermissible in science, e(en encouraged - as long as $our standards of e(idence are high. Some of them were fairl$ cautious and deser(e to be commended for ad(ancing the sub1ect. 2thers were less restrained, deducing not onl$ that the <ace was a genuine, monumental scul'ture of a human being, but claiming to find a cit$ nearb$ with tem'les and

fortifications.K <rom s'urious arguments, one writer announced that the monuments had a 'articular astronomical orientation - not now, though, but half a million $ears ago - from which it followed that the C$donian wonders were erected in that remote e'och. 3ut then how could the builders ha(e been human7 Half a million $ears ago, our ancestors were bus$ mastering stone tools and fire. The$ did not ha(e s'aceshi's.
JK The general idea is 8uite old, going back at least a centur$ to the #artian canal m$th of =erci(al 4owell. "s one of man$ e)am'les, =.>. Cleator, in his % &I book ,ockets "hrough S1ace* "he Dawn of %nter1lanetary "ravel, s'eculated! -2n #ars, the crumbling remains of ancient ci(ili.ations ma$ be found, mutel$ testif$ing to the one-time glor$ of a d$ing world.+F

The #artian <ace is com'ared to -similar faces... constructed in ci(ili.ations on >arth. The faces are looking u' at the sk$ because the$+re looking u' to ?od.+ 2r the <ace was constructed b$ the sur(i(ors of an inter'lanetar$ war that left the surface of #ars 9and the #oon: 'ockmarked and ra(aged. What causes all those craters an$wa$7 Is the <ace a remnant of a long-e)tinct human ci(ili.ation7 Were the builders originall$ from >arth or #ars7 Could the <ace ha(e been scul'ted b$ interstellar (isitors sto''ing briefl$ on #ars7 Was it left for us to disco(er7 #ight the$ also ha(e come to >arth and initiated life here7 2r at least human life7 Were the$, whoe(er the$ were, gods7 #uch fer(ent s'eculation is e(oked. #ore recentl$, claims ha(e been made for a connection between -monuments+ on #ars and -cro' circles+ on >arth, of ine)haustible su''lies of energ$ waiting to be e)tracted from ancient #artian machines, and of a massi(e 5"S" co(er-u' to hide the truth from the "merican 'ublic. Such 'ronouncements go far be$ond more incautious s'eculation about enigmatic landforms. When, in "ugust % &, the $ars 5+server s'acecraft failed within hailing distance of #ars, there were those who accused 5"S" of faking the misha' so it could stud$ the <ace in detail without ha(ing to release the images to the 'ublic. 9If so, the charade is 8uite elaborate! all the e)'erts on #artian geomor'hol-og$ know nothing about it, and some of us ha(e been working hard to design new missions to #ars less (ulnerable to the malfunction that destro$ed $ars 5+server!6 There was e(en a handful of 'ickets outside the gates of the *et =ro'ulsion 4aborator$, worked u' o(er this su''osed abuse of 'ower. The tabloid 'eekly 'orld .ews for %E Se'tember % & de(oted its front 'age to the headline -5ew 5"S" =hoto =ro(es Humans 4i(ed on #ars0+ " fake face, allegedl$ taken b$ $ars 5+server in orbit about #ars 9in fact, the s'acecraft seems to ha(e failed before achie(ing orbit:, is said b$ a non-e)istent -leading s'ace scientist+ to 'ro(e that #artians coloni.ed >arth G;;,;;; $ears ago. The information is being

su''ressed, he is made to sa$, to 're(ent -world 'anic+. =ut aside the im'robabilit$ that such a re(elation would actuall$ lead to -world 'anic+. <or an$one who has witnessed a 'ortentous scientific finding in the making - the *ul$ % E im'act of Comet Shoemaker-4e($ with *u'iter comes to mind - it will be clear that scientists tend to be effer(escent and uncontainable. The$ ha(e an indomitable com'ulsion to share new data. 2nl$ through 'rior agreement, not ex 1ost facto, do scientists abide militar$ secrec$. I re1ect the notion that science is b$ its nature secreti(e. Its culture and ethos are, and for (er$ good reason, collecti(e, collaborati(e and communicati(e. If we restrict oursel(es to what is actuall$ known, and ignore the tabloid industr$ that manufactures e'ochal disco(eries out of thin air, where are we7 When we know onl$ a little about the <ace, it raises goosebum's. When we know a little more, the m$ster$ 8uickl$ shallows. #ars has a surface area of almost %5; million s8uare kilometres. Is it so astonishing that one 9com'arati(el$: 'ostage-stam'-si.ed 'atch in %5; million should look artificial - es'eciall$ gi(en our 'enchant, since infanc$, for finding faces7 When we e)amine the neighbouring 1umble of hillocks, mesas and other com'le) surface forms, we recogni.e that the feature is akin to man$ that do not at all resemble a human face. Wh$ this resemblance7 Would the ancient #artian engineers rework onl$ this mesa 9well, ma$be a few others: and lea(e all others unim'ro(ed b$ monumental scul'ture7 2r shall we conclude that other block$ mesas are also scul'ted into the form of faces, but weirder faces, unfamiliar to us on >arth7 If we stud$ the original image more carefull$, we find that a strategicall$ 'laced -nostril+ - one that adds much to the im'ression of a face - is in fact a black dot corres'onding to lost data in the radio transmission from #ars to >arth. The best 'icture of the <ace shows one side lit b$ the Sun, the other in dee' shadow. /sing the original digital data, we can se(erel$ enhance the contrast in the shadows. When we do, we find something rather unfacelike there. The <ace is at best half a face. Des'ite our shortness of breath and the beating of our hearts, the #artian s'hin) looks natural - not artificial, not a dead ringer for a human face. It was 'robabl$ scul'ted b$ slow geological 'rocess o(er millions of $ears. 3ut I might be wrong. It+s hard to be sure about a world we+(e seen so little of in e)treme close-u'. These features merit closer attention with higher resolution. #uch more detailed 'hotos of the <ace would surel$ settle issues of s$mmetr$ and hel' resol(e the debate between geolog$ and monumental scul'ture. Small im'act craters found on or near the <ace can settle the 8uestion of its age. In the case 9most unlikel$ in m$ (iew: that the nearb$ structures were reall$ once a cit$, that fact should also be ob(ious on closer e)amination. "re there

broken streets7 Crenellations in the -fort+7 Niggurats, towers, columned tem'les, monumental statuar$, immense frescoes7 2r 1ust rocks7 >(en if these claims are e)tremel$ im'robable - as I think the$ are the$ are worth e)amining. /nlike the /<2 'henomenon, we ha(e here the o''ortunit$ for a definiti(e e)'eriment. This kind of h$'othesis is falsifiable, a 'ro'ert$ that brings it well into the scientific arena. I ho'e that forthcoming "merican and Aussian missions to #ars, es'eciall$ orbiters with high-resolution tele(ision cameras, will make a s'ecial effort - among hundreds of other scientific 8uestions - to look much more closel$ at the '$ramids and what some 'eo'le call the <ace and the cit$. >(en if it becomes 'lain to e(er$one that these #artian features are geological and not artificial, monumental faces in s'ace 9and allied wonders: will not, I fear, go awa$. "lread$ there are su'ermarket tabloids re'orting nearl$ identical faces seen from Denus to 5e'tune 9floating in the clouds7:. The -findings+ are t$'icall$ attributed to fictitious Aussian s'acecraft and imaginar$ s'ace scientists, which of course makes it marginall$ harder for a sce'tic to check the stor$ out. 2ne of the #ars face enthusiasts now announces! 3reakthru 5ews of the Centur$ Censored b$ 5"S" for fear of Aeligious u'hea(als and breakdowns. The Disco(er$ of ancient "4I>5 A/I5S 25 TH> #225 " -giant cit$, si.e of 4os "ngeles basin, co(ered b$ immense glass dome, abandoned millions of $ears ago, and shattered b$ meteors with gigantic tower 5 miles tall, with giant one mile s8uare cube on to'+ is breathlessl$ -C25<IA#>D+ on the well-studied #oon. The e(idence7 =hotos taken b$ 5"S" robotic and 01ollo missions whose significance was su''ressed b$ the go(ernment and o(erlooked b$ all those lunar scientists in man$ countries who don+t work for the -go(ernment+. The %B "ugust % G issue of 'eekly 'orld .ews re'orts the disco(er$ b$ -a secret 5"S" satellite+ of -thousands ma$be e(en millions of (oices+ emanating from the black hole at the centre of he gala)$ #5%, all singing - S?lor$, glor$, glor$ to the 4ord on lighT o(er and o(er again+. In >nglish. There is e(en a tabloid e'ort, full$ although murkil$ illustrated, of a s'ace 'robe that :hotogra'hed ?od, or at least his e$es and the bridge of his nose, i' there in the 2rion 5ebula. The G; *ul$ % & ''. s'orts a banner headline, -Clinton tfeets with *<@0+ along with a faked 'hoto of a 'lausibl$ aged, ,lum'ed-o(er *ohn @enned$, ha(ing secretl$ sur(i(ed the assassi-lation attem't, in a wheelchair at Cam' Da(id. #an$ 'ages nside the tabloid, we are informed about another item of 'ossible nterest. In -Doomsda$

"steroids+, an alleged to'-secret docu-nent 8uotes alleged -to'+ scientists about an alleged asteroid -#-%IC+: that will allegedl$ hit the >arth on %% 5o(ember % & md -could mean the end of life on >arth+. =resident Clinton is described as being ke't -constantl$ informed of the asteroid+s 1osition and s'eed+. =erha's it was one of the items he discussed n his meeting with =resident @enned$. Somehow, the fact that !he >arth esca'ed this catastro'he did not merit e(en a retros'ec-!i(e 'aragra'h after %% 5o(ember % & une(entfull$ 'assed. "t east the headline writer+s 1udgement not to burden the front 'age i(ith the news of the end of the world was (indicated. Some see this as 1ust a kind of fun. Howe(er, we li(e in a time U(hen a real long-term statistical threat of an im'act of an asteroid i(ith the >arth has been identified. 9This real science is of course ihe ins'iration, if that+s the word, of the ''. stor$.: ?o(ernment agencies are stud$ing what to do about it. Stories like this suffuse the sub1ect with a'ocal$'tic e)aggeration and whims$, make it difficult for the 'ublic to distinguish real 'erils from tabloid fiction, and concei(abl$ can im'ede our abilit$ to take 'recautionar$ ste's to mitigate the danger. The tabloids are often sued - sometimes b$ actors and actresses who stoutl$ den$ the$ ha(e 'erformed loathsome acts - and large sums of mone$ occasionall$ change hands. The tabloids must consider such suits as 1ust one of the costs of doing a (er$ 'rofitable business. In their defence the$ often sa$ that the$ are at the merc$ of their writers and ha(e no institutional res'onsibilit$ to check out the truth of what the$ 'ublish. Sal I(one, the managing editor of 'eekly 'orld .ews, discussing the stories he 'ublishes, sa$s -<or all I know, the$ could be the 'roduct of acti(e imaginations. 3ut because we+re a tabloid, we don+t ha(e to 8uestion oursel(es out of a stor$.+ Sce'ticism doesn+t sell news'a'ers. Writers who ha(e defected from the tabloids describe -creati(e+ sessions in which writers and editors dream u' stories and headlines out of whole cloth, the more outrageous the better. 2ut of their immense readershi', are there not man$ who take the stories at face (alue, who belie(e the tabloids -couldn+t+ 'rint it if it wasn+t so7 Some readers I talk to insist the$ read them onl$ for entertainment, 1ust as the$ watch -wrestling+ on tele(ision, that the$+re not in the least taken in, that the tabloids are understood b$ 'ublisher and reader alike to be whimsies that e)'lore the absurd. The$ merel$ e)ist outside an$ uni(erse burdened b$ rules of e(idence. 3ut m$ mail suggests that large numbers of "mericans take the tabloids (er$ seriousl$ indeed. In the % ;s the tabloid uni(erse is e)'anding, (oraciousl$ gobbling u' other media. 5ews'a'ers, maga.ines or tele(ision 'rogrammes that labour under 'riss$ restraints im'osed b$ what is actuall$ known are outsold b$ media outlets with less scru'ulous standards. We can

see this in the new generation of acknowledged tabloid tele(ision, and increasingl$ in what 'asses for news and information 'rogrammes. Such re'orts 'ersist and 'roliferate because the$ sell. "nd the$ sell, I think, because there are so man$ of us who want so badl$ to be 1olted out of our humdrum li(es, to rekindle that sense of wonder we remember from childhood, and also, for a few of the stories, to be able, reall$ and trul$, to belie(e in Someone older, smarter and wiser who is looking out for us. <aith is clearl$ not enough for man$ 'eo'le. The$ cra(e hard e(idence, scientific 'roof. The$ long for the scientific seal of a''ro(al, but are unwilling to 'ut u' with the rigorous standards of e(idence that im'art credibilit$ to that seal. What a relief it would be! doubt reliabl$ abolished0 Then, the irksome burden of looking after oursel(es would be lifted. We+re worried - and for good reason -about what it means for the human future if we ha(e onl$ oursel(es to rel$ u'on. These are the modern miracles, shamelessl$ (ouched for b$ those who make them u' from scratch, b$'assing an$ formal sce'tical scrutin$, and a(ailable at low cost in e(er$ su'ermarket, grocer$ store and con(enience outlet in the land. 2ne of the 'retences of the tabloids is to make science, the (er$ instrument of our disbelief, confirm our ancient faiths and effect a con(ergence of 'seudoscience and 'seudoreligion. 3$ and large, scientists+ minds are o'en when e)'loring new worlds. If we knew beforehand what we+d find, it would be unnecessar$ to go. In future missions to #ars or to the other fascinating worlds in our neck of the cosmic woods, sur'rises -e(en some of m$thic 'ro'ortions - are 'ossible, ma$be e(en likel$. 3ut we humans ha(e a talent for decei(ing oursel(es. Sce'ticism must be a com'onent of the e)'lorer+s toolkit, or we will lose our wa$. There are wonders enough out there without our in(enting an$.

"liens
Trul$, that which makes me belie(e there is no inhabitant on this s'here, is that it seems to me that no sensible being would be willing to li(e here.+ -Well, then0+ said #icromegas, -'erha's the beings that inhabit it do not 'ossess good sense.+ 2ne alien to another, on a''roaching the >arth, in Doltaire+s $icromegas* 0 Philoso1hical &istory 9%C5G:

It+s still dark out. 6ou+re l$ing in bed, full$ awake. 6ou disco(er $ou+re
utterl$ 'aral$sed. 6ou sense someone in the room. 6ou tr$ to cr$ out. 6ou cannot. Se(eral small gre$ beings, less than four feet tall, are standing at the foot of the bed. Their heads are 'ear-sha'ed, bald, and large for their bodies. Their e$es are enormous, their faces e)'ressionless and identical. The$ wear tunics and boots. 6ou ho'e this is onl$ a dream. 3ut as nearl$ as $ou can tell it+s reall$ ha''ening. The$ lift $ou u' and, eeril$, the$ and $ou sli' through the wall of $our bedroom. 6ou float out into the air. 6ou rise high toward a metallic saucer-sha'ed s'acecraft. 2nce inside, $ou are escorted into a medical e)amining room. " larger but similar being, e(identl$ some kind of 'h$sician, takes o(er. What follows is e(en more terrif$ing. 6our bod$ is 'robed with instruments and machines, es'eciall$ $our se)ual 'arts. If $ou+re a man, the$ ma$ take s'erm sam'les, if $ou+re a woman, the$ ma$ remo(e o(a or foetuses, or im'lant semen. The$ ma$ force $ou to ha(e se). "fterwards $ou ma$ be ushered into a different room where h$brid babies or foetuses, 'artl$ human and 'artl$ like these creatures, stare back at $ou. 6ou ma$ be gi(en an admonition about human misbeha(iour, es'eciall$ in des'oiling the en(ironment or in allowing the "IDS 'andemic, tableau) of future de(astation are offered. <inall$, these cheerless gre$ emissaries escort $ou out of the s'acecraft and oo.e $ou back through the walls into $our bed. 3$ the time $ou+re able to mo(e and talk... the$+re gone. 6ou ma$ not remember the incident right awa$. Instead $ou might sim'l$ find some 'eriod of time unaccountabl$ missing, and 'u..le

o(er it. 3ecause all this seems so weird, $ou+re a little concerned about $our sanit$. 5aturall$ $ou+re reluctant to talk about it. "t the same time the e)'erience is so disturbing that it+s hard to kee' it bottled u'. It all 'ours out when $ou hear of similar accounts, or when $ou+re under h$'nosis with a s$m'athetic thera'ist, or e(en when $ou see a 'icture of an -alien+ in one of the man$ 'o'ular maga.ines, books, and TD -s'ecials+ on /<2s. Some 'eo'le sa$ the$ can recall such e)'eriences from earl$ childhood. Their own children, the$ think, are now being abducted b$ aliens. It runs in families. It+s a eugenics 'rogramme, the$ sa$, to im'ro(e the human breeding stock. #a$be aliens ha(e alwa$s done this. #a$be, some sa$, that+s where humans came from in the first 'lace. "s re(ealed b$ re'eated 'olls o(er the $ears, most "mericans belie(e that we+re being (isited b$ e)traterrestrial beings in /<2s. In a % G Ao'er o'inion 'oll of nearl$ I,;;; "merican adults -es'eciall$ commissioned b$ those who acce't the alien abduction stor$ at face (alue - %B 'er cent re'orted sometimes waking u' 'aral$sed, aware of one or more strange beings in the room. "bout %& 'er cent re'orted odd e'isodes of missing time, and %; 'er cent claimed to ha(e flown through the air without mechanical assistance. <rom nothing more than these results, the 'oll+s s'onsors conclude that two 'er cent of all "mericans ha(e been abducted, man$ re'eatedl$, b$ beings from other worlds. The 8uestion of whether res'ondents had been abducted b$ aliens was ne(er actuall$ 'ut to them. If we belie(ed the conclusion drawn b$ those who bankrolled and inter'reted the results of this 'oll, and if aliens are not 'artial to "mericans, then the number for the whole 'lanet would be more than a hundred million 'eo'le. This means an abduction e(er$ few seconds o(er the 'ast few decades. It+s sur'rising more of the neighbours ha(en+t noticed. What+s going on here7 When $ou talk with self-described abductees, most seem (er$ sincere, although caught in the gri' of 'owerful emotions. Some 's$chiatrists who+(e e)amined them sa$ the$ find no more e(idence of 's$cho'atholog$ in them than in the rest of us. Wh$ should an$one claim to ha(e been abducted b$ alien creatures if it ne(er ha''ened7 Could all these 'eo'le be mistaken, or l$ing, or hallucinating the same 9or a similar: stor$7 2r is it arrogant and contem'tuous e(en to 8uestion the good sense of so man$7 2n the other hand, could there reall$ be a massi(e alien in(asion, re'ugnant medical 'rocedures 'erformed on millions of innocent men, women and children, humans a''arentl$ used as breeding stock o(er man$ decades M and all this not generall$ known and dealt with b$ res'onsible media, 'h$sicians, scientists and the go(ernments sworn to 'rotect the li(es and well-being of their citi.ens7 2r, as man$ ha(e suggested, is there a massi(e go(ernment cons'irac$ to kee' the citi.ens from the truth7

Wh$ should beings so ad(anced in 'h$sics and engineering M crossing (ast interstellar distances, walking like ghosts through walls M be so backward when it comes to biolog$7 Wh$, if the aliens are tr$ing to do their business in secret, wouldn+t the$ 'erfectl$ e)'unge all memories of the abductions7 Too hard for them to do7 Wh$ are the e)amining instruments macrosco'ic and so reminiscent of what can be found at the neighbourhood medical clinic7 Wh$ go to all the trouble of re'eated se)ual encounters between aliens and humans7 Wh$ not steal a few egg and s'erm cells, read the full genetic code, and then manufacture as man$ co'ies as $ou like with whate(er genetic (ariations ha''en to suit $our fanc$7 >(en we humans, who as $et cannot 8uickl$ cross interstellar s'ace or slither through walls, are able to clone cells. How could humans be the result of an alien breeding 'rogramme if we share .I 'er cent of our acti(e genes with the chim'an.ees7 We+re more closel$ related to chim's than rats are to mice. The 'reoccu'ation with re'roduction in these accounts raises a warning flag, es'eciall$ considering the uneas$ balance between se)ual im'ulse and societal re'ression that has alwa$s characteri.ed the human condition, and the fact that we li(e in a time fraught with numerous ghastl$ accounts, both true and false, of childhood se)ual abuse. Contrar$ to man$ media re'orts,K the Ao'er 'ollsters and those who wrote the -official+ re'ort ne(er asked whether their sub1ects had been abducted b$ aliens. The$ deduced it! those who+(e e(er awakened with strange 'resences around them, who+(e e(er unaccountabl$ seemed to fl$ through the air, and so on, ha(e therefore been abducted. The 'ollsters didn+t e(en check to see if sensing 'resences, fl$ing etc. were 'art of the same or se'arate incidents. Their conclusion M that millions of "mericans ha(e been so abducted M is s'urious, based on careless e)'erimental design.
JK <or e)am'le, the E Se'tember % E Pu+lisher)s 'eekly* -"ccording to a ?allu' JsicF 'oll, more than three million "mericans belie(e the$ ha(e been abducted b$ aliens.+F

Still, at least hundreds of 'eo'le, 'erha's thousands, claiming the$ ha(e been abducted, ha(e sought out s$m'athetic thera'ists or 1oined abductee su''ort grou's. 2thers ma$ ha(e similar com'laints but, fearing ridicule or the stigma of mental illness, ha(e refrained from s'eaking u' or getting hel'. Some abductees are also said to be reluctant to talk for fear of hostilit$ and re1ection b$ hardline sce'tics 9although man$ willingl$ a''ear on radio and TD talk shows:. Their diffidence su''osedl$ e)tends e(en to audiences that alread$ belie(e in alien abductions. 3ut ma$be there+s another reason! might the sub1ects themsel(es be

unsure M at least at first, at least before man$ retellings of their stor$ M whether it was an e)ternal e(ent the$ are remembering or a state of mind7 -2ne unerring mark of the lo(e of truth,+ wrote *ohn 4ocke in %I ;, -is not entertaining an$ 'ro'osition with greater assurance than the 'roofs it is built u'on will warrant.+ 2n the matter of /<2s, how strong are the 'roofs7 The 'hrase -fl$ing saucer+ was coined when I was entering high school. The news'a'ers were full of stories about shi's from be$ond in the skies of >arth. It seemed 'rett$ belie(able to me. There were lots of other stars, at least some of which 'robabl$ had 'lanetar$ s$stems like ours. #an$ stars were as old or older than the Sun, so there was 'lent$ of time for intelligent life to e(ol(e. Caltech+s *et =ro'ulsion 4aborator$ had 1ust flown a two-stage rocket high abo(e the >arth. Clearl$ we were on our wa$ to the #oon and the 'lanets. Wh$ shouldn+t other, older, wiser beings be able to tra(el from their star to ours7 Wh$ not7 This was onl$ a few $ears after the bombing of Hiroshima and 5agasaki. #a$be the /<2 occu'ants were worried about us, and sought to hel' us. 2r ma$be the$ wanted to make sure that we and our nuclear wea'ons didn+t come and bother them! #an$ 'eo'le seemed to see fl$ing saucers - sober 'illars of the communit$, 'olice officers, commercial air'lane 'ilots, militar$ 'ersonnel. "nd a'art from some harum'hs and giggles, I couldn+t find an$ counterarguments. How could all these e$ewitnesses be mistaken7 What+s more, the saucers had been 'icked u' on radar, and 'ictures had been taken of them. 6ou could see the 'hotos in news'a'ers and gloss$ maga.ines. There were e(en re'orts about crashed fl$ing saucers and little alien bodies with 'erfect teeth stiffl$ languishing in "ir <orce free.ers in the southwest. The 're(ailing climate was summari.ed in Life maga.ine a few $ears later, in these words! -These ob1ects cannot be e)'lained b$ 'resent science as natural 'henomena - but solel$ as artificial de(ices, created and o'erated b$ a high intelligence.+ 5othing -known or 'ro1ected on >arth could account for the 'erformance of these de(ices.+ "nd $et not a single adult I knew was 'reoccu'ied with /<2s. I couldn+t figure out wh$ not. Instead the$ were worried about Communist China, nuclear wea'ons, #cCarth$ism and the rent. I wondered if the$ had their 'riorities straight. In college, in the earl$ % 5;s, I began to learn a little about how science works, the secrets of its great success, how rigorous the standards of e(idence must be if we are reall$ to know something is true, how man$ false starts and dead ends ha(e 'lagued human thinking, how our biases can colour our inter'retation of the e(idence, and how often belief s$stems widel$ held and su''orted b$ the

'olitical, religious and academic hierarchies turn out to be not 1ust slightl$ in error, but grotes8uel$ wrong. I came u'on a book called Extraordinary Po1ular Delusions and the $adness of Crowds written b$ Charles #acka$ in %BE% and still in 'rint. In it could be found the histories of boom-and-bust economic cra.es, including the #ississi''i and South Sea -3ubbles+ and the e)tra(agant run on Dutch tuli's, scams that bamboo.led the wealth$ and titled of man$ nations, a legion of alchemists, including the 'oignant tale of #r @ell$ and Dr Dee 9and Dee+s B-$ear-old son "rthur, im'ressed b$ his des'erate father into communicating with the s'irit world b$ 'eering into a cr$stal:, dolorous accounts of unfulfilled 'ro'hec$, di(ination and fortune-telling, the 'ersecution of witches, haunted houses, -'o'ular admiration of great thie(es+, and much else. >ntertainingl$ 'ortra$ed was the Count of St ?ermain, who dined out on the cheerful 'retension that he was centuries old if not actuall$ immortal. 9When, at dinner, incredulit$ was e)'ressed at his recounting of his con(ersations with Aichard the 4ion-Heart, he turned to his man-ser(ant for confirmation. -6ou forget, sir,+ was the re'l$, -I ha(e been onl$ fi(e hundred $ears in $our ser(ice.+ -"h, true,+ said St ?ermain, -it was a little before $our time.+: " ri(eting cha'ter on the Crusades began >(er$ age has its 'eculiar foll$, some scheme, 'ro1ect, or 'hantas$ into which it 'lunges, s'urred on either b$ the lo(e of gain, the necessit$ of e)citement, or the mere force of imitation. <ailing in these, it has some madness, to which it is goaded b$ 'olitical or religious causes, or both combined. The edition I first read was adorned b$ a 8uote from the financier and ad(iser of =residents, 3ernard #. 3aruch, attesting that reading #acka$ had sa(ed him millions. There had been a long histor$ of s'urious claims that magnetism could cure disease. =aracelsus, for e)am'le, used a magnet to suck diseases out of the human bod$ and dis'ose of them into the >arth. 3ut the ke$ figure was <ran. #esmer. I had (aguel$ understood the word -mesmeri.e+ to mean something like h$'noti.e. 3ut m$ first real knowledge of #esmer came from #acka$. The Diennese 'h$sician had thought that the 'ositions of the 'lanets influenced human health, and was caught u' in the wonders of electricit$ and magnetism. He catered to the declining <rench nobilit$ on the e(e of the Ae(olution. The$ crowded into a darkened room. Dressed in a gold-flowered silk robe and wa(ing an i(or$ wand, #esmer seated his marks around a (at of dilute sul'huric acid. The #agneti.er and his $oung male assistants 'eered dee'l$ into the e$es of their 'atients, and rubbed their bodies. The$ gras'ed iron bars 'rotruding into the solution or held each other+s hands. In contagious fren.$, aristocrats -es'eciall$ $oung women -

were cured left and right. #esmer became a sensation. He called it -animal magnetism+. <or the more con(entional medical 'ractitioner, though, this was bad for business, so <rench 'h$sicians 'ressured @ing 4ouis RDI to crack down. #esmer, the$ said, was a menace to 'ublic health. " commission was a''ointed b$ the <rench "cadem$ of Sciences that included the 'ioneering chemist "ntoine 4a(oisier, and the "merican di'lomat and e)'ert on electricit$, 3en1amin <ranklin. The$ 'erformed the ob(ious control e)'eriment! when the. magneti.ing effects were 'erformed without the 'atient+s knowledge, no cures were effected. The cures, if an$, the commission concluded, were all in the mind of the beholder. #esmer and his followers were undeterred. 2ne of them later urged the following attitude of mind for best results! <orget for a while all of $our knowledge of 'h$sics... Aemo(e from $our mind all ob1ections that ma$ occur... 5e(er reason for si) weeks ... 3e (er$ credulous, be (er$ 'erse(ering, re1ect all 'ast e)'erience, and do not listen to reason. 2h, $es, a final 'iece of ad(ice! -5e(er magneti.e before in8uisiti(e 'ersons.+ "nother e$e-o'ener was #artin ?ardner+s Fads and Fallacies in the .ame of Science! Here was Wilhelm Aeich unco(ering the ke$ to the structure of gala)ies in the energ$ of the human orgasm, "ndrew Crosse creating microsco'ic insects electricall$ from salts, Hans Horbiger under 5a.i aegis announcing that the #ilk$ Wa$ was made not of stars, but of snowballs, Charles =ia..i Sm$th disco(ering in the dimensions of the ?reat =$ramid of ?i.eh a world chronolog$ from the Creation to the Second Coming, 4. Aon Hubbard writing a manuscri't able to dri(e its readers insane 9was it e(er 'roofed7 I wondered:, the 3ride$ #ur'h$ case, which led millions into concluding that at last there was serious e(idence of reincarnation, *ose'h Ahine+s -demonstrations+ of >S=, a''endicitis cured b$ cold water enemas, bacterial diseases b$ brass c$linders, and gonorrhoea b$ green light - and amid all these accounts of self-dece'tion and charlatanr$, to m$ sur'rise a cha'ter on /<2s. 2f course, merel$ b$ writing books cataloguing s'urious beliefs, #acka$ and ?ardner came across, at least a little, as grum'$ and su'erior. Was there nothing the$ acce'ted7 Still, it was stunning how man$ 'assionatel$ argued and defended claims to knowledge had amounted to nothing. It slowl$ dawned on me that, human fallibilit$ being what it is, there might be other e)'lanations for fl$ing saucers. I had been interested in the 'ossibilit$ of e)traterrestrial life from childhood, from long before I e(er heard of fl$ing saucers. I+(e remained fascinated long after m$ earl$ enthusiasm for /<2s waned as I understood more about that remorseless taskmaster called the scientific method! e(er$thing hinges on the matter of e(idence. 2n so

im'ortant a 8uestion, the e(idence must be airtight. The more we want it to be true, the more careful we ha(e to be. 5o witness+s sa$-so is good enough. =eo'le make mistakes. =eo'le 'la$ 'ractical 1okes. =eo'le stretch the truth for mone$ or attention or fame. =eo'le occasionall$ misunderstand what the$+re seeing. =eo'le sometimes e(en see things that aren+t there. >ssentiall$ all the /<2 cases were anecdotes, something asserted. /<2s were described (ariousl$ as ra'idl$ mo(ing or ho(ering, discsha'ed, cigar-sha'ed, or ball-sha'ed, mo(ing silentl$ or noisil$, with a fier$ e)haust, or with no e)haust at all, accom'anied b$ flashing lights, or uniforml$ glowing with a sil(er$ cast, or self-luminous. The di(ersit$ of the obser(ations hinted that the$ had no common origin, and that the use of such terms as /<2s or -fl$ing saucers+ ser(ed onl$ to confuse the issue b$ grou'ing genericall$ a set of unrelated 'henomena. There was something odd about the (er$ in(ention of the 'hrase -fl$ing saucer+. "s I write this cha'ter, I ha(e before me a transcri't of a C "'ril % 5; inter(iew between >dward A. #urrow, the celebrated C3S newsman, and @enneth "rnold, a ci(ilian 'ilot who saw something 'eculiar near #ount Aainier in the state of Washington on GE *une % EC and who in a wa$ coined the 'hrase. "rnold claims that the news'a'ers did not 8uote me 'ro'erl$... When I told the 'ress the$ mis8uoted me, and in the e)citement of it all, one news'a'er and another one got it so ensnarled u' that nobod$ knew 1ust e)actl$ what the$ were talking about... These ob1ects more or less fluttered like the$ were, oh, I+d sa$, boats on (er$ rough water... "nd when I described how the$ flew, I said that the$ flew like the$ take a saucer and throw it across the water. #ost of the news'a'ers misunderstood and mis8uoted that, too. The$ said that I said that the$ were saucer-like, I said that the$ flew in a saucer-like fashion. "rnold thought he saw a train of nine ob1ects, one of which 'roduced a -terrific blue flash+. He concluded the$ were a new kind of winged aircraft. #urrow summed u'! -That was an historic mis8uote. While #r "rnold+s original e)'lanation has been forgotten, the term Sfl$ing saucerT has become a household word.+ @enneth "rnold+s fl$ing saucers looked and beha(ed 8uite differentl$ from what in onl$ a few $ears would be rigidl$ 'articulari.ed in the 'ublic understanding of the term! something like a (er$ large and highl$ manoeu(erable frisbee. #ost 'eo'le honestl$ re'orted what the$ saw, but what the$ saw were natural, if unfamiliar, 'henomena. Some /<2 sightings turned out to be uncon(entional aircraft, con(entional aircraft with unusual lighting 'atterns, high-altitude balloons, luminescent insects, 'lanets seen under unusual atmos'heric conditions, o'tical mirages and

looming, lenticular clouds, ball lightning, sun-dogs, meteors including green fireballs, and satellites, nosecones, and rocket boosters s'ectacularl$ re-entering the atmos'here.K *ust concei(abl$, a few might be small comets dissi'ating in the u''er air. "t least some radar re'orts were due to -anomalous 'ro'agation+ M radio wa(es tra(elling cur(ed 'aths due to atmos'heric tem'erature in(ersions. Traditionall$, the$ were also called radar -angels+ M something that seems to be there but isn+t. 6ou could ha(e simultaneous (isual and radar sightings without there being an$ -there+ there.
JK There are so man$ artificial satellites u' there that the$+re alwa$s making garish dis'la$s somewhere in the world. Two or three deca$ e(er$ da$ in the >arth+s atmos'here, the flaming debris often (isible to the naked e$e.F

When we notice something strange in the sk$, some of us become e)citable and uncritical, bad witnesses. There was the sus'icion that the field attracted rogues and charlatans. #an$ /<2 'hotos turned out to be fakes M small models hanging b$ thin threads, often 'hotogra'hed in a double e)'osure. " /<2 seen b$ thousands of 'eo'le at a football game turned out to be a college fraternit$ 'rank M a 'iece of cardboard, some candles and a thin 'lastic bag that dr$ cleaning comes in, all cobbled together to make a rudimentar$ hot air balloon. The original crashed saucer account 9with the little alien men and their 'erfect teeth: turned out to be a straight hoa). <rank Scull$, columnist for 4ariety, 'assed on a stor$ told b$ an oilman friend, it 'la$ed a central dramatic role in Scull$+s best-selling % 5; book, /ehind the Flying Saucers! Si)teen dead aliens from Denus, each three feet high, had been found in one of three crashed saucers. 3ooklets with alien 'ictograms had been reco(ered. The militar$ was co(ering u'. The im'lications were 'rofound. The hoa)ers were Silas 5ewton, who said he used radio wa(es to 'ros'ect for gold and oil, and a m$sterious -Dr ?ee+ who turned out to be a #r ?e3auer. 5ewton 'roduced a gear from the /<2 machiner$ and flashed close-u' saucer 'hotos. 3ut he did not allow close ins'ection. When a 're'ared sce'tic, through sleight of hand, switched gears and sent the alien artefact awa$ for anal$sis, it turned out to be made of kitchen-'ot aluminium. The crashed saucer scam was a small interlude in a 8uarter-centur$ of frauds b$ 5ewton and ?e3auer, chiefl$ selling worthless oil leases and 'ros'ecting machines. In % 5G the$ were arrested b$ the <3I, and the following $ear found guilt$ of conducting a confidence game. Their e)'loits, chronicled b$ the historian Curtis =eebles, ought to ha(e made /<2 enthusiasts cautious fore(er about crashed saucer stories from the "merican Southwest around % 5;. 5o such luck.

2n E 2ctober % 5C, S1utnik C, the first >arth-orbiting artificial satellite, was launched. 2f %,%CB recorded /<2 sightings in "merica that $ear, C;% or I; 'er cent - rather than the G5 'er cent $ou+d e)'ect - occurred between 2ctober and December. The clear im'lication is that S1utnik and its attendant 'ublicit$ somehow generated /<2 re'orts. =erha's 'eo'le were looking at the night sk$ more and saw more natural 'henomena the$ didn+t understand. 2r could it be the$ looked u' more and saw more of the alien s'acecraft that are there all the time7 The idea of fl$ing saucers had dubious antecedents, tracing back to a conscious hoa) entitled P ,emem+er Lemuria8, written b$ Aichard Sha(er, and 'ublished in the #arch % E5 number of the 'ul' fiction 'eriodical 0ma9ing Stories! It was e)actl$ the sort of stuff I de(oured as a child. 4ost continents were settled b$ s'ace aliens %5;,;;; $ears ago, I was informed, leading to the creation of a race of demonic underground beings res'onsible for human tribulations and the e)istence of e(il. The editor of the maga.ine, Aa$ =almer - who was, like the subterranean beings he warned about, roughl$ four feet high -'romoted the notion, well before "rnold+s sighting, that the >arth is being (isited b$ disc-sha'ed alien s'acecraft and that the go(ernment is co(ering u' its knowledge and com'licit$. #erel$ from the newsstand co(ers of such maga.ines, millions of "mericans were e)'osed to the idea of fl$ing saucers well before the term was coined. "ll in all, the alleged e(idence seemed thin, most often de(ol(ing into gullibilit$, hoa), hallucination, misunderstanding of the natural world, ho'es and fears disguised as e(idence, and a cra(ing for attention, fame and fortune. Too bad, I remember thinking. Since then, I+(e been luck$ enough to be in(ol(ed in sending s'acecraft to other 'lanets to look for life, and in listening for 'ossible radio signals from alien ci(ili.ations, if an$, on 'lanets of distant stars. We+(e had a few tantali.ing moments. 3ut if the sus'ected signal isn+t a(ailable for e(er$ grum'$ sce'tic to 'ick o(er, we cannot call it e(idence of e)traterrestrial life - no matter how a''ealing we find the notion. We+ll 1ust ha(e to wait until, if such a time e(er comes, better data are a(ailable. We+(e not $et found com'elling e(idence for life be$ond the >arth. We+re onl$ at the (er$ beginning of the search, though. 5ew and better information might emerge, for all we know, tomorrow. I don+t think an$one could be more interested than I am in whether we+re being (isited. It would sa(e me so much time and effort to be able to stud$ e)traterrestrial life directl$ and nearb$, rather than at best indirectl$ and at great distance. >(en if the aliens are short, dour and se)uall$ obsessed - if the$+re here, I want to know about them. How modest our e)'ectations are about -aliens+, and how shodd$ the standards of e(idence that man$ of us are willing to acce't, can be

found in the saga of the cro' circles. 2riginating in 3ritain and s'reading throughout the world was something sur'assing strange. <armers or 'assers-b$ would disco(er circles 9and, in later $ears, much more com'le) 'ictograms: im'ressed u'on fields of wheat, oats, barle$, and ra'eseed. 3eginning with sim'le circles in the middle % C;s, the 'henomenon 'rogressed $ear b$ $ear, until b$ the late % B;s and earl$ % ;s the countr$side, es'eciall$ in southern >ngland, was graced b$ immense geometrical figures, some the si.e of football fields, im'rinted on cereal grain before the har(est - circles tangent to circles, or connected b$ a)es, 'arallel lines droo'ing off, -insectoids+. Some of the 'atterns showed a central circle surrounded b$ four s$mmetricall$ 'laced smaller circles - clearl$, it was concluded, caused b$ a fl$ing saucer and its four landing 'ods. " hoa)7 Im'ossible, almost e(er$one said. There were hundreds of cases. It was done sometimes in onl$ an hour or two in the dead of night, and on such a large scale. 5o foot'rints of 'ranksters leading towards or awa$ from the 'ictograms could be found. "nd besides, what 'ossible moti(e could there be for a hoa)7 #an$ less con(entional con1ectures were offered. =eo'le with some scientific training e)amined sites, s'un arguments, instituted whole 1ournals de(oted to the sub1ect. Were the figures caused b$ strange whirlwinds called -columnar (ortices+, or e(en stranger ones called -ring (ortices+7 What about ball lightning7 *a'anese in(estigators tried to simulate, in the laborator$ and on a small scale, the 'lasma 'h$sics the$ thought was working its wa$ on far-off Wiltshire. 3ut es'eciall$ as the cro' figures became more com'le), meteorological or electrical e)'lanations became more strained. =lainl$ it was due to /<2s, the aliens communicating to us in a geometrical language. 2r 'erha's it was the de(il, or the long-suffering >arth com'laining about the de'redations (isited u'on it b$ the hand of #an. 5ew "ge tourists came in dro(es. "ll-night (igils were undertaken b$ enthusiasts e8ui''ed with audio recorders and infrared (ision sco'es. =rint and electronic media from all o(er the world tracked the intre'id cerealogists. 3est-selling books on e)traterrestrial cro' distorters were 'urchased b$ a breathless and admiring 'ublic. True, no saucer was actuall$ seen settling down on the wheat, no geometrical figure was filmed in the course of being generated. 3ut dowsers authenticated their alien origin, and channellers made contact with the entities res'onsible. -2rgone energ$+ was detected within the circles. Huestions were asked in =arliament. The ro$al famil$ called in for s'ecial consultation 4ord Soll$ Nuckerman, former 'rinci'al scientific ad(iser to the #inistr$ of Defence. ?hosts were said to be in(ol(ed, also, the @nights Tem'lar of #alta and other secret societies. Satanists were im'licated. The Defence #inistr$ was co(ering the matter u'. " few ine't and inelegant circles were 1udged attem'ts b$ the militar$ to throw the 'ublic off the track. The tabloid 'ress had a field da$. The

Daily $irror hired a farmer and his son to make fi(e circles in ho'e of tem'ting a ri(al tabloid, the Daily Ex1ress, into re'orting the stor$. The Ex1ress was, in this case at least, not taken in. -Cerealogical+ organi.ations grew and s'lintered. Com'eting grou's sent each other intimidating doggerel. "ccusations were made of incom'etence or worse. The number of cro' -circles+ rose into the thousands. The 'henomenon s'read to the /nited States, Canada, 3ulgaria, Hungar$, *a'an, the 5etherlands. The 'icto-grams - es'eciall$ the more com'le) of them - began to be 8uoted increasingl$ in arguments for alien (isitation. Strained connections were drawn to the -<ace+ on #ars. 2ne scientist of m$ ac8uaintance wrote to me that e)tremel$ so'histicated mathematics was hidden in these figures, the$ could onl$ be the result of a su'erior intelligence. In fact, one matter on which almost all of the contending cerealogists agreed is that the later cro' figures were much too com'le) and elegant to be due to mere human inter(ention, much less to some ragged and irres'onsible hoa)ers. >)traterrestrial intelligence was a''arent at a glance... In % %, Doug 3ower and Da(e Chorle$, two blokes from Southam'ton, announced the$ had been making cro' figures for fifteen $ears. The$ dreamed it u' o(er stout one e(ening in their regular 'ub, The =erc$ Hobbes. The$ had been amused b$ /<2 re'orts and thought it might be fun to s'oof the /<2 gullibles. "t first the$ flattened the wheat with the hea($ steel bar that 3ower used as a securit$ de(ice on the back door of his 'icture framing sho'. 4ater on the$ used 'lanks and ro'es. Their first efforts took onl$ a few minutes. 3ut, being in(eterate 'ranksters as well as serious artists, the challenge began to grow on them. ?raduall$, the$ designed and e)ecuted more and more demanding figures. "t first no one seemed to notice. There were no media re'orts. Their artforms were neglected b$ the tribe of /<2logists. The$ were on the (erge of abandoning cro' circles to mo(e on to some other, more emotionall$ rewarding hoa). Suddenl$ cro' circles caught on. /<2logists fell for it hook, line and sinker. 3ower and Chorle$ were delighted - es'eciall$ when scientists and others began to announce their considered 1udgement that no merel$ human intelligence could be res'onsible. Carefull$ the$ 'lanned each nocturnal e)cursion, sometimes following meticulous diagrams the$ had 're'ared in watercolours. The$ closel$ tracked their inter'reters. When a local meteorologist deduced a kind of whirlwind because all of the cro's were deflected downward in a clockwise circle, the$ confounded him b$ making a new figure with an e)terior ring flattened counterclockwise. Soon other cro' figures a''eared in southern >ngland and elsewhere. Co'$cat hoa)sters had a''eared. 3ower and Chorle$ car(ed out a res'onsi(e message in wheat! -W>"A>52-T"425>+. >(en this some took to be a genuine e)traterrestrial message 9although it

would ha(e been better had it read -62/"A>52T"425>+:. Doug and Da(e began signing their artworks with two Ds, e(en this was attributed to a m$sterious alien 'ur'ose. 3ower+s nocturnal disa''earances aroused the sus'icions of his wife Ilene. 2nl$ with great difficult$ - Ilene accom'an$ing Da(e and Doug one night, and then 1oining the credulous in admiring their handiwork ne)t da$ - was she con(inced that his absences were, in this sense, innocent. >(entuall$ 3ower and Chorle$ tired of the increasingl$ elaborate 'rank. While in e)cellent 'h$sical condition, the$ were both in their si)ties now and a little old for nocturnal commando o'erations in the fields of unknown and often uns$m'athetic farmers. The$ ma$ ha(e been anno$ed at the fame and fortune accrued b$ those who merel$ 'hotogra'hed their art and announced aliens to be the artists. "nd the$ became worried that if the$ dela$ed much longer, no statement of theirs would be belie(ed. So the$ confessed. The$ demonstrated to re'orters how the$ made e(en the most elaborate insectoid 'atterns. 6ou might think that ne(er again would it be argued that a sustained hoa) o(er man$ $ears is im'ossible, and ne(er again would we hear that no one could 'ossibl$ be moti(ated to decei(e the gullible into thinking that aliens e)ist. 3ut the media 'aid brief attention. Cerealogists urged them to go eas$, after all, the$ were de'ri(ing man$ of the 'leasure of imagining wondrous ha''enings. Since then, other cro' circle hoa)ers ha(e ke't at it, but mostl$ in a more desultor$ and less ins'ired manner. "s alwa$s, the confession of the hoa) is greatl$ o(ershadowed b$ the sustained initial e)citement. #an$ ha(e heard of the 'ictograms in cereal grains and their alleged /<2 connection, but draw a blank when the names of 3ower and Chorle$ or the (er$ idea that the whole business ma$ be a hoa) are raised. "n informati(e e)'ose b$ the 1ournalist *im Schnabel :,ound in Circles, % E:, from which much of m$ account is taken, is in 'rint. Schnabel 1oined the cerealogists earl$ and in the end made a few successful 'ictograms himself. 9He 'refers a garden roller to a wooden 'lank, and found that sim'l$ stom'ing grain with one+s feet does an acce'table 1ob.: 3ut Schnabel+s work, which one re(iewer called -the funniest book I+(e read in ages+, had onl$ modest success. Demons sell, hoa)ers are boring and in bad taste. The tenets of sce'ticism do not re8uire an ad(anced degree to master, as most successful used car bu$ers demonstrate. The whole idea of a democratic a''lication of sce'ticism is that e(er$one should ha(e the essential tools to effecti(el$ and constructi(el$ e(aluate claims to knowledge. "ll science asks is to em'lo$ the same le(els of sce'ticism we use in bu$ing a used car or in 1udging the 8ualit$ of analgesics or beer from their tele(ision commercials. 3ut the tools of sce'ticism are generall$ una(ailable to the citi.ens

of our societ$. The$+re hardl$ e(er mentioned in the schools, e(en in the 'resentation of science, its most ardent 'ractitioner, although sce'ticism re'eatedl$ s'routs s'ontaneousl$ out of the disa''ointments of e(er$da$ life. 2ur 'olitics, economics, ad(ertising and religions 95ew "ge and 2ld: are awash in credulit$. Those who ha(e something to sell, those who wish to influence 'ublic o'inion, those in 'ower, a sce'tic might suggest, ha(e a (ested interest in discouraging sce'ticism.

S'oofing and Secrec$

Trust a witness in all matters in which neither his self-interest, his 'assions, his 're1udices, nor the lo(e of the mar(ellous is strongl$ concerned. When the$ are in(ol(ed, re8uire corroborati(e e(idence in e)act 'ro'ortion to the contra(ention of 'robabilit$ b$ the thing testified. Thomas Henr$ Hu)le$ 9%BG5-%B 5:

When the mother of celebrit$ abductee Tra(is Walton was informed

that a /<2 had .a''ed her son with a bolt of lightning and then carried him off into s'ace, she re'lied incuriousl$, -Well, that+s the wa$ these things ha''en.+ Is it7 To agree that /<2s are in our skies is not committing to (er$ much! -/<2+ is an abbre(iation for -/nidentified <l$ing 2b1ect+. It is a more inclusi(e term than -fl$ing saucer+. That there are things seen which the ordinar$ obser(er, or e(en an occasional e)'ert, does not understand is ine(itable. 3ut wh$, if we see something we don+t recogni.e, should we conclude it+s a shi' from the stars7 " wide (ariet$ of more 'rosaic 'ossibilities 'resent themsel(es. "fter misa''rehended natural e(ents and hoa)es and 's$chological aberrations are remo(ed from the data set, is there an$ residue of (er$ credible but e)tremel$ bi.arre cases, es'eciall$ ones su''orted b$ 'h$sical e(idence7 Is there a -signal+ hiding in all that noise7 In m$ (iew, no signal has been detected. There are reliabl$ re'orted cases that are une)otic, and e)otic cases that are unreliable. There are no cases - des'ite well o(er a million /<2 re'orts since % EC - in which something so strange that it could onl$ be an e)traterrestrial s'acecraft is re'orted so reliabl$ that misa''rehension, hoa) or hallucination can be reliabl$ e)cluded. There+s still a 'art of me that sa$s, -Too bad.+ We+re regularl$ bombarded with e)tra(agant /<2 claims (ended in bite-si.ed 'ackages, but onl$ rarel$ do we get to hear about their comeu''ance. This isn+t hard to understand! which sells more news'a'ers and books, which garners higher ratings, which is more fun to belie(e, which is more resonant with the torments of our time real crashed alien shi's, or e)'erienced con men 're$ing on the

gullible, e)traterrestrials of immense 'owers to$ing with the human s'ecies, or such claims deri(ing from human weakness and im'erfection7 2(er the $ears I+(e continued to s'end time on the /<2 'roblem. I recei(e man$ letters about it, fre8uentl$ with detailed first-hand accounts. Sometimes momentous re(elations are 'romised if onl$ I will call the letter writer. "fter I gi(e lectures - on almost an$ sub1ect -% often am asked, -Do $ou belie(e in /<2s7+ I+m alwa$s struck b$ how the 8uestion is 'hrased, the suggestion that this is a matter of belief and not of e(idence. I+m almost ne(er asked, -How good is the e(idence that /<2s are alien s'aceshi's7+ I+(e found that the going-in attitude of man$ 'eo'le is highl$ 'redetermined. Some are con(inced that e$ewitness testimon$ is reliable, that 'eo'le do not make things u', that hallucinations or hoa)es on such a scale are im'ossible, and that there must be a longstanding, high-le(el go(ernment cons'irac$ to kee' the truth from the rest of us. ?ullibilit$ about /<2s thri(es on wides'read mistrust of go(ernment, arising naturall$ enough from all those circumstances where, in the tension between 'ublic well-being and -national securit$+, the go(ernment lies. "s go(ernment deceit and cons'iracies of silence ha(e been e)'osed on so man$ other matters, it+s hard to argue that a co(er-u' on this odd sub1ect is im'ossible, that the go(ernment would ne(er hide im'ortant information from its citi.ens. " common e)'lanation on wh$ there would be a co(er-u' is to 're(ent worldwide 'anic or erosion of confidence in the go(ernment. I was a member of the /S "ir <orce Scientific "d(isor$ 3oard committee that in(estigated the "ir <orce+s /<2 stud$ - called -=ro1ect 3luebook+, but earlier and re(ealingl$ called -=ro1ect ?rudge+. We found the on-going effort to be lackadaisical and dismissi(e. In the middle % I;s, -=ro1ect 3luebook+ was head8uartered at Wright-=atterson "ir <orce 3ase in 2hio, where -<oreign Technical Intelligence+ 9chiefl$, understanding what new wea'ons the So(iets had: was also based. The$ had state-of-the-art technolog$ in file retrie(al. 6ou asked about a gi(en /<2 incident and, somewhat like sweaters and suits at the dr$ cleaner+s toda$, reams of files made their wa$ 'ast $ou, until the engine sto''ed when the file $ou wanted arri(ed before $ou. 3ut what was in those files wasn+t worth much. <or e)am'le, senior citi.ens re'orted lights ho(ering o(er their small 5ew Ham'shire town for more than an hour, and the case is e)'lained as a wing of strategic bombers from a nearb$ "ir <orce base on a training e)ercise. Could the bombers take an hour to 'ass o(er the town7 5o. Did the bombers fl$ o(er at the time the /<2s were re'orted7 5o. Can $ou e)'lain to us, Colonel, how strategic bombers can be described as -ho(ering+7 5o. The sli'shod 3lue-book in(estigations 'la$ed little scientific role, but the$ did ser(e the im'ortant bureaucratic 'ur'ose of con(incing much of the 'ublic that the "ir <orce was on the 1ob, and that ma$be there

was nothing to /<2 re'orts. 2f course, this doesn+t 'reclude the 'ossibilit$ that another, more serious, more scientific stud$ of /<2s was going on somewhere else, headed, sa$, b$ a brigadier general rather than a lieutenant colonel. I think something like this is e(en likel$, not because I belie(e we+re being (isited b$ aliens, but because hiding in the /<2 'henomena must be data once considered-of significant militar$ interest. Certainl$ if /<2s are as re'orted - (er$ fast, (er$ manoeu(rable craft - there is a militar$ dut$ to find out how the$ work. If /<2s were built b$ the So(iet /nion it was the "ir <orce+s res'onsibilit$ to 'rotect us. Considering the remarkable 'erformance characteristics re'orted, the strategic im'lications of So(iet /<2s flagrantl$ o(erfl$ing "merican militar$ and nuclear facilities were worrisome. If on the other hand the /<2s were built b$ e)traterrestrials, we might co'$ the technolog$ 9if we could get our hands on 1ust one saucer: and secure a huge ad(antage in the Cold War. "nd e(en if the militar$ belie(ed that /<2s were manufactured neither b$ So(iets nor b$ e)traterrestrials, there was a good reason to follow the re'orts closel$. In the % 5;s balloons were being e)tensi(el$ used b$ the "ir <orce not 1ust as weather measurement 'latforms, as 'rominentl$ ad(ertised, and radar reflectors, as acknowledged, but also, secretl$, as robotic es'ionage craft, with high-resolution cameras and signal intelligence de(ices. While the balloons themsel(es were not (er$ secret, the reconnaissance 'ackages the$ carried were. High-altitude balloons can seem saucer-sha'ed when seen from the ground. If $ou misestimate how far awa$ the$ are, $ou can easil$ imagine them going absurdl$ fast. 2ccasionall$, 'ro'elled b$ a gust of wind, the$ make abru't changes in direction, uncharacteristic of aircraft and in seeming defiance of the conser(ation of momentum - if $ou don+t reali.e the$+re hollow and weigh almost nothing. The most famous of these militar$ balloon s$stems, widel$ tested o(er the /nited States in the earl$ % 5;s, was called -Sk$hook+. 2ther balloon s$stems and 'ro1ects were designated -#ogul+, -#ob$ Dick+, -?randson+ and -?enetri)+. /rner 4idell, who had some res'onsibilit$ for these missions at the 5a(al Aesearch 4aborator$, and who was later a 5"S" official, once told me he thought all /<2 re'orts were due to militar$ balloons. While -all+ is going too far, their role has, I think, been insufficientl$ a''reciated. So far as I know there has ne(er been a s$stematic and intentional control e)'eriment, in which high-altitude balloons were secretl$ released and tracked, and /<2 re'orts from (isual and radar obser(ers noted. In % 5I, o(erflights of the So(iet /nion b$ /S reconnaissance balloons began. "t their 'eak there were do.ens of balloon launches a da$. 3alloon o(erflights were then re'laced b$ high-altitude aircraft, such as the /-G, which in turn were largel$ re'laced b$ reconnaissance satellites. #an$ /<2s dating from this 'eriod were clearl$ scientific

balloons, as are some since. High-altitude balloons are still being launched, including 'latforms carr$ing cosmic ra$ sensors, o'tical and infrared telesco'es, radio recei(ers 'robing the cosmic background radiation, and other instruments abo(e most of the >arth+s atmos'here. " great to-do has been made of one or more alleged crashed fl$ing saucers near Aoswell, 5ew #e)ico, in % EC. Some initial re'orts and news'a'er 'hotogra'hs of the incident are entirel$ consistent with the idea that the debris was a crashed high-altitude balloon. 3ut other residents of the region - es'eciall$ decades later - remember more e)otic materials, enigmatic hierogl$'hics, threats b$ militar$ 'ersonnel to witnesses if the$ didn+t kee' what the$ knew to themsel(es, and the canonical stor$ that alien machiner$ and bod$ 'arts were 'acked into an air'lane and flown to the "ir #ateriel Command at Wright-=atterson "ir <orce 3ase. Some, but not all, of the reco(ered alien bod$ stories are associated with this incident. =hili' @lass, a long-time and dedicated /<2 sce'tic, has unco(ered a subse8uentl$ declassified letter dated GC *ul$ % EB, a $ear after the Aoswell -incident+, from #a1or ?eneral C.3. Cabell, then Director of Intelligence for the /S "ir <orce 9and later, as a CI" official, a ma1or figure in the aborti(e /S in(asion of Cuba at the 3a$ of =igs:. Cabell was in8uiring of those who re'orted to him on what /<2s might be. He hadn+t a clue. In an %% 2ctober % EB summar$ res'onse, e)'licitl$ including information in the 'ossession of the "ir #ateriel Command, we find the Director of Intelligence being told that nobod$ else in the "ir <orce had a clue either. This makes it unlikel$ that /<2 fragments and occu'ants had made their wa$ to Wright-=atterson the $ear before. What the "ir <orce was mostl$ worried about was that /<2s were Aussian. Wh$ Aussians would be testing fl$ing saucers o(er the /nited States was a 'u..le to which the following four answers were 'ro'osed! -9%: To negate /S confidence in the atom bomb as the most ad(anced and decisi(e wea'on in warfare. 9G: To 'erform 'hotogra'hic reconnaissance missions. 9&: To test /S air defenses. 9E: To conduct familiari.ation flights Jfor strategic bombersF o(er /S territor$.+ We now know that /<2s neither were nor are Aussian, and howe(er dedicated the So(iet interest ma$ ha(e been to ob1ecti(es 9%: through 9E:, fl$ing saucers weren+t how the$ 'ursued these ob1ecti(es. #uch of the e(idence regarding the Aoswell -incident+ seems to 'oint to a cluster of high-altitude classified balloons, 'erha's launched from nearb$ "lmagordo "rm$ "ir <ield or White Sands =ro(ing ?round, that crashed near Aoswell, the debris of secret instruments hurriedl$ collected b$ earnest militar$ 'ersonnel, earl$ 'ress re'orts announcing that it was a s'aceshi' from another 'lanet 9-A""< Ca'tures <l$ing Saucer on Aanch in Aoswell Aegion+:, di(erse recollections simmering o(er the $ears, and memories refreshed b$ the o''ortunit$ for a little

fame and fortune. 9Two /<2 museums in Aoswell are leading tourist sto's.: " % E re'ort ordered b$ the Secretar$ of the "ir <orce and the De'artment of Defense in res'onse to 'rodding from a 5ew #e)ico Congressman identifies the Aoswell debris as remnants of a longrange, highl$ secret, balloon-borne low-fre8uenc$ acoustic detection s$stem called -=ro1ect #ogul+ - an attem't to sense So(iet nuclear wea'ons e)'losions at tro'o'ause altitudes. The "ir <orce in(estigators, rummaging com'rehensi(el$ through the secret files of % EC, found no e(idence of heightened message traffic! There were no indications and warnings, notice of alerts, or a higher tem'o of o'erational acti(it$ re'orted that would be logicall$ generated if an alien craft, whose intentions were unknown, entered /.S. territor$... The records indicate that none of this ha''ened 9or if it did, it was controlled b$ a securit$ s$stem so efficient and tight that no one, /.S. or otherwise, has been able to du'licate it since. If such a s$stem had been in effect at the time, it would ha(e also been used to 'rotect our atomic secrets from the So(iets, which histor$ has shown ob(iousl$ was not the case.: The radar targets carried b$ the balloons were 'artl$ manufactured b$ no(elt$ and to$ com'anies in 5ew 6ork, whose in(entor$ of decorati(e icons seems to ha(e been remembered man$ $ears later as alien hierogl$'hics. The he$da$ of /<2s corres'onds to the time when the main deli(er$ (ehicle for nuclear wea'ons was being switched from aircraft to missiles. "n earl$ and im'ortant technical 'roblem concerned re-entr$ - returning a nuclear-armed nosecone through the bulk of the >arth+s atmos'here without burning it u' in the 'rocess 9as small asteroids and comets are destro$ed in their 'assage through the u''er air:. Certain materials, nosecone geometries, and angles of entr$ are better than others. 2bser(ations of re-entr$ 9or the more s'ectacular launches: could (er$ well re(eal /S 'rogress in this (ital strategic technolog$ or, worse, inefficiencies in the design, such obser(ations might suggest what defensi(e measures an ad(ersar$ should take. /nderstandabl$, the sub1ect was considered highl$ sensiti(e. Ine(itabl$ there must ha(e been cases in which militar$ 'ersonnel were told not to talk about what the$ had seen, or where seemingl$ innocuous sightings were suddenl$ classified to' secret with se(erel$ constrained need-to-know criteria. "ir <orce officers and ci(ilian scientists thinking back about it in later $ears might (er$ well conclude that the go(ernment had engineered a /<2 co(er-u'. If nosecones are 1udged /<2s, the charge is a fair one. Consider s'oofing. In the strategic confrontation between the /nited States and the So(iet /nion, the ade8uac$ of air defences was a (ital

issue. It was item 9&: on ?eneral Cabell+s list. If $ou could find a weakness, it might be the ke$ to -(ictor$+ in an all-out nuclear war. The onl$ sure wa$ to test $our ad(ersar$+s defences is to fl$ an aircraft o(er their borders and see how long it takes for them to notice. The /nited States did this routinel$ to test So(iet air defences. In the % 5;s and % I;s, the /nited States had state-of-the-art radar defence s$stems co(ering its west and east coasts, and es'eciall$ its northern a''roaches 9o(er which a So(iet bomber or missile attack would most likel$ come:. 3ut there was a soft underbell$ - no significant earl$ warning s$stem to detect the geogra'hicall$ much more ta)ing southern a''roach. This is of course information (ital for a 'otential ad(ersar$. It immediatel$ suggests a s'oof! one or more of the ad(ersar$+s high-'erformance aircraft .oom out of the Caribbean, let+s sa$, into /S airs'ace, 'enetrating, let+s sa$, a few hundred miles u' the #ississi''i Ai(er until a /S air defence radar locks on. Then the intruders hightail it out of there. 92r, as a control e)'eriment, a unit of /S high-'erformance aircraft is se8uestered and sent in unannounced sorties to determine how 'orous "merican air defences are.: In such a case, there ma$ be combined (isual and radar sigh tings b$ militar$ and ci(ilian obser(ers and large numbers of inde'endent re'orts. What is re'orted corres'onds to no known aircraft. The "ir <orce and ci(ilian a(iation authorities truthfull$ state that none of their aircraft was res'onsible. >(en if the$+(e been urging Congress to fund a southern >arl$ Warning S$stem, the "ir <orce is unlikel$ to admit that So(iet or Cuban aircraft got to 5ew 2rleans, much less #em'his, before an$bod$ caught on. Here again, we ha(e e(er$ reason to e)'ect a high-le(el technical in(estigating team, "ir <orce and ci(ilian obser(ers told to kee' their mouths shut, and not 1ust the a''earance but the realit$ of su''ression of the data. "gain, this cons'irac$ of silence need ha(e nothing to do with alien s'acecraft. >(en decades later, there are bureaucratic reasons for the De'artment of Defense to be closemouthed about such embarrassments. There is a 'otential conflict of interest between 'arochial concerns of the De'artment of Defense and the solution of the /<2 enigma. In addition, something that both the Central Intelligence "genc$ and the /S "ir <orce worried about then was /<2s as a means of clogging communication channels in a national crisis, and confusing (isual and radar sightings of enem$ aircraft - a signal-to-noise 'roblem that in a wa$ is the fli' side of s'oofing. In (iew of all this, I+m 'erfectl$ 're'ared to belie(e that at least some /<2 re'orts and anal$ses, and 'erha's (oluminous files, ha(e been made inaccessible to the 'ublic which 'a$s the bills. The Cold War is o(er, the missile and balloon technolog$ is largel$ obsolete or widel$ a(ailable, and those who would be embarrassed are no longer on acti(e dut$. The worst that would ha''en, from the militar$+s 'oint

of (iew, is that there would be one more acknowledged instance of the "merican 'ublic being misled or lied to in the interest of national securit$. It+s time for the files to be declassified and made generall$ a(ailable. "nother instructi(e intersection of the cons'irac$ tem'erament and the secrec$ culture concerns the 5ational Securit$ "genc$. This organi.ation monitors the tele'hone, radio and other communications of both friends and ad(ersaries of the /nited States. Surre'titiousl$, it reads the world+s mail. Its dail$ interce't traffic is huge. In times of tension, (ast arra$s of 5S" 'ersonnel fluent in the rele(ant languages are sitting with ear'hones, monitoring in real time e(er$thing from encr$'ted commands from the target nation+s ?eneral Staff to 'illow talk. <or other material there are ke$ words b$ which com'uters cull out for human attention s'ecific messages or con(ersations of current urgent concern. >(er$thing is stored, so that retros'ecti(el$ it is 'ossible to go back to the magnetic ta'es and to trace the first a''earance of a codeword, sa$, or command res'onsibilit$ in a crisis. Some of the interce'ts are made from listening 'osts in nearb$ countries 9Turke$ for Aussia, India for China:, from aircraft and shi's 'atrolling nearb$, or from ferret satellites in >arth orbit. There is a continuing dance of measures and counter-measures between the 5S" and the securit$ ser(ices of other nations, who understandabl$ do not wish to be listened in on. 5ow add to this alread$ head$ mi) the <reedom of Information "ct 9<2I":. " re8uest is made to the 5S" for all information it has a(ailable on /<2s. It is re8uired b$ law to be res'onsi(e, but of course without re(ealing -methods and sources+. 5S" also feels a dee' obligation not to alert other nations, friends or foes, in an obtrusi(e and 'oliticall$ embarrassing wa$, to its acti(ities. So a more or less t$'ical interce't released b$ 5S" in res'onse to an <2I" re8uest will be a third of a 'age blacked out, a fragment of a line sa$ing -re'orted a /<2 at low altitude+, followed b$ two-thirds of a 'age blacked out. The 5S"+s 'osition is that releasing the rest of the 'age would 'otentiall$ com'romise sources and methods, or at least alert the nation in 8uestion to how readil$ its a(iation radio traffic is being interce'ted. 9If 5S" released surrounding, seemingl$ bland, aircraft-to-tower transmissions, it would then be 'ossible for the nation in 8uestion to recogni.e that its militar$ air traffic control dialogues are being monitored and to switch to communications means - fre8uenc$ ho''ing, for e)am'le - that make 5S" interce'ts more difficult.: 3ut /<2 cons'irac$ theorists recei(ing, in res'onse to their <2I" re8uests, do.ens of 'ages of material, almost all of it blacked out, understandabl$ deduce that the 5S" 'ossesses e)tensi(e information on /<2s and is 'art of a cons'irac$ of silence. In talking not for attribution with 5S" officials, I am told the following stor$! t$'ical interce'ts are of militar$ and ci(ilian aircraft

radioing that the$ see a /<2, b$ which the$ mean an unidentified ob1ect in the surrounding airs'ace. It ma$ e(en be /S aircraft on reconnaissance or s'oofing missions. In most cases it is something much more ordinar$, and the clarification is also re'orted on later 5S" interce'ts. Similar logic can be used to make 5S" seem a 'art of any cons'irac$. <or e)am'le, the$ sa$, a res'onse was re8uired to an <2I" re8uest on what the 5S" knew about the singer >l(is =resle$. 9"''aritions of #r =resle$ and resulting miraculous cures ha(e been re'orted.: Well, the 5S" knew a few things. <or e)am'le, a re'ort on the economic health of a certain nation re'orted how man$ >l(is =resle$ ta'es and CDs were sold there. This information also was su''lied as a few lines of clear in a (ast ocean of censorshi' black. Was 5S" engaged in an >l(is =resle$ co(er-u'7 While of course I ha(e not 'ersonall$ in(estigated 5S"+s /<2-related traffic, their stor$ seems to me (er$ 'lausible. If we are con(inced that the go(ernment is kee'ing (isits of aliens from us, then we should take on the secrec$ culture of the militar$ and intelligence establishments. "t the (er$ least we can 'ush for declassification of rele(ant information from decades ago, of which the *ul$ % E "ir <orce re'ort on the -Aoswell Incident+ is a good e)am'le. 6ou can catch a fla(our of the 'aranoid st$le of man$ /<2lo-gists, as well as a nai(ete about the secrec$ culture, in a book b$ a former .ew <ork "imes re'orter, Howard 3lum :5ut "here, Simon and Schuster, % ;:! I could not, no matter how in(enti(el$ I tried, a(oid slamming into sudden dead ends. The whole stor$ was alwa$s lingering, deliberatel$, I came to belie(e, 1ust out of m$ gras'. Wh$7 This was the single, 'ractical, im'ossible 8uestion that was balanced ominousl$ on the tall 'eak of m$ mounting sus'icions. Wh$ were all these official s'okesmen and institutions doing their collusi(e best to hinder and obstruct m$ efforts7 Wh$ were stories true one da$, and false the ne)t7 Wh$ all the tense, un$ielding secreti(eness7 Wh$ were militar$ intelligence agents s'reading disinformation, dri(ing /<2 belie(ers mad7 What had the go(ernment found out there7 What was it tr$ing to hide7 2f course there+s resistance. Some information is classified legitimatel$, as with militar$ hardware, secrec$ sometimes reall$ is in the national interest. <urther, militar$, 'olitical and intelligence communities tend to (alue secrec$ for its own sake. It+s a wa$ of silencing critics and e(ading res'onsibilit$ for incom'etence or worse. It generates an elite, a band of brothers in whom the national confidence can be reliabl$ (ested, unlike the great mass of citi.enr$ on

whose behalf the information is 'resumabl$ made secret in the first 'lace. With a few e)ce'tions, secrec$ is dee'l$ incom'atible with democrac$ and with science. 2ne of the most 'ro(ocati(e 'ur'orted intersections of /<2s and secrec$ are the so-called #*-%G documents. In late % BE, so the stor$ goes, an en(elo'e containing a canister of e)'osed but unde(elo'ed film was thrust into the home mail slot of a film 'roducer, *aime Shandera, interested in /<2s and go(ernment co(er-u', remarkabl$, 1ust as he was about to go out and ha(e lunch with the author of a book on the alleged e(ents in Aoswell, 5ew #e)ico. When de(elo'ed, it -'ro(ed to be+ 'age after 'age of a highl$ classified -e$es onl$+ e)ecuti(e order dated GE Se'tember % EC in which =resident Harr$ S. Truman seemingl$ established a committee of twel(e scientists and go(ernment officials to e)amine a set of crashed fl$ing saucers and little alien bodies. The membershi' of the #*-%G committee is remarkable because these are 1ust the militar$, intelligence, science and engineering 'eo'le who might ha(e been called to in(estigate such crashes if the$ had occurred. In the #*-%G documents there are tantali.ing references to a''endices about the nature of the aliens, the technolog$ of their shi's and so on, but the a''endices were not included in the m$sterious film. The "ir <orce sa$s that the document is bogus. The /<2 e)'ert =hili' *. @lass and others find le)icogra'hic and t$'ogra'hic inconsistencies that suggest that the whole thing is a hoa). Those who 'urchase fine art are concerned about the 'ro(enance of their 'ainting - that is, who owned it most recentl$ and who before that... and so on all the wa$ back to the original artist. If there are breaks in the chain, if a &;;-$ear-old 'ainting can be tracked back onl$ si)t$ $ears and then we ha(e no idea in what home or museum it was hanging, the forger$ warning flags go u'. 3ecause the rewards of forger$ in fine art are high, collectors must be (er$ cautious. Where the #*-%G documents are most (ulnerable and sus'ect is e)actl$ on this 8uestion of 'ro(enance - the e(idence miraculousl$ dro''ed on a doorste' like something out of a fair$ stor$, 'erha's -The Shoemaker and the >l(es+. There are man$ cases in human histor$ of a similar character -where a document of dubious 'ro(enance suddenl$ a''ears carr$ing information of great im'ort which strongl$ su''orts the case of those who ha(e made the disco(er$. "fter careful and in some cases courageous in(estigation the document is 'ro(ed to be a hoa). There is no difficult$ in understanding the moti(ation of the hoa)ers. " more or less t$'ical e)am'le is the book of Deuteronomy = disco(ered hidden in the Tem'le in *erusalem b$ @ing *osiah, who, miraculousl$, in the midst of a ma1or reformation struggle, found in Deuteronomy confirmation of all his (iews. "nother case is what is called the Donation of Constantine.

Constantine the ?reat is the >m'eror who made Christianit$ the official religion of the Aoman >m'ire. The cit$ of Constantino'le 9now Istanbul:, for o(er a thousand $ears the ca'ital of the >astern Aoman >m'ire, was named after him. He died in the $ear . &&5. In the ninth centur$, references to the Donation of Constantine suddenl$ a''eared in Christian writings, in it Constantine wills to his contem'orar$, =o'e S$l(ester I, the entire Western Aoman >m'ire, including Aome. This little gift, so the stor$ went, was 'artl$ in gratitude for S$l(ester+s cure of Constantine+s le'ros$. 3$ the ele(enth centur$, 'o'es were regularl$ referring to the Donation of Constantine to 1ustif$ their claims to be not onl$ the ecclesiastical but also the secular rulers of central Ital$. Through the #iddle "ges the Donation was 1udged genuine both b$ those who su''orted and b$ those who o''osed the tem'oral claims of the Church. 4oren.o of Dalla was one of the 'ol$maths of the Italian Aenaissance. " contro(ersialist, crust$, critical, arrogant, a 'edant, he was attacked b$ his contem'oraries for sacrilege, im'udence, temerit$ and 'resum'tion, among other im'erfections. "fter he concluded that the "'ostles+ Creed could not on grammatical grounds ha(e actuall$ been written b$ the Twel(e "'ostles, the In8uisition declared him a heretic, and onl$ the inter(ention of his 'atron, "lfonso, @ing of 5a'les, 're(ented his immolation. /ndeterred, in %EE;, he 'ublished a treatise demonstrating that the Donation of Constantine is a crude forger$. The language in which it was written was to fourth centur$ court 4atin as Cockne$ was to the @ing+s >nglish. 3ecause of 4oren.o of Dalla, the Aoman Catholic Church no longer 'resses its claim to rule >uro'ean nations because of the Donation of Constantine. This work, whose 'ro(enance has a fi(e-centur$ hole in it, is generall$ understood to ha(e been forged b$ a cleric attached to the Church+s curia around the time of Charlemagne, when the 'a'ac$ 9and es'eciall$ =o'e "drian I: was arguing for unification of church and state. "ssuming the$ both belong to the same categor$, the #*-%G documents are a cle(erer hoa) than the Donation of Constantine. 3ut on matters of 'ro(enance, (ested interest and le)icogra'hic inconsistencies, the$ ha(e much in common. " co(er-u' to kee' knowledge of e)traterrestrial life or alien abductions almost wholl$ secret for fort$-fi(e $ears, with hundreds if not thousands of go(ernment em'lo$ees 'ri($ to it, is a remarkable notion. Certainl$, go(ernment secrets are routinel$ ke't, e(en secrets of substantial general interest. 3ut the ostensible 'oint of such secrec$ is to 'rotect the countr$ and its citi.ens. Here, though, it+s different. The alleged cons'irac$ of those with securit$ clearances is to kee' from the citi.ens knowledge of a continuing alien assault on the human s'ecies. If e)traterrestrials reall$ were abducting millions of us, it would be much more than a matter of national securit$. It would affect

the securit$ of all human beings e(er$where on >arth. ?i(en such stakes, is it 'lausible that no one with real knowledge and e(idence, in nearl$ G;; nations, would blow the whistle, s'eak out and side with the humans rather than the aliens7 Since the end of the Cold War 5"S" has been flailing about, tr$ing to find missions that 1ustif$ its e)istence - 'articularl$ a good reason for humans in s'ace. If the >arth were being (isited dail$ b$ hostile aliens, wouldn+t 5"S" lea' on this o''ortunit$ to augment its funding7 "nd if an alien in(asion were in 'rogress, wh$ would the "ir <orce, traditionall$ led b$ 'ilots, ste' back from manned s'aceflight and launch all its 'a$loads on unmanned boosters7 Consider the former Strategic Defense Initiati(e 2rgani.ation, in charge of -Star Wars+. It+s fallen on hard times now, 'articularl$ its ob1ecti(e of basing defences in s'ace. Its name and 'ers'ecti(e ha(e been demoted. It+s the 3allistic #issile Defense 2rgani.ation these da$s. It no longer e(en re'orts directl$ to the Secretar$ of Defense. The inabilit$ of such technolog$ to 'rotect the /nited States against a massi(e attack b$ nuclear-armed missiles is manifest. 3ut wouldn+t we want at least to attem't de'lo$ment of defences in s'ace if we were facing an alien in(asion7 The De'artment of Defense, like similar ministries in e(er$ nation, thri(es on enemies, real or imagined. It is im'lausible in the e)treme that the e)istence of such an ad(ersar$ would be su''ressed b$ the (er$ organi.ation that would most benefit from its 'resence. The entire 'ost-Cold War 'osture of the militar$ and ci(ilian s'ace 'rogrammes of the /nited States 9and other nations: s'eaks 'owerfull$ against the idea that there are aliens among us - unless, of course, the news is also being ke't from those who 'lan the national defence. *ust as there are those who acce't e(er$ /<2 re'ort at face (alue, there are also those who dismiss the idea of alien (isitation out of hand and with great 'assion. It is, the$ sa$, unnecessar$ to e)amine the e(idence, and -unscientific+ e(en to contem'late the issue. I once hel'ed to organi.e a 'ublic debate at the annual meeting of the "merican "ssociation for the "d(ancement of Science between 'ro'onent and o''onent scientists of the 'ro'osition that some /<2s were s'aceshi's, whereu'on a distinguished 'h$sicist, whose 1udgement in man$ other matters I res'ected, threatened to set the Dice =resident of the /nited States on me if I 'ersisted in this madness. 95e(ertheless, the debate was held and 'ublished, the issues were a little better clarified, and I did not hear from S'iro T. "gnew.: " % I stud$ b$ the 5ational "cadem$ of Sciences, while recogni.ing that there are re'orts -not easil$ e)'lained+, concluded that -the least likel$ e)'lanation of /<2s is the h$'othesis of e)traterrestrial (isitations b$ intelligent beings+. Think of how man$ other -e)'lanations+ there might be! time tra(ellers, demons from

witchland, tourists from another dimension - like #r #)$.t'lk 9or was it #)$.'tlk7 I alwa$s forget: from the land of Nrfff in the <ifth Dimension in the old Su'erman comic books, the souls of the dead, or a -noncartesian+ 'henomenon that doesn+t obe$ the rules of science or e(en of logic. >ach of these -e)'lanations+ has in fact been seriousl$ 'roffered. -4east likel$+ is reall$ sa$ing something. This rhetorical e)cess is an inde) of how distasteful the whole sub1ect has become to man$ scientists. It+s telling that emotions can run so high on a matter about which we reall$ know so little. This is es'eciall$ true of the more recent flurr$ of alien abduction re'orts. "fter all, if true, either h$'othesis - in(asion b$ se)uall$ mani'ulati(e e)traterrestrials or an e'idemic of hallucinations - teaches us something we certainl$ ought to know about. #a$be the reason for strong feelings is that both alternati(es ha(e such un'leasant im'lications.

0urora

The number of re'orts and their consistenc$ suggest that there ma$ be some basis for these sightings other than hallucinogenic drugs. $ystery 0ircraft re'ort, Federation of 0merican Scientists G; "ugust, % G

Aurora is a high-altitude, e)tremel$ secret "merican reconnaissance

aircraft, a successor to the /-G and the SA-C% /lack+ird! It either e)ists or it doesn+t. 3$ % &, there were re'orts b$ obser(ers near California+s >dwards "ir <orce 3ase and ?room 4ake, 5e(ada, and 'articularl$ a region of ?room 4ake called "rea 5% where e)'erimental aircraft for the De'artment of Defense are tested, that seemed b$ and large mutuall$ consistent. Confirming re'orts were filed from all o(er the world. /nlike its 'redecessors, the aircraft is said to be h$'ersonic, to tra(el much faster, 'erha's si) to eight times faster, than the s'eed of sound. It lea(es an odd contrail described as -donuts-on-a-ro'e+. =erha's it is also a means of launching small secret satellites into orbit, de(elo'ed, it is s'eculated, after the Challenger disaster indicated the shuttle+s e'isodic unreliabilit$ for defence 'a$loads. 3ut the CI" -swears u' and down there+s no such 'rogramme+, sa$s /S Senator and former astronaut *ohn ?lenn. The 'rinci'al designer of some of the most secret /S aircraft sa$s the same thing. " Secretar$ of the "ir <orce has (ehementl$ denied the e)istence of such an air'lane, or an$

'rogramme to build one, in the /S "ir <orce or an$where else. Would he lie7 -We ha(e looked into all such sightings, as we ha(e for /<2 re'orts,+ sa$s an "ir <orce s'okesman, in 'erha's carefull$ chosen words, -and we cannot e)'lain them.+ #eanwhile, in "'ril % 5 the "ir <orce sei.ed E,;;; more acres near "rea 5%. The area to which 'ublic access is denied is growing. Consider then the two 'ossibilities! that 0urora e)ists, and that it does not. If it e)ists, it+s striking that an official co(er-u' of its (er$ e)istence has been attem'ted, that secrec$ could be so effecti(e, and that the aircraft could be tested or refuelled all o(er the world without a single 'hotogra'h of it or an$ other hard e(idence being 'ublished. 2n the other hand, if 0urora does not e)ist, it+s striking that a m$th has been 'ro'agated so (igorousl$ and gone so far. Wh$ should insistent official denials ha(e carried so little weight7 Could the (er$ e)istence of a designation - 0urora in this case - ser(e to 'in a common label on a range of di(erse 'henomena7 >ither wa$, 0urora seems rele(ant to /<2s.

Hallucinations
J"Fs children tremble and fear e(er$thing in the blind darkness, so we in the light sometimes fear what is no more to be feared than the things children in the dark hold in terror... 4ucretius, 5n the .ature of "hings 9c. I; 3C:

>

Ad(ertisers must know their audiences. It+s a sim'le matter of

'roduct and cor'orate sur(i(al. So we can learn how commercial, freeenter'rise "merica (iews /<2 buffs b$ e)amining the ad(ertisements in maga.ines de(oted to /<2s. Here are some 9entirel$ t$'ical: ad headlines from an issue of ?F5 ?niverse* Q Senior Aesearch Scientist Disco(ers G,;;;-6ear-2ld Secret to Wealth, =ower, and Aomantic 4o(e. Q Classified0 "bo(e To' Secret. The #ost Sensational ?o(ernment Cons'irac$ of 2ur Time Is <inall$ Ae(ealed to the World b$ a Aetired #ilitar$ 2fficer. Q What Is 6our -S'ecial #ission+ While on >arth7 The Cosmic "wakening of 4ight Workers, Walk-Ins, V "ll Star-3orn Ae'resentati(es Has 3egun0 Q This Is What 6ou Ha(e 3een Waiting <or. GE Su'erb, Incredible 4ifeIm'ro(ing /<2 Seals of the S'irits. Q I ?ot a ?irl. Do 6ou7 Sto' #issing 2ut0 ?et ?irls 5ow0 Q Subscribe Toda$ to the #ost "ma.ing #aga.ine in the /ni(erse. Q 3ring #iraculous ?ood 4uck, 4o(e, and #one$ into 6our 4ife0 These =owers Ha(e Worked for Centuries0 The$ Can Work for 6ou. Q "ma.ing =s$chic Aesearch 3reakthrough. It Takes 2nl$ 5 #inutes to =ro(e that =s$chic #agic =owers Aeall$ Work0 Q Ha(e 6ou the Courage to 3e 4uck$, 4o(ed and Aich7 ?uaranteed ?ood <ortune Will Come 6our Wa$0 ?et >(er$thing 6ou Want with the #ost =owerful Talismans in the World. Q #en in 3lack! ?o(ernment "gents or "liens7 Q Increase the =ower of ?emstones, Charms, Seals and S$mbols. Im'ro(e the >ffecti(eness of >(er$thing 6ou Do. #agnif$ 6our #ind =ower and "bilities with the #ind =ower #"?5I<I>A. Q The <amous #one$ #agnet! Would 6ou 4ike #ore #one$7 Q Testament of 4ael, Sacred Scri'tures of a 4ost Ci(ili.ation.

Q " 5ew 3ook b$ -Commander R+ from Inner 4ight! The Controllers, the Hidden Aulers of >arth Identified. We "re the =ro'ert$ of an "lien Intelligence0 What is the common thread that binds these ads together7 5ot /<2s. Surel$ it+s the e)'ectation of unlimited audience gullibilit$. That+s wh$ the$+re 'laced in /<2 maga.ines - because b$ and large the (er$ act of bu$ing such a maga.ine so categori.es the reader. Doubtless, there are moderatel$ sce'tical and full$ rational 'urchasers of these 'eriodicals who are demeaned b$ such e)'ectations of ad(ertisers and editors. 3ut if the$+re right e(en about the bulk of their readers, what might it mean for the alien abduction 'aradigm7 2ccasionall$, I get a letter from someone who is in -contact+ with e)traterrestrials. I am in(ited to -ask them an$thing+. "nd so o(er the $ears I+(e 're'ared a little list of 8uestions. The e)traterrestrials are (er$ ad(anced, remember. So I ask things like, -=lease 'ro(ide a short 'roof of <ermat+s 4ast Theorem+. 2r the ?oldbach Con1ecture. "nd then I ha(e to e)'lain what these are because e)traterrestrials will not call it <ermat+s 4ast Theorem. So I write out the sim'le e8uation with the e)'onents. I ne(er get an answer. 2n the other hand, if I ask something like -Should we be good7+ I almost alwa$s get an answer. "n$thing (ague, es'eciall$ in(ol(ing con(entional moral 1udgements, these aliens are e)tremel$ ha''$ to res'ond to. 3ut on an$thing s'ecific, where there is a chance to find out if the$ actuall$ know an$thing be$ond what most humans know, there is onl$ silence.K Something can be deduced from this differential abilit$ to answer 8uestions.
JK It+s a stimulating e)ercise to think of 8uestions to which no human toda$ knows the answers, but where a correct answer would immediatel$ be recogni.ed as such. It+s e(en more challenging to formulate such 8uestions in fields other than mathematics. =erha's we should hold a contest and collect the best res'onses in Ten Huestions to "sk an "lien+.F

In the good old da$s before the alien abduction 'aradigm, 'eo'le taken aboard /<2s were offered, so the$ re'orted, edif$ing lectures on the dangers of nuclear war. 5owada$s, when such instruction is gi(en, the e)traterrestrials seem fi)ated on en(ironmental degradation and "IDS. How is it, I ask m$self, that /<2 occu'ants are so bound to fashionable or urgent concerns on this 'lanet7 Wh$ not an incidental warning about C<Cs and o.one de'letion in the % 5;s, or about the HID (irus in the % C;s, when it might reall$ ha(e done some good7 Wh$ not alert us now to some 'ublic health or en(ironmental threat we ha(en+t $et figured out7 Can it be that aliens know onl$ as much as those who re'ort their 'resence7 "nd if one of the chief 'ur'oses of alien (isitations is admonitions about global dangers, wh$ tell it onl$ to a few 'eo'le whose accounts are sus'ect an$wa$7 Wh$ not take o(er

the tele(ision networks for a night, or a''ear with (i(id cautionar$ audio(isuals before the /nited 5ations Securit$ Council7 Surel$ this is not too difficult for those who wing across the light $ears. The earliest commerciall$ successful /<2 -contactee+ was ?eorge "damski. He o'erated a tin$ restaurant at the foot of California+s #ount =alomar, and set u' a small telesco'e out back. "t the summit of the mountain was the largest telesco'e on >arth, the G;;-inch reflector of the Carnegie Institution of Washington and the California Institute of Technolog$. "damski st$led himself Professor "damski of #ount =alomar 5+servatory! He 'ublished a book - it caused 8uite a sensation, I recall - in which he described how in the desert nearb$ he had encountered nice-looking aliens with long blond hair and, if I remember correctl$, white robes who warned "damski about the dangers of nuclear war. The$ hailed from the 'lanet Denus 9whose ;;W <ahrenheit surface tem'erature we can now recogni.e as a barrier to "dam-ski+s credibilit$:. In 'erson, he was utterl$ con(incing. The "ir <orce officer nominall$ in charge of /<2 in(estigations at the time described "damski in these words! To look at the man and to listen to his stor$ $ou had an immediate urge to belie(e him. #a$be it was his a''earance. He was dressed in well worn, but neat, o(eralls. He had slightl$ gra$ing hair and the most honest 'air of e$es I+(e e(er seen. "damski+s star slowl$ faded as he aged, but he self-'ublished other books and was a long-standing fi)ture at con(entions of fl$ing saucer -belie(ers+. The first alien abduction stor$ in the modern genre was that of 3ett$ and 3arne$ Hill, a 5ew Ham'shire cou'le, she a social worker and he a =ost 2ffice em'lo$ee. During a late-night dri(e in % I% through the White #ountains, 3ett$ s'otted a bright, initiall$ star-like /<2 that seemed to follow them. 3ecause 3arne$ feared it might harm them, the$ left the main highwa$ for narrow mountain roads, arri(ing home two hours later than the$+d e)'ected. The e)'erience 'rom'ted 3ett$ to read a book that described /<2s as s'aceshi's from other worlds, their occu'ants were little men who sometimes abducted humans. Soon after, she e)'erienced a terrif$ing, re'etiti(e nightmare in which she and 3arne$ were abducted and taken aboard the /<2. 3arne$ o(erheard her describing this dream to friends, co-workers and (olunteer /<2 in(estigators. 9It+s curious that 3ett$ didn+t discuss it with her husband directl$.: 3$ a week or so after the e)'erience, the$ were describing a -'ancake+-like /<2 with uniformed figures seen through the craft+s trans'arent windows. Se(eral $ears later, 3arne$+s 's$chiatrist referred him to a 3oston h$'nothera'ist, 3en1amin Simon, #D. 3ett$ came to be h$'noti.ed as

well. /nder h$'nosis the$ se'aratel$ filled in details of what had ha''ened during the -missing+ two hours! the$ watched the /<2 land on the highwa$ and were taken, 'artl$ immobili.ed, inside the craft where short, gre$, humanoid creatures with long noses 9a detail discordant with the current 'aradigm: sub1ected them to uncon(entional medical e)aminations, including a needle in her na(el 9before amniocentesis had been in(ented on >arth:. There are those who now belie(e that eggs were taken from 3ett$+s o(aries and s'erm from 3arne$, although that isn+t 'art of the original stor$.K The ca'tain showed 3ett$ a ma' of interstellar s'ace with the shi'+s routes marked.
JK In more recent times, #s Hill has written that in real abductions, -no se)ual interest is shown. Howe(er, fre8uentl$ the$ hel' themsel(es to some of Jthe abductee+sF belongings, such as fishing rods, 1ewelr$ of different t$'es, e$eglasses or a cu' of laundr$ soa'.+F

#artin S. @ottme$er has shown that man$ of the motifs in the Hills+ account can be found in a % 5& motion 'icture, %nvaders from $ars! "nd 3arne$+s stor$ of what the aliens looked like, es'eciall$ their enormous e$es, emerged in a h$'nosis session 1ust twel(e da$s after the airing of an e'isode of the tele(ision series The 2uter 4imits+ in which such an alien was 'ortra$ed. The Hill case was widel$ discussed. It was made into a % C5 TD mo(ie that introduced the idea that short, gre$ alien abductors are among us into the 's$ches of millions of 'eo'le. 3ut e(en the few scientists of the time who thought that some /<2s might in fact be alien s'aceshi's were war$. The alleged encounter was cons'icuous b$ its absence from the list of suggesti(e /<2 cases com'iled b$ *ames >. #cDonald, a /ni(ersit$ of "ri.ona atmos'heric 'h$sicist. In general, those scientists who ha(e taken /<2s seriousl$ ha(e tended to kee' the alien abduction accounts at arm+s length, while those who take alien abductions at face (alue see little reason to anal$se mere lights in the sk$. #cDonald+s (iew on /<2s was based, he said, not on irrefutable e(idence, but was a conclusion of last resort! all the alternati(e e)'lanations seemed to him e(en less credible. In the middle % I;s I arranged for #cDonald to 'resent his best cases in a 'ri(ate meeting with leading 'h$sicists and astronomers who had not before staked a claim on the /<2 issue. 5ot onl$ did he fail to con(ince them that we were being (isited b$ e)traterrestrials, he failed e(en to e)cite their interest. "nd this was a grou' with a (er$ high wonder 8uotient. It was sim'l$ that where #cDonald saw aliens, the$ saw much more 'rosaic e)'lanations. I was glad to ha(e an o''ortunit$ to s'end se(eral hours with #r and #rs Hill and with Dr Simon. There was no mistaking the

earnestness and sincerit$ of 3ett$ and 3arne$, and their mi)ed feelings about becoming 'ublic figures under such odd and awkward circumstances. With the Hills+ 'ermission, Dr Simon 'la$ed for me 9and, at m$ in(itation, #cDonald: some of the audiota'es of their sessions under h$'nosis. 3$ far m$ most striking im'ression was the absolute terror in 3arne$+s (oice as he described - -re-li(ed+ would be a better word - the encounter. Dr Simon, while a leading 'ro'onent of the (irtues of h$'nosis in war and 'eace, had not been caught u' in the 'ublic fren.$ about /<2s. He shared handsomel$ in the ro$alties of *ohn <uller+s bestseller, %nterru1ted ourney, about the Hills+ e)'erience. If Dr Simon had 'ronounced their account authentic, the sales of the book might ha(e gone through the roof and his own financial reward been considerabl$ augmented. 3ut he didn+t. He also instantl$ re1ected the notion that the$ were l$ing, orU as suggested b$ another 's$chiatrist, that this was a folie a deux = a shared delusion in which, generall$, the submissi(e 'artner goes along with the delusion of the dominant 'artner. So what+s left7 The Hills, said their 's$chothera'ist, had e)'erienced a s'ecies of -dream+. Together. There ma$ (er$ well be more than one source of alien abduction accounts, 1ust as there are for /<2 sigh tings. 4et+s run through some of the 'ossibilities. In %B E "he %nternational Census of 'aking &allucinations was 'ublished in 4ondon. <rom that time to this, re'eated sur(e$s ha(e shown that %; to G5 'er cent of ordinar$, functioning 'eo'le ha(e e)'erienced, at least once in their lifetimes, a (i(id hallucination, hearing a (oice, usuall$, or seeing a form when there+s no one there. #ore rarel$, 'eo'le sense a haunting aroma, or hear music, or recei(e a re(elation that arri(es inde'endent of the senses. In some cases these become transforming 'ersonal e(ents or 'rofound religious e)'eriences. Hallucinations ma$ be a neglected low door in the wall to a scientific understanding of the sacred. =robabl$ a do.en times since their deaths I+(e heard m$ mother or father, in a con(ersational tone of (oice, call m$ name. 2f course the$ called to me often during m$ life with them M to do a chore, to remind me of a res'onsibilit$, to come to dinner, to engage in con(ersation, to hear about an e(ent of the da$. I still miss them so much that it doesn+t seem at all strange that m$ brain will occasionall$ retrie(e a lucid recollection of their (oices. Such hallucinations ma$ occur to 'erfectl$ normal 'eo'le under 'erfectl$ ordinar$ circumstances. Hallucinations can also be elicited* b$ a cam'fire at night, or under emotional stress, or during e'ile'tic sei.ures or migraine headaches or high fe(er, or b$ 'rolonged fasting or slee'lessnessK or sensor$ de'ri(ation 9for e)am'le, in solitar$ confinement:, or through hallucinogens such as 4SD, 'siloc$bin,

mescaline, or hashish. 9Delirium tremens, the dreaded alcohol-induced DTs, is one well-known manifestation of a withdrawal s$ndrome from alcoholism.: There are also molecules, such as the 'henothia.ines 9thora.ine, for e)am'le:, that make hallucinations go awa$. It is (er$ likel$ that the normal human bod$ generates substances M 'erha's including the mor'hine-like small brain 'roteins called endor'hins M that cause hallucinations, and others that su''ress them. Such celebrated 9and unh$sterical: e)'lorers as "dmiral Aichard 3$rd, Ca'tain *oshua Slocum and Sir >rnest Shackleton all e)'erienced (i(id hallucinations when co'ing with unusual isolation and loneliness.
JK Dreams are associated with a state called A># slee', the abbre(iation standing for ra'id e$e mo(ement. 9/nder the closed e$elids the e$es mo(e, 'erha's following the action in the dream, or 'erha's randoml$.: The A># state is strongl$ correlated with se)ual arousal. >)'eriments ha(e been 'erformed in which slee'ing sub1ects are awakened whene(er the A># state emerges, while members of a control grou' are awakened 1ust as often each night but not when the$+re dreaming. "fter some da$s, the control grou' is a little grogg$, but the e)'erimental grou' M the ones who are 're(ented from dreaming M is hallucinating in da$time. It+s not that a few 'eo'le with a 'articular abnormalit$ can be made to hallucinate in this wa$, anyone is ca'able of hallucinations.F

Whate(er their neurological and molecular antecedents, hallucinations feel real. The$ are sought out in man$ cultures and considered a sign of s'iritual enlightenment. "mong the 5ati(e "mericans of the Western =lains, for e)am'le, or man$ indigenous Siberian cultures, a $oung man+s future was foreshadowed b$ the nature of the hallucination he e)'erienced after a successful -(ision 8uest+, its meaning was discussed with great seriousness among the elders and shamans of the tribe. There are countless instances in the world+s religions where 'atriarchs, 'ro'hets or sa(iours re'air themsel(es to desert or mountain and, assisted b$ hunger and sensor$ de'ri(ation, encounter gods or demons. =s$chedelic-induced religious e)'eriences were a hallmark of the western $outh culture of the % I;s. The e)'erience, howe(er brought about, is often described res'ectfull$ b$ words such as -transcendent+, -numinous+, -sacred+ and -hol$+. Hallucinations are common. If $ou ha(e one, it doesn+t mean $ou+re cra.$. The anthro'ological literature is re'lete with hallucination ethno's$chiatr$, A># dreams and 'ossession trances, which ha(e man$ common elements transculturall$ and across the ages. The hallucinations are routinel$ inter'reted as 'ossession b$ good or e(il s'irits. The 6ale anthro'ologist Weston 4a 3arre goes so far as to argue that -a sur'risingl$ good case could be made that much of culture is hallucination+ and that -the whole intent and function of ritual a''ears to be ... JaF grou' wish to hallucinate realit$+. Here is a descri'tion of hallucinations as a signal-to-noise 'roblem

b$ 4ouis *. West, former medical director of the 5eu-ro's$chiatric Clinic at the /ni(ersit$ of California, 4os "ngeles. It is taken from the fifteenth edition of the Encyclo1aedia /ritannica* JIFmagine a man standing at a closed glass window o''osite his fire'lace, looking out at his garden in the sunset. He is so absorbed b$ the (iew of the outside world that he fails to (isuali.e the interior of the room at all. "s it becomes darker outside, howe(er, images of the ob1ects in the room behind him can be seen reflected diml$ in the window glass. <or a time he ma$ see either the garden 9if he ga.es into the distance: or the reflection of the room+s interior 9if he focuses on the glass a few inches from his face:. 5ight falls, but the fire still burns brightl$ in the fire'lace and illuminates the room. The watcher now sees in the glass a (i(id reflection of the interior of the room behind him, which a''ears to be outside the window. This illusion becomes dimmer as the fire dies down, and, finall$, when it is dark both outside and within, nothing more is seen. If the fire flares u' from time to time, the (isions in the glass rea''ear. In an analogous wa$, hallucinator$ e)'eriences such as those of normal dreams occur when the -da$light+ 9sensor$ in'ut: is reduced while the -interior illumination+ 9general le(el of brain arousal: remains -bright+, and images originating within the -rooms+ of our brains ma$ be 'ercei(ed 9hallucinated: as though the$ came from outside the -windows+ of our senses. "nother analog$ might be that dreams, like the stars, are shining all the time. Though the stars are not often seen b$ da$, since the sun shines too brightl$, if, during the da$, there is an ecli'se of the sun, or if a (iewer chooses to be watchful awhile after sunset or awhile before sunrise, or if he is awakened from time to time on a clear night to look at the sk$, then the stars, like dreams, though often forgotten, ma$ alwa$s be seen. " more brain-related conce't is that of a continuous information'rocessing acti(it$ 9a kind of -'reconscious stream+: that is influenced continuall$ b$ both conscious and unconscious forces and that constitutes the 'otential su''l$ of dream content. The dream is an e)'erience during which, for a few minutes, the indi(idual has some awareness of the stream of data being 'rocessed. Hallucinations in the waking state also would in(ol(e the same 'henomenon, 'roduced b$ a somewhat different set of 's$chological or 'h$siological circumstances... It a''ears that all human beha(iour and e)'erience 9normal as well as abnormal: is well attended b$ illusor$ and hallucinator$ 'henomena. While the relationshi' of these 'henomena to mental illness has been well documented, their role in e(er$da$ life has 'erha's not been considered enough. ?reater understanding of illusions and hallucinations among normal 'eo'le ma$ 'ro(ide e)'lanations for

e)'eriences otherwise relegated to the uncann$, -e)trasensor$+, or su'ernatural. We would surel$ be missing something im'ortant about our own nature if we refused to face u' to the fact that hallucinations are 'art of being human. Howe(er, none of this makes hallucinations 'art of an e)ternal rather than an internal realit$. <i(e to ten 'er cent of us are e)tremel$ suggestible, able to mo(e at a command into a dee' h$'notic trance. Aoughl$ ten 'er cent of "mericans re'ort ha(ing seen one or more ghosts. This is more than the number who allegedl$ remember being abducted b$ aliens, about the same as the number who+(e re'orted seeing one or more /<2s, and less than the number who in the last week of Aichard 5i)on+s =residenc$, before he resigned to a(oid im'eachment, thought he was doing a good-to-e)cellent 1ob as =resident. "t least one 'er cent of all of us is schi.o'hrenic. This amounts to o(er 5; million schi.o'hrenics on the 'lanet, more than the 'o'ulation of, sa$, >ngland. In his % C; book on nightmares, the 's$chiatrist *ohn #ack -about whom I will ha(e more to sa$ - writes! There is a 'eriod in earl$ childhood in which dreams are regarded as real and in which the e(ents, transformations, gratifications, and threats of which the$ are com'osed are regarded b$ the child as if the$ were as much a 'art of his actual dail$ life as his da$time e)'eriences. The ca'acit$ to establish and maintain clear distinctions between the life of dreams and life in the outside world is hard-won and re8uires se(eral $ears to accom'lish, not being com'leted e(en in normal children before ages eight to ten. 5ightmares, X because of their (i(idness and com'elling effecti(e intensit$, are 'articularl$ difficult for the child to 1udge realisticall$. When a child tells a fabulous stor$ - a witch was grimacing in the darkened room, a tiger is lurking under the bed, the (ase was broken b$ a multi-coloured bird that flew in the window and not because, contrar$ to famil$ rules, a football was being kicked inside the house is he or she consciousl$ l$ing7 Surel$ 'arents often act as if the child cannot full$ distinguish between fantas$ and realit$. Some children ha(e acti(e imaginations, others are less well endowed in this de'artment. Some families ma$ res'ect the abilit$ to fantasi.e and encourage the child, while at the same time sa$ing something like -2h, that+s not real, that+s 1ust $our imagination.+ 2ther families ma$ be im'atient about confabulating - it makes running the household and ad1udicating dis'utes at least marginall$ more difficult - and discourage their children from fantasi.ing, 'erha's e(en teaching them to think it+s something shameful. " few 'arents ma$ be unclear about the distinction between realit$ and fantas$ themsel(es, or ma$ e(en

seriousl$ enter into the fantas$. 2ut of all these contending 'ro'ensities and child-rearing 'ractices, some 'eo'le emerge with an intact abilit$ to fantasi.e, and a histor$, e)tending well into adulthood, of confabulation. 2thers grow u' belie(ing that an$one who doesn+t know the difference between realit$ and fantas$ is cra.$. #ost of us are somewhere in between. "bductees fre8uentl$ re'ort ha(ing seen -aliens+ in their childhood coming in through the window or from under the bed or out of the closet. 3ut e(er$where in the world children re'ort similar stories, with fairies, el(es, brownies, ghosts, goblins, witches, im's and a rich (ariet$ of imaginar$ -friends+. "re we to imagine two different grou's of children, one that sees imaginar$ earthl$ beings and the other that sees genuine e)traterrestrials7 Isn+t it more reasonable that both grou's are seeing, or hallucinating, the same thing7 #ost of us recall being frightened at the age of two and older b$ real-seeming but wholl$ imaginar$ -monsters+, es'eciall$ at night or in the dark. I can still remember occasions when I was absolutel$ terrified, hiding under the bedclothes until I could stand it no longer, and then bolting for the safet$ of m$ 'arents+ bedroom - if onl$ I could get there before falling into the clutches of ... The =resence. The "merican cartoonist ?ar$ 4arson who draws in the horror genre dedicates one of his books as follows! When I was a bo$, our house was filled with monsters. The$ li(ed in the closets, under the beds, in the attic, in the basement, and - when it was dark - 1ust about e(er$where. This book is dedicated to m$ father, who ke't me safe from all of them. #a$be the abduction thera'ists should be doing more of that. =art of the reason that children are afraid of the dark ma$ be that, in our entire e(olutionar$ histor$ u' until 1ust a moment ago, the$ ne(er sle't alone. Instead, the$ nestled safel$, 'rotected b$ an adult, usuall$ #um. In the enlightened west we stick them alone in a dark room, sa$ goodnight, and ha(e difficult$ understanding wh$ the$+re sometimes u'set. It makes good e(olutionar$ sense for children to ha(e fantasies of scar$ monsters. In a world stalked b$ lions and h$enas, such fantasies hel' 're(ent defenceless toddlers from wandering too far from their guardians. How can this safet$ machiner$ be effecti(e for a (igorous, curious $oung animal unless it deli(ers industrial strength terror7 Those who are not afraid of monsters tend not to lea(e descendants. >(entuall$, I imagine, o(er the course of human e(olution, almost all children become afraid of monsters. 3ut if we+re ca'able of con1uring u' terrif$ing monsters in childhood, wh$ shouldn+t some of us, at least on occasion, be able to fantasi.e something similar, something trul$ horrif$ing, a shared delusion, as adults7

It is telling that alien abductions occur mainl$ on falling aslee' or when waking u', or on long automobile dri(es where there is a wellknown danger of falling into some autoh$'notic re(erie. "bduction thera'ists are 'u..led when their 'atients describe cr$ing out in terror while their s'ouses slee' leadenl$ beside them. 3ut isn+t this t$'ical of dreams, our shouts for hel' unheard7 #ight these stories ha(e something to do with slee' and, as 3en1amin Simon 'ro'osed for the Hills, a kind of dream7 " common, although insufficientl$ well-known, 's$chological s$ndrome rather like alien abduction is called slee' 'aral$sis. #an$ 'eo'le e)'erience it. It ha''ens in that twilight world between being full$ awake and full$ aslee'. <or a few minutes, ma$be longer, $ou+re immobile and acutel$ an)ious. 6ou feel a weight on $our chest as if some being is sitting or l$ing there. 6our heartbeat is 8uick, $our breathing laboured. 6ou ma$ e)'erience auditor$ or (isual hallucinations of 'eo'le, demons, ghosts, animals or birds. In the right setting, the e)'erience can ha(e -the full force and im'act of realit$+, according to Aobert 3aker, a 's$chologist at the /ni(ersit$ of @entuck$. Sometimes there+s a marked se)ual com'onent to the hallucination. 3aker argues that these common slee' disturbances are behind man$ if not most of the alien abduction accounts. 9He and others suggest that there are other classes of abduction claims as well, made b$ fantas$-'rone indi(iduals, sa$, or hoa)ers.: Similarl$, the &arvard $ental &ealth Letter 9Se'tember % E: comments, Slee' 'aral$sis ma$ last for se(eral minutes, and is sometimes accom'anied b$ (i(id dreamlike hallucinations that gi(e rise to stories about (isitations from gods, s'irits, and e)traterrestrial creatures. We know from earl$ work of the Canadian neuro'h$siologist Wilder =enfield that electrical stimulation of certain regions of the brain elicits full-blown hallucinations. =eo'le with tem'oral lobe e'ile's$ - in(ol(ing a cascade of naturall$ generated electrical im'ulses in the 'art of the brain beneath the forehead - e)'erience a range of hallucinations almost indistinguishable from realit$! including the 'resence of one or more strange beings, an)iet$, floating through the air, se)ual e)'eriences, and a sense of missing time. There is also what feels like 'rofound insight into the dee'est 8uestions and a need to s'read the word. " continuum of s'ontaneous tem'oral lobe stimulation seems to stretch from 'eo'le with serious e'ile's$ to the most a(erage among us. In at least one case re'orted b$ another Canadian neuroscientist, #ichael =ersinger, administration of the antie'ile'tic drug, carbama.e'ine, eliminated a woman+s recurring sense of e)'eriencing the standard alien abduction scenario. So such hallucinations, generated s'ontaneousl$, or with chemical or e)'eriential assists, ma$

'la$ a role, 'erha's a central role, in the /<2 accounts. 3ut such a (iew is eas$ to burles8ue! /<2s e)'lained awa$ as -mass hallucinations+. >(er$one knows there+s no such thing as a shared hallucination. Aight7 "s the 'ossibilit$ of e)traterrestrial life began to be widel$ 'o'ulari.ed - es'eciall$ around the turn of the last centur$ b$ =erci(al 4owell with his #artian canals - 'eo'le began to re'ort contact with aliens, mainl$ #artians. The 's$chologist Theodore <lourno$+s % ;% book, From %ndia to the Planet $ars, describes a <rench-s'eaking medium who in a trance state drew 'ictures of the #artians 9the$ look 1ust like us: and 'resented their al'habet and language 9remarkabl$ like <rench:. The 's$chiatrist Carl *ung in his % ;G doctoral dissertation described a $oung Swiss woman who was agitated to disco(er, sitting across from her on the train, a -star-dweller+ from #ars. #artians are innocent of science, 'hiloso'h$ and souls, she was told, but ha(e ad(anced technolog$. -<l$ing machines ha(e long been in e)istence on #ars, the whole of #ars is co(ered with canals+ and so on. Charles <ort, a collector of anomalous re'orts who died in % &G, wrote, -=erha's there are inhabitants of #ars, who are secretl$ sending re'orts u'on the wa$s of this world to their go(ernments.+ In the % 5;s there was a book b$ ?erald Heard that re(ealed the saucer occu'ants to be intelligent #artian bees. Who else could sur(i(e the fantastic right angle turns re'orted for /<2s7 3ut after the canals were shown to be illusor$ b$ $ariner 3 in % C%, and after no com'elling e(idence e(en for microbes was found on #ars b$ 4ikings 1 and G in % CI, 'o'ular enthusiasm for the 4owellian #ars waned and we heard little about (isiting #artians. "liens were then re'orted to come from somewhere else. Wh$7 Wh$ no more #artians7 "nd after the surface of Denus was found to be hot enough to melt lead, there were no more (isiting Denusians. Does some 'art of these stories ad1ust to the current canons of belief7 What does that im'l$ about their origin7 There+s no doubt that humans commonl$ hallucinate. There+s considerable doubt about whether e)traterrestrials e)ist, fre8uent our 'lanet, or abduct and molest us. We might argue about details, but the one categor$ of e)'lanation is surel$ much better su''orted than the other. The main reser(ation $ou might then ha(e is! wh$ do so man$ 'eo'le toda$ re'ort this 1articular set of hallucinations7 Wh$ sombre little beings, and fl$ing saucers, and se)ual e)'erimentation7

The Demon-Haunted World

There are demon-haunted worlds, regions of utter darkness. The %S0 ?1anishad 9India, c. I;; 3C: <ear of things in(isible is the natural seed of that which e(er$ one in himself calleth religion. Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan 9%I5%:

The gods watch o(er us and guide our destinies, man$ human
cultures teach, other entities, more male(olent, are res'onsible for the e)istence of e(il. 3oth classes of beings, whether considered natural or su'ernatural, real or imaginar$, ser(e human needs. >(en if the$+re wholl$ fanciful, 'eo'le feel better belie(ing in them. So in an age when traditional religions ha(e been under withering fire from science, is it not natural to wra' u' the old gods and demons in scientific raiment and call them aliens7 3elief in demons was wides'read in the ancient world. The$ were thought of as natural rather than su'ernatural beings. Hesiod casuall$ mentions them. Socrates described his 'hiloso'hical ins'iration as the work of a 'ersonal, benign demon. His teacher, Diotima of #antineia, tells him 9in =lato+s Sym1osium6 that ->(er$thing demonic is intermediate between ?od and mortal. ?od has no contact with man,+ she continues, -onl$ through the demonic is there intercourse and con(ersation between man and gods, whether in the waking state or during slee'.+ =lato, Socrates+ most celebrated student, assigned a high role to demons! -5o human nature in(ested with su'reme 'ower is able to order human affairs,+ he said, -and not o(erflow with insolence and wrong...+ We do not a''oint o)en to be the lords of o)en, or goats of goats, but we oursel(es are a su'erior race and rule o(er them. In like manner ?od, in his lo(e of mankind, 'laced o(er us the demons, who are a su'erior race, and the$ with great ease and 'leasure to themsel(es, and no less to us, taking care of us and gi(ing us 'eace and re(erence and order and 1ustice ne(er failing, made the tribes of men ha''$ and united.

He stoutl$ denied that demons were a source of e(il, and re'resented >ros, the kee'er of se)ual 'assions, as a demon, not a god, -neither mortal nor immortal+, -neither good nor bad+. 3ut all later =latonists, including the 5eo-=latonists who 'owerfull$ influenced Christian 'hiloso'h$, held that some demons were good and others e(il. The 'endulum was swinging. "ristotle, =lato+s famous student, seriousl$ considered the contention that dreams are scri'ted b$ demons. =lutarch and =or'h$r$ 'ro'osed that the demons, who filled the u''er air, came from the #oon. The earl$ Church <athers, des'ite ha(ing imbibed 5eo-=latonism from the culture the$ swam in, were an)ious to se'arate themsel(es from -'agan+ belief s$stems. The$ taught that all of 'agan religion consisted of the worshi' of demons and men, both misconstrued as gods. When St =aul com'lained 9>'hesians (i, %G: about wickedness in high 'laces, he was referring not to go(ernment corru'tion, but to demons, who li(ed in high 'laces! <or we wrestle not against flesh and blood, but against 'rinci'alities, against 'owers, against the rulers of the darkness of this world, against s'iritual wickedness in high 'laces. <rom the beginning, much more was intended than demons as a mere 'oetic meta'hor for the e(il in the hearts of men. St "ugustine was much (e)ed with demons. He 8uotes the 'agan thinking 're(alent in his time! -The gods occu'$ the loftiest regions, men the lowest, the demons the middle region... The$ ha(e immortalit$ of bod$, but 'assions of the mind in common with men.+ In 3ook DIII of "he City of #od 9begun in E%&:, "ugustine assimilates this ancient tradition, re'laces gods b$ ?od, and demoni.es the demons, arguing that the$ are, without e)ce'tion, malign. The$ ha(e no redeeming (irtues. The$ are the fount of all s'iritual and material e(il. He calls them -aerial animals... most eager to inflict harm, utterl$ alien from righteousness, swollen with 'ride, 'ale with en($, subtle in deceit.+ The$ ma$ 'rofess to carr$ messages between ?od and man, disguising themsel(es as angels of the 4ord, but this 'ose is a snare to lure us to our destruction. The$ can assume an$ form, and know man$ things - -demon+ means -knowledge+ in ?reekK -es'eciall$ about the material world. Howe(er intelligent, the$ are deficient in charit$. The$ 're$ on -the ca'ti(e and outwitted minds of men,+ wrote Tertullian. The$ ha(e their abode in the air, the stars are their neighbours, their commerce is with the clouds.+
JK -Science+ means -knowledge+ in 4atin. " 1urisdictional dis'ute is e)'osed, e(en if we look no further.F

In the ele(enth centur$, the influential 3$.antine theologian, 'hiloso'her and shad$ 'olitician, #ichael =sellus, described demons in these words! These animals e)ist in our own life, which is full of 'assions, for the$ are 'resent abundantl$ in the 'assions, and their dwelling-'lace is that of matter, as is their rank and degree. <or this reason the$ are also sub1ect to 'assions and fettered to them. 2ne Aichalmus, abbot of Schonthal, around %GC; 'enned an entire treatise on demons, rich in first-hand e)'erience! he sees 9but onl$ when his e$es are shut: countless male(olent demons, like motes of dust, bu..ing around his head M and e(er$one else+s. Des'ite successi(e wa(es of rationalist, =ersian, *ewish, Christian and #uslim world (iews, des'ite re(olutionar$ social, 'olitical and 'hiloso'hical ferment, the e)istence, much of the character, and e(en the name of demons remained unchanged from Hesiod to the Crusades. Demons, the -'owers of the air+, come down from the skies and ha(e unlawful se)ual congress with women. "ugustine belie(ed that witches were the offs'ring of these forbidden unions. In the #iddle "ges, as in classical anti8uit$, nearl$ e(er$one belie(ed such stories. The demons were also called de(ils, or fallen angels. The demonic seducers of women were labelled incubi, of men, succubi. There are cases in which nuns re'orted, in some befud-dlement, a striking resemblance between the incubus and the 'riest-confessor, or the bisho', and awoke the ne)t morning, as one fifteenth-centur$ chronicler 'ut it, to -find themsel(es 'olluted 1ust as if the$ had commingled with a man+. There are similar accounts, but in harems not con(ents, in ancient China. So man$ women re'orted incubi, argued the =resb$terian religious writer Aichard 3a)ter 9in his Certainty of the 'orld of S1irits, %I %:, -that -tis im'udence to den$ it+.K
J- 4ikewise, in the same work, -The raising of storms b$ witches is attested b$ so man$, that I think it needless to recite them.+ The theologian #eric Casaubon argued M in his %IIB book. 5f Credulity and %ncredulity, that witches must e)ist because, after all, e(er$one belie(es in them. "n$thing that a large number of 'eo'le belie(e must be true.F

"s the$ seduced, the incubi and succubi were 'ercei(ed as a weight bearing down on the chest of the dreamer. $are, des'ite its 4atin meaning, is the 2ld >nglish word for incubus, and nightmare meant originall$ the demon that sits on the chests of slee'ers, tormenting them with dreams. In "thanasius+ Life of St 0nthony 9written around &I;: demons are described as coming and going at will in locked rooms, %E;; $ears later, in his work De Daemonialitae, the <ranciscan scholar 4udo(ico Sinistrari assures us that demons 'ass through walls.

The e)ternal realit$ of demons was almost entirel$ un8uestioned from anti8uit$ through late medie(al times. #aimonides denied their realit$, but the o(erwhelming ma1orit$ of rabbis belie(ed in dy++uks! 2ne of the few cases I can find where it is e(en hinted that demons might be internal, generated in our minds, is when "bba =oemen - one of the desert fathers of the earl$ Church - was asked, -How do the demons fight against me7+ -The demons fight against $ou7+ <ather =oemen asked in turn. -2ur own wills become the demons, and it is these which attack us.+ The medie(al attitudes on incubi and succubi were influenced b$ #acrobius+ fourth-centur$ Commentary on the Dream of Sci1io, which went through do.ens of editions before the >uro'ean >nlightenment. #acrobius described 'hantoms :1hantasma6 seen -in the moment between wakefulness and slumber+. The dreamer -imagines+ the 'hantoms as 'redator$. #acrobius had a sce'tical side which his medie(al readers tended to ignore. 2bsession with demons began to reach a crescendo when, in his famous 3ull of %EBE, =o'e Innocent DIII declared, It has come to 2ur ears that members of both se)es do not a(oid to ha(e intercourse with e(il angels, incubi, and succubi, and that b$ their sorceries, and b$ their incantations, charms, and con1urations, the$ suffocate, e)tinguish, and cause to 'erish the births of women as well as generate numerous other calamities. With this 3ull, Innocent initiated the s$stematic accusation, torture and e)ecution of countless -witches+ all o(er >uro'e. The$ were guilt$ of what "ugustine had described as -a criminal tam'ering with the unseen world+. Des'ite the e(enhanded -members of both se)es+ in the language of the 3ull, unsur'risingl$ it was mainl$ girls and women who were so 'ersecuted. #an$ leading =rotestants of the following centuries, their differences with the Catholic Church notwithstanding, ado'ted nearl$ identical (iews. >(en humanists such as Desiderius >rasmus and Thomas #ore belie(ed in witches. SThe gi(ing u' of witchcraft,+ said *ohn Wesle$, the founder of #ethodism, -is in effect the gi(ing u' of the 3ible.+ William 3lackstone, the celebrated 1urist, in his Commentaries on the Laws of England 9%CI5:, asserted! To den$ the 'ossibilit$, na$, actual e)istence of witchcraft and sorcer$ is at once flatl$ to contradict the re(ealed word of ?od in (arious 'assages of both the 2ld and 5ew Testament. Innocent commended -2ur dear sons Henr$ @ramer and *ames S'renger+ who -ha(e been b$ 4etters "'ostolic delegated as In8uisitors of these heretical JdeF'ra(ities+. If -the abominations and enormities in 8uestion remain un'unished,+ the souls of multitudes face eternal damnation.

The =o'e a''ointed @ramer and S'renger to write a com'rehensi(e anal$sis, using the full academic armour$ of the late fifteenth centur$. With e)hausti(e citations of scri'ture and of ancient and modern scholars, the$ 'roduced the $alleus $alefi=carum, the -Hammer of Witches+, a'tl$ described as one of the most terrif$ing documents in human histor$. Thomas "d$, in 0 Candle in the Dark, condemned it as -(illainous Doctrines V In(entions+, -horrible l$es and im'ossibilities+, ser(ing to hide -their un'aralleled cruelt$ from the ears of the world+. What the $alleus comes down to, 'rett$ much, is that if $ou+re accused of witchcraft, $ou+re a witch. Torture is an unfailing means to demonstrate the (alidit$ of the accusation. There are no rights of the defendant. There is no o''ortunit$ to confront the accusers. 4ittle attention is gi(en to the 'ossibilit$ that accusations might be made for im'ious 'ur'oses - 1ealous$, sa$, or re(enge, or the greed of the in8uisitors who routinel$ confiscated for their own 'ri(ate benefit the 'ro'ert$ of the accused. This technical manual for torturers also includes methods of 'unishment tailored to release demons from the (ictim+s bod$ before the 'rocess kills her. The $alleus in hand, the =o'e+s encouragement guaranteed, In8uisitors began s'ringing u' all o(er >uro'e. It 8uickl$ became an e)'ense account scam. "ll costs of in(estigation, trial and e)ecution were borne b$ the accused or her relati(es, down to1er diem for the 'ri(ate detecti(es hired to s'$ on her, wine for her guards, ban8uets for her 1udges, the tra(el e)'enses of a messenger sent to fetch a more e)'erienced torturer from another cit$, and the faggots, tar and hangman+s ro'e. Then there was a bonus to the members of the tribunal for each witch burned. The con(icted witch+s remaining 'ro'ert$, if an$, was di(ided between Church and State. "s this legall$ and morall$ sanctioned mass murder and theft became institutionali.ed, as a (ast bureaucrac$ arose to ser(e it, attention was turned from 'oor hags and crones to the middle class and well-to-do of both se)es. The more who, under torture, confessed to witchcraft, the harder it was to maintain that the whole business was mere fantas$. Since each -witch+ was made to im'licate others, the numbers grew e)'onentiall$. These constituted -frightful 'roofs that the De(il is still ali(e+, as it was later 'ut in "merica in the Salem witch trials. In a credulous age, the most fantastic testimon$ was soberl$ acce'ted M that tens of thousands of witches had gathered for a Sabbath in 'ublic s8uares in <rance, or that %G,;;; of them darkened the skies as the$ flew to 5ewfoundland. The 3ible had counselled, -Thou shall not suffer a witch to li(e.+ 4egions of women were burned to death.K "nd the most horrendous tortures were routinel$ a''lied to e(er$ defendant, $oung or old, after the instruments of torture were first blessed b$ the 'riests. Innocent himself died in %E G, following unsuccessful attem'ts to kee' him ali(e b$ transfusion 9which resulted in the deaths of three bo$s:

and b$ suckling at the breast of a nursing mother. He was mourned b$ his mistress and their children.
JK This mode of e)ecution was ado'ted b$ the Hol$ In8uisition a''arentl$ to guarantee literal accord with a well-intentioned sentence of canon law 9Council of Tours, %%I&:! The Church abhors bloodshed.+F

In 3ritain witch-finders, also called -'rickers+, were em'lo$ed, recei(ing a handsome bount$ for each girl or woman the$ turned o(er for e)ecution. The$ had no incenti(e to be cautious in their accusations. T$'icall$ the$ looked for -de(il+s marks+ M scars or birthmarks or ne(i M that when 'ricked with a 'in neither hurt nor bled. " sim'le sleight of hand often ga(e the a''earance that the 'in 'enetrated dee' into the witch+s flesh. When no (isible marks were a''arent, -in(isible marks+ sufficed. /'on the gallows, one midse(enteenth-centur$ 'ricker -confessed he had been the death of abo(e GG; women in >ngland and Scotland, for the gain of twent$ shillings a'iece+.K
JK In the murk$ territor$ of bount$ hunters and 'aid informers, (ile corru'tion is often the rule - worldwide and through all of human histor$. To take an e)am'le almost at random, in % E, for a fee, a grou' of 'ostal ins'ectors from Cle(eland, /S", agreed to go underground and ferret out wrongdoers, the$ then contri(ed criminal cases against &G innocent 'ostal workers.F

In the witch trials, mitigating e(idence or defence witnesses were inadmissible. In an$ case, it was nearl$ im'ossible to 'ro(ide com'elling alibis for accused witches! the rules of e(idence had a s'ecial character. <or e)am'le, in more than one case a husband attested that his wife was aslee' in his arms at the (er$ moment she was accused of frolicking with the de(il at a witch+s Sabbath, but the archbisho' 'atientl$ e)'lained that a demon had taken the 'lace of the wife. The husbands were not to imagine that their 'owers of 'erce'tion could e)ceed Satan+s 'owers of dece'tion. The beautiful $oung women were 'erforce consigned to the flames. There were strong erotic and misog$nistic elements, as might be e)'ected in a se)uall$ re'ressed, male-dominated societ$ with in8uisitors drawn from the class of nominall$ celibate 'riests. The trials 'aid close attention to the 8ualit$ and 8uantit$ of orgasm in the su''osed co'ulations of defendants with demons or the De(il 9although "ugustine had been certain -we cannot call the De(il a fornicator+:, and to the nature of the De(il+s -member+ 9cold, b$ all re'orts:. -De(il+s marks+ were found -generall$ on the breasts or 'ri(ate 'arts+ according to 4udo(ico Sinistrari+s %C;; book. "s a result 'ubic hair was sha(ed, and the genitalia were carefull$ ins'ected b$ the e)clusi(el$ male in8uisitors. In the immolation of the G;-$ear-old *oan

of "rc, after her dress had caught fire the Hangman of Aouen slaked the flames so onlookers could (iew -all the secrets which can or should be in a woman+. The chronicle of those who were consumed b$ fire in the single ?erman cit$ of Wiir.burg in the single $ear %5 B 'enetrates the statistics and lets us confront a little of the human realit$! The steward of the senate, named ?ering, old #rs @an.ler, the tailor+s fat wife, the woman cook of #r #engerdorf, a stranger, a strange woman, 3aunach, a senator, the fattest citi.en in Wiirt.burg, the old smith of the court, an old woman, a little girl, nine or ten $ears old, a $ounger girl, her little sister, the mother of the two little aforementioned girls, 4iebler+s daughter, ?oebel+s child, the most beautiful girl in Wiirt.burg, a student who knew man$ languages, two bo$s from the #inster, each twel(e $ears old, Ste''er+s little daughter, the woman who ke't the bridge gate, an old woman, the little son of the town council bailiff, the wife of @nert., the butcher, the infant daughter of Dr Schult., a blind girl, Schwart., canon at Hach... 2n and on it goes. Some were gi(en s'ecial humane attention! -The little daughter of Dalkenberger was 'ri(atel$ e)ecuted and burned.+ There were twent$-eight 'ublic immolations, each with four to si) (ictims on a(erage, in that small cit$ in a single $ear. This was a microcosm of what was ha''ening all across >uro'e. 5o one knows how man$ were killed altogether - 'erha's hundreds of thousands, 'erha's millions. Those res'onsible for 'rosecuting, torturing, 1udging, burning and 1ustif$ing were selfless. *ust ask them. The$ could not be mistaken. The confessions of witchcraft could not be based on hallucinations, sa$, or attem'ts to satisf$ the in8uisitors and sto' the torture. In such a case, e)'lained the witch 1udge =ierre de 4ancre 9in his %I%G book, Descri1tion of the %nconstancy of Evil 0ngels6, the Catholic Church would be committing a great crime b$ burning witches. Those who raise such 'ossibilities are thus attacking the Church and i1so facto committing a mortal sin. Critics of witchburning were 'unished and, in some cases, themsel(es burnt. The in8uisitors and torturers were doing ?od+s work. The$ were sa(ing souls. The$ were foiling demons. Witchcraft of course was not the onl$ offence that merited torture and burning at the stake. Heres$ was a still more serious crime, and both Catholics and =rotestants 'unished it ruthlessl$. In the si)teenth centur$ the scholar William T$ndale had the temerit$ to contem'late translating the 5ew Testament into >nglish. 3ut if 'eo'le could actuall$ read the 3ible in their own language instead of arcane 4atin, the$ could form their own, inde'endent religious (iews. The$ might concei(e of their own 'ri(ate unintermediated line to ?od. This was a challenge to the 1ob securit$ of Aoman Catholic 'riests. When T$ndale tried to

'ublish his translation, he was hounded and 'ursued all o(er >uro'e. >(entuall$ he was ca'tured, garrotted, and then, for good measure, burned at the stake. His co'ies of the 5ew Testament 9which a centur$ later became the basis of the e)8uisite @ing *ames translation: were then hunted down house-to-house b$ armed 'osses - Christians 'iousl$ defending Christianit$ b$ 're(enting other Christians from knowing the words of Christ. Such a cast of mind, such a climate of absolute confidence that knowledge should be rewarded b$ torture and death were unlikel$ to hel' those accused of witchcraft. 3urning witches is a feature of Western ci(ili.ation that has, with occasional 'olitical e)ce'tions, declined since the si)teenth centur$. In the last 1udicial e)ecution of witches in >ngland, a woman and her nine-$ear-old daughter were hanged. Their crime was raising a rain storm b$ taking their stockings off. In our time, witches and d1inns are found as regular fare in children+s entertainment, e)orcism of demons is still 'ractised b$ the Aoman Catholic and other Churches, and the 'ro'onents of one cult still denounce as sorcer$ the cultic 'ractices of another. We still use the word -'andemonium+ 9literall$, all demons:. " cra.ed and (iolent 'erson is still said to be demonic. 95ot until the eighteenth centur$ was mental illness no longer generall$ ascribed to su'ernatural causes, e(en insomnia had been considered a 'unishment inflicted b$ demons.: #ore than half of "mericans tell 'ollsters the$ -belie(e+ in the De(il+s e)istence, and ten 'er cent ha(e communicated with him, as #artin 4uther re'orted he did regularl$. In a % G -s'iritual warfare manual+ called Pre1are for 'ar, Aebecca 3rown informs us that abortion and se) outside of marriage -will almost alwa$s result in demonic infestation+, that meditation, $oga and martial arts are designed so unsus'ecting Christians will be seduced into worshi''ing demons, and that -rock music didn+t S1ust ha''enT, it was a carefull$ masterminded 'lan b$ none other than Satan himself. Sometimes -$our lo(ed ones are demonicall$ bound and blinded+. Demonolog$ is toda$ still 'art and 'arcel of man$ earnest faiths. "nd what is it that demons do7 In the $alleus, @ramer and S'renger re(eal that -de(ils... bus$ themsel(es b$ interfering with the 'rocess of normal co'ulation and conce'tion, b$ obtaining human semen, and themsel(es transferring it+. Demonic artificial insemination in the #iddle "ges goes back at least to St Thomas "8uinas, who tells us in 5n the "rinity that -demons can transfer the semen which the$ ha(e collected and in1ect it into the bodies of others+. His contem'orar$, St 3ona(entura, s'ells it out in a little more detail! succubi -$ield to males and recei(e their semen, b$ cunning skills, the demons 'reser(e its 'otenc$, and afterwards, with the 'ermission of ?od, the$ become incubi and 'our it out into female re'ositories+. The 'roducts of these demon-mediated unions are also, when the$ grow u', (isited b$ demons. " multi-generational trans-s'ecies se)ual bond is forged. "nd these creatures, we recall, are well known to fl$, indeed the$ inhabit

the u''er air. There is no s'aceshi' in these stories. 3ut most of the central elements of the alien abduction account are 'resent, including se)uall$ obsessi(e non-humans who li(e in the sk$, walk through walls, communicate tele'athicall$, and 'erform breeding e)'eriments on the human s'ecies. /nless we belie(e that demons reall$ e)ist, how can we understand so strange a belief-s$stem, embraced b$ the whole Western world 9including those considered the wisest among us:, reinforced b$ 'ersonal e)'erience in e(er$ generation, and taught b$ Church and State7 Is there an$ real alternati(e besides a shared delusion based on common brain wiring and chemistr$7 In ?enesis we read of angels who cou'le with -the daughters of men+. The culture m$ths of ancient ?reece and Aome told of gods a''earing to women as bulls or swans or showers of gold and im'regnating them. In one earl$ Christian tradition, 'hiloso'h$ deri(ed not from human ingenuit$ but out of demonic 'illow talk, the fallen angels betra$ing the secrets of Hea(en to their human consorts. "ccounts with similar elements a''ear in cultures around the world. =arallels to incubi include "rabian d1inn, ?reek sat$rs, Hindu bhuts, Samoan hotua 'oro, Celtic dusii and man$ others. In an e'och of demon h$steria, it was eas$ enough to demoni.e those we feared or hated. So #erlin was said to ha(e been fathered b$ an incubus. So were =lato, "le)ander the ?reat, "ugustus and #artin 4uther. 2ccasionall$ an entire 'eo'le - for e)am'le the Huns or the inhabitants of C$'rus - were accused b$ their enemies of ha(ing been sired b$ demons. In Talmudic tradition the archet$'ical succubus was 4ilith, whom ?od made from the dust along with "dam. She was e)'elled from >den for insubordination - not to ?od, but to "dam. >(er since, she s'ends her nights seducing "dam+s descendants. In ancient Iranian and man$ other cultures, nocturnal seminal emissions were belie(ed to be elicited b$ succubi. St Teresa of "(ila re'orted a (i(id se)ual encounter with an angel -an angel of light, not of darkness, she was sure - as did other women later sanctified b$ the Catholic Church. Cagliostro, the eighteenth-centur$ magician and con man, let it be understood that he, like *esus of 5a.areth, was a 'roduct of the union -between the children of hea(en and earth+. In %IE5 a Cornish teenager, "nne *efferies, was found grogg$, crum'led on the floor. #uch later, she recalled being attacked b$ half a do.en little men, carried 'aral$sed to a castle in the air, seduced and returned home. She called the little men fairies. 9<or man$ 'ious Christians, as for the in8uisitors of *oan of "rc, this was a distinction without a difference. <airies were demons, 'lain and sim'le.: The$ returned to terrif$ and torment her. The ne)t $ear she was arrested for witchcraft. <airies traditionall$ ha(e magical 'owers and can cause 'aral$sis b$ the merest touch. The ordinar$ 'assage of time is slowed

in fair$land. <airies are re'roducti(el$ im'aired, so the$ ha(e se) with humans and carr$ off babies from their cradles, sometimes lea(ing a fair$ substitute, a -changeling+. 5ow it seems a fair 8uestion! if "nne *efferies had grown u' in a culture touting aliens rather than fairies, and /<2s rather than castles in the air, would her stor$ ha(e been distinguishable in an$ significant res'ect from the ones -abductees+ tell7 In his % BG book "he "error "hat Comes in the .ight* 0n Ex1erience=Centered Study of Su1ernatural 0ssault "raditions, Da(id Hufford describes an e)ecuti(e, uni(ersit$-educated, in his mid-thirties, who recalled a summer s'ent as a teenager in his aunt+s house. 2ne night, he saw m$sterious lights mo(ing in the harbour. "fterwards, he fell aslee'. <rom his bed he then witnessed a white, glowing figure climbing the stairs. She entered his room, 'aused, and then said anticlimacticall$, it seems to me - SThat is the linoleum.+ Some nights the figure was an old woman, in others, an ele'hant. Sometimes the $oung man was con(inced the entire business was a dream, other times he was certain he was awake. He was 'ressed down into his bed, 'aral$sed, unable to mo(e or cr$ out. His heart was 'ounding. He was short of breath. Similar e(ents trans'ired on man$ consecuti(e nights. What is ha''ening here7 These e(ents took 'lace before alien abductions were widel$ described. If the $oung man had known about alien abductions, would his old woman ha(e had a large head and bigger e$es7 In se(eral famous 'assages in "he Decline and Fall of the ,oman Em1ire, >dward ?ibbon described the balance between credulit$ and sce'ticism in late classical anti8uit$! Credulit$ 'erformed the office of faith, fanaticism was 'ermitted to assume the language of ins'iration, and the effects of accident or contri(ance were ascribed to su'ernatural causes... In modern times J?ibbon is writing in the middle eighteenth centur$F, a latent and e(en in(oluntar$ sce'ticism adheres to the most 'ious dis'ositions. Their admission of su'ernatural truths is much less an acti(e consent than a cold and 'assi(e ac8uiescence. "ccustomed long since to obser(e and to res'ect the in(ariable order of 5ature, our reason, or at least our imagination, is not sufficientl$ 're'ared to sustain the (isible action of the Deit$. 3ut in the first ages of Christianit$ the situation of mankind was e)tremel$ different. The most curious, or the most credulous, among the 'agans were often 'ersuaded to enter into a societ$ which asserted an actual claim of miraculous 'owers. The 'rimiti(e Christians 'er'etuall$ trod on m$stic ground, and their minds were e)ercised b$ the habits of belie(ing the most e)traordinar$ e(ents. The$ felt, or the$ fancied, that on e(er$ side the$ were incessantl$ assaulted b$ daemons, comforted b$ (isions, instructed b$ 'ro'hec$, and sur'risingl$ deli(ered from dan-

ger, sickness, and from death itself, b$ the su''lications of the church... It was their firm 'ersuasion that the air which the$ breathed was 'eo'led with in(isible enemies, with innumerable daemons, who watched e(er$ occasion, and assumed e(er$ form, to terrif$, and abo(e all to tem't, their unguarded (irtue. The imagination, and e(en the senses, were decei(ed b$ the illusions of distem'ered fanaticism, and the hermit, whose midnight 'ra$er was o''ressed b$ in(oluntar$ slumber, might easil$ confound the 'hantoms of horror or delight which had occu'ied his slee'ing and his waking dreams... JTFhe 'ractice of su'erstition is so congenial to the multitude that, if the$ are forcibl$ awakened, the$ still regret the loss of their 'leasing (ision. Their lo(e of the mar(ellous and su'ernatural, their curiosit$ with regard to future e(ents, and their strong 'ro'ensit$ to e)tend their ho'es and fears be$ond the limits of the (isible world, were the 'rinci'al causes which fa(oured the establishment of =ol$theism. So urgent on the (ulgar is the necessit$ of belie(ing, that the fall of an$ s$stem of m$tholog$ will most 'robabl$ be succeeded b$ the introduction of some other mode of su'erstition... =ut aside ?ibbon+s social snobber$! the de(il tormented the u''er classes too, and e(en a king of >ngland - *ames I, the first Stuart monarch - wrote a credulous and su'erstitious book on demons :Daemonologie, %5 C:. He was also the 'atron of the great translation of the 3ible into >nglish that still bears his name. It was @ing *ames+s o'inion that tobacco is the -de(il+s weed+, and a number of witches were e)'osed through their addiction to this drug. 3ut b$ %IGB, *ames had become a thoroughgoing sce'tic -mainl$ because adolescents had been found faking demonic 'ossession, in which state the$ had accused innocent 'eo'le of witchcraft. If we reckon the sce'ticism that ?ibbon sa$s characteri.ed his time to ha(e declined in ours, and if e(en a little of the ram'ant gullibilit$ he attributes to late classical times is left o(er in ours, should we not e)'ect something like demons to find a niche in the 'o'ular culture of the 'resent7 2f course, as enthusiasts for e)traterrestrial (isitations are 8uick to remind me, there+s another inter'retation of these historical 'arallels! aliens, the$ sa$, ha(e always been (isiting us, 'oking at us, stealing our s'erms and eggs, im'regnating us. In earlier times we recogni.ed them as gods, demons, fairies, or s'irits, onl$ now do we understand that it+s aliens who+(e been diddling us all these millennia. *ac8ues Dallee has made such arguments. 3ut then wh$ are there (irtuall$ no re'orts of fl$ing saucers 'rior to % EC7 Wh$ is it that none of the world+s ma1or religions uses saucers as icons of the di(ine7 Wh$ no warnings about the dangers of high technolog$ then7 Wh$ isn+t this genetic e)'eriment, whate(er its ob1ecti(e, com'leted b$ now, thousands of $ears or more after its initiation b$ beings su''osedl$ of

(astl$ su'erior technological attainments7 Wh$ are we in such trouble if the breeding 'rogramme is designed to im'ro(e our lot7 <ollowing this line of argument, we might antici'ate 'resent adherents of the old beliefs to understand -aliens+ to be fairies, gods, or demons. In fact, there are se(eral contem'orar$ sects -the -Aaelians+, for e)am'le - that hold gods or ?od to come to earth in /<2s. Some abductees describe the aliens, howe(er re'ulsi(e, as -angels+, or -emissaries of ?od+. "nd there are those who still think it+s demons. In Whitle$ Strieber+s Communion, a first-hand account of -alien abduction+, the author relates Whate(er was there seemed so monstrousl$ ugl$, so filth$ and dark and sinister. 2f course the$ were demons. The$ had to be ... I still remember that thing crouching there, so terribl$ ugl$, its arms and legs like the limbs of a great insect, its e$es glaring at me. Ae'ortedl$, Strieber is now o'en to the 'ossibilit$ that these night-time terrors were dreams or hallucinations. "rticles on /<2s in "he Christian .ews Encyclo1edia, a fundamentalist com'ilation, include -/nchristian <anatic 2bsession+, and -Scientist 3elie(es /<2s Work of De(il+. The S'iritual Counterfeits =ro1ect of 3erkele$, California, teaches that /<2s are of demonic origin, the "8uarian Church of /ni(ersal Ser(ice of #c#inn(ille, 2regon, that all aliens are hostile. " % & newsletter of -Cosmic "wareness Communications+ informs us that /<2 occu'ants think of humans as laborator$ animals, wish us to worshi' them, but tend to be deterred b$ the 4ord+s =ra$er. Some abductees ha(e been cast out of their e(angelical religious congregations, their stories sound too close to satanism. " % B; fundamentalist tract, "he Cult Ex1losion, b$ Da(e Hunt, re(eals that /<2s ... are clearl$ not 'h$sical and seem to be demonic manifestations from another dimension calculated to alter man+s wa$ of thinking... JTFhe alleged /<2 entities that ha(e 'resumabl$ communicated 's$chicall$ with humans ha(e alwa$s 'reached the same four lies that the ser'ent introduced to >(e... JTFhese beings are demons and the$ are 're'aring for the "ntichrist. " number of sects hold /<2s and alien abductions to be 'remonitions of -end-times+. If /<2s come from another 'lanet or another dimension, were the$ sent b$ the same ?od who has been re(ealed to us in an$ of the ma1or religions7 5othing in the /<2 'henomena, the fundamentalist com'laint goes, re8uires belief in the one, true ?od, while much in it contradicts the ?od 'ortra$ed in the 3ible and Christian tradition. "he .ew 0ge* 0 Christian CritiAue b$ Aal'h Aath 9% ;: discusses /<2s,

t$'icall$ for such literature, with e)treme credulit$. It ser(es their 'ur'ose to acce't /<2s as real and re(ile them as instruments of Satan and the "ntichrist, rather than to use the blade of scientific sce'ticism. That tool, once honed, might accom'lish more than 1ust a limited heresiotom$. The Christian fundamentalist author Hal 4indse$, in his % E religious best-seller Planet Earth = -BBB 0D, writes, I ha(e become thoroughl$ con(inced that /<2s are real... The$ are o'erated b$ alien beings of great intelligence and 'ower ... I belie(e these beings are not onl$ e)traterrestrial but su'ernatural in origin. To be blunt, I think the$ are demons... 'art of a Satanic 'lot. "nd what is the e(idence for this conclusion7 Chiefl$, it is the ele(enth and twelfth (erses of Luke, Cha'ter G%, in which *esus talks about -great signs from Hea(en+ - nothing like a /<2 is described - in the last da$s. T$'icall$, 4indse$ ignores (erse &G in which *esus makes it (er$ clear he is talking about e(ents in the first, not the twentieth, centur$. There is also a Christian tradition according to which e)traterrestrial life cannot e)ist. In Christian .ews for G& #a$ % E, for e)am'le, W. ?ar$ Cram'ton, Doctor of Theolog$, tells us! The 3ible, either e)'licitl$ or im'licitl$, s'eaks to e(er$ area of life, it ne(er lea(es us without an answer. The 3ible nowhere e)'licitl$ affirms or negates intelligent e)traterrestrial life. Im'licitl$, howe(er, Scri'ture does den$ the e)istence of such beings, thus also negating the 'ossibilit$ of fl$ing saucers... Scri'ture (iews earth as the center of the uni(erse... "ccording to =eter, a -'lanet ho''ing+ Sa(ior is out of the 8uestion. Here is an answer to intelligent life on other 'lanets. If there were such, who would redeem them7 Certainl$ not Christ... >)'eriences which are out of line with the teachings of Scri'ture must alwa$s be renounced as fallacious. The 3ible has a mono'ol$ on the truth. 3ut man$ other Christian sects - Aoman Catholics, for e)am'le -are com'letel$ o'en-minded, with no a 1riori ob1ections to and no insistence on the realit$ of aliens and /<2s. In the earl$ % I;s, I argued that the /<2 stories were ?rafted chiefl$ to satisf$ religious longings. "t a time when science has com'licated uncritical adherence to the old-time religions, an alternati(e is 'roffered to the ?od h$'othesis! dressed in scientific 1argon, their immense 'owers -e)'lained+ b$ su'erficiall$ scientific terminolog$, the gods and demons of old come down from hea(en to haunt us, to offer 'ro'hetic (isions, and to tantali.e us with (isions of a more ho'eful future! a s'ace-age m$ster$ religion aborning. The folklorist Thomas >. 3ullard wrote in % B that

abduction re'orts sound like rewrites of older su'ernatural encounter traditions with aliens ser(ing the functional roles of di(ine beings. He concludes! Science ma$ ha(e e(icted ghosts and witches from our beliefs, but it 1ust as 8uickl$ filled the (acanc$ with aliens ha(ing the same functions. 2nl$ the e)traterrestrial outer tra''ings are new. "ll the fear and the 's$chological dramas for dealing with it seem sim'l$ to ha(e found their wa$ home again, where it is business as usual in the legend realm where things go bum' in the night. Is it 'ossible that 'eo'le in all times and 'laces occasionall$ e)'erience (i(id, realistic hallucinations, often with se)ual content, about abduction b$ strange, tele'athic, aerial creatures who oo.e through walls, with the details filled in b$ the 're(ailing cultural idioms, sucked out of the CeitgeistD 2thers, who ha(e not 'ersonall$ had the e)'erience, find it stirring and in a wa$ familiar. The$ 'ass the stor$ on. Soon it takes on a life of its own, ins'ires others tr$ing to understand their own (isions and hallucinations, and enters the realm of folklore, m$th and legend. The connection between the content of s'ontaneous tem'oral lobe hallucinations and the alien abduction 'aradigm is consistent with such a h$'othesis. =erha's when e(er$one knows that gods come down to >arth, we hallucinate gods, when all of us are familiar with demons, it+s incubi and succubi, when fairies are widel$ acce'ted, we see fairies, in an age of s'iritualism, we encounter s'irits, and when the old m$ths fade and we begin thinking that e)traterrestrial beings are 'lausible, then that+s where our h$'nogogic imager$ tends. Snatches of song or foreign languages, images, e(ents that we witnessed, stories that we o(erheard in childhood can be accuratel$ recalled decades later without an$ conscious memor$ of how the$ got into our heads. -JIFn (iolent fe(ers, men, all ignorance, ha(e talked in ancient tongues,+ sa$s Herman #el(ille in $o+y DickE -and... when the m$ster$ is 'robed, it turns out alwa$s that in their wholl$ forgotten childhood those ancient tongues had been reall$ s'oken in their hearing.+ In our e(er$da$ life, we effortlessl$ and unconsciousl$ incor'orate cultural norms and make them our own. " similar inhaling of motifs is 'resent in schi.o'hrenic -command hallucinations+. Here 'eo'le feel the$ are being told what to do b$ an im'osing or m$thic figure. The$ are ordered to assassinate a 'olitical leader or a folk hero, or defeat the 3ritish in(aders, or harm themsel(es, because it is the wish of ?od, or *esus, or the De(il, or demons, or angels, or - latel$ - aliens. The schi.o'hrenic is transfi)ed b$ a clear and 'owerful command from a (oice that no one else can

hear, and that the sub1ect must somehow identif$. Who would issue such a command7 Who could s'eak inside our heads7 The culture in which we+(e been raised offers u' an answer. Think of the 'ower of re'etiti(e imager$ in ad(ertising, es'eciall$ to suggestible (iewers and readers. It can make us belie(e almost an$thing - e(en that smoking cigarettes is cool. In our time, 'utati(e aliens are the sub1ect of innumerable science fiction stories, no(els, TD dramas and films. /<2s are a regular feature of the weekl$ tabloids de(oted to falsification and m$stification. 2ne of the highest-grossing motion 'ictures of all time is about aliens (er$ like those described b$ abduct-ees. "lien abduction accounts were com'arati(el$ rare until % C5, when a credulous tele(ision dramati.ation of the Hill case was aired, another lea' into 'ublic 'rominence occurred after % BC, when Strieber+s 'ur'orted first-hand account with a haunting co(er 'ainting of a large-e$ed -alien+ became a best-seller. In contrast, we hear (er$ little latel$ about incubi, el(es and fairies. Where ha(e the$ all gone7 <ar from being global, such alien abduction stories are disa''ointingl$ local. The (ast ma1orit$ emanate from 5orth "merica. The$ hardl$ transcend "merican culture. In other countries, birdheaded, insect-headed, re'tilian, robot, and blond and blue-e$ed aliens are re'orted 9the last, 'redictabl$, from northern >uro'e:. >ach grou' of aliens is said to beha(e differentl$. Clearl$ cultural factors are 'la$ing an im'ortant role. 4ong before the terms -fl$ing saucer+ or -/<2s+ were in(ented, science fiction was re'lete with -little green men+ and -bug-e$ed monsters+. Somehow small hairless beings with big heads 9and e$es: ha(e been our sta'le aliens for a long time. 6ou could see them routinel$ in the science fiction 'ul' maga.ines of the twenties and thirties 9and, for e)am'le, in an illustration of a #artian sending radio messages to >arth in the December % &C issue of the maga.ine Short 'ave and "elevision6! It goes back 'erha's to our remote descendants as de'icted b$ the 3ritish science fiction 'ioneer, H.?. Wells. Wells argued that humans e(ol(ed from smaller-brained but hairier 'rimates with an athleti-cism far e)ceeding that of Dictorian academics, e)tra'olating this trend into the far future, he suggested that our descendants should be nearl$ hairless, with immense heads, although barel$ able to walk around on their own. "d(anced beings from other worlds might be similarl$ endowed. The t$'ical modern e)traterrestrial re'orted in "merica in the eighties and earl$ nineties is small, with dis'ro'ortionatel$ large head and e$es, unde(elo'ed facial features, no (isible e$ebrows or genitals, and smooth gre$ skin. It looks to me eeril$ like a foetus in roughl$ the twelfth week of 'regnanc$, or a star(ing child. Wh$ so man$ of us might be obsessing on foetuses or malnourished children, and imagining them attacking and se)uall$ mani'ulating us, is an interesting 8uestion.

In recent $ears in "merica, aliens different from the short gre$ motif ha(e been on the rise. 2ne 's$chothera'ist, Aichard 3o$lan of Sacramento, sa$s! 6ou+(e got three-and-a-half-foot to four-foot t$'es, $ou+(e got fi(e- to si)-foot t$'es, $ou+(e got se(en- to eight-foot t$'es, $ou+(e got three-, four-, and fi(e-finger t$'es, 'ads on the ends of fingers or suction cu's, $ou+(e got webbed or non-webbed fingers, $ou+(e got large almondsha'e e$es slanted u'ward, outward, or hori.ontall$, in some cases large o(oid e$es without the almond slant, $ou+(e got e)traterrestrials with slit 'u'ils, $ou+(e got other different bod$ t$'es -the so-called =ra$ing #antis t$'e, the re'toid t$'es... These are the ones that I kee' getting recurrentl$. There are a few e)otic and single case re'orts that I tend to be a little cautious about until I get a lot more corroborati(e.

Des'ite this a''arent (ariet$ of e)traterrestrials, the /<2 abduction s$ndrome 'ortra$s, it seems to me, a banal /ni(erse. The form of the su''osed aliens is marked b$ the failure of the imagination and a 'reoccu'ation with human concerns. 5ot a single being 'resented in all these accounts is as astonishing as a cockatoo would be if $ou had ne(er before beheld a bird. "n$ 'roto.oolog$ or bacteriolog$ or m$colog$ te)tbook is filled with wonders that far outshine the most e)otic descri'tions of the alien abductionists. The belie(ers take the common elements in their stories as tokens of (erisimilitude, rather than as e(idence that the$ ha(e contri(ed their stories out of a shared culture and biolog$.

2n the Distinction between True and <alse Disions

" credulous mind... finds most delight in belie(ing strange things, and the stranger the$ are the easier the$ 'ass with him, but ne(er regards those that are 'lain and feasible, for e(er$ man can belie(e such. Samuel 3utler, Characters 9%IIC- :

For 1ust an instant in the darkened room I sense an a''arition

-ould it be a ghost7 2r there+s a flicker of motion, I see it out of the corner of m$ e$e, but when I turn m$ head there+s nothing there. Is that a tele'hone ringing, or is it 1ust m$ -imagination+7 In astonishment, I seem to be smelling the salt air of the Cone$ Island summer seashore of m$ childhood. I turn a corner in the foreign cit$ I+m (isiting for the first time, and before me is a street so familiar I feel I+(e known it all m$ life. In these common'lace e)'eriences, we+re generall$ unsure what to do ne)t. Were m$ e$es 9or ears, or nose, or memor$: 'la$ing -tricks+ on me7 2r did I reall$ and trul$ witness something out of the ordinar$ course of 5ature7 Shall I kee' 8uiet about it, or shall I tell7 The answer de'ends (er$ much on m$ en(ironment, friends, lo(ed ones and culture. In an obsessi(el$ rigid, 'racticall$ oriented societ$, 'erha's I would be cautious about admitting to such e)'eriences. The$ might mark me as flight$, unsound, unreliable. 3ut in a societ$ that readil$ belie(es in ghosts, sa$, or -a''orting+, accounts of such e)'eriences might gain a''ro(al, e(en 'restige. In the former, I would be sorel$ tem'ted to su''ress the thing altogether, in the latter, ma$be e(en to e)aggerate or elaborate 1ust a little to make it e(en more miraculous than it seemed. Charles Dickens, who li(ed in a flourishing rational culture in which, howe(er, s'iritualism was also thri(ing, described the dilemma in these words 9from his short stor$, -To 3e Taken with a ?rain of Salt+:!
I ha(e alwa$s noticed a 're(alent want of courage, e(en among

'ersons of su'erior intelligence and culture, as to im'arting their own 's$chological e)'eriences when those ha(e been of a strange sort. "lmost all men are afraid that what the$ could relate in such wise would find no 'arallel or res'onse in a listener+s internal life, and might be sus'ected or laughed at. " truthful tra(eller who should ha(e seen some e)traordinar$ creature in the likeness of a sea-ser'ent, would ha(e no fear of mentioning it, but the same tra(eller ha(ing had some singular 'resentiment, im'ulse, (agar$ of thought, (ision 9so-called:, dream, or other remarkable mental im'ression, would hesitate considerabl$ before he would own to it. To his reticence I attribute much of the obscurit$ in which such sub1ects are in(ol(ed. In our time, there is still much dismissi(e chortling and ridicule. 3ut the reticence and obscurit$ is more readil$ o(ercome, for e)am'le, in a -su''orti(e+ setting 'ro(ided b$ a thera'ist or h$'notist. /nfortunatel$ - and, for some 'eo'le, unbelie(abl$ -the distinction between imagination and memor$ is often blurred. Some -abductees+ sa$ the$ remember the e)'erience without h$'nosis, man$ do not. 3ut h$'nosis is an unreliable wa$ to refresh memor$. It often elicits imagination, fantas$ and 'la$ as well as true recollections, with neither 'atient nor thera'ist able to distinguish the one from the other. H$'nosis seems to in(ol(e, in a central wa$, a state of heightened suggestibilit$. Courts ha(e banned its use as e(idence or e(en as a tool of criminal in(estigation. The "merican #edical "ssociation calls memories surfacing under h$'nosis less reliable than those recalled without it. " standard medical school te)t 9Harold I. @a'lan, Com1rehensive "ext+ook of Psychiatry, % B : warns of -a high likelihood that the beliefs of the h$'notist will be communicated to the 'atient and incor'orated into what the 'atient belie(es to be memories, often with strong con(iction+. So the fact that, when h$'noti.ed, 'eo'le sometimes relate alien abduction stories carries little weight. There+s a danger that sub1ects are - at least on some matters - so eager to 'lease the h$'notist that the$ sometimes res'ond to subtle cues of which e(en the h$'notist is unaware. In a stud$ b$ "l(in 4awson of California State /ni(ersit$, 4ong 3each, eight sub1ects, 're-screened to eliminate /<2 buffs, were h$'noti.ed b$ a 'h$sician and informed that the$ had been abducted, brought to a s'aceshi' and e)amined. With no further 'rom'ting, the$ were asked to describe the e)'erience. Their accounts, most of which were easil$ elicited, were almost indistinguishable from the accounts that self-described abductees 'resent. True, 4awson had cued his sub1ects briefl$ and directl$, but in man$ cases the thera'ists who routinel$ deal with alien abductions cue their sub1ects, some in great detail, others more subtl$ and indirectl$. The 's$chiatrist ?eorge ?anawa$ 9as related b$ 4awrence Wright: once 'ro'osed to a highl$ suggestible 'atient under h$'nosis that fi(e

hours were missing from her memor$ of a certain da$. When he mentioned a bright light o(erhead, she 'rom'tl$ told him about /<2s and aliens. When he insisted she had been e)'erimented on, a detailed abduction stor$ emerged. 3ut when she came out of the trance, and e)amined a (ideo of the session, she recogni.ed that something like a dream had been caught surfacing. 2(er the ne)t $ear, though, she re'eatedl$ flashed back to the dream material. The /ni(ersit$ of Washington 's$chologist >li.abeth 4oftus has found that unh$'noti.ed sub1ects can easil$ be made to belie(e the$ saw something the$ didn+t. In a t$'ical e)'eriment, sub1ects will (iew a film of a car accident. In the course of being 8uestioned about what the$ saw, the$+re casuall$ gi(en false information. <or e)am'le, a sto' sign is off-handedl$ referred to, although there wasn+t one in the film. #an$ sub1ects then dutifull$ recall seeing a sto' sign. When the dece'tion is re(ealed, some (ehementl$ 'rotest, stressing how (i(idl$ the$ remember the sign. The greater the time lag between (iewing the film and being gi(en the false information, the more 'eo'le allow their memories to be tam'ered with. 4oftus argues that -memories of an e(ent more closel$ resemble a stor$ undergoing constant re(ision than a 'acket of 'ristine information+. There are man$ other e)am'les, some - a s'urious memor$ of being lost as a child in a sho''ing mall, for instance - of greater emotional im'act. 2nce the ke$ idea is suggested, the 'atient often 'lausibl$ fleshes out the su''orting details. 4ucid but wholl$ false recollections can easil$ be induced b$ a few cues and 8uestions, es'eciall$ in the thera'eutic setting. #emor$ can be contaminated. <alse memories can be im'lanted e(en in minds that do not consider themsel(es (ulnerable and uncritical. Ste'hen Ceci of Cornell /ni(ersit$, 4oftus and their colleagues ha(e found, unsur'risingl$, that 'reschoolers are e)ce'tionall$ (ulnerable to suggestion. The child who, when first asked, correctl$ denies ha(ing caught his hand in a mousetra' later remembers the e(ent in (i(id, self-generated detail. When more directl$ told about -some things that ha''ened to $ou when $ou were little+, o(er time the$ easil$ enough assent to the im'lanted memories. =rofessionals watching (ideota'es of the children can do no better than chance in distinguishing false memories from true ones. Is there an$ reason to think that adults are wholl$ immune to the fallibilities e)hibited b$ children7 =resident Aonald Aeagan, who s'ent World War Two in Holl$wood, (i(idl$ described his own role in liberating 5a.i concentration cam' (ictims. 4i(ing in the film world, he a''arentl$ confused a mo(ie he had seen with a realit$ he had not. 2n man$ occasions in his =residential cam'aigns, #r Aeagan told an e'ic stor$ of World War Two courage and sacrifice, an ins'iration for all of us. 2nl$ it ne(er ha''ened, it was the 'lot of the mo(ie 0 'ing and a Prayer = that made 8uite an im'ression on me, too, when I saw it at age . #an$

other instances of this sort can be found in Aeagan+s 'ublic statements. It is not hard to imagine serious 'ublic dangers emerging out of instances in which 'olitical, militar$, scientific or religious leaders are unable to distinguish fact from (i(id fiction. In 're'aring for courtroom testimon$, witnesses are coached b$ their law$ers. 2ften, the$ are made to re'eat the stor$ o(er and o(er again, until the$ get it -right+. Then, on the stand what the$ remember is the stor$ the$+(e been telling in the law$er+s office. The nuances ha(e been shaded. 2r it ma$ no longer corres'ond, e(en in its ma1or features, to what reall$ ha''ened. Con(enientl$, the witnesses ma$ ha(e forgotten that their memories were re'rocessed. These facts are rele(ant in e(aluating the societal effects of ad(ertising and of national 'ro'aganda. 3ut here the$ suggest that on alien abduction matters - where inter(iews t$'icall$ take 'lace $ears after the alleged e(ent - thera'ists must be (er$ careful that the$ do not accidentall$ im'lant or select the stories the$ elicit. =erha's what we actuall$ remember is a set of memor$ fragments stitched on to a fabric of our own de(ising. If we sew cle(erl$ enough, we ha(e made oursel(es a memorable stor$ eas$ to recall. <ragments b$ themsel(es, unencumbered b$ association, are harder to retrie(e. The situation is rather like the method of science itself where man$ isolated data 'oints can be remembered, summari.ed and e)'lained in the framework of a theor$. We then much more easil$ recall the theor$ and not the data. In science the theories are alwa$s being reassessed and confronted with new facts, if the facts are seriousl$ discordant -be$ond the error bars - the theor$ ma$ ha(e to be re(ised. 3ut in e(er$da$ life it is (er$ rare that we are confronted with new facts about e(ents of long ago. 2ur memories are almost ne(er challenged. The$ can, instead, be fro.en in 'lace, no matter how flawed the$ are, or become a work in continual artistic re(ision. #ore than gods and demons, the best-attested a''aritions are those of saints, es'eciall$ the Dirgin #ar$ in Western >uro'e from late medie(al to modern times. While alien abduction stories ha(e much more the fla(our of 'rofane, demonic a''aritions, insight into the /<2 m$th can also be gained from (isions described as sacred. =erha's best known are those of *eanne d+"rc in <rance, St 3ridget in Sweden, and ?irolamo Sa(onarola in Ital$. 3ut more a''ro'riate for our 'ur'ose are the a''aritions seen b$ she'herds and 'easants and children. In a world 'lagued b$ uncertaint$ and horror, these 'eo'le longed for contact with the di(ine. " detailed record of such e(ents in Castile and Catalonia is 'ro(ided b$ William ". Christian *r in his book 011aritions in Late $edieval and ,enaissance S1ain 9% B%:. In a t$'ical case, a rural woman or child re'orts encountering a girl or an oddl$ tin$ woman - 'erha's three or four feet tall -who re(eals

herself to be the Dirgin #ar$, the #other of ?od. She re8uests the awestruck witness to go to the (illage fathers or the local Church authorities and order them to sa$ 'ra$ers for the dead, or obe$ the Commandments, or build a shrine at this (er$ s'ot in the countr$side. If the$ do not com'l$, dire 'enalties are threatened, 'erha's the 'lague. "lternati(el$, in 'lague-infested times, #ar$ 'romises to cure the disease but onl$ if her re8uest is satisfied. The witness tries to do as she is told. 3ut when she informs her father or husband or 'riest, she is ordered to re'eat the stor$ to no one, it is mere female foolishness or fri(olit$ or demonic hallucination. So she kee's 8uiet. Da$s later she is confronted again b$ #ar$, a little 'ut out that her re8uest has not been honoured. -The$ will not belie(e me,+ the witness com'lains. -?i(e me a sign.+ Evidence is needed. So #ar$ - who seems to ha(e had no foreknowledge that e(idence would ha(e to be 'ro(ided - 'ro(ides a sign. The (illagers and 'riests are 'rom'tl$ con(inced. The shrine is built. #iraculous cures occur in its (icinit$. =ilgrims come from far and wide. =riests are bus$. The econom$ of the region booms. The original witness is a''ointed kee'er of the sacred shrine. In most of the cases we know of, there was a commission of in8uir$, com'rising leaders ci(ic and ecclesiastic, who attested to the genuineness of the a''arition, des'ite initial, almost e)clusi(el$ male, sce'ticism. 3ut the standards of e(idence were not generall$ high. In one case the testimon$ of a delirious eight-$ear-old bo$, taken two da$s before his death from 'lague, was soberl$ acce'ted. Some of these commissions deliberated decades or e(en a centur$ after the e(ent. In 5n the Distinction +etween "rue and False 4isions, an e)'ert on the sub1ect, *ean ?erson, in around %E;;, summari.ed the criteria for recogni.ing a credible witness of an a''arition! one was the willingness to acce't ad(ice from the 'olitical and religious hierarch$. Thus an$one seeing a (ision disturbing to those in 'ower was i1so facto an unreliable witness, and saints and (irgins could be made to sa$ whate(er the authorities wanted to hear. The -signs+ allegedl$ 'ro(ided b$ #ar$, the e(idence offered and considered com'elling, included an ordinar$ candle, a 'iece of silk, and a magnetic stone, a 'iece of coloured tile, foot'rints, the witness+s unusuall$ 8uick gathering of thistles, a sim'le wooden cross inserted in the ground, welts and wounds on the witness, and a (ariet$ of contortions - a %G-$ear-old with her hand held funn$, or legs folded back, or a closed mouth making her tem'oraril$ mute - that are -cured+ the moment her stor$ is acce'ted. In some cases accounts ma$ ha(e been com'ared and coordinated before testimon$ was gi(en. <or e)am'le, multi'le witnesses in a small town might tell of a tall, glowing woman dressed all in white carr$ing

an infant son and surrounded b$ a radiance that lit u' the street the 're(ious night. 3ut in other cases, 'eo'le standing directl$ beside the witness could see nothing, as in this re'ort of a %I%C a''arition from Castile! -"$e, 3artolome, the lad$ who came to me these 'ast da$s is coming through the meadow, and she is kneeling and embracing the cross there - look at her, look at her0+ The $outh though he looked as hard as he could saw nothing e)ce't some small birds fl$ing around abo(e the cross. =ossiole moti(es for in(enting and acce'ting such stories are not hard to find! 1obs for 'riests, notaries, car'enters and merchants, and other boosts to the original econom$ in a time of de'ression, augmented social status of the witness and her famil$, 'ra$ers once again offered for relati(es buried in gra(e$ards later abandoned because of 'lague, drought and war, rousing 'ublic s'irit against enemies, es'eciall$ #oors, im'ro(ing ci(ilit$ and obedience to canon law, and confirming the faith of the 'ious. The fer(our of 'ilgrims in such shrines was im'ressi(e, it was not uncommon for rock scra'ings or dirt from the shrine to be mi)ed with water and drunk as medicine. 3ut I+m not suggesting that most witnesses made the whole business u'. Something else was going on. "lmost all the urgent re8uests b$ #ar$ were remarkable for their 'rosaicness - for e)am'le, in this %EB& a''arition from Catalonia! I charge $ou b$ $our soul to charge the souls of the men of the 'arishes of >l Torn, #illeras, >l Salent, and Sant #i8uel de Cam'maior to charge the souls of the 'riests to ask the 'eo'le to 'a$ u' the tithes and all the duties of the church and restore other things that the$ hold co(ertl$ or o'enl$ which are not theirs to their rightful owners within thirt$ da$s, for it will be necessar$, and obser(e well the hol$ Sunda$. "nd second that the$ should cease and desist from blas'heming and the$ should 'a$ the usual charitas mandated b$ their dead ancestors. 2ften the a''arition is seen 1ust after the witness awakes. <rancisca la 3ra(a testified in %5G& that she had gotten out of bed -without knowing if she was in control of her senses+, although in later testimon$ she claimed to be full$ awake. 9This was in res'onse to a 8uestion which allowed a gradation of 'ossibilities! full$ awake, do.ing, in a trance, aslee'.: Sometimes details are wholl$ missing, such as what the accom'an$ing angels looked like, or #ar$ is described as both tall and short, both mother and child, characteristics that unmistakabl$ suggest themsel(es as dream material. In the Dialogue on $iracles written

around %GG& b$ Caesarius of Heisterbach, clerical (isions of the Dirgin #ar$ often occurred during matins, which took 'lace at the slee'$ midnight hour. It is natural to sus'ect that man$, 'erha's all, of these a''aritions were a s'ecies of dream, waking or slee'ing, com'ounded b$ hoa)es 9and b$ forgeries, there was a thri(ing business in contri(ed miracles! religious 'aintings and statues dug u' b$ accident or di(ine command:. The matter was addressed in the Siete Partidas, the code) of canon and ci(il law com'iled under the direction of "lfonso the Wise, king of Castile, around %GEB. In it we can read the following! Some men fraudulentl$ disco(er or build altars in fields or in towns, sa$ing that there are relics of certain saints in those 'laces and 'retending that the$ 'erform miracles, and, for this reason, 'eo'le from man$ 'laces are induced to go there as on a 'ilgrimage, in order to take something awa$ from them, and there are others who influenced b$ dreams or em't$ 'hantoms which a''ear to them, erect altars and 'retend to disco(er them in the abo(e named localities. In listing the reasons for erroneous beliefs, "lfonso la$s out a continuum from sect, o'inion, fantas$ and dream to hallucination. " kind of fantas$ named antoianGa is defined as follows! "ntoianca is something that sto's before the e$es and then disa''ears, as one sees or hears it in a trance, and so is without substance. " %5%C 'a'al bull distinguishes between a''aritions that a''ear -in dreams or di(inel$+. Clearl$, the secular and ecclesiastical authorities, e(en in times of e)treme credulit$, were alert to the 'ossibilities of hoa) and delusion. 5e(ertheless, in most of medie(al >uro'e, such a''aritions were greeted warml$ b$ the Aoman Catholic clerg$, es'eciall$ because the #arian admonitions were so congenial to the 'riesthood. " 'athetic few -signs+ of e(idence - a stone or a foot'rint and ne(er an$thing unfakeable - sufficed. 3ut beginning in the fifteenth centur$, around the time of the =rotestant Aeformation, the attitude of the Church changed. Those who re'orted an inde'endent channel to Hea(en were outflanking the Church+s chain of command u' to ?od. #oreo(er, a few of the a''aritions - *eanne d+"rc+s, for e)am'le - had awkward 'olitical or moral im'lications. The 'erils re'resented b$ *eanne d+"rc+s (isions were described b$ her in8uisitors in %E&% in these words! The great danger was shown to her that comes of someone so 'resum'tuous to belie(e the$ ha(e such a''aritions and re(elations, and therefore lie about matters concerning ?od, gi(ing out false

'ro'hecies and di(inations not known from ?od, but in(ented. <rom which could follow the seduction of 'eo'les, the ince'tion of new sects, and man$ other im'ieties that sub(ert the Church and Catholics. 3oth *eanne d+"rc and ?irolamo Sa(onarola were burned at the stake for their (isions. In %5%I the <ifth 4ateran Council reser(ed to -the "'ostolic seat+ the right to e)amine the authenticit$ of a''aritions. <or 'oor 'easants whose (isions had no 'olitical content, the 'unishments fell short of the ultimate se(erit$. The #arian a''arition seen b$ <rancisca la 3ra(a, a $oung mother, was described b$ 4icenciado #ariana, the 4ord In8uisitor, as -to the detriment of our hol$ Catholic faith and the diminution of its authorit$+. Her a''arition -was all (anit$ and fri(olit$+. -3$ rights we could ha(e treated her more rigorousl$+, the In8uisitor continued. 3ut in deference to certain 1ust reasons that mo(e us to mitigate the rigour of the sentences we decree as a 'unishment to <rancisca la 3ra(a and an e)am'le to others not to attem't similar things that we condemn her to be 'ut on an ass and gi(en one hundred lashes in 'ublic through the accustomed streets of 3elmonte naked from the waist u', and the same number in the town of >l Huintanar in the same manner. "nd that from now on she not sa$ or affirm in 'ublic or secretl$ b$ word or insinuation the things she said in her confessions or else she will be 'rosecuted as an im'enitent and one who does not belie(e in or agree with what is in our hol$ Catholic faith. Des'ite the 'enalties, it is striking how often the witness stuck to her guns and, ignoring the encouragements offered her to confess that she was l$ing or dreaming or confused, insisted that she reall$ and trul$ had seen the (ision. In a time when nearl$ e(er$one was illiterate, before news'a'ers, radio and tele(ision, how could the religious and icono-gra'hic detail of these a''aritions ha(e been so similar7 William Christian belie(es there is a read$ answer in cathedral dramaturg$ 9es'eciall$ Christmas 'la$s:, in itinerant 'reachers and 'ilgrims, and in church sermons. 4egends about nearb$ shrines s'read 8uickl$. =eo'le sometimes came from a hundred miles or more so that, sa$, their sick child could be cured b$ a 'ebble that had been trodden on b$ the #other of ?od. 4egends influenced a''aritions and (ice (ersa. In a time haunted b$ drought, 'lague and war, with no social or medical ser(ices a(ailable to the a(erage 'erson, with 'ublic literac$ and the scientific method unheard of, sce'tical thinking was rare. Wh$ are the admonitions so 'rosaic7 Wh$ is a (ision of so illustrious a 'ersonage as the #other of ?od necessar$ so, in a tin$ count$ 'o'ulated b$ a few thousand souls, a shrine will be re'aired or the

'o'ulace will refrain from cursing7 Wh$ not im'ortant and 'ro'hetic messages whose significance could be recogni.ed in later $ears as something that could ha(e emanated onl$ from ?od or the saints7 Wouldn+t this ha(e greatl$ enhanced the Catholic cause in its mortal struggle with =rotestantism and the >nlightenment7 3ut we ha(e no a''aritions cautioning the Church against, sa$, acce'ting the delusion of an >arth-centred /ni(erse, or warning it of com'licit$ with 5a.i ?erman$ - two matters of considerable moral as well as historical im'ort, on which =o'e *ohn =aul II, to his credit, has admitted that the Church has erred. 5ot a single saint critici.ed the 'ractice of torturing and burning -witches+ and heretics. Wh$ not7 Were the$ unaware of what was going on7 Could the$ not gras' its e(il7 "nd wh$ is #ar$ alwa$s ordering the 'oor 'easant to inform the authorities7 Wh$ doesn+t she admonish the authorities herself7 2r the @ing7 2r the =o'e7 In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, it is true, some of the a''aritions ha(e taken on greater im'ort - at <atima, =ortugal, in % %C, where the Dirgin was incensed that a secular go(ernment had re'laced a go(ernment run b$ the Church, and at ?arabandal, S'ain, in % I%-5, where the end of the world was threatened unless conser(ati(e 'olitical and religious doctrines were ado'ted forthwith. I think I can see man$ 'arallels between #arian a''aritions and alien abductions, e(en though the witnesses in the former cases are not 'rom'tl$ taken to Hea(en and don+t ha(e their re'roducti(e organs meddled with. The beings re'orted are diminuti(e, most often about two-and-a-half to four feet high. The$ come from the sk$. The content of the communication is, des'ite its 'ur'orted celestial origin, mundane. There seems to be a clear connection with slee' and dreams. The witnesses, often females, are troubled about s'eaking out, es'eciall$ after encountering ridicule from males in 'ositions of authorit$. 5e(ertheless the$ 'ersist! the$ reall$ saw such a thing, the$ insist. #eans of con(e$ing the stories e)ist, the$ are eagerl$ discussed, 'ermitting details to be coordinated e(en among witnesses who ha(e ne(er met one another. 2thers 'resent at the time and 'lace of the a''arition see nothing unusual. The 'ur'orted -signs+ or e(idence are, without e)ce'tion, nothing that humans couldn+t ac8uire or fabricate on their own. Indeed, #ar$ seems uns$m'athetic to the need for e(idence, and occasionall$ is willing to cure onl$ those who had belie(ed the account of her a''arition +efore she su''lied -signs+. "nd while there are no thera'ists, 1er se, the societ$ is suffused b$ a network of influential 'arish 'riests and their hierarchical su'eriors who ha(e a (ested interest in the realit$ of the (isions. In our time, there are still a''aritions of #ar$ and other angels, but also, as summari.ed b$ ?. Scott S'arrow, a 's$chothera'ist and h$'notist, of *esus. In % 0m 'ith <ou 0lways* "rue Stories of Encounters with esus 93antam, % 5:, first-hand accounts, some mo(ing, some

banal, of such encounters are laid out. 2ddl$, most of them are straightforward dreams, acknowledged as such, and the ones called (isions are said to differ from dreams -onl$ because we e)'erience them while we are awake+. 3ut, for S'arrow, 1udging something -onl$ a dream+ does not com'romise its e)ternal realit$. <or S'arrow, an$ being $ou dream of, and an$ incident, reall$ e)ists in the world outside $our head. He s'ecificall$ denies that dreams are -'urel$ sub1ecti(e+. >(idence doesn+t enter into it. If $ou dreamed it, if it felt good, if it elicited wonder, wh$ then it reall$ ha''ened. There+s not a sce'tical bone in S'arrow+s bod$. When *esus tells a troubled woman in an -intolerable+ marriage to throw the bum out, S'arrow admits that this 'oses 'roblems for -ad(ocates of a scri'turall$ consistent 'osition+. In that case, -Jultimatel$, 'erha's, one could sa$ that (irtuall$ all 'resumed guidance is generated from within+. What if someone re'orted a dream in which *esus counselled, sa$, abortion - or (engeance7 "nd if indeed somewhere, somehow we must e(entuall$ draw the line and conclude that some dreams are in(ented b$ the dreamer, wh$ not all7 Wh$ would 'eo'le in(ent abduction stories7 Wh$, for that matter, would 'eo'le a''ear on TD audience 'artici'ation 'rogrammes de(oted to se)ual humiliation of the -guests+ - the current rage in "merica+s (ideo wasteland7 Disco(ering that $ou+re an alien abductee is at least a break from the routine of e(er$da$ life. 6ou gain the attention of 'eers, thera'ists, ma$be e(en the media. There is a sense of disco(er$, e)hilaration, awe. What will $ou remember ne)t7 6ou begin to belie(e that $ou ma$ be the harbinger or e(en the instrument of momentous e(ents now rolling towards us. "nd $ou don+t want to disa''oint $our thera'ist. 6ou cra(e his or her a''ro(al. I think there can (er$ well be 's$chic rewards in becoming an abductee. <or com'arison, consider 'roduct tam'ering cases, which con(e$ (er$ little of the sense of wonder that surrounds /<2s and alien abductions! someone claims to find a h$'odermic s$ringe in a 'o'ular soft drink can. /nderstandabl$, this is u'setting. It+s re'orted in news'a'ers and es'eciall$ on tele(ision news. Soon there+s a s'ate, a (irtual e'idemic of similar re'orts from all o(er the countr$. 3ut it+s (er$ hard to see how a h$'odermic s$ringe could get into a can at the factor$, and in none of the cases are witnesses 'resent when an intact can is o'ened and a s$ringe disco(ered inside. Slowl$ the e(idence accumulates that this is a -co'$cat+ crime. =eo'le ha(e onl$ been 'retending to find s$ringes in soft drink cans. Wh$ would an$one do it7 What 'ossible moti(es could the$ ha(e7 Some 's$chiatrists sa$ that the 'rimar$ moti(es are greed 9the$+ll sue the manufacturer for damages:, a cra(ing for attention, and a wish to be 'ortra$ed as a (ictim. 5ote there are no thera'ists touting the realit$ of needles in cans and urging their 'atients, subtl$ or directl$,

to go 'ublic with the news. "lso, serious 'enalties are le(ied for 'roduct tam'ering, and e(en for falsel$ alleging that 'roducts ha(e been tam'ered with. In contrast, there are thera'ists who encourage abductees to tell their stories to mass audiences, and no legal 'enalties are e)acted for falsel$ claiming $ou+(e been abducted b$ a /<2. Whate(er $our reason for going down this road, how much more satisf$ing it must be to con(ince others that $ou+(e been chosen b$ higher beings for their own enigmatic 'ur'ose than that b$ mere ha''enstance $ou+(e found a h$'odermic s$ringe in $our cola.

Thera'$
It is a ca'ital mistake to theori.e before one has data. Insensibl$ one begins to twist facts to suit theories, instead of theories to suit facts. Sherlock Holmes, in "rthur Conan Do$le+s 0 Scandal in /ohemia 9%B %: True memories seemed like 'hantoms, while false memories were so con(incing that the$ re'laced realit$. ?abriel ?arcfa #ar8ue., Strange Pilgrims 9% G:

John #ack is a Har(ard /ni(ersit$ 's$chiatrist whom I+(e known for

man$ $ears. -Is there an$thing to this /<2 business7+ he asked me long ago. -5ot much,+ I re'lied. ->)ce't of course on the 's$chiatric side.+ He looked into it, inter(iewed abductees, and was con(erted. He now acce'ts the accounts of abductees at face (alue. Wh$7 -I wasn+t looking for this,+ he sa$s. -There+s nothing in m$ background that 're'ared me+ for the alien abduction stor$. -It+s com'letel$ 'ersuasi(e because of the emotional 'ower of these e)'eriences.+ In his book, 0+ductions, #ack e)'licitl$ 'ro'oses the (er$ dangerous doctrine that -the 'ower or intensit$ with which something is felt+ is a guide to whether it+s true. I can 'ersonall$ attest to the emotional 'ower. 3ut aren+t 'owerful emotions a routine com'onent of our dreams7 Don+t we sometimes awake in stark terror7 Doesn+t #ack, himself the author of a book on nightmares, know about the emotional 'ower of hallucinations7 Some of #ack+s 'atients describe themsel(es as ha(ing hallucinated since childhood. Ha(e the h$'notists and 's$chothera'ists working with -abductees+ made conscientious attem'ts to stee' themsel(es in the bod$ of knowledge on hallucinations and 'erce'tual malfunctions7 Wh$ do the$ belie(e these witnesses but not those who re'orted, with com'arable con(iction, encounters with gods, demons, saints, angels and fairies7 "nd what about those who hear irresistible commands from a (oice within7 "re all dee'l$ felt stories true7 " scientist of m$ ac8uaintance sa$s, -If the aliens would onl$ kee' all the folks the$ abduct, our world would be a little saner.+ 3ut her

1udgement is too harsh. It doesn+t seem to be a matter of sanit$. It+s something else. The Canadian 's$chologist 5icholas S'anos and his colleagues concluded that there are no ob(ious 'athologies in those who re'ort being abducted b$ /<2s. Howe(er, intense /<2 e)'eriences are more likel$ to occur in indi(iduals who are dis'osed to esoteric beliefs in general and alien beliefs in 'articular and who inter'ret unusual sensor$ and imaginal e)'eriences in terms of the alien h$'othesis. "mong /<2 belie(ers, those with stronger 'ro'ensities toward fantas$ 'roduction were 'articularl$ likel$ to generate such e)'eriences. #oreo(er, such e)'eriences were likel$ to be generated and inter'reted as real e(ents rather than imaginings when the$ were associated with restricted sensor$ en(ironments... 9e.g., e)'eriences that occurred at night and in association with slee':. What a more critical mind might recogni.e as a hallucination or a dream, a more credulous mind inter'rets as a glim'se of an elusi(e but 'rofound e)ternal realit$. Some alien abduction accounts ma$ concei(abl$ be disguised memories of ra'e and childhood se)ual abuse, with the father, ste'father, uncle or mother+s bo$friend re'resented as an alien. Surel$ it+s more comforting to belie(e that an alien abused $ou than that it was done b$ someone $ou trusted and lo(ed. Thera'ists who take the alien abduction stories at face (alue den$ this, sa$ing the$ would know if their 'atients were se)uall$ abused. Some estimates from o'inion sur(e$s range as high as one in four "merican women and one in si) "merican men ha(e been se)uall$ abused in childhood 9although these estimates are 'robabl$ too high:. It would be astonishing if a significant number of 'atients who 'resent themsel(es to alien abduction thera'ists had not been so abused, 'erha's e(en a larger 'ro'ortion than in the general 'o'ulation. 3oth se)ual abuse thera'ists and alien abduction thera'ists s'end months, sometimes $ears, encouraging their sub1ects to remember being abused. Their methods are similar, and their goals are in a wa$ the same - to reco(er 'ainful memories, often of long ago. In both cases the thera'ist belie(es the 'atient to be suffering from trauma attendant to an e(ent so terrible that it is re'ressed. I find it striking that alien abduction thera'ists find so few cases of se)ual abuse and (ice (ersa. Those who ha(e in fact been sub1ected to childhood se)ual abuse or incest are, for (er$ understandable reasons, sensiti(e about an$thing that seems to minimi.e or den$ their e)'erience. The$ are angr$, and the$ ha(e e(er$ right to be. In the /S, at least one in ten women ha(e been ra'ed, almost two-thirds before the age of %B. " recent sur(e$ re'orts that one-si)th of all ra'e (ictims re'orted to 'olice are under

the age of %G. 9"nd this is the categor$ of ra'e least likel$ to be re'orted.: 2ne-fifth of these girls were ra'ed b$ their fathers. The$ ha(e been betra$ed. I want to be (er$ clear about this! there are man$ real cases of ghoulish se)ual 'redation b$ 'arents, or those acting in the role of 'arents. Com'elling 'h$sical e(idence - 'hotos, for e)am'le, or diaries, or gonorrhoea or chlam$dia in the child - ha(e in some cases come to light. "buse of children has been im'licated as a ma1or 'robable cause of social 'roblems. "ccording to one sur(e$, B5 'er cent of all (iolent 'rison inmates were abused in childhood. Twothirds of all teenage mothers were ra'ed or se)uall$ abused as children or teenagers. Aa'e (ictims are ten times more likel$ than other women to use alcohol and other drugs to e)cess. The 'roblem is real and urgent. #ost of these tragic and incontestable cases of childhood se)ual abuse, howe(er, ha(e been continuousl$ remembered into adulthood. There is no hidden memor$ to be retrie(ed. While there is better re'orting toda$ than in the 'ast, there does seem to be a significant increase in cases of child abuse re'orted each $ear b$ hos'itals and law enforcement authorities, rising in the /nited States ten-fold 9to %.C million cases: between % IC and % B5. "lcohol and other drugs, as well as economic stresses, are 'ointed to as the -reasons+ adults are more 'rone to abuse children toda$ than in the 'ast. =erha's increasing 'ublicit$ gi(en to contem'orar$ cases of child abuse emboldens adults to remember and focus on the abuse the$ once suffered. " centur$ ago, Sigmund <reud introduced the conce't of re'ression, the forgetting of e(ents in order to a(oid intense 's$chic 'ain, as a co'ing mechanism essential for mental health. It seemed to emerge es'eciall$ in 'atients diagnosed with -h$steria+, the s$m'toms of which included hallucinations and 'aral$sis. "t first <reud belie(ed that behind e(er$ case of h$steria was a re'ressed instance of childhood se)ual abuse. >(entuall$ <reud changed his e)'lanation to h$steria being caused +y fantasies = not all of them un'leasant - of ha(ing been se)uall$ abused as a child. The burden of guilt was shifted from 'arent to child. Something like this debate rages toda$. 9The reason for <reud+s change of heart is still being dis'uted - the e)'lanations ranging from his 'ro(oking outrage among his Diennese middle-aged male 'eers, to his recognition that he was taking the stories of h$sterics seriousl$.: Instances in which the -memor$+ suddenl$ surfaces, es'eciall$ at the ministrations of a 's$chothera'ist or h$'notist, and where the first -recollections+ ha(e a ghost- or dreamlike 8ualit$ are highl$ 8uestionable. #an$ such claims of se)ual abuse a''ear to be in(ented. The >mor$ /ni(ersit$ 's$chologist /lric 5eisser sa$s! There is child abuse, and there are such things as re'ressed memories. 3ut there are also such things as false memories and confabulations,

and the$ are not rare at all. #isremem-berings are the rule, not the e)ce'tion. The$ occur all the time. The$ occur e(en in cases where the sub1ect is absolutel$ confident - e(en when the memor$ is a seemingl$ unforgettable flashbulb, one of those meta'horical mental 'hotogra'hs. The$ are still more likel$ to occur in cases where suggestion is a li(el$ 'ossibilit$, where memories can be sha'ed and re-sha'ed to meet the strong inter'ersonal demands of a thera'$ session. "nd once a memor$ has been reconfigured in this wa$, it is (er$, (er$ hard to change. These general 'rinci'les cannot hel' us to decide with certaint$ where the truth lies in an$ indi(idual case or claim. 3ut on the a(erage, across a large number of such claims, it is 'rett$ ob(ious where we should 'lace our bets. #isremembering and retros'ecti(e reworking of the 'ast are a 'art of human nature, the$ go with the territor$ and the$ ha''en all the time. Sur(i(ors of the 5a.i death cam's 'ro(ide the clearest imaginable demonstration that e(en the most monstrous abuse can be carried continuousl$ in human memor$. Indeed, the 'roblem for man$ Holocaust sur(i(ors has been to 'ut some emotional distance between themsel(es and the death cam's, to forget. 3ut if in some alternati(e world of ine)'ressible e(il the$ were forced to live in 5a.i ?erman$ let+s sa$ a thri(ing 'ost-Hitler nation with its ideolog$ intact, e)ce't that it+s changed its mind about anti-Semitism - imagine the 's$chological burden on Holocaust sur(i(ors then. Then 'erha's the$ would be able to forget, because remembering would make their current li(es unbearable. If there is such a thing as the re'ression and subse8uent recall of ghastl$ memories, then 'erha's it re8uires two conditions! 9%: that the abuse actuall$ ha''ened, and 9G: that the (ictim was re8uired to 'retend for long 'eriods of time that it ne(er ha''ened. The /ni(ersit$ of California social 's$chologist Aichard 2fshe e)'lains! When 'atients are asked to e)'lain how the memories returned, the$ re'ort assembling fragments of images, ideas, feelings, and sensations into marginall$ coherent stories. "s the so-called memor$ work stretches out for months, feelings become (ague images, images become figures, and figures become known 'ersons. Dague discomfort in certain 'arts of the bod$ is reinter'reted as childhood ra'e... The original 'h$sical sensations, sometimes augmented b$ h$'nosis, are then labeled -bod$ memories+. There is no concei(able mechanism b$ which the muscles of the bod$ could store memories. If these methods fail to 'ersuade, the thera'ist ma$ resort to still more hea($-handed 'ractices. Some 'atients are recruited into sur(i(or grou's in which 'eer 'ressure is brought to bear, and the$ are asked to demonstrate

'oliticall$ correct solidarit$ b$ establishing themsel(es as members of a sur(i(or subculture. " cautious % & statement b$ the "merican =s$chiatric "ssociation acce'ts the 'ossibilit$ that some of us forget childhood abuse as a means of co'ing, but warns, It is not known how to distinguish, with com'lete accurac$, memories based on true e(ents from those deri(ed from other sources... Ae'eated 8uestioning ma$ lead indi(iduals to re'ort -memories+ of e(ents that ne(er occurred. It is not known what 'ro'ortion of adults who re'ort memories of se)ual abuse were actuall$ abused ... " strong 'rior belief b$ the 's$chiatrist that se)ual abuse, or other factors, are or are not the cause of the 'atient+s 'roblems is likel$ to interfere with a''ro'riate assessment and treatment. 2n the one hand, callousl$ to dismiss charges of horrif$ing se)ual abuse can be heartless in1ustice. 2n the other hand, to tam'er with 'eo'le+s memories, to infuse false stories of childhood abuse, to break u' intact families, and e(en to send innocent 'arents to 'rison is also heartless in1ustice. Sce'ticism is essential on both sides. =icking our wa$ between these two e)tremes can be (er$ trick$. >arl$ editions of the influential book b$ >llen 3ass and 4aura Da(id :"he Courage to &eal* 0 #uide for 'omen Survivors of Child Sexual 0+use, % BB: gi(e illuminating ad(ice to thera'ists! Belie e the sur i or. 6ou must belie(e $our client was se)uall$ abused, e(en if she doubts it herself... 6our client needs $ou to sta$ stead$ in the belief that she was abused. *oining a client in doubt would be like 1oining a suicidal client in her belief that suicide is the best wa$ out. If a client is unsure that she was abused but thinks she might ha(e been, work as though she was. So far, among the hundreds of women we+(e talked to and the hundreds more we+(e heard about, not one has sus'ected that she might ha(e been abused, e)'lored it, and determined that she wasn+t. 3ut @enneth D. 4anning, Su'er(isor$ S'ecial "gent at the 3eha(ioral Science Instruction and Aesearch /nit of the <3I "cadem$ in Huantico, Dirginia, a leading e)'ert on the se)ual (ictimi.ation of children, wonders! -"re we making u' for centuries of denial b$ now blindl$ acce'ting any allegation of child abuse, no matter how absurd or unlikel$7+ -I don+t care if it+s true,+ re'lies one California thera'ist re'orted b$ "he 'ashington Post! -What actuall$ ha''ened is irrele(ant to me ... We all li(e in a delusion.+ The e)istence of any false accusation of childhood se)ual abuse es'eciall$ those created under the ministrations of an authorit$ figure -

has, it seems to me, rele(ance to the alien abduction issue. If some 'eo'le can with great 'assion and con(iction be led to falsel$ remember being abused b$ their own 'arents, might not others, with com'arable 'assion and con(iction, be led to falsel$ remember being abused b$ aliens7 The more I look into claims of alien abduction, the more similar the$ seem to re'orts of -reco(ered memories+ of childhood se)ual abuse. "nd there+s a third class of related claims, re'ressed -memories+ of satanic ritual cults - in which se)ual torture, co'ro'hilia, infanticide and cannibalism are said to be 'rominentl$ featured. In a sur(e$ of G,C;; members of the "merican =s$chological "ssociation, %G 'er cent re'lied that the$ had treated cases of satanic ritual abuse 9while &; 'er cent re'orted cases of abuse done in the name of religion:. Something like %;,;;; cases are re'orted annuall$ in the /nited States in recent $ears. " significant number of those touting the 'eril of ram'ant satanism in "merica, including law enforcement officers who organi.e seminars on the sub1ect, turn out to be Christian fundamentalists, their sects e)'licitl$ re8uire a literal de(il to be meddling in e(er$da$ human life. The connection is neatl$ drawn in the sa$ing -5o Satan, no ?od+. "''arentl$, there is a 'er(asi(e 'olice gullibilit$ 'roblem on this matter. Here are some e)cer'ts from <3I e)'ert 4anning+s anal$sis of -Satanic, 2ccult and Aitualistic Crime+, based on bitter e)'erience, and 'ublished in the 2ctober % B issue of the 'rofessional 1ournal, "he Police Chief* "lmost an$ discussion of satanism and witchcraft is inter'reted in the light of the religious beliefs of those in the audience. <aith, not logic and reason, go(erns the religious beliefs of most 'eo'le. "s a result, some normall$ sce'tical law enforcement officers acce't the information disseminated at these conferences without criticall$ e(aluating it or 8uestioning the sources... <or some 'eo'le satanism is an$ religious belief s$stem other than their own. 4anning then offers a long list of belief s$stems he has 'ersonall$ heard described as satanism at such conferences. It includes Aoman Catholicism, the 2rthodo) Churches, Islam, 3uddhism, Hinduism, #ormonism, rock and roll music, channelling, astrolog$ and 5ew "ge beliefs in general. Is there not a hint here about how witch hunts and 'ogroms get started7 He continues! Within the 'ersonal religious belief s$stem of a law enforcement officer, Christianit$ ma$ be good and satanism e(il. /nder the Constitution, howe(er, both are neutral. This is an im'ortant, but difficult, conce't for man$ law enforcement officers to acce't. The$ are 'aid to u'hold the 'enal code, not the Ten Commandments... The fact is that far more crime and child abuse has been committed b$ .ealots

in the name of ?od, *esus and #ohammed than has e(er been committed in the name of Satan. #an$ 'eo'le don+t like that statement, but few can argue with it. #an$ of those alleging satanic abuse describe grotes8ue orgiastic rituals in which infants are murdered and eaten. Such claims ha(e been made about re(iled grou's b$ their detractors throughout >uro'ean histor$, including the Cataline cons'irators in Aome, the =asso(er -blood libel+ against the *ews, and the @nights Tem'lar as the$ were being dismantled in fourteenth-centur$ <rance. Ironicall$, re'orts of cannibalistic infanticide and incestuous orgies were among the 'articulars used b$ Aoman authorities to 'ersecute the earl$ Christians. "fter all, *esus himself is 8uoted as sa$ing 9*ohn (i, 5&: ->)ce't $e eat the flesh of the Son of man, and drink his blood, $e ha(e no life in $ou+. "lthough the ne)t line makes it clear *esus is talking about eating his own flesh and drinking his own blood, uns$m'athetic critics might ha(e misunderstood the ?reek -Son of man+ to mean -child+ or -infant+. Tertullian and other earl$ Church fathers defended themsel(es against these grotes8ue accusations as best the$ could. Toda$, the lack of corres'onding numbers of lost infants and $oung children in 'olice files is e)'lained b$ the claim that all o(er the world babies are being bred for this 'ur'ose, surel$ reminiscent of abductee claims that alienPhuman breeding e)'eriments are ram'ant. "lso similar to the alien abduction 'aradigm, satanic cult abuse is said to 'ass down from generation to generation in certain families. To the best of m$ knowledge, as in the alien abductien 'aradigm, no 'h$sical e(idence has e(er been offered in a court of law to su''ort such claims. Their emotional 'ower, though, is e(ident. The mere 'ossibilit$ that such things are going on rouses us mammals to action. When we gi(e credence to satanic ritual, we also raise the social status of those who warn us of the su''osed danger. Consider these fi(e cases! 9%: #$ra 2basi, a 4ouisiana schoolteacher, was - she and her sisters belie(ed after consultation with a hoodoo 'ractitioner - 'ossessed b$ demons. Her ne'hew+s nightmares were 'art of the e(idence. So the$ left for Dallas, abandoned their fi(e children, and the sisters then gouged out #s 2basi+s e$es. "t the trial, she defended her sisters. The$ were tr$ing to hel' her, she said. 3ut hoodoo is not de(il-worshi', it is a cross between Catholicism and "frican-Haitian nati(ist religion. 9G: =arents beat their child to death because she would not embrace their brand of Christianit$. 9&: " child molester 1ustifies his acts b$ reading the 3ible to his (ictims. 9E: " %E$ear-old bo$ has his e$eball 'lucked out of his head in an e)orcism ceremon$. His assailant is not a satanist, but a =rotestant fundamentalist minister engaged in religious 'ursuits. 95: " woman thinks her %G-$ear-old son is 'ossessed b$ the de(il. "fter an incestuous relationshi' with him, she deca'itates him. 3ut there is no

satanic ritual content to the -'ossession+. The second and third cases come from <3I files. The last two come from a % E stud$ b$ Dr ?ail ?oodman, a 's$chologist at the /ni(ersit$ of California, Da(is, and her colleagues, done for the 5ational Center on Child "buse and 5eglect. The$ e)amined o(er %G,;;; claims of se)ual abuse in(ol(ing satanic ritual cults, and could not find a single one that held u' to scrutin$. Thera'ists re'orted satanic abuse based onl$ on, for instance, -'atient+s disclosure (ia h$'nothera'$+ or children+s -fear of satanic s$mbols+. In some cases diagnosis was made on the basis of beha(iour common to man$ children. -In onl$ a few cases was 'h$sical e(idence mentioned usuall$, SscarsT.+ 3ut in most cases the -scars+ were (er$ faint or none)istent. ->(en when there were scars, it was not determined whether the (ictims themsel(es had caused them.+ This also is (er$ similar to alien abduction cases, as described below. ?eorge @. ?anawa$, =rofessor of =s$chiatr$ at >mor$ /ni(ersit$, 'ro'oses that -the most common likel$ cause of cult-related memories ma$ (er$ well turn out to be a mutual dece'tion between the 'atient and the thera'ist+. 2ne of the most troublesome cases of -reco(ered memor$+ of satanic ritual abuse has been chronicled b$ 4awrence Wright in a remarkable book, ,emem+ering Satan 9% E:. It concerns =aul Ingram, a man who ma$ ha(e had his life ruined because he was too gullible, too suggestible, too un'ractised in sce'ticism. Ingram was, in % BB, Chairman of the Ae'ublican =art$ in 2l$m'ia, Washington, the chief ci(il de'ut$ in the local sheriff+s de'artment, well regarded, highl$ religious, and res'onsible for warning children in social assemblies of the dangers of drugs. Then came the nightmare moment when one of his daughters - after a highl$ emotional session at a fundamentalist religious retreat - le(elled the first of man$ charges, each more ghastl$ than the 're(ious, that Ingram had se)uall$ abused her, im'regnated her, tortured her, made her a(ailable to other sheriffs de'uties, introduced her to satanic rites, dismembered and ate babies... This had gone on since her childhood, she said, almost to the da$ she began to -remember+ it all. Ingram could not see wh$ his daughter should lie about this, although he himself had no recollection of it. 3ut 'olice in(estigators, a consulting 's$chothera'ist, and his minister at the Church of 4i(ing Water all e)'lained that se) offenders often re'ressed memories of their crimes. Strangel$ detached but at the same time eager to coo'erate, Ingram tried to recall. "fter a 's$chologist em'lo$ed a closed-e$e h$'notic techni8ue to induce trance, Ingram began to (isuali.e something similar to what the 'olice were describing. What came to mind were not like real memories, but something like snatches of images in a fog. >(er$ time he 'roduced one - the more so the more odious the content - he was encouraged and reinforced. His 'astor assured him that ?od would 'ermit onl$ genuine memories to surface

in his re(eries. -3o$, it+s almost like I+m making it u',+ Ingram said, -but I+m not.+ He suggested that a demon might be res'onsible. /nder the same sort of influences, with the Church gra'e(ine circulating the latest horrors that Ingram was confessing, and the 'olice 'ressuring them, his other children and his wife also began -remembering+. =rominent citi.ens were accused of 'artici'ating in the orgiastic rites. 4aw enforcement officers elsewhere in "merica began 'a$ing attention. This was onl$ the ti' of the iceberg, some said. When 3erkele$+s Aichard 2fshe was called in b$ the 'rosecution, he 'erformed a control e)'eriment. It was a breath of fresh air. #erel$ suggesting to Ingram that he had forced his son and daughter to commit incest and asking him to use the -memor$ reco(er$+ techni8ue he had learned, 'rom'tl$ elicited 1ust such a -memor$+. It re8uired no 'ressure, no intimidation - 1ust the suggestion and the techni8ue were enough. 3ut the alleged 'artici'ants, who had -remembered+ so much else, denied it e(er ha''ened. Confronted with this e(idence, Ingram (ehementl$ denied he was making an$thing u' or was influenced b$ others. His memor$ of this incident was as clear and -real+ as all his other recollections. 2ne of the daughters described the terrible scars on her bod$ from torture and forced abortions. 3ut when she finall$ recei(ed a medical e)amination, there were no corres'onding scars to be seen. The 'rosecution ne(er tried Ingram on charges of satanic abuse. Ingram hired a law$er who had ne(er tried a criminal case. 2n his 'astor+s ad(ice, he did not e(en read 2fshe+s re'ort! it would onl$ confuse him, he was told. He 'leaded guilt$ to si) counts of ra'e, and ultimatel$ was sent to 'rison. In 1ail, while awaiting sentencing, awa$ from his daughters, his 'olice colleagues and his 'astor, he reconsidered. He asked to withdraw his guilt$ 'lea. His memories had been coerced. He had not distinguished real memories from a kind of fantas$. His 'lea was re1ected. He is ser(ing a twent$-$ear sentence. If it was the si)teenth centur$ instead of the twentieth, 'erha's the whole famil$ would ha(e been burned at the stake, along with a good fraction of the leading citi.ens of 2l$m'ia, Washington. The e)istence of a highl$ sce'tical <3I re'ort on the general sub1ect of satanic abuse 9@enneth D. 4anning, -In(estigator+s ?uide to "llegations of SAitualT Child "buse+, *anuar$ % G: is widel$ ignored b$ enthusiasts. 4ikewise, a % E stud$ b$ the 3ritish De'artment of Health into claims of satanic abuse there concluded that, of BE alleged instances, not one stood u' to scrutin$. What then is all the furore about7 The stud$ e)'lains, The >(angelical Christian cam'aign against new religious mo(ements has been a 'owerful influence encouraging the identification of satanic abuse. >8uall$, if not more, im'ortant in s'reading the idea of satanic

abuse in 3ritain are the -s'ecialists+, "merican and 3ritish. The$ ma$ ha(e few or e(en no 8ualifications as 'rofessionals, but attribute their e)'ertise to -e)'erience of cases+. Those con(inced that de(il cults re'resent a serious danger to our societ$ tend to be im'atient with sce'tics. Consider this anal$sis b$ Cor$don Hammond, =hD, 'ast =resident of the "merican Societ$ for Clinical H$'nosis! I will suggest to $ou that these 'eo'le Jsce'ticsF are either, one, nai(e and of limited clinical e)'erience, two, ha(e a kind of nai(ete that 'eo'le ha(e of the Holocaust, or the$+re 1ust such intellectuali.ers and sce'tics that the$+ll doubt e(er$thing, or, three, the$+re cult 'eo'le themsel(es. "nd I can assure that there are 'eo'le who are in that 'osition... There are 'eo'le who are 'h$sicians, who are mental health 'rofessionals, who are in the cults, who are raising trans-generational cults ... I think the research is real clear! We got three studies, one found G5 'ercent, one found G; 'ercent of out-'atient multi'les Jmulti'le 'ersonalit$ disordersF a''ear to be cult-abuse (ictims, and another on a s'eciali.ed in-'atient unit found 5; 'ercent. In some of his statements, he seems to belie(e that satanic 5a.i mind control e)'eriments ha(e been 'erformed b$ the CI" on tens of thousands of unsus'ecting "merican citi.ens. The o(erarching moti(e, Hammond belie(es, is to -create a satanic order that will rule the world+. In all three classes of -reco(ered memories+, there are s'ecialists alien abduction s'ecialists, satanic cult s'ecialists, and s'ecialists in recalling re'ressed memories of childhood se)ual abuse. "s is common in mental health 'ractice, 'atients select or are referred to a thera'ist whose s'ecialist seems rele(ant to their com'laint. In all three classes, the thera'ist hel's to draw forth images of e(ents alleged to ha(e occurred long ago 9in some cases from decades 'ast:, in all three, thera'ists are 'rofoundl$ mo(ed b$ the unmistakabl$ genuine agon$ of their 'atients, in all three, at least some thera'ists are known to ask leading 8uestions - which are (irtuall$ orders b$ authorit$ figures to suggestible 'atients insisting that the$ remember 9I almost wrote -confess+:, in all three, there are networks of thera'ists who trade client histories and thera'eutic methods, in all three, 'ractitioners feel the necessit$ of defending their 'ractice against more sce'tical colleagues, in all three, the iatrogenic h$'othesis is gi(en short shrift, in all three, the ma1orit$ of those who re'ort abuse are women. "nd in all three classes - with the e)ce'tions mentioned - there is no 'h$sical e(idence. So it+s hard not to wonder whether alien abductions might be 'art of some larger 'icture.

What could this larger 'icture be7 I 'osed this 8uestion to Dr <red H. <rankel, 'rofessor of 's$chiatr$ at Har(ard #edical School, Chief of =s$chiatr$ at 3eth Israel Hos'ital in 3oston, and a leading e)'ert on h$'nosis. His answer! If alien abductions are a 'art of a larger 'icture, what indeed is the larger 'icture7 I fear to rush in where angels fear to tread, howe(er, the factors $ou outline all feed what was described at the turn of the centur$ as -h$steria+. The term, sadl$, became so widel$ used that our contem'oraries in their dubious wisdom ... not onl$ dro''ed it, but also lost sight of the 'henomena it re'resented! high le(els of suggestibilit$, imaginal ca'acit$, sensiti(it$ to conte)tual cues and e)'ectations, and the element of contagion... 4ittle of all of this seems to be a''reciated b$ a large number of 'racticing clinicians. In e)act 'arallel to regressing 'eo'le so the$ su''osedl$ retrie(e forgotten memories of -'ast li(es+, <rankel notes that thera'ists can as readil$ 1rogress 'eo'le under h$'nosis so the$ can -remember+ their futures. This elicits the same emoti(e intensit$ as in regression or in #ack+s abductee h$'nosis. -These 'eo'le are not out to decei(e the thera'ist. The$ decei(e themsel(es,+ <rankel sa$s. The$ cannot distinguish their confabulations from their e)'eriences.+ If we fail to co'e, if we+re saddled with a burden of guilt for not ha(ing made more of oursel(es, wouldn+t we welcome the 'rofessional o'inion of a thera'ist with a di'loma on the wall that it+s not our fault, that we+re off the hook, that satanists, or se)ual abusers, or aliens from another 'lanet are the res'onsible 'arties7 Wouldn+t we be willing to 'a$ good mone$ for this reassurance7 "nd wouldn+t we resist smartass sce'tics telling us that it+s all in our heads, or that it+s im'lanted b$ the (er$ thera'ists who ha(e made us ha''ier about oursel(es7 How much training in scientific method and sce'tical scrutin$, in statistics, or e(en in human fallibilit$ ha(e these thera'ists recei(ed7 =s$choanal$sis is not a (er$ self-critical 'rofession, but at least man$ of its 'ractitioners ha(e #D degrees. #ost medical curricula include significant e)'osure to scientific results and methods. 3ut man$ of those dealing with abuse cases seem to ha(e at best a casual ac8uaintance with science. #ental health 'ro(iders in "merica are more likel$ b$ about two-to-one to be social workers than either 's$chiatrists or =hD 's$chologists. #ost of these thera'ists contend that their res'onsibilit$ is to su''ort their 'atients, not to 8uestion, to be sce'tical, or to raise doubts. Whate(er is 'resented, no matter how bi.arre, is acce'ted. Sometimes the 'rom'ting b$ thera'ists is not at all subtle. Here Jfrom the <alse #emor$ S$ndrome <oundation+s F$S .ewsletter, (ol. E, no. E, '. &, % 5F is a hardl$ at$'ical re'ort!

#$ former thera'ist has testified that he still belie(es that m$ mother is a satanist, JandF that m$ father molested me ... It was m$ thera'ist+s delusional belief s$stem and techni8ues in(ol(ing suggestion and 'ersuasion that led me to belie(e the lies were memories. When I doubted the realit$ of the memories he insisted the$ were true. 5ot onl$ did he insist the$ were true, he informed me that in order to get well I must not onl$ acce't them as real, but remember them all. In a % % case in "lleghen$ Count$, =enns$l(ania, a teenager, 5icole "lthaus, encouraged b$ a teacher and a social worker, accused her father of ha(ing se)uall$ abused her, resulting in his arrest. 5icole also re'orted that she had gi(en birth to three children, who her relati(es had killed, that she had been ra'ed in a crowded restaurant, and that her grandmother flew about on a broom. 5icole recanted her allegations the following $ear, and all charges against her father were dro''ed. 5icole and her 'arents brought a ci(il suit against the thera'ist and 's$chiatric clinic to whom 5icole had been referred shortl$ after she began making her accusations. The 1ur$ found that the doctor and the clinic had been negligent and awarded almost a 8uarter of a million dollars to 5icole and her 'arents. There are increasing numbers of cases of this sort. #ight the com'etition among thera'ists for 'atients, and the ob(ious financial interest of thera'ists in 'rolonged thera'$, make them less likel$ to offend 'atients b$ e(incing some sce'ticism about their stories7 How aware are the$ of the dilemma of a nai(e 'atient walking into a 'rofessional office and being told that the insomnia or obesit$ is due 9in increasing order of bi.arreness: to wholl$ forgotten 'arental abuse, satanic ritual, or alien abduction7 While there are ethical and other constraints, we need something like a control e)'eriment! 'erha's the same 'atient sent to s'ecialists in all three fields. Does an$ of them sa$, -5o, $our 'roblem isn+t due to forgotten childhood abuse+ 9or forgotten satanic ritual, or alien abduction, as a''ro'riate:7 How man$ of them sa$, -There+s a much more 'rosaic e)'lanation+7 Instead, #ack goes so far as to tell one of his 'atients admiringl$ and reassuringl$ that he is on a -hero+s 1ourne$+. 2ne grou' of -abductees+ - each ha(ing a se'arate but similar e)'erience M writes JSFe(eral of us had finall$ summoned enough courage to 'resent our e)'eriences to 'rofessional counselors, onl$ to ha(e them ner(ousl$ a(oid the sub1ect, raise an e$ebrow in silence or inter'ret the e)'erience as a dream or waking hallucination and 'atroni.ingl$ -reassure+ us that such things ha''en to 'eo'le, -but don+t worr$, $ou+re basicall$ mentall$ sound.+ ?reat0 We+re not cra.$, but if we take our e)'eriences seriousl$, then we might become cra.$0 With enormous relief, the$ found a s$m'athetic thera'ist who not onl$

acce'ted their stories at face (alue, but was full of stories of alien bodies and high-le(el go(ernment co(er-u' of /<2s. " t$'ical /<2 thera'ist finds his sub1ects in three wa$s! the$ write letters to him at an address gi(en in the back of his books, the$ are referred to him b$ other thera'ists 9mainl$ those who also s'eciali.e in alien abductions:, or the$ come u' to him after he 'resents a lecture. I wonder if an$ 'atient arri(es at his 'ortal wholl$ ignorant of 'o'ular abduction accounts and the thera'ist+s own methods and beliefs. 3efore an$ words are e)changed, the$ know a great deal about one another. "nother 'rominent thera'ist gi(es his 'atients his own articles on alien abductions to hel' them -remember+ their e)'eriences. He is gratified when what the$ e(entuall$ recall under h$'nosis resembles what he describes in his 'a'ers. The similarit$ of the cases is one of his chief reasons for belie(ing that abductions reall$ occur. " leading /<2 scholar comments that -When the h$'notist does not ha(e an ade8uate knowledge of the sub1ect Jof alien abductionsF, the true nature of the abduction ma$ ne(er be re(ealed+. Can we discern in this remark how the 'atient might be led without the thera'ist reali.ing that he+s leading7 Sometimes when -falling+ aslee' we ha(e the sense of to''ling from a height, and our limbs suddenl$ flail on their own. The startle refle), it+s called. =erha's it+s left o(er from when our ancestors sle't in trees. Wh$ should we imagine we recollect 9a wonderful word: an$ better than we know when we+re on firm ground7 Wh$ should we su''ose that, of the (ast treasure of memories stored in our heads, none of it could ha(e been im'lanted after the e(ent, b$ how a 8uestion is 'hrased when we+re in a suggestible frame of mind, b$ the 'leasure of telling or hearing a good stor$, b$ confusion with something we once read or o(erheard7

The Dragon in #$ ?arage

J#Fagic, it must be remembered, is an art which demands collaboration between the artist and his 'ublic. >.#. 3utler, "he $yth of the $agus 9% EB:

1B

A fire-breathing dragon li(es in m$ garage.+ Su''ose 9I+m following a

grou' thera'$ a''roach b$ the 's$chologist Aichard <ranklin: I seriousl$ make such an assertion to $ou. Surel$ $ou+d want to check it out, see for $ourself. There ha(e been innumerable stories of dragons o(er the centuries, but no real e(idence. What an o''ortunit$0 -Show me,+ $ou sa$. I lead $ou to m$ garage. 6ou look inside and see a ladder, em't$ 'aint cans, an old tric$cle - but no dragon. -Where+s the dragon7+ $ou ask. -2h, she+s right here,+ I re'l$, wa(ing (aguel$. -I neglected to mention that she+s an in(isible dragon.+ 6ou 'ro'ose s'reading flour on the floor of the garage to ca'ture the dragon+s foot'rints. -?ood idea,+ I sa$, -but this dragon floats in the air.+ Then $ou+ll use an infrared sensor to detect the in(isible fire. -?ood idea, but the in(isible fire is also heatless.+ 6ou+ll s'ra$-'aint the dragon and make her (isible. -?ood idea, e)ce't she+s an incor'oreal dragon and the 'aint won+t stick.+ "n so on. I counter e(er$ 'h$sical test $ou 'ro'ose with a s'ecial e)'lanation of wh$ it won+t work. 5ow, what+s the difference between an in(isible, incor'oreal, floating dragon who s'its heatless fire and no dragon at all7 If there+s no wa$ to dis'ro(e m$ contention, no concei(able e)'eriment that would count against it, what does it mean to sa$ that m$ dragon e)ists7 6our inabilit$ to in(alidate m$ h$'othesis is not at all the same thing as 'ro(ing it true. Claims that cannot be tested, assertions immune to dis'roof are (eridicall$ worthless, whate(er (alue the$ ma$ ha(e in ins'iring us or in e)citing our sense of wonder. What I+m asking $ou to do comes down to belie(ing, in the absence of e(idence, on m$ sa$-so. The onl$ thing $ou+(e reall$ learned from m$ insistence that there+s

a dragon in m$ garage is that something funn$ is going on inside m$ head. 6ou+d wonder, if no 'h$sical tests a''l$, what con(inced me! The 'ossibilit$ that it was a dream or a hallucination would certainl$ enter $our mind. 3ut then wh$ am I taking it so seriousl$7 #a$be I need hel'. "t the least, ma$be I+(e seriousl$ underestimated human fallibilit$. Imagine that, des'ite none of the tests being successful, $ou wish to be scru'ulousl$ o'en-minded. So $ou don+t outright re1ect the notion that there+s a fire-breathing dragon in m$ garage. 6ou merel$ 'ut it on hold. =resent e(idence is strongl$ against it, but if a new bod$ of data emerges $ou+re 're'ared to e)amine it and see if it con(inces $ou. Surel$ it+s unfair of me to be offended at not being belie(ed, or to critici.e $ou for being stodg$ and unimaginati(e, merel$ because $ou rendered the Scottish (erdict of -not 'ro(ed+. Imagine that things had gone otherwise. The dragon is in(isible, all right, but foot'rints are being made in the flour as $ou watch. 6our infrared detector reads off-scale. The s'ra$ 'aint re(eals a 1agged crest bobbing in the air before $ou. 5o matter how sce'tical $ou might ha(e been about the e)istence of dragons - to sa$ nothing about in(isible ones - $ou must now acknowledge that there+s something here, and that in a 'reliminar$ wa$ it+s consistent with an in(isible, fire-breathing dragon. 5ow another scenario! su''ose it+s not 1ust me. Su''ose that se(eral 'eo'le of $our ac8uaintance, including 'eo'le who $ou+re 'rett$ sure don+t know each other, all tell $ou the$ ha(e dragons in their garages, but in e(er$ case the e(idence is maddeningl$ elusi(e! "ll of us admit we+re disturbed at being gri''ed b$ so odd a con(iction so ill-su''orted b$ the 'h$sical e(idence. 5one of us is a lunatic. We s'eculate about what it would mean if in(isible dragons were reall$ hiding out in garages all o(er the world, with us humans 1ust catching on. I+d rather it not be true, I tell $ou. 3ut ma$be all those ancient >uro'ean and Chinese m$ths about dragons weren+t m$ths at all ... ?ratif$ingl$, some dragon-si.e foot'rints in the flour are now re'orted. 3ut the$+re ne(er made when a sce'tic is looking. "n alternati(e e)'lanation 'resents itself! on close e)amination it seems clear that the foot'rints could ha(e been faked. "nother dragon enthusiast shows u' with a burned finger and attributes it to a rare 'h$sical manifestation of the dragon+s fier$ breath. 3ut again, other 'ossibilities e)ist. We understand that there are other wa$s to burn fingers besides the breath of in(isible dragons. Such -e(idence+ - no matter how im'ortant the dragon ad(ocates consider it - is far from com'elling. 2nce again, the onl$ sensible a''roach is tentati(el$ to re1ect the dragon h$'othesis, to be o'en to future 'h$sical data, and to wonder what the cause might be that so man$ a''arentl$ sane and sober 'eo'le share the same strange delusion. #agic re8uires tacit coo'eration of the audience with the magician - an

abandonment of sce'ticism, or what is sometimes described as the willing sus'ension of disbelief. It immediatel$ follows that to 'enetrate the magic, to e)'ose the trick, we must cease collaborating. How can further 'rogress be made in this emotionall$ laden, contro(ersial and (e)ing sub1ect7 =atients might e)ercise caution about thera'ists 8uick to deduce or confirm alien abductions. Those treating abductees might e)'lain to their 'atients that hallucinations are normal, and that childhood se)ual abuse is disconcertingl$ common. The$ might bear in mind that no client can be wholl$ uncontaminated b$ the aliens in 'o'ular culture. The$ might take scru'ulous care not subtl$ to lead the witness. The$ might teach their clients sce'ticism. The$ might recharge their own dwindling reser(es of the same commodit$. =ur'orted alien abductions trouble man$ 'eo'le and in more wa$s than one. The sub1ect is a window into the internal li(es of our fellows. If man$ falsel$ re'ort being abducted, this is cause for worr$. 3ut much more worrisome is that so man$ thera'ists acce't these re'orts at face (alue, with inade8uate attention gi(en to the suggestibilit$ of clients and to unconscious cuing b$ their interlocutors. I+m sur'rised that there are 's$chiatrists and others with at least some scientific training, who know the im'erfections of the human mind, but who dismiss the idea that these accounts might be some s'ecies of hallucination, or some kind of screen memor$. I+m e(en more sur'rised b$ claims that the alien abduction stor$ re'resents true magic, that it is a challenge to our gri' on realit$, or that it constitutes su''ort for a m$stical (iew of the world. 2r, as the matter is 'ut b$ *ohn #ack, There are 'henomena im'ortant enough to warrant serious research, and the meta'h$sics of the dominant Western scientific 'aradigm ma$ be inade8uate full$ to su''ort this research.+ In an inter(iew with "ime maga.ine, he goes on to sa$! I don+t know wh$ there+s such a .eal to find a con(entional 'h$sical e)'lanation. I don+t know wh$ 'eo'le ha(e such trouble sim'l$ acce'ting the fact that something unusual is going on here... We+(e lost all that abilit$ to know a world be$ond the 'h$sical.K
JK - "nd then, in a sentence that reminds us how close the alien abduction 'aradigm is to messianic and chiliastic religion, #ack concludes, -I am a bridge between those two worlds.+F

3ut we know that hallucinations arise from sensor$ de'ri(ation, drugs, illness and high fe(er, a lack of A># slee', changes in brain chemistr$ and so on, "nd e(en if, with #ack, we took the cases at face (alue, their remarkable as'ects 9slithering through walls and so on: are more readil$ attributable to something well within the realm of -the 'h$sical+ - ad(anced alien technolog$ -than to witchcraft.

" friend of mine claims that the onl$ interesting 8uestion in the alien abduction 'aradigm is -Who+s conning who7+ Is the client decei(ing the thera'ist, or (ice (ersa7 I disagree. <or one thing, there are man$ other interesting 8uestions about claims of alien abduction. <or another, those two alternati(es aren+t mutuall$ e)clusi(e. Something about the alien abduction cases tugged at my memor$ for $ears. <inall$, I remembered. It was a % 5E book I had read in college, "he Fifty=$inute &our! The author, a 's$choanal$st named Aobert 4indner, had been called b$ the 4os "lamos 5ational 4aborator$ to treat a brilliant $oung nuclear 'h$sicist whose delusional s$stem was beginning to interfere with his secret go(ernment research. The 'h$sicist 9gi(en the 'seudon$m @irk "lien: had, it turned out, another life besides making nuclear wea'ons! in the far future, he confided, he 'iloted 9or will 'ilot - the tenses get a little addled: interstellar s'acecraft. He en1o$ed rousing, swashbuckling ad(entures on 'lanets of other stars. He was -lord+ of man$ worlds. =erha's the$ called him Ca'tain @irk. 5ot onl$ could he -remember+ this other life, he could also enter into it whene(er he chose. 3$ thinking in the right wa$, b$ wishing, he could trans'ort himself across the light $ears and the centuries. In some wa$ I could not com'rehend, b$ merel$ desiring it to be so, I had crossed the immensities of s'ace, broken out of time, and merged with - literall$ became - that distant and future self... Don+t ask me to e)'lain. I can+t, although ?od knows I+(e tried. 4indner found him intelligent, sensiti(e, 'leasant, 'olite and 'erfectl$ able to deal with e(er$da$ human affairs. 3ut, in reflecting on the e)citement of his life among the stars, "lien had found himself a little bored with his life on >arth, e(en if it did in(ol(e building wea'ons of mass destruction. When admonished b$ his laborator$ su'er(isors for distraction and dreaminess, he a'ologi.ed, he would tr$, he assured them, to s'end more time on this 'lanet. That+s when the$ contacted 4indner. "lien had written %G,;;; 'ages on his e)'eriences in the future, and do.ens of technical treatises on the geogra'h$, 'olitics, architecture, astronom$, geolog$, life forms, genealog$ and ecolog$ of the 'lanets of other stars. " fla(our of the material is gi(en b$ these monogra'h titles! SThe /ni8ue 3rain De(elo'ment of the Chr$sto-'eds of Srom 5orba R+, -<ire Worshi' and Sacrifice on Srom Sodrat I<, -The Histor$ of the Intergalactic Scientific Institute+, and -The "''lication of /nified <ield Theor$ and the #echanics of the Stardri(e to S'ace Tra(el+. 9That last is the one I+d like to see, after all, "lien was said to ha(e been a first-rate 'h$sicist.: <ascinated, 4indner 'ored o(er the material. "lien was not in the least sh$ about 'resenting his writings to 4indner or discussing them in detail. /nfla''able and intellectuall$ formidable, he seemed not to be $ielding an inch to 4indner+s

's$chiatric ministrations. When e(er$thing else failed, the 's$chiatrist attem'ted something different! I tried ... to a(oid gi(ing in an$ wa$ the im'ression that I was entering the lists with him to 'ro(e that he was 's$chotic, that this was to be a tug of war o(er the 8uestion of his sanit$. Instead, because it was ob(ious that both his tem'erament and training were scientific, I set m$self to ca'itali.e on the one 8ualit$ he had demonstrated throughout his life... the 8ualit$ that urged him toward a scientific career! his curiosit$ ... This meant... that at least for the time being I -acce'ted+ the (alidit$ of his e)'eriences ... In a sudden flash of ins'iration it came to me that in order to se'arate @irk from his madness it was necessar$ for me to enter his fantas$ and, from that 'osition, to 'r$ him loose from the 's$chosis. 4indner highlighted certain a''arent contradictions in the documents and asked "lien to resol(e them. This re8uired the 'h$sicist to re-enter the future to find the answers. Dutifull$, "lien would arri(e at the ne)t session with a clarif$ing document written in his neat hand. 4indner found himself eagerl$ awaiting each inter(iew, so he could be once more ca'ti(ated b$ the (ision of abundant life and intelligence in the gala)$. 3etween them, the$ were able to resol(e man$ 'roblems of consistenc$. Then a strange thing ha''ened! -The materials of @irk+s 's$chosis and the "chilles heel of m$ 'ersonalit$ met and meshed like the gears of a clock.+ The 's$choanal$st became a co-cons'irator in his 'atient+s delusion. He began to re1ect 's$chological e)'lanations of "lien+s stor$. How sure are we that it couldn+t reall$ be true7 He found himself defending the notion that another life, that of a s'acefarer in the far future, could be entered into b$ a sim'le effort of the will. "t a startlingl$ ra'id rate... larger and larger areas of m$ mind were being taken o(er b$ the fantas$... With @irk+s 'u..led assistance I was taking 'art in cosmic ad(entures, sharing the e)hilaration of the swee'ing e)tra(agan.a he had 'lotted. 3ut e(entuall$, an e(en stranger thing ha''ened! concerned for the well-being of his thera'ist, and mustering admirable reser(es of integrit$ and courage, @irk "lien confessed! he had made the whole thing u'. It had roots in his lonel$ childhood and his unsuccessful relationshi's with women. He had shaded, and then forgotten, the boundar$ between realit$ and imagination. <illing in 'lausible details and wea(ing a rich ta'estr$ about other worlds was challenging and e)hilarating. He was sorr$ he had led 4indner down this 'rimrose 'ath. -Wh$,+ the 's$chiatrist asked, -wh$ did $ou 'retend7 Wh$ did $ou kee' on telling meL7+

-3ecause I felt I had to,+ the 'h$sicist re'lied. -3ecause I felt $ou wanted me to!) -@irk and I re(ersed roles,+ 4indner e)'lained, and, in one of those startling denouements that make m$ work the un'redictable, wonderful and rewarding 'ursuit it is, the foll$ we shared colla'sed ... I em'lo$ed the rationali.ation of clinical altruism for 'ersonal ends and thus fell into a tra' that awaits all unwar$ thera'ists of the mind... /ntil @irk "lien came into m$ life, I had ne(er doubted m$ own stabilit$. The aberrations of mind, so I had alwa$s thought, were for others ... I am ashamed b$ this smugness. 3ut now, as I listen from m$ chair behind the couch, I know better. I know that m$ chair and the couch are se'arated onl$ b$ a thin line. I know that it is, after all, but a ha''ier combination of accidents that determines, finall$, who shall lie on the couch, and who shall sit behind it. I+m not sure from this account that @irk "lien was trul$ delusional. #a$be he was 1ust suffering from some character disorder which delighted in in(enting charades at the e)'ense of others. I don+t know to what e)tent 4indner ma$ ha(e embellished or in(ented 'art of the stor$. While he wrote of -sharing+ and of -entering+ "lien+s fantas$, there is nothing to suggest that the 's$chiatrist imagined he himself (o$aged to the far future and 'artook of interstellar high ad(enture. 4ikewise, *ohn #ack and the other alien abduction thera'ists do not suggest that they ha(e been abducted, onl$ their 'atients. What if the 'h$sicist hadn+t confessed7 #ight 4indner ha(e con(inced himself, be$ond a reasonable doubt, that it reall$ was 'ossible to sli' into a more romantic era7 Would he ha(e said he started out as a sce'tic, but was con(inced b$ the sheer weight of the e(idence7 #ight he ha(e ad(ertised himself as an e)'ert who assists s'ace tra(ellers from the future who are stranded in the twentieth centur$7 Would the e)istence of such a 's$chiatric s'ecialit$ encourage others to take fantasies or delusions of this sort seriousl$7 "fter a few similar cases, would 4indner ha(e im'atientl$ resisted all arguments of the -3e reasonable, 3ob+ (ariet$, and deduced he was 'enetrating some new le(el of realit$7 His scientific training hel'ed to sa(e @irk "lien from his madness. There was a moment when thera'ist and 'atient had e)changed roles. I like to think of it as the 'atient sa(ing the thera'ist. =erha's *ohn #ack was not so luck$. Consider a (er$ different a''roach to finding aliens = the radio search for e)traterrestrial intelligence. How is this different from fantas$ and 'seudoscience7 In #oscow in the earl$ % I;s, So(iet astronomers held a 'ress conference in which the$ announced that the intense radio emission from a m$sterious distant ob1ect called CT"-%;G was (ar$ing

regularl$, like a sine wa(e, with a 'eriod of about %;; da$s. 5o 'eriodic distant source had e(er before been found. Wh$ did the$ con(ene a 'ress conference to announce so arcane a disco(er$7 3ecause the$ thought the$ had detected an e)traterrestrial ci(ili.ation of immense 'owers. Surel$, that+s worth calling a 'ress conference for. The re'ort was briefl$ a media sensation, and the rock grou', The 3$rds, e(en com'osed and recorded a song about it. 9-CT"-%;G, we+re o(er here recei(ing $ou.P Signals tell us that $ou+re there.P We can hear them loud and clear...+: Aadio emission from CT"-%;G7 Certainl$. 3ut what is CT"-%;G7 Toda$ we know that CT"-%;G is a distant 8uasar. "t the time, the word -8uasar+ had not e(en been coined. We still don+t know (er$ well what 8uasars are, and there is more than one mutuall$ e)clusi(e e)'lanation for them in scientific literature. 5e(ertheless, no astronomers toda$, including those in(ol(ed in that #oscow 'ress conference, seriousl$ contend that a 8uasar like CT"-%;G is some e)traterrestrial ci(ili.ation billions of light $ears awa$ with access to immense 'ower le(els. Wh$ not7 3ecause we ha(e alternati(e e)'lanations of the 'ro'erties of 8uasars that are consistent with known 'h$sical laws and that do not in(oke alien life. >)traterrestrials re'resent a h$'othesis of last resort. 6ou reach for it onl$ if e(er$thing else fails. In % IC, 3ritish scientists found a much nearer intense radio source turning on and off with astonishing 'recision, its 'eriod constant to ten or more significant figures. What was it7 Their first thought was that it was a message intended for us, or ma$be an interstellar na(igation and timing beacon for s'acecraft that 'l$ the s'ace between the stars. The$ e(en ga(e it, among themsel(es at Cambridge /ni(ersit$, the wr$ designation 4?#-% - 4?# standing for 4ittle ?reen #en. Howe(er, the$ were wiser than their So(iet counter'arts. The$ did not call a 'ress conference. It soon became clear that what the$ were obser(ing was what is now called a -'ulsar+, the first 'ulsar to be disco(ered. So, what+s a 'ulsar7 " 'ulsar is the end state of a massi(e star, a sun shrunk to the si.e of a cit$, held u' as no other stars are, not b$ gas 'ressure, not b$ electron degenerac$, but b$ nuclear forces. It is in a certain sense an atomic nucleus a mile or so across. 5ow that, % maintain, is a notion at least as bi.arre as an interstellar na(igation beacon. The answer to what a 'ulsar is has to be something might$ strange. It isn+t an e)traterrestrial ci(ili.ation. It+s something else! but a something else that o'ens our e$es and our minds and indicates unguessed 'ossibilities in 5ature. "nthon$ Hewish won the 5obel =ri.e in 'h$sics for the disco(er$ of 'ulsars. The original 2.ma e)'eriment 9the first intentional radio search for e)traterrestrial intelligence:, the Har(ard /ni(ersit$P =lanetar$ Societ$ #>T" 9#egachannel >)traterrestrial "ssa$: 'rogramme, the 2hio State /ni(ersit$ search, the S>A>5DI= =ro1ect of the /ni(ersit$ of California,

3erkele$, and man$ other grou's ha(e all detected anomalous signals from s'ace that make the obser(er+s heart 'al'itate a little. We think for a moment that we+(e 'icked u' a genuine signal of intelligent origin from far be$ond our solar s$stem. In realit$, we ha(e not the foggiest idea what it is, because the signal does not re'eat. " few minutes later, or the ne)t da$, or $ears later $ou turn the same telesco'e to the same s'ot in the sk$ with the same fre8uenc$, band'ass, 'olari.ation, and e(er$thing else, and $ou don+t hear a thing. 6ou don+t deduce, much less announce, aliens. It ma$ ha(e been a statisticall$ ine(itable electronic surge, or a malfunction in the detection s$stem, or a s'acecraft 9from >arth:, or a militar$ aircraft fl$ing b$ and broadcasting on channels that are su''osed to be reser(ed for radio astronom$. #a$be it+s e(en a garage door o'ener down the street or a radio station a hundred kilometres awa$. There are man$ 'ossibilities. 6ou must s$stematicall$ check out all the alternati(es, and see which ones can be eliminated. 6ou don+t declare that aliens ha(e been found when $our onl$ e(idence is an enigmatic non-re'eating signal. "nd if the signal did re'eat, would $ou then announce it to the 'ress and the 'ublic7 6ou would not. #a$be someone+s hoa)ing $ou. #a$be it+s something $ou ha(en+t been smart enough to figure out that+s ha''ening to $our detection s$stem. #a$be it+s some 're(iousl$ unrecogni.ed astro'h$sical source. Instead, $ou would call scientists at other radio obser(atories and inform them that at this 'articular s'ot in the sk$, at this fre8uenc$ and band'ass and all the rest, $ou seem to be getting something funn$. Could the$ 'lease see if the$ can confirm7 2nl$ if se(eral inde'endent obser(ers - all of them full$ aware of the com'le)it$ of 5ature and the fallibilit$ of obser(ers - get the same kind of information from the same s'ot in the sk$ do $ou seriousl$ consider that $ou ha(e detected a genuine signal from alien beings. There+s a certain disci'line in(ol(ed. We can+t 1ust go off shouting -little green men+ e(er$ time we detect something we don+t at first understand, because we+re going to look might$ sill$ - as the So(iet radio astronomers did with CT"-%;G - when it turns out to be something else. S'ecial cautions are necessar$ when the stakes are high. We are not obliged to make u' our minds before the e(idence is in. It+s 'ermitted not to be sure. I+m fre8uentl$ asked, -Do $ou belie(e there+s e)traterrestrial intelligence7+ I gi(e the standard arguments - there are a lot of 'laces out there, the molecules of life are e(er$where, I use the word +illions, and so on. Then I sa$ it would be astonishing to me if there weren+t e)traterrestrial intelligence, but of course there is as $et no com'elling e(idence for it. 2ften, I+m asked ne)t, -What do $ou reall$ think7+ I sa$, -I 1ust told $ou what I reall$ think.+ -6es, but what+s $our gut feeling7+

3ut I tr$ not to think with m$ gut. If I+m serious about understanding the world, thinking with an$thing besides m$ brain, as tem'ting as that might be, is likel$ to get me into trouble. Aeall$, it+s oka$ to reser(e 1udgement until the e(idence is in. I would be (er$ ha''$ if fl$ing saucer ad(ocates and alien abduction 'ro'onents were right and real e(idence of e)traterrestrial life were here for us to e)amine. The$ do not ask us, though, to belie(e on faith. The$ ask us to belie(e on the strength of their e(idence. Surel$ it is our dut$ to scrutini.e the 'ur'orted e(idence at least as closel$ and sce'ticall$ as radio astronomers do who are searching for alien radio signals. .o anecdotal claim - no matter how sincere, no matter how dee'l$ felt, no matter how e)em'lar$ the li(es of the attesting citi.ens carries much weight on so im'ortant a 8uestion. "s in the older /<2 cases, anecdotal accounts are sub1ect to irreducible error. This is not a 'ersonal criticism of those who sa$ the$+(e been abducted or of those who interrogate them. It is not tantamount to contem't for 'ur'orted witnesses.K It is not, or should not be, arrogant dismissal of sincere and affecting testimon$. It is merel$ a reluctant res'onse to human fallibilit$.
JK The$ cannot be called, sim'l$, witnesses - because whether the$ witnessed an$thing 9or, at least, an$thing in the outside world: is often the (er$ 'oint at issue.F

If an$ 'owers whate(er ma$ be ascribed to the aliens - because their technolog$ is so ad(anced - then we can account for any discre'anc$, inconsistenc$ or im'lausibilit$. <or instance, one academic /<2logist suggests that both the aliens and the abduct-ees are rendered in(isible during the abduction 9although not to each other:, that)s wh$ more of the neighbours ha(en+t noticed. Such -e)'lanations+ can e)'lain an$thing, and therefore in fact nothing. "merican 'olice 'rocedure concentrates on e(idence and not anecdotes. "s the >uro'ean witch trials remind us, sus'ects can be intimidated during interrogation, 'eo'le confess to crimes the$ ne(er committed, e$ewitnesses can be mistaken. This is also the linch'in of much detecti(e fiction. 3ut real, unfabricated e(idence - 'owder burns, finger'rints, D5" sam'les, foot'rints, hair under the fingernails of the struggling (ictim - carr$ great weight. Criminalists em'lo$ something (er$ close to the scientific method, and for the same reasons. So in the world of /<2s and alien abductions, it is fair to ask! where is the e(idence - the real, unambiguous 'h$sical e(idence, the data that would con(ince a 1ur$ that hasn+t alread$ made u' its mind7 Some enthusiasts argue that there are -thousands+ of cases of -disturbed+ soil where /<2s su''osedl$ landed, and wh$ isn+t that good

enough7 It isn+t good enough because there are wa$s of disturbing the soil other than b$ aliens in /<2s - humans with sho(els is a 'ossibilit$ that s'rings readil$ to mind. 2ne /<2logist rebukes me for ignoring -E,E;; 'h$sical trace cases from I5 countries+. 3ut not one of these cases, so far as I know, has been anal$sed with results 'ublished in a 'eer-re(iewed 1ournal in 'h$sics or chemistr$, metallurg$ or soil science, showing that the -traces+ could not ha(e been generated b$ 'eo'le. It+s a modest enough scam com'ared, sa$, with the cro' circles of Wiltshire. 4ikewise, not onl$ can 'hotogra'hs easil$ be faked, but huge numbers of alleged 'hotogra'hs of /<2s ha(e without a doubt been faked. Some enthusiasts go out night after night into a field looking for bright lights in the sk$. When the$ see one, the$ flash their flashlights. Sometimes, the$ sa$, there+s an answering flash. Well, ma$be. 3ut lowaltitude aircraft make lights in the sk$, and 'ilots are able, if so inclined, to blink their lights back. 5one of this constitutes an$thing a''roaching serious e(idence. Where is the 'h$sical e(idence7 "s in satanic ritual abuse claims 9and echoing -De(il+s marks+ in the witch trials:, the most common 'h$sical e(idence 'ointed to are scars and -scoo' marks+ on the bodies of abductees - who sa$ the$ ha(e no knowledge of where their scars came from. 3ut this 'oint is ke$! if the scars are within human ca'acit$ to generate, then the$ cannot be com'elling 'h$sical e(idence of abuse b$ aliens. Indeed, there are well-known 's$chiatric disorders in which 'eo'le scoo', scar, tear, cut and mutilate themsel(es 9or others:. "nd some of us with high 'ain thresholds and bad memories can in1ure oursel(es accidentall$ with no recollection of the e(ent. 2ne of *ohn #ack+s 'atients claims to ha(e scars all o(er her bod$ that are wholl$ baffling to her 'h$sicians. What do the$ look like7 2h, she can+t show them, as in the witch mania, the$+re in 'ri(ate 'laces. #ack considers this com'elling e(idence. Has he seen the scars7 Can we ha(e 'hotogra'hs of the scars taken b$ a sce'tical 'h$sician7 #ack knows, he sa$s, a 8uadri'legic with scoo' marks and considers this a reductio ad a+surdum of the sce'tical 'osition, how can a 8uadri'legic scar himself7 The argument is a good one onl$ if the 8uadri'legic is hermeticall$ sealed in a room to which no other human has access. Can we see his scars7 Can an inde'endent 'h$sician e)amine him7 "nother of #ack+s 'atients sa$s that the aliens ha(e been taking eggs from her since she was se)uall$ mature, and that her re'roducti(e s$stem baffles her g$naecologist. Is it baffling enough to write the case u' and submit a research 'a'er to "he .ew England ournal of $edicineHD "''arentl$ it+s not that baffling. Then we ha(e the fact that one of his sub1ects made the whole thing u', as re'orted b$ "ime maga.ine, and #ack didn+t ha(e a clue. He bought it hook, line and sinker. What are his standards of critical scrutin$7 If he allowed himself to be decei(ed b$ one sub1ect, how do

we know the same wasn+t true of all7 #ack talks about these cases, the -'henomena+, as 'osing a fundamental challenge to western thinking, to science, to logic itself. =robabl$, he sa$s, the abducting entities are not alien beings from our own uni(erse, but (isitors from -another dimension+. Here+s a t$'ical, and re(ealing, 'assage from his book! When abductees call their e)'erience -dreams+, which the$ often do, close 8uestioning can elicit that this ma$ be a eu'hemism to co(er what the$ are sure cannot be that, namel$ an e(ent from which there was no awakening that occurred in another dimension. 5ow the idea of higher dimensions did not arise from the brow of /<2log$ or the 5ew "ge. Instead, it is 'art and 'arcel of the 'h$sics of the twentieth centur$. Since >instein+s general relati(it$, a truism of cosmolog$ is that s'ace-time is bent or cur(ed through a higher 'h$sical dimension. @alu.a-@lein theor$ 'osits an ele(en-dimensional uni(erse. #ack 'resents a thoroughl$ scientific idea as the ke$ to -'henomena+ be$ond the reach of science. We know something about how a higher-dimensional ob1ect would look in encountering our three-dimensional uni(erse. <or clarit$, let+s go down one dimension! an a''le 'assing through a 'lane must change its sha'e as 'ercei(ed b$ two-dimensional beings confined to the 'lane. <irst it seems to be a 'oint, then larger a''le cross-sections, then smaller ones, a 'oint again, and finall$ - 'oof0 - gone. Similarl$, a fourth- or higher-dimensional ob1ect - 'ro(ided it+s not a (er$ sim'le figure such as a h$'erc$l-inder 'assing through three dimensions along its a)is - will wildl$ alter its geometr$ as we witness it 'assing through our uni(erse. If aliens were s$stematicall$ re'orted as sha'e-changers, I could at least see how #ack might 'ursue the notion of a higherdimensional origin. 9"nother 'roblem is tr$ing to understand what a genetic cross between a three-dimensional and a four-dimensional being means. "re the offs'ring from the 2lk dimension7: What #ack reall$ means when he talks about beings from other dimensions is that, des'ite his 'atients+ occasional descri'tions of their e)'eriences as dreams and hallucinations, he hasn+t the foggiest notion of what the$ are. 3ut, tellingl$, when he tries to describe them, he reaches for 'h$sics and mathematics. He wants it both wa$s - the language and credibilit$ of science, but without being bound b$ its method and rules. He seems not to reali.e that the credibilit$ is a conse8uence of the method. The main challenge 'osed b$ #ack+s cases is the old one of how to teach critical thinking more broadl$ and more dee'l$ in a societ$ concei(abl$ e(en including Har(ard 'rofessors of 's$chiatr$ - awash in gullibilit$. The idea that critical thinking is the latest western fad is sill$. If $ou+re bu$ing a used car in Singa'ore or 3angkok, or a used chariot

in ancient Susa or Aome, the same 'recautions will be useful as in Cambridge, #assachusetts. When $ou bu$ a used car, $ou might (er$ much want to belie(e what the salesman is sa$ing! -So much car for so little mone$0+ "nd an$wa$, it takes work to be sce'tical, $ou ha(e to know something about cars, and it+s un'leasant to make the salesman angr$ at $ou. Des'ite all that, though, $ou recogni.e that the salesman might ha(e a moti(e to shade the truth, and $ou+(e heard of other 'eo'le in similar situations being taken. So $ou kick the t$res, look under the hood, go for a test dri(e, ask searching 8uestions. 6ou might e(en bring along a mechanicall$ inclined friend. 6ou know that some sce'ticism is re8uired and $ou understand wh$. There is usuall$ at least a small degree of hostile confrontation in(ol(ed in the 'urchase of a used car and nobod$ claims it+s an es'eciall$ cheering e)'erience. 3ut if $ou don+t e)ercise some minimal sce'ticism, if $ou ha(e an absolutel$ untrammelled gullibilit$, there+s a 'rice $ou+ll ha(e to 'a$ later. Then $ou+ll wish $ou had made a small in(estment of sce'ticism earl$ on. #an$ homes in "merica now ha(e moderatel$ so'histicated burglar alarm s$stems, including infrared sensors and cameras triggered b$ motion. "n authentic (ideota'e, with time and date denoted, showing an alien incursion - es'eciall$ as the$ sli' through the walls - might be (er$ good e(idence. If millions of "mericans ha(e been abducted, isn+t it strange that not one li(es in such a home7 Some women, so the stor$ goes, are im'regnated b$ aliens or alien s'erm, the foetuses are then remo(ed b$ the aliens. Dast numbers of such cases are alleged. Isn+t it odd that nothing anomalous has e(er been seen in routine sonograms of such foetuses, or in amniocentesis, and that there has ne(er been a miscarriage 'roducing an alien h$brid7 2r are medical 'ersonnel so doltish that the$ idl$ glance at the half-human, half-alien foetus and mo(e on to the ne)t 'atient7 "n e'idemic of missing foetuses is something that would surel$ cause a stir among g$naecologists, midwi(es, obstetrical nurses, es'eciall$ in an age of heightened feminist awareness. 3ut not a single medical record has been 'roduced substantiating such claims. Some /<2logists consider it a telling 'oint that women who claim to ha(e been se)uall$ inacti(e wind u' 'regnant, and attribute their state to alien im'regnation. " goodl$ number a''ear to be teenagers. Taking their stories at face (alue is not the onl$ o'tion a(ailable to the serious in(estigator. Surel$ we can understand wh$, in the anguish of an unwanted 'regnanc$, a teenager li(ing in a societ$ flooded with accounts of alien (isitation might in(ent such a stor$. Here, too, there are 'ossible religious antecedents. Some abductees sa$ that tin$ im'lants, 'erha's metallic, were inserted into their bodies, high u' their nostrils, for e)am'le. These im'lants, alien abduction thera'ists tell us, sometimes accidentall$ fall out, but -in all but a few of the cases the artefact has been lost or

discarded+. These abductees seem stu'ef$ingl$ incurious. " strange ob1ect, 'ossibl$ a transmitter sending telemetered data about the state of $our bod$ to an alien s'aceshi' somewhere abo(e the >arth, dro's out of $our nose, $ou idl$ e)amine it and then throw it in the garbage. Something like this is true, we are told, of the ma1orit$ of abduction cases. " few such -im'lants+ ha(e been 'roduced and e)amined b$ e)'erts. 5one has been confirmed as of unearthl$ manufacture. 5o com'onents are made of unusual isoto'es, des'ite the fact that other stars and other worlds are known to be constituted of different isoto'ic 'ro'ortions from the >arth. There are no metals from the transuranic -island of stabilit$+, where 'h$sicists think there should be a new famil$ of non-radioacti(e chemical elements unknown on >arth. What abduction enthusiasts considered the best case was that of Aichard =rice, who claims that aliens abducted him when he was eight $ears old and im'lanted a small artefact in his 'enis. " 8uarter centur$ later a 'h$sician confirmed a -foreign bod$+ embedded there. "fter eight more $ears, it fell out. Aoughl$ a millimetre in diameter and four millimetres long, it was carefull$ e)amined b$ scientists from #IT and #assachusetts ?eneral Hos'ital. Their conclusion7 Collagen formed b$ the bod$ at sites of inflammation 'lus cotton fibres from =rice+s under'ants. 2n GB "ugust % 5, tele(ision stations owned b$ Au'ert #urdoch ran what was 'ur'orted to be an auto's$ of a dead alien, shot on %Imillimetre film. #asked 'athologists in (intage radiation-'rotection suits 9with rectangular glass windows to see out of: cut u' a large-e$ed %G-fingered figure and e)amined the internal organs. While the film was sometimes out of focus, and the (iew of the cada(er often blocked b$ the humans crowding around it, some (iewers found the effect chilling. "he "imes of 4ondon, also owned b$ #urdoch, didn+t know what to make of it, although it did 8uote one 'athologist who thought the auto's$ 'erformed with unseeml$ and unrealistic haste 9ideal, though, for tele(ision (iewing:. It was said to ha(e been shot in 5ew #e)ico in % EC b$ a 'artici'ant, now in his eighties, who wished to remain anon$mous. What a''eared to be the clincher was the announcement that the leader of the film 9its first few feet: contained coded information that @odak, the manufacturer, dated to % EC. Howe(er, it turns out that the full film maga.ine was not 'resented to @odak, 1ust the cut leader. <or all we know, the leader could ha(e been cut from a % EC newsreel, abundantl$ archi(ed in "merica, and the -auto's$+ staged and filmed se'aratel$ and recentl$. There+s a dragon foot'rint all right - but a fakable one. If this is a hoa), as I think likel$, it re8uires not much more cle(erness than cro' circles and the #*-%G document. In none of these stories is there an$thing strongl$ suggesti(e of e)traterrestrial origin. There is certainl$ no retrie(al of cunning

machiner$ far be$ond current technolog$. 5o abductee has filched a 'age from the ca'tain+s logbook, or an e)amining instrument, or taken an authentic 'hotogra'h of the interior of the shi', or come back with detailed and (erifiable scientific information not hitherto a(ailable on >arth. Wh$ not7 These failures must tell us something. Since the middle of the twentieth centur$, we+(e been assured b$ 'ro'onents of the e)traterrestrial h$'othesis that 'h$sical e(idence not star ma's remembered from $ears ago, not scars, not disturbed soil, but real alien technolog$ - was in hand. The anal$sis would be released momentaril$. These claims go back to the earliest crashed saucer scam of 5ewton and ?e3auer. 5ow it+s decades later and we+re still waiting. Where are the articles 'ublished in the refereed scientific literature, in the metallurgical and ceramics 1ournals, in 'ublications of the Institute of >lectrical and >lectronic >ngineers, in Science or .atureD Such a disco(er$ would be momentous. If there were real artefacts, 'h$sicists and chemists would be fighting for the 'ri(ilege of disco(ering that there are aliens among us who use, sa$, unknown allo$s, or materials of e)traordinar$ tensile strength or ductilit$ or conducti(it$. The 'ractical im'lications of such a finding, ne(er mind the confirmation of an alien in(asion, would be immense. Disco(eries like this are what scientists li(e for. Their absence must tell us something. @ee'ing an o'en mind is a (irtue - but, as the s'ace engineer *ames 2berg once said, not so o'en that $our brains fall out. 2f course we must be willing to change our minds when warranted b$ new e(idence. 3ut the e(idence must be strong. 5ot all claims to knowledge ha(e e8ual merit. The standard of e(idence in most of the alien abduction cases is roughl$ what is found in cases of the a''arition of the Dirgin #ar$ in medie(al S'ain. The 'ioneering 's$choanal$st, Carl ?usta( *ung, had much that was sensible to sa$ on issues of this sort. He e)'licitl$ argued that /<2s were a kind of 'ro1ection of the unconscious mind. In a related discussion of regression and what toda$ is called -channelling+, he wrote 2ne can (er$ well... take it sim'l$ as a re'ort of 's$chological facts or a continuous series of communications from the unconscious... The$ ha(e this in common with dreams, for dreams, too, are statements about the unconscious... The 'resent state of affairs gi(es us reason enough to wait 8uietl$ until more im'ressi(e 'h$sical 'henomena 'ut in an a''earance. If, after making allowance for conscious and unconscious falsification, self-dece'tion, 're1udice, etc., we should still find something 'ositi(e behind them, then the e)act sciences will surel$ con8uer this field b$ e)'eriment and (erification, as has

ha''ened in e(er$ other realm of human e)'erience. 2f those who acce't such testimon$ at face (alue, he remarked These 'eo'le are lacking not onl$ in criticism but in the most elementar$ knowledge of 's$cholog$. "t bottom the$ do not want to be taught an$ better, but merel$ to go on belie(ing -surel$ the nai(est of 'resum'tions in (iew of our human failings. =erha's some da$ there will be a /<2 or alien abduction case that is well attested, accom'anied b$ com'elling 'h$sical e(idence, and e)'licable onl$ in terms of e)traterrestrial (isitation. It+s hard to think of a more im'ortant disco(er$. So far, though, there ha(e been no such cases, nothing that comes close. So far, the in(isible dragon has left no unfakable foot'rints. Which, then, is more likel$! that we+re undergoing a massi(e but generall$ o(erlooked in(asion b$ alien se)ual abusers, or that 'eo'le are e)'eriencing some unfamiliar internal mental state the$ do not understand7 "dmittedl$, we+re (er$ ignorant both about e)traterrestrial beings, if an$, and about human 's$cholog$. 3ut if these reall$ were the onl$ two alternati(es, which one would $ou 'ick7 "nd if the alien abduction accounts are mainl$ about brain 'h$siolog$, hallucinations, distorted memories of childhood, and hoa)ing, don+t we ha(e before us a matter of su'reme im'ortance, touching on our limitations, the ease with which we can be misled and mani'ulated, the fashioning of our beliefs, and 'erha's e(en the origins of our religions7 There is genuine scientific 'a$dirt in /<2s and alien abductions - but it is, I think, of a distinctl$ home-grown and terrestrial character.

11
The Cit$ of ?rief
Lhow alien, alas, are the streets of the cit$ of grief. Aainer #aria Ailke, -The Tenth >leg$+ 9% G&:

A short summar$ of the argument in the 'receding se(en cha'ters

a''eared in Parade maga.ine on C #arch % &. I was struck b$ how man$ letters it e(oked, how 'assionate were the res'onses, and how much agon$ is associated with this strange e)'erience whate(er its true e)'lanation might be. "lien abduction accounts 'ro(ide an une)'ected window into the li(es of some of our fellow citi.ens. Some letter writers reasoned, some asserted, some harangued, some were frankl$ 'er'le)ed, some were dee'l$ troubled. The article was also widel$ misunderstood. " tele(ision talk-show host, ?eraldo Ai(era, held u' a co'$ of Parade and announced I thought we were being (isited. " 'ashington Post (ideo cassette re(iewer 8uoted me as sa$ing there+s an abduction e(er$ few seconds, missing the ironical tone and the following sentence 9-It+s sur'rising more of the neighbours ha(en+t noticed+:. #$ descri'tion 9Cha'ter I: of on rare occasions seeming to hear the (oices of m$ dead 'arents what I described as -a lucid recollection+ - were ke$noted b$ Aa$mond #ood$, in the .ew 0ge ournal and in the Introduction of his book ,eunions, as e(idence that we -sur(i(e+ death. Dr #ood$ has s'ent his life tr$ing to find e(idence of life after death. If m$ testimon$ is worth 8uoting, it seems clear he hasn+t found much. #an$ letter writers concluded that since I had worked on the 'ossibilit$ of e)traterrestrial life, I must -belie(e+ in /<2s, or con(ersel$ that, if I was sce'tical about /<2s, I must embrace the absurd belief that humans are the onl$ intelligent beings in the /ni(erse. There+s something about this sub1ect unconduci(e to clear thinking. Here, without further comment, is a re'resentati(e sam'ling of m$ mail on the sub1ect! Q I wonder how some of our fellow animals ma$ describe their encounters with us. The$ see a large ho(ering ob1ect making a terrible noise abo(e them. The$ begin to run and feel a shar' 'ain in their side.

Suddenl$ the$ fall to the ground... Se(eral man-creatures a''roach them carr$ing strange-looking instruments. The$ e)amine $our se)ual organs and teeth. The$ 'lace a net under $ou and then let it take $ou in the air with a strange de(ice. "fter all the e)aminations, the$ then clam' a strange metal ob1ect on $our ear. Then, 1ust as suddenl$ as the$ had a''eared, the$ are gone. >(entuall$, muscle control returns, and a 'oor disoriented creature staggers off into the forest, not knowing JwhetherF what 1ust trans'ired was a nightmare or a realit$. Q I was se)uall$ abused as a child. In m$ reco(er$ I ha(e drawn man$ -s'ace beings+ and ha(e felt man$ times I was being o(er'owered, held down, and the sensation of ha(ing left m$ bod$ to float around the room. 5one of the abductee accounts reall$ come as a sur'rise to someone who has dealt with childhood se)ual abuse issues... 3elie(e me, I would much rather ha(e blamed m$ abuse on a s'ace alien than ha(e to face the truth about what ha''ened to me with the adults I was su''osed to be able to trust. It+s been dri(ing me cra.$ to hear some of m$ friends s'eak of their memories that im'l$ the$ ha(e been abducted b$ aliens ... I kee' sa$ing to them that this is the ultimate (ictim role in which we as adults ha(e no 'ower when these little gra$ men come to us in our slee'0 This is not real. The ultimate (ictim role is the one between an abusi(e 'arent and a (ictimi.ed child. Q I don+t know if these 'eo'le are some sort of demons, or if the$ reall$ don+t e)ist. #$ daughter said she had sensors 'ut in her bod$ when she was small. I don+t know... We kee' our doors locked and bolted and it reall$ scares me. I don+t ha(e the mone$ to send her to a good doctor, and she can+t work on account of all this... #$ daughter is hearing a (oice on a ta'e. These go out at night and take kids and se)uall$ abuse them. If $ou don+t do as the$ sa$, someone in $our famil$ will be hurt. Who in their right mind would harm little children7 The$ know e(er$thing that is said in the house... Somebod$ said long, long ago somebod$ 'ut a curse on our famil$. If somebod$ did, how do $ou get the curse off7 I know all this sounds strange and bi.arre, but belie(e me it+s scar$. Q How man$ human females who had the misfortune of being ra'ed had the foresight to take from their attacker an ID card, a 'icture of the ra'ist, or an$thing else which could be used as e(idence as to an alleged ra'e7 Q I for one will be slee'ing with m$ =olaroid from now on, in ho'es that the ne)t time I+m abducted I can 'ro(ide the 'roof needed... Wh$ should it be u' to the abductees to 'ro(e what+s ha''ening7 Q I am li(ing 'roof of Carl Sagan+s claim of the 'ossibilit$ that alien abductions occur in the minds of 'eo'le suffering from slee' 'aral$sis. The$ trul$ belie(e it+s real. Q In "D G;;% Starshi's from the && 'lanets of the Inter'lanetar$ Confederation will land on earth carr$ing &&,;;; 3rothers0 The$ are e)traterrestrial teachers and scientists who will hel' to e)'and our

understanding of inter'lanetar$ life, as our own earth 'lanet will become the &&rd member of the Confederation0 Q This is a grotes8uel$ challenging arena ... I studied /<2s for o(er G; $ears. <inall$ I became 8uite disenchanted b$ the cult and the cult fringe grou's. Q I am a EC-$ear-old grandmother who has been the (ictim of this 'henomena since earl$ childhood. I do not - nor ha(e I e(er -acce'ted it at face (alue. I do not - nor ha(e I e(er - claimed to understand what it is ... I would gladl$ acce't a diagnosis of schi.o'hrenia, or some other understood 'atholog$, in e)change for this unknown... The lack of 'h$sical e(idence is, I full$ agree, most frustrating for both (ictims and researchers. /nfortunatel$, the retrie(al of such e(idence is made e)tremel$ difficult b$ the manner in which the (ictims are abducted. 2ften I am remo(ed either in m$ nightgown 9which is later remo(ed: or alread$ naked. This condition makes it 8uite im'ossible to hide a camera ... I ha(e awakened with dee' gashes, 'uncture wounds, scoo'ed out tissue, e$e damage, bleeding from the nose and ears, burns, and finger marks and bruises which 'ersist for da$s after the e(ent. I ha(e had all of these e)amined b$ 8ualified 'h$sicians but none ha(e been satisfactoril$ e)'lained. I am not into self-mutilation, these are not stigmata... =lease be aware that the ma1orit$ of abductees claim to ha(e had no interest in /<2s 're(iousl$ 9I am one:, ha(e no histor$ of childhood abuses 9I am one:, ha(e no desire for 'ublicit$ or notoriet$ 9I am one:, and, in fact, ha(e gone to great lengths to a(oid acknowledging an$ in(ol(ement whatsoe(er, assuming he or she is e)'eriencing a ner(ous breakdown or other 's$chological disorder 9I am one:. "greed, there are man$ self-'roclaimed abductees 9and contactees: who seek out 'ublicit$ for monetar$ gain or to satisf$ a need for attention. I would be the last to den$ these 'eo'le e)ist. What I do den$ is that "44 abductees are imagining or falsif$ing these e(ents to satisf$ their own 'ersonal agendas. Q /<2s don+t e)ist. I think that re8uires an e)ternal energ$ source, and this doesn+t e)ist ... I ha(e s'oken with *esus. Q The commentar$ on the Parade maga.ine is (er$ destructi(e, and it en1o$s scaring societ$, I beg $ou to think more o'enl$ because our intelligent beings from outer s'aces do e)ist and the$ are our creators ... I too was an abductee. To be honest, these dear beings ha(e done me more good than bad. The$ ha(e sa(ed m$ life... The trouble with >arth beings is that the$ want 'roof, 'roof, and 'roof0 Q In the 3ible it talks about terrestrial and celestial bodies. This is not to sa$ that ?od is out for se)ual abuse on 'eo'le or that we+re cra.$. Q I ha(e been strongl$ tele'athic for twent$-se(en $ears now. I do not recei(e - I transmit... Wa(es are coming from outer s'ace somewhere beaming through m$ head and transmitting thoughts, words, and images into the heads of an$bod$ within range... Images will 'o' into m$ head that % did not 1ut there, and (anish 1ust as suddenl$. Dreams

are not dreams an$more -the$ are more like Holl$wood 'roductions... The$ are smart critters and the$ won+t gi(e u' ... #a$be all these little gu$s want to do is communicate ... If I finall$ go 's$chotic from all this 'ressure - or ha(e another heart attack - there goes $our last sure e(idence that there is life in s'ace. Q I think I ha(e found a 'lausible terrestrial scientific e)'lanation for numerous /<2 re'orts. JThe writer then discusses ball lightning.F If $ou like m$ stuff, could $ou hel' me get it 'ublished7 Q Sagan refuses to take seriousl$ the witnesses+ re'orts of an$thing that twentieth-centur$ science can+t e)'lain. Q 5ow readers will feel free to treat abductees ... as if the$ are (ictims of nothing more than an illusion. "bductees suffer the same sort of trauma a ra'e (ictim endures, and to ha(e their e)'eriences re1ected b$ those closest to them is a second (ictimi.ation that lea(es them without an$ su''ort s$stem. >ncounters with aliens is hard enough to co'e with, (ictims need su''ort, not rationali.ations. Q #$ friend <rankie wants me to bring back an ashtra$ or a matchbook, but I think these (isitors are 'robabl$ much too intelligent to smoke. Q #$ own feeling is that the alien abduction 'henomena is little more than a dreamlike se8uence (icariousl$ retrie(ed from memor$ storage. There are no more little green men or fl$ing saucers than there are images of those things alread$ stored in our brains. Q When alleged scientists cons'ire to censor and intimidate those who endea(or to offer new insightful h$'otheses on con(entional theories... the$ no longer should be considered scientists, but merel$ the insecure, self-ser(ing im'ostors that the$ a''arentl$ are ... In the same token, must we all still su''ose that *. >dgar Hoo(er was a fine <3I director, rather than the homose)ual tool of organi.ed crime he was7 Q 6our conclusion that large numbers of 'eo'le in this countr$, 'erha's as man$ as fi(e million, are all (ictims of an identical mass hallucination is asinine. Q Thanks to the Su'reme Court... "merica is now wide o'en for the >astern 'agan religions, under the aegis of Satan and his demons, so now we ha(e four-foot gra$ beings kidna''ing >arthlings and 'erforming all sorts of e)'eriments on them, and are being 'ro'agated b$ those who are educated be$ond their intelligence and should know better... 6our 8uestion J-"re We 3eing Disited7+F is no 'roblem for those who know the word of ?od, and are born-again Christians, and are looking for our Aedeemer from Hea(en, to ra'ture us out of this world of sin, sickness, war, "IDS, crime, abortion, homose)ualit$, 5ew-"ge-5ew-World-2rder indoctrination, media brainwashing, 'er(ersion and sub(ersion in go(ernment, education, business, finance, societ$, religion, etc. Those who re1ect the Creator ?od of the 3ible are bound to fall for the kind of fair$ tales which $our article tries to 'ro'agate as being truth.

Q If there is no reason to take the matter of alien (isitation seriousl$, wh$ is it the most highl$ classified sub1ect in the /S go(ernment7 Q =erha's some (astl$ older alien race, from a relati(el$ metaldeficient star s$stem, is seeking to 'rolong its e)istence b$ taking o(er a $ounger, better world and blending with its inhabitants. Q If I were a betting man, I would gi(e $ou odds that $our mailbo) will o(erflow with stories such as I 1ust related. I sus'ect that the 's$chic J's$cheF brings forth these demons and angels, lights and circles as a 'art of our de(elo'ment. The$ are 'art of our nature. Q Science has become the -magic that works+. The /<2logists are heretics to be e)communicated or burned at the stake. Q JSe(eral readers wrote to sa$ that aliens were demons sent b$ Satan, who is able to cloud our minds. 2ne 'ro'oses that the insidious Satanic 'ur'ose is to make us worried about an alien in(asion, so that when *esus and his angels a''ear o(er *erusalem we will be frightened rather than glad.F I do ho'e $ou will not dismiss me as another religious crack'ot. I am 8uite normal and well-known in m$ own little communit$. Q 6ou, sir, are in a 'osition to do one of two things! know about the abductions and be co(ering them u', or feel that because $ou ha(e not been abducted 9'erha's the$ are not interested in $ou: the$ do not occur. Q " treason suit Jwas filedF against the =resident and Congress of the /nited States o(er a treat$ made with aliens in the earl$ -E;s, who had later shown themsel(es to be hostile... The treat$ agreed to 'rotect the secrec$ of the aliens in return for some of their technolog$ Jstealth aircraft and fibre o'tics, another corres'ondent re(ealsF. Q Some of these beings are ca'able of interce'ting the s'iritual bod$ when it is tra(eling. Q I am ha(ing communication with an alien being. This communication started earl$ in % G. What else can I sa$7 Q The aliens can sta$ a ste' or two ahead of the thinking of scientists, and know how to lea(e insufficient clues behind that would satisf$ the Sagan t$'es, until societ$ is better 're'ared mentall$ to face u' to it all ... =erha's $ou share the (iew that what+s going on with res'ect to /<2s and aliens, if deemed real, would be too traumatic to think about. Howe(er... the$+(e shown themsel(es until back some 5,;;;-%5,;;; $ears or more ago when the$ were here for e)tended 'eriods, s'awning the godPgoddess m$tholog$ of all cultures. The bottom line is that in all that time the$ ha(en+t taken o(er >arth, the$ ha(en+t sub1ected us or wi'ed us out. Q &omo sa1iens was geneticall$ fashioned, created initiall$ to be

substitute laborers and domestics for the S@6-42ADS 9DI5?IASP>42HI#P"5/55 "@I:. Q The e)'losion that 'eo'le saw was h$drogen fuel from a star cruiser, the landing sight was to be 5orthern California... The 'eo'le on that star cruiser looked like #r S'ock from the -Star Trek+ TD series. Q 3e the re'orts from the fifteenth centur$ or the twentieth, a common thread ties the re'orts. Indi(iduals who ha(e e)'erienced se)ual trauma ha(e a great deal of difficult$ understanding and co'ing with the trauma. The terms used to describe the JresultingF hallucinations can be incoherent and incom'rehensible. Q We find we are not as intelligent as we thought although we are still stiff-necked and our greatest sin is our 'ride. "nd we do not e(en know we are being led to "rmageddon. The star 'in-'ointed a single shed, mo(ed across the sk$ leading wise-men to that shed, frightened she'herds with the words fear not. Its s'otlight was >.ekiel+s glor$ of ?od, =aul+s light that tem'oraril$ blinded him ... It was the shi' in which little men took off old Ai', the little men called brownies, fairies, el(es, these -creations+ of creators gi(en s'ecific duties... The ?od =eo'le are not $et read$ to make themsel(es known to us. <irst, "rmageddon, then, after we @52W, we can go it alone. When we are humbled, when we do not shoot them down, ?od will return. Q The answer to these aliens from outer-s'ace is sim'le. It comes from man. #an using drugs on 'eo'le. In mental institutions all o(er the countr$, there are 'eo'le who ha(e no control o(er their emotions and beha(iour. To control these 'eo'le, the$ are gi(en a (ariet$ of anti's$chotic drugs ... If $ou ha(e been drugged often... $ou will begin to ha(e what is called -bleedthroughs+. This will be flash images 'o''ing into $our mind of strange-looking 'eo'le coming u' to $our face. This will begin $our search for the answer of what the aliens were doing to $ou. 6ou will be one of the thousands of /<2 abductees. =eo'le will call $ou cra.$. The reason for the strange creatures $ou are seeing is because Thora.ine distorts the (ision of $our subconscious mind... The writer was laughed at, ridiculed, had his life threatened Jbecause of 'resenting these ideasF. Q H$'nosis 're'ares the mind for the in(asion of demons, de(ils, and little gra$ men. ?od wants us to be clothed and in our right minds... "n$thing $our -little gra$ men+ can do, Christ can do better0 Q I ho'e that I ne(er feel so su'erior that I cannot acknowledge that Creation is not limited to m$self, but encom'asses the /ni(erse and all its entities. In % CC an hea(enl$ bod$ s'oke to me about an in1ur$ to m$ head that ha''ened in % IB. J" letter from a man who had twent$-four se'arate encounters withF a silent ho(ering saucer-sha'ed (ehicle Jand who has in conse8uenceF e)'erienced an ongoing de(elo'ment and am'li-

fication of such mental functions as clair(o$ance, tele'ath$, and the challenging JchannellingF of uni(ersal life energ$ for the 'ur'ose of healing. Q 2(er the $ears I ha(e seen and talked to -ghosts+, been (isited 9though not $et abducted: b$ aliens, seen three-dimensional heads floating b$ m$ bed, heard knocks on m$ door... These e)'eriences seemed as real as life. I ha(e ne(er thought of these e)'eriences as an$thing more than what the$ certainl$ are! m$ mind 'la$ing tricks on itself.K
JK <rom a letter recei(ed b$ "he Ske1tical %nAuirerE courtes$, @endrick <ra.ier.F

Q " hallucination might account for Y, but can it e(er account for %;;Y7 Q /<2s are ... a sub1ect of dee' fantas$ which has no <"CT/"4 3"SIS WH"TS2>D>A. I 'ra$ $ou won+t lend $our credence to a hoa). Q Dr Sagan ser(ed on the "ir <orce committee that e(aluated go(ernment in(estigations of /<2s, and $et he wants us to belie(e that there+s no substantial 'roof that /<2s e)ist. =lease e)'lain wh$ the go(ernment needed to be e(aluated. Q I+m going to lobb$ m$ Ae'resentati(e to tr$ to cancel funds for this 'rogram of listening for alien signals from s'ace, because it would be a waste of mone$. The$+re alread$ among us. Q The go(ernment s'ends millions of ta) dollars for researching /<2s. The S>TI 'ro1ect 9search for e)traterrestrial intelligence: would be a waste of mone$ if the go(ernment trul$ belie(ed /<2s were none)istent. I am 'ersonall$ e)cited about the S>TI 'ro1ect because it shows that we+re mo(ing in the right direction, towards communication with aliens, rather than being an unwilling obser(er. Q The succubi, which I identified more as astral ra'e, occurred from -CB-+ G. It was hard on a moral and seriousl$ 'racticing Catholic, demorali.ing, dehumani.ing, and 8uite literall$ had me worried b$ the 'h$sical aftermath of disease effects. Q The s'ace 'eo'le are coming0 The$ ho'e to remo(e whom the$ can, es'eciall$ children who are the -seedlings+ of the ne)t humanit$ generation along with their coo'erating 'arents, grand'arents and other adults, to safet$ before the u'coming maIor suns'otP'lanetar$ 'eak, which is 1ust o(er the hori.on. The S'ace Shi' is in sight e(er$ night and close in to assist us when the #a1or Solar <lares do, before turbulence starts in the atmos'here. The =olar Shift is due now as it mo(es to its new 'osition for the "8uarian "ge... JThe authors also inform me that the$ areF working with the "shtar Command, where *esus Christ meets with those aboard for instructions. #an$ dignitaries are 'resent, including archangels #ichael and ?abriel.

Q I ha(e e)tensi(e e)'erience in thera'eutic energ$ work, which in(ol(es remo(ing grid 'atterns, negati(e memor$ cords, and alien im'lants from human bodies and their surrounding energ$ fields. #$ work is 'rimaril$ utili.ed as an ad1uncti(e aide to 's$chothera'$. #$ clients range from businessmen, home-makers, 'rofessional artists, thera'ists, and children... The alien energ$ is (er$ fluid, both within the bod$ and after it is remo(ed, and must be contained as soon as 'ossible. The energ$ grids are most often locked around the heart or in a triangular formation across the shoulders. Q I don+t know how, after such an e)'erience, I could ha(e 1ust turned o(er and gone back to slee'. Q I belie(e in ha''$ endings. I alwa$s ha(e. 2nce $ou ha(e seen a figure as tall as the room - with golden hair, and shining like a lighted Christmas tree, lifting u' the little child beside us, how could $ou not7 I understood the message the figure was rela$ing - to the little child - and it was me. We had alwa$s talked together. How else could life be bearable - in a 'lace like this7... /nfamiliar mental states7 6ou 'ut $our finger right on it. Q Who is really in charge of this 'lanet7

The <ine "rt of 3alone$ Detection

The human understanding is no dr$ light, but recei(es infusion from the will and affections, whence 'roceed sciences which ma$ be called -sciences as one would+. <or what a man had rather were true he more readil$ belie(es. Therefore he re1ects difficult things from im'atience of research, sober things, because the$ narrow ho'e, the dee'er things of nature, from su'erstition, the light of e)'erience, from arrogance and 'ride, things not commonl$ belie(ed, out of deference to the o'inion of the (ulgar. 5umberless in short are the wa$s, and sometimes im'erce'tible, in which the affections colour and infect the understanding. <rancis 3acon, .ovum 5rganon 9%IG;:

1-

M$ 'arents died $ears ago. I was (er$ close to them. I still miss

them terribl$. I know I alwa$s will. I long to belie(e that their essence, their 'ersonalities, what I lo(ed so much about them, are reall$ and trul$ - still in e)istence somewhere. I wouldn+t ask (er$ much, 1ust fi(e or ten minutes a $ear, sa$, to tell them about their grandchildren, to catch them u' on the latest news, to remind them that I lo(e them. There+s a 'art of me - no matter how childish it sounds - that wonders how the$ are. -Is e(er$thing all right7+ I want to ask. The last words I found m$self sa$ing to m$ father, at the moment of his death, were -Take care+. Sometimes I dream that I+m talking to m$ 'arents, and suddenl$ - still immersed in the dreamwork - I+m sei.ed b$ the o(er'owering reali.ation that the$ didn+t reall$ die, that it+s all been some kind of horrible mistake. Wh$, here the$ are, ali(e and well, m$ father making wr$ 1okes, m$ mother earnestl$ ad(ising me to wear a muffler because the weather is chill$. When I wake u' I go through an abbre(iated 'rocess of mourning all o(er again. =lainl$, there+s something within me that+s read$ to belie(e in life after death. "nd it+s not the least bit interested in whether there+s an$ sober e(idence for it.

So I don+t guffaw at the woman who (isits her husband+s gra(e and chats him u' e(er$ now and then, ma$be on the anni(ersar$ of his death. It+s not hard to understand. "nd if I ha(e difficulties with the ontological status of who she+s talking to, that+s all right. That+s not what this is about. This is about humans being human. #ore than a third of "merican adults belie(e that on some le(el the$+(e made contact with the dead. The number seems to ha(e 1um'ed b$ %5 'er cent between % CC and % BB. " 8uarter of "mericans belie(e in reincarnation. 3ut that doesn+t mean I+d be willing to acce't the 'retensions of a -medium+, who claims to channel the s'irits of the dear de'arted, when I+m aware the 'ractice is rife with fraud. I know how much I want to belie(e that m$ 'arents ha(e 1ust abandoned the husks of their bodies, like insects or snakes moulting, and gone somewhere else. I understand that those (er$ feelings might make me eas$ 're$ e(en for an uncle(er con, or for normal 'eo'le unfamiliar with their unconscious minds, or for those suffering from a dissociati(e 's$chiatric disorder. Aeluctantl$, I rouse some reser(es of sce'ticism. How is it, I ask m$self, that channellers ne(er gi(e us (erifiable information otherwise una(ailable7 Wh$ does "le)ander the ?reat ne(er tell us about the e)act location of his tomb, <ermat about his 4ast Theorem, *ames Wilkes 3ooth about the 4incoln assassination cons'irac$, Hermann ?oering about the Aeichstag fire7 Wh$ don+t So'hocles, Democritus and "ristarchus dictate their lost books7 Don+t the$ wish future generations to ha(e access to their master'ieces7 If some good e(idence for life after death were announced, I+d be eager to e)amine it, but it would ha(e to be real, scientific data, not mere anecdote. "s with the face on #ars and alien abductions, better the hard truth, I sa$, than the comforting fantas$. "nd in the final tolling it often turns out that the facts are more comforting than the fantas$. The fundamental 'remise of -channelling+, s'iritualism, and other forms of necromanc$ is that when we die we don+t. 5ot e)actl$. Some thinking, feeling, and remembering 'art of us continues. That whate(er-it-is - a soul or s'irit, neither matter nor energ$, but something else - can, we are told, re-enter the bodies of human and other beings in the future, and so death loses much of its sting. What+s more, we ha(e an o''ortunit$, if the s'iritualist or channelling contentions are true, to make contact with lo(ed ones who ha(e died. *.N. @night of the State of Washington claims to be in touch with a &5,;;;-$ear-old somebod$ called -Aamtha+. He s'eaks >nglish (er$

well, using @night+s tongue, li's and (ocal cords, 'roducing what sounds to me to be an accent from the Indian Aa1. Since most 'eo'le know how to talk, and man$ - from children or 'rofessional actors - ha(e a re'ertoire of (oices at their command, the sim'lest h$'othesis is that #s @night makes -Aamtha+ s'eak all b$ herself, and that she has no contact with disembodied entities from the =leistocene Ice "ge. If there+s e(idence to the contrar$, I+d lo(e to hear it. It would be considerabl$ more im'ressi(e if Aamtha could s'eak b$ himself, without the assistance of #s @night+s mouth. <ailing that, how might we test the claim7 9The actress Shirle$ #ac4aine attests that Aamtha was her brother in "tlantis, but that+s another stor$.: Su''ose Aamtha were a(ailable for 8uestioning. Could we (erif$ whether he is who he sa$s he is7 How does he know that he li(ed &5,;;; $ears ago, e(en a''ro)imatel$7 What calendar does he em'lo$7 Who is kee'ing track of the inter(ening millennia7 Thirt$fi(e thousand 'lus or minus what7 What were things like &5,;;; $ears ago7 >ither Aamtha reall$ is &5,;;; $ears old, in which case we disco(er something about that 'eriod, or he+s a 'hone$ and he+ll 9or rather she+ll: sli' u'. Where did Aamtha li(e7 9I know he s'eaks >nglish with an Indian accent, but where &5,;;; $ears ago did the$ do that7: What was the climate7 What did Aamtha eat7 9"rchaeologists know something about what 'eo'le ate back then.: What were the indigenous languages and social structure7 Who else did Aamtha li(e with wife, wi(es, children, grandchildren7 What was the life c$cle, the infant mortalit$ rate, the life e)'ectanc$7 Did the$ ha(e birth control7 What clothes did the$ wear7 How were the clothes manufactured7 What were the most dangerous 'redators7 Hunting and fishing im'lements and strategies7 Wea'ons7 >ndemic se)ism7 Reno'hobia and ethnocentrism7 "nd if Aamtha came from the -high ci(ili.ation+ of "tlantis, where are the linguistic, technological, historical and other details7 What was their writing like7 Tell us. Instead, all we are offered are banal homilies. Here, to take another e)am'le, is a set of information channelled not from an ancient dead 'erson, but from unknown non-human entities who make cro' circles, as recorded b$ the 1ournalist *im Schnabel! We are so an)ious at this sinful nation s'reading lies about us. We do not come in machines, we do not land on $our earth in machines ... We come like the wind. We are 4ife <orce. 4ife <orce from the ground... Come here... We are but a breath awa$ ... a breath awa$ ... we are not a million miles awa$ ... a 4ife <orce that is

larger than the energies in $our bod$. 3ut we meet at a higher le(el of life ... We need no name. We are 'arallel to $our world, alongside $our world... The walls are broken. Two men will rise from the 'ast... the great bear... the world will be at 'eace. =eo'le 'a$ attention to these 'uerile mar(els mainl$ because the$ 'romise something like old-time religion, but es'eciall$ life after death, e(en life eternal. " (er$ different 'ros'ect for something like eternal life was once 'ro'osed b$ the (ersatile 3ritish scientist *.3.S. Haldane, who was, among man$ other things, one of the founders of 'o'ulation genetics. Haldane imagined a far future when the stars ha(e darkened and s'ace is mainl$ filled with a cold, thin gas. 5e(ertheless, if we wait long enough statistical fluctuations in the densit$ of this gas will occur. 2(er immense 'eriods of time the fluctuations will be sufficient to reconstitute a /ni(erse somethin1 like our own. If the /ni(erse is infinitel$ old, there will be ai infinite number of such reconstitutions, Haldane 'ointed out. So in an infinitel$ old uni(erse with an infinite number o a''earances of gala)ies, stars, 'lanets and life, an identical >artl must rea''ear on which $ou and all $our lo(ed ones will be reunited. I+ll be able to see m$ 'arents again and introduce then to the grandchildren the$ ne(er knew. "nd all this will ha''en no once, but an infinite number of times. 3ut in this reflection I ha(e underestimated what infinit, means. In Haldane+s 'icture, there will be uni(erses, indeed ai infinite number of them, in which our brains will ha(e ful recollection of man$ 're(ious rounds. Satisfaction is at hand tem'ered, though, b$ the thought of all those other uni(erse which will also come into e)istence 9again, not once but an infinit number of times: with tragedies and horrors (astl$ outstri''in an$thing I+(e e)'erienced this turn. The Consolation of Haldane de'ends, though, on what kind c uni(erse we li(e in, and ma$be on such arcana as whether there+ enough matter e(entuall$ to re(erse the e)'ansion of the uni (erse, and the character of (acuum fluctuations. Those with dee' longing for life after death might, it seems, de(ote them sel(es to cosmolog$, 8uantum gra(it$, elementar$ 'article 'h$s ics, and, es'eciall$, transfinite arithmetic. Clement of "le)andria, a <ather of the earl$ Church, in hi Exhortations to the #reeks 9written around the $ear % ;: di! missed 'agan beliefs in words that might toda$ seem a little ironic

<ar indeed are we from allowing grown men to listen to such tales. >(en to our own children, when the$ are cr$ing their heart out, as the sa$ing goes, we are not in the habit of telling fabulous stories to soothe them. In our time we ha(e less se(ere standards. We tell children aboi Santa Claus, the >aster 3unn$ and the Tooth <air$ for reasons w think emotionall$ sound, but then disabuse them of these m$tt before the$+re grown. Wh$ retract7 3ecause their well-being as adults de'ends on them knowing the world as it reall$ is. We worr$, and for good reason, about adults who still belie(e in Santa Claus. 2n doctrinaire religions, -#en dare not a(ow, e(en to their own hearts+, wrote the 'hiloso'her Da(id Hume,
the doubts which the$ entertain on such sub1ects. The$ make a merit of im'licit faith, and disguise to themsel(es their real infidelit$, b$ the strongest asse(erations and the most 'ositi(e bigotr$. This infidelit$ has 'rofound moral conse8uences, as the "merican re(olutionar$ Tom =aine wrote in "he 0ge of ,eason* Infidelit$ does not consist in belie(ing, or in disbelie(ing, it consists in 'rofessing to belie(e what one does not belie(e. It is im'ossible to calculate the moral mischief, if I ma$ so e)'ress it, that mental l$ing has 'roduced in societ$. When man has so far corru'ted and 'rostituted the, chastit$ of his mind, as to subscribe his 'rofessional belief to things he does not belie(e, he has 're'ared himself for the commission of e(er$ other crime. T.H. Hu)le$+s formulation was The foundation of moralit$ is to ... gi(e u' 'retending to belie(e that for which there is no e(idence, and re'eating unintelligible 'ro'ositions about things be$ond the 'ossibilities of knowledge. Clement, Hume, =aine and Hu)le$ were all talking about religion. 3ut much of what the$ wrote has more general a''lications - for e)am'le to the 'er(asi(e background im'ortunings of our commercial ci(ili.ation! there is a class of as'irin commercials in which actors 'retending to be doctors re(eal the com'eting 'roduct to ha(e onl$ so much of the 'ainkilling ingredient that doctors recommend most - the$ don+t tell $ou what the m$sterious ingredient is. Whereas their 'roduct has a dramaticall$ larger amount 9%.G to G times more 'er tablet:. So bu$ their 'roduct. 3ut wh$ not 1ust take two of the com'eting tablets7

2r consider the analgesic that works better than the -regular-strength+ 'roduct of the com'etition. Wh$ not then take the -e)tra-strength+ com'etiti(e 'roduct7 "nd of course the$ do not tell us of the more than a thousand deaths each $ear in the /nited States from the use of as'irin, or the a''arent 5,;;; annual cases of kidne$ failure from the use of acetamino'hen, of which the best-selling brand is T$lenol. 9This, howe(er, ma$ re'resent a case of correlation without causation.: 2r who cares which breakfast cereal has more (itamins when we can take a (itamin 'ill with breakfast7 4ikewise, wh$ should it matter whether an antacid contains calcium if the calcium is for nutrition and irrele(ant for gastritis7 Commercial culture is full of similar misdirections and e(asions at the e)'ense of the consumer. 6ou+re not su''osed to ask. Don+t think. 3u$. =aid 'roduct endorsements, es'eciall$ b$ real or 'ur'orted e)'erts, constitute a stead$ rainfall of dece'tion. The$ betra$ contem't for the intelligence of their customers. The$ introduce an insidious corru'tion of 'o'ular attitudes about scientific ob1ecti(it$. Toda$ there are e(en commercials in which real scientists, some of considerable distinction, shill for cor'orations. The$ teach that scientists too will lie for mone$. "s Tom =aine warned, inuring us to lies la$s the groundwork for man$ other e(ils. I ha(e in front of me as I write the 'rogramme of one of the annual Whole 4ife >)'os, 5ew "ge e)'ositions held in San <rancisco. T$'icall$, tens of thousands of 'eo'le attend. Highl$ 8uestionable e)'erts tout highl$ 8uestionable 'roducts. Here are some of the 'resentations! -How Tra''ed 3lood =roteins =roduce =ain and Suffering+. -Cr$stals, "re The$ Talismans or Stones7+ 9I ha(e an o'inion m$self.: It continues! -"s a cr$stal focuses sound and light wa(es for radio and tele(ision+ - this is a (a'id misunderstanding of how radio and tele(ision work - -so ma$ it am'lif$ s'iritual (ibrations for the attuned human+. 2r here+s one! -Aeturn of the ?oddess, a =resentational Aitual+. "nother! -S$nchronicit$, the Aecognition >)'erience+. That one is gi(en b$ -3rother Charles+. 2r, on the ne)t 'age, -6ou, Saint-?ermain, and Healing Through the Diolet <lame+. It goes on and on, with 'lent$ of ads about -o''ortunities+ - running the short gamut from the dubious to the s'urious - that are a(ailable at the Whole 4ife >)'o. Distraught cancer (ictims make 'ilgrimages to the =hili''ines, where -'s$chic surgeons+, ha(ing 'almed bits of chicken li(er or goat heart, 'retend to reach into the 'atient+s innards and withdraw the diseased tissue, which is then trium'hantl$ dis'la$ed. 4eaders of western democracies regularl$ consult astrologers and m$stics before making decisions of state. /nder 'ublic 'ressure for results, 'olice with an unsol(ed murder or a missing bod$ on their hands consult >S= -e)'erts+ 9who ne(er guess better than e)'ected b$ common sense, but the 'olice, the >S=ers sa$, kee' calling:. "

clair(o$ance ga' with ad(ersar$ nations is announced, and the Central Intelligence "genc$, under Congressional 'rodding, s'ends ta) mone$ to find out whether submarines in the ocean de'ths can be located b$ thinking hard at them. " -'s$chic+, using 'endulums o(er ma's and dowsing rods in air'lanes, 'ur'orts to find new mineral de'osits, an "ustralian mining com'an$ 'a$s him to' dollars u' front, none of it returnable in the e(ent of failure, and a share in the e)'loitation of ores in the e(ent of success. 5othing is disco(ered. Statues of *esus or murals of #ar$ are s'otted with moisture, and thousands of kind-hearted 'eo'le con(ince themsel(es that the$ ha(e witnessed a miracle. These are all cases of 'ro(ed or 'resum'ti(e balone$. " dece'tion arises, sometimes innocentl$ but collaborati(el$, sometimes with c$nical 'remeditation. /suall$ the (ictim is caught u' in a 'owerful emotion - wonder, fear, greed, grief. Credulous acce'tance of balone$ can cost $ou mone$, that+s what =.T. 3arnum meant when he said, SThere+s a sucker born e(er$ minute+. 3ut it can be much more dangerous than that, and when go(ernments and societies lose the ca'acit$ for critical thinking, the results can be catastro'hic, howe(er s$m'athetic we ma$ be to those who ha(e bought the balone$. In science we ma$ start with e)'erimental results, data, obser(ations, measurements, -facts+. We in(ent, if we can, a rich arra$ of 'ossible e)'lanations and s$stematicall$ confront each e)'lanation with the facts. In the course of their training, scientists are e8ui''ed with a balone$ detection kit. The kit is brought out as a matter of course whene(er new ideas are offered for consideration. If the new idea sur(i(es e)amination b$ the tools in our kit, we grant it warm, although tentati(e, acce'tance. If $ou+re sZ inclined, if $ou don+t want to bu$ balone$ e(en when it+ reassuring to do so, there are 'recautions that can be taken there+s a tried-and-true, consumertested method. What+s in the kit7 Tools for sce'tical thinking. What sce'tical thinking boils down to is the means to construct and to understand, a reasoned argument and, es'eciall$ im'or tant, to recogni.e a fallacious or fraudulent argument. Thi 8uestion is not whether we like the conclusion that emerges out o a train of reasoning, but whether the conclusion follows from thi 'remises or starting 'oint and whether that 'remise is true. "mong the tools! Q Where(er 'ossible there must be inde'endent confirmation o the -facts+. Q >ncourage substanti(e debate on the e(idence b$ knowledge able

'ro'onents of all 'oints of (iew. Q "rguments from authorit$ carr$ little weight M -authorities ha(e made mistakes in the 'ast. The$ will do so again in thi future. =erha's a better wa$ to sa$ it is that in science there ar no authorities, at most, there are e)'erts. Q S'in more than one h$'othesis. If there+s something to b e)'lained, think of all the different wa$s in which it could b e)'lained. Then think of tests b$ which $ou might s$stemati call$ dis'ro(e each of the alternati(es. What sur(i(es, th h$'othesis that resists dis'roof in this Darwinian selectioi among -multi'le working h$'otheses+, has a much bette chance of being the right answer than if $ou had sim'l$ run wit0 The first idea that caught $our fanc$.K
JK This is a 'roblem that affects 1ur$ trials. Aetros'ecti(e studies show that som 1urors make u' their minds (er$ earl$ M 'erha's during o'ening arguments and then retain the e(idence that seems to su''ort their initial im'ressions an re1ect the contrar$ e(idence. The method of alternati(e working h$'otheses not running in their heads.F

Q Tr$ not to get o(erl$ attached to a h$'othesis 1ust because it+ $ours. It+s onl$ a wa$-station in the 'ursuit of knowledge. "si $ourself wh$ $ou like the idea. Com'are it fairl$ with the alternati(es. See if $ou can find reasons for re1ecting it. If $ou don+t, others will. Q Huantif$. If whate(er it is $ou+re e)'laining has some measure, some numerical 8uantit$ attached to it, $ou+ll be much better able to discriminate among com'eting h$'otheses. What is (ague and 8ualitati(e is o'en to man$ e)'lanations. 2f course there are truths to be sought in the man$ 8ualitati(e issues we are obliged to confront, but finding them is more challenging. Q If there+s a chain of argument, every link in the chain must work 9including the 'remise: - not 1ust most of them. Q 2ccam+s Aa.or. This con(enient rule-of-thumb urges us when faced with two h$'otheses that e)'lain the data eAually well to choose the sim'ler. Q "lwa$s ask whether the h$'othesis can be, at least in 'rinci'le, falsified. =ro'ositions that are untestable, unfalsifiable are not worth much. Consider the grand idea that our /ni(erse and e(er$thing in it is 1ust an elementar$ 'article - an electron, sa$ - in a much bigger Cosmos. 3ut if we can ne(er ac8uire information from outside our /ni(erse, is not the idea inca'able of dis'roof7 6ou must be able to check assertions out. In(eterate sce'tics must be gi(en the chance to follow $our reasoning, to du'licate $our e)'eriments and see if the$ get the same result. The reliance on carefull$ designed and controlled e)'eriments is ke$,

as I tried to stress earlier. We will not learn much from mere contem'lation. It is tem'ting to rest content with the first candidate e)'lanation we can think of. 2ne is much better than none. 3ut what ha''ens if we can in(ent se(eral7 How do we decide among them7 We don+t. We let e)'eriment do it. <rancis 3acon 'ro(ided a classic reason! "rgumentation cannot suffice for the disco(er$ of new work, since the subtlet$ of 5ature is greater man$ times than the subtlet$ of argument. Control e)'eriments are essential. If, for e)am'le, a new medicine is alleged to cure a disease G; 'er cent of the time, we must make sure that a control 'o'ulation, taking a dumm$ sugar 'ill which as far as the sub1ects know might be the new drug, does not also e)'erience s'ontaneous remission of the disease G; 'er cent of the time. Dariables must be se'arated. Su''ose $ou+re seasick, and gi(en both an acu'ressure bracelet and 5; milligrams of mecli.ine. 6ou find the un'leasantness (anishes. What did it - the bracelet or the 'ill7 6ou can tell onl$ if $ou take the one without the other ne)t time $ou+re seasick. 5ow imagine that $ou+re not so dedicated to science as to be willing to be seasick. Then $ou won+t se'arate the (ariables. 6ou+ll take both remedies again. 6ou+(e achie(ed the desired 'ractical result, further knowledge, $ou might sa$, is not worth the discomfort of attaining it. 2ften the e)'eriment must be done -double-blind+, so that those ho'ing for a certain finding are not in the 'otentiall$ com'romising 'osition of e(aluating the results. In testing a new medicine, for e)am'le, $ou might want the 'h$sicians who determine which 'atients+ s$m'toms are relie(ed not to know which 'atients ha(e been gi(en the new drug. The knowledge might influence their decision, e(en if onl$ unconsciousl$. Instead the list of those who e)'erienced remission of s$m'toms can be com'ared with the list of those who got the new drug, each inde'endentl$ ascertained. Then $ou can determine what correlation e)ists. 2r in conducting a 'olice line-u' or 'hoto identification, the officer in charge should not know who the 'rime sus'ect is, so as not consciousl$ or unconsciousl$ to influence the witness. In addition to teaching us what to do when e(aluating a claim to knowledge, an$ good balone$ detection kit must also teach us what not to do. It hel's us recogni.e the most common and 'erilous fallacies of logic and rhetoric. #an$ good e)am'les can be found in religion and 'olitics, because their 'ractitioners are so often obliged to 1ustif$ two contradictor$ 'ro'ositions. "mong these fallacies are! Q 0d hominem = 4atin for -to the man+, attacking the arguer and not the

argument 9e.g., the ,everend Dr Smith is a known /i+lical fundamentalist, so her o+Iections to evolution need not +e taken seriously6! Q "rgument from authorit$ 9e.g., President ,ichard .ixon should +e re=elected +ecause he has a secret 1lan to end the war in Southeast 0sia = but because it was secret, there was no wa$ for the electorate to e(aluate it on its merits, the argument amounted to trusting him because he was =resident! a mistake, as it turned out:. Q "rgument from ad(erse conse8uences 9e.g., a #od meting out 1unishment and reward must exist, +ecause if &e didn)t, society would +e much more lawless and dangerous = 1erha1s even ungoverna+le!) 2r! the defendant in a widely 1u+lici9ed murder trial must +e found guiltyE otherwise, it will +e an encouragement for other men to murder their wives6!
JK " more c$nical formulation b$ the Aoman historian =ol$bius! Since the masses of the 'eo'le are inconstant, full of unrul$ desires, 'assionate, and reckless of conse8uences, the$ must be filled with fears to kee' them in order. The ancients did well, therefore, to in(ent gods, and the belief in 'unishment after death.F

Q "''eal to ignorance - the claim that whate(er has not been 'ro(ed false must be true, and (ice (ersa 9e.g., there is no com1elling evidence that ?F5s are not visiting the EarthE therefore ?F5s exist = and there is intelligent life elsewhere in the ?niverse! 2r! there may +e seventy ka9illion other worlds, +ut not one is known to have the moral advancement of the Earth, so we)re still central to the ?niverse6! This im'atience with ambiguit$ can be critici.ed in the 'hrase! absence of e(idence is not e(idence of absence. Q S'ecial 'leading, often to rescue a 'ro'osition in dee' rhetorical trouble 9e.g., how can a merciful #od condemn future generations to unending torment +ecause, against orders, one woman induced one man to eat an a11leD S1ecial 1lead* you don)t understand the su+tle Doctrine of Free 'ill! 2r! how can there +e an eAually godlike Father, Son and &oly #host in the same PersonD S1ecial 1lead* you don)t understand the Divine $ystery of the "rinity! 2r! how could #od 1ermit the followers of udaism, Christianity and %slam = each in their own way enIoined to heroic measures of loving kindness and
com1assion = to have 1er1etrated so much cruelty for so longD S1ecial 1lead* you don)t understand Free 'ill again! 0nd anyway, #od moves in mysterious ways6!

Q 3egging the 8uestion, also called assuming the answer 9e.g., we must institute the death 1enalty to discourage violent crime! 3ut does the (iolent crime rate in fact fall when the death 'enalt$ is

im'osed7 2r! the stock market fell yesterday +ecause of a technical adIustment and 1rofit=taking +y investors! 3ut is there an$ inde1endent e(idence for the causal role of -ad1ustment+ and 'rofittaking, ha(e we learned an$thing at all from this 'ur'orted e)'lanation7:. Q 2bser(ational selection, also called the enumeration of fa(ourable circumstances, or as the 'hiloso'her <rancis 3acon described it, counting the hits and forgetting the missesK 9e.g., a state +oasts of the Presidents it has 1roduced, +ut is silent on its serial killers6!
JK #$ fa(ourite e)am'le is this stor$, told about the Italian 'h$sicist >nrico <ermi, newl$ arri(ed on "merican shores, enlisted in the #anhattan nuclear wea'ons 'ro1ect, and brought face-to-face in the midst of World War Two with /S flag officers! So-and-so is a great general, he was told. -What is the definition of a great general7+ <ermi characteristicall$ asked. -I guess it+s a general who+s won man$ consecuti(e battles.+ -How man$7+ "fter some back and forth, the$ settled on fi(e. -What fraction of "merican generals are great7+ "fter some more back and forth, the$ settled on a few 'er cent. % 3ut imagine, <ermi re1oined, that there is no such thing as a great general, that all armies are e8uall$ matched, and that winning a battle is 'urel$ a matter of chance. Then the chance of winning one battle is one out of two, or %PG, two battles %PE, three %PB, four %P%I, and fi(e consecuti(e battles %P&G, which is about three 'er cent. 6ou would ex1ect a few 'er cent of "merican generals to win fi(e consecuti(e battles, 'urel$ b$ chance. 5ow, has an$ of them won ten consecuti(e battles...7F

Q Statistics of small numbers - a close relati(e of obser(ational selection 9e.g., Lthey say 1 out of ; 1eo1le is Chinese! &ow is this 1ossi+leD % know hundreds of 1eo1le, and none of them is Chinese! <ours truly!) 2r! D+(e thrown three sevens in a row! "onight % can)t lose!)6! Q #isunderstanding of the nature of statistics 9e.g., President Dwight Eisenhower ex1ressing astonishment and alarm on discovering that fully half of all 0mericans have +elow average intelligence6! Q Inconsistenc$ 9e.g., 1rudently 1lan for the worst of which a 1otential military adversary is ca1a+le, +ut thriftily ignore scientific 1roIections on environmental dangers +ecause they)re not L1roved)! 2r! attri+ute the declining life ex1ectancy in the former Soviet ?nion to the failures of communism many years ago, +ut never attri+ute the high infant mortality rate in the ?nited States :now highest in the maIor industrial nations6 to the failures of ca1italism! 2r! consider it reasona+le for the ?niverse to continue to exist forever into the future, +ut Iudge a+surd the 1ossi+ility that it has infinite duration into the 1ast6! Q .on seAuitur = 4atin for -it doesn+t follow+ 9e.g., our nation will 1revail

+ecause #od is great! 3ut nearl$ e(er$ nation 'retends this to be true, the ?erman formulation was L#ott mil uns)6! 2ften those falling into the non seAuitur fallac$ ha(e sim'l$ failed to recogni.e alternati(e 'ossibilities. Q Post hoc, ergo 1ro1ter hoc = 4atin for -it ha''ened after, so it was caused b$+ 9e.g., *amie Cardinal Sin, "rchbisho' of #anila! C know of!!! a ->=year=old who looks >B +ecause she takes Jcontrace1tiveM1ills!) 2r! +efore women got the vote, there were no nuclear wea1ons6! Q #eaningless 8uestion 9e.g., 'hat ha11ens when an irresisti+le force meets an immova+le o+IectD 3ut if there is such a thing as an irresistible force there can be no immo(able ob1ects, and (ice (ersa:. Q >)cluded middle, or false dichotom$ - considering onl$ the two e)tremes in a continuum of intermediate 'ossibilities 9e.g., Lsure, take his sideE my hus+and)s 1erfectE %)m always wrong!) 2r! Leither you love your country or you hate it!) 2r! Lif you)re not 1art of the solution, you)re 1art of the 1ro+lem)6! Q Short-term (. long-term - a subset of the e)cluded middle, but so im'ortant I+(e 'ulled it out for s'ecial attention 9e.g., we can)t afford 1rogrammes to feed malnourished children and educate 1re=school kids! 'e need to urgently deal with crime on the streets! 2r! why ex1lore s1ace or 1ursue fundamental science when we have so huge a +udget deficitD6! Sli''er$ slo'e, related to e)cluded middle 9e.g., if we allow a+ortion in the first weeks of 1regnancy, it will +e im1ossi+le to 1revent the killing of a full=term infant! 2r, con(ersel$! if the state 1rohi+its a+ortion even in the ninth month, it will soon +e telling us what to do with our +odies around the time of conce1tion6! Q Confusion of correlation and causation 9e.g., a survey shows that more college graduates are homosexual than those with lesser educationE therefore education makes 1eo1le gay! 2r! 0ndean earthAuakes are correlated with closest a11roaches of the 1lanet ?ranusE therefore N des1ite the a+sence of any such correlation for the nearer, more massive 1lanet u1iter N the latter causes the former!K
JK 2r! children who watch (iolent TD 'rogrammes tend to be more (iolent when the$ grow u'. 3ut did the TD cause the (iolence, or do (iolent children 'referentiall$ en1o$ watching (iolent 'rogrammes7 Der$ likel$ both are true. Commercial defenders of TD (iolence argue that an$one can distinguish between tele(ision and realit$. 3ut Saturda$ morning children+s 'rogrammes now a(erage G5 acts of (iolence 'er hour. "t the (er$ least this desensiti.es $oung children to aggression and random cruelt$. "nd if im'ressionable adults can ha(e false memories im'lanted in their brains, what are we im'lanting in our children when we e)'ose them to some %;;,;;; acts of (iolence before the$ graduate from elementar$ school7F

Q Straw man M caricaturing a 'osition to make it easier to attack 9e.g., scientists su11ose that living things sim1ly fell together +y chance N a formulation that wilfull$ ignores the central Darwinian insight, that

5ature ratchets u' b$ sa(ing what works and discarding what doesn+t. 2r M this is also a short-termPlong-term fallac$ M environmentalists care more for snail darters and s1otted owls than they do for 1eo1le6! Q Su''ressed e(idence, or half-truths 9e.g., an ama9ingly accurate and widely Auoted L1ro1hecy) of the assassination attem1t on President ,eagan is shown on televisionE but M an im'ortant detail M was it recorded before or after the e(ent7 2r! these government a+uses demand revolution, even if you can)t make an omelette without +reaking some eggs! 6es, but is this likel$ to be a re(olution in which far more 'eo'le are killed than under the 're(ious regime7 What does the e)'erience of other re(olutions suggest7 "re all 'ossible re(olutions against o''ressi(e regimes desirable and in the interests of the 'eo'le7:. Q Weasel words 9e.g., the se'aration of 'owers of the /S Constitution s'ecifies that the /nited States ma$ not conduct a war without a declaration b$ Congress. 2n the other hand, =residents are gi(en control of foreign 'olic$ and the conduct of wars, which are 'otentiall$ 'owerful tools for getting themsel(es re-elected. =residents of either 'olitical 'art$ ma$ therefore be tem'ted to arrange wars while wa(ing the flag and calling the wars something else - -'olice actions+, -armed incursions+, -'rotecti(e reaction strikes+, -'acification+, -safeguarding "merican interests+, and a wide (ariet$ of -o'erations+, such as -2'eration *ust Cause+. >u'hemisms for war are one of a broad class of rein(entions of language for 'olitical 'ur'oses. Talle$rand said, -"n im'ortant art of 'oliticians is to find new names for institutions which under old names ha(e become odious to the 'ublic+:.

@nowing the e)istence of such logical and rhetorical fallacies rounds out our toolkit. 4ike all tools, the balone$ detection kit can be misused, a''lied out of conte)t, or e(en em'lo$ed as a rote alternati(e to thinking. 3ut a''lied 1udiciousl$, it can make all the difference in the world, not least in e(aluating our own arguments before we 'resent them to others. The "merican tobacco industr$ grosses some O5; billion 'er $ear. There is a statistical correlation between smoking and cancer, the tobacco industr$ admits, but not, the$ sa$, a causal relation. " logical fallac$, the$ im'l$, is being committed. What might this mean7 #a$be 'eo'le with hereditar$ 'ro'ensities for cancer also ha(e hereditar$ 'ro'ensities to take addicti(e drugs - so cancer and smoking might be correlated, but the cancer would not be caused b$ the smoking. Increasingl$ far-fetched connections of this sort can be contri(ed. This is e)actl$ one of the reasons science insists on

control e)'eriments. Su''ose $ou 'aint the backs of large numbers of mice with cigarette tar, and also follow the health of large numbers of nearl$ identical mice that ha(e not been 'ainted. If the former get cancer and the latter do not, $ou can be 'rett$ sure that the correlation is causal. Inhale tobacco smoke, and the chance of getting cancer goes u', don+t inhale, and the rate sta$s at the background le(el. 4ikewise for em'h$sema, bronchitis and cardio(ascular diseases. When the first work was 'ublished in the scientific literature in % 5& showing that the substances in cigarette smoke when 'ainted on the backs of rodents 'roduce malignancies, the res'onse of the si) ma1or tobacco com'anies was to initiate a 'ublic relations cam'aign to im'ugn the research, s'onsored b$ the Sloan @ettering <oundation. This is similar to what the Du =ont Cor'oration did when the first research was 'ublished in % CE showing that their <reon 'roduct attacks the 'rotecti(e o.one la$er. There are man$ other e)am'les. 6ou might think that before the$ denounce unwelcome research findings, ma1or cor'orations would de(ote their considerable resources to checking out the safet$ of the 'roducts the$ 'ro'ose to manufacture. "nd if the$ missed something, if inde'endent scientists suggest a ha.ard, wh$ would the com'anies 'rotest7 Would the$ rather kill 'eo'le than lose 'rofits7 If, in an uncertain world, an error must be made, shouldn+t it be biased toward 'rotecting customers and the 'ublic7 "nd, incidentall$, what do these cases sa$ about the abilit$ of the free enter'rise s$stem to 'olice itself7 "ren+t these instances where go(ernment intrusion is in the 'ublic interest7 " % C% internal re'ort of the 3rown and Williamson Tobacco Cor'oration lists as a cor'orate ob1ecti(e -to set aside in the minds of millions the false con(iction that cigarette smoking causes lung cancer and other diseases, a con(iction based on fanatical assum'tions, fallacious rumours, unsu''orted claims and the unscientific statements and con1ectures of 'ublicit$-seeking o''ortunists+. The$ com'lain of the incredible, un'recedented and nefarious attack against the cigarette, constituting the greatest libel and slander e(er 'er'etrated against an$ 'roduct in the histor$ of free enter'rise, a criminal libel of such ma1or 'ro'ortions and im'lications that one wonders how such a crusade of calumn$ can be reconciled under the Constitution can be so flouted and (iolated JsicF.
This rhetoric is onl$ slightl$ more inflamed than what the tobacco

industr$ has from time to time uttered for 'ublic consum'tion. There are man$ brands of cigarettes that ad(ertise low -tar+ 9ten milligrams or less 'er cigarette:. Wh$ is this a (irtue7 3ecause it is the refractor$ tars in which 'ol$c$clic aromatic h$drocarbons and some other carcinogens are concentrated. "ren+t the low tar ads a tacit admission b$ the tobacco com'anies that cigarettes indeed cause cancer7 Health$ 3uildings International is a for-'rofit organi.ation, reci'ient of millions of dollars o(er the $ears from the tobacco industr$. It 'erforms research on second-hand smoke, and testifies for the tobacco com'anies. In % E, three of its technicians com'lained that senior e)ecuti(es had faked data on inhalable cigarette 'articles in the air. In e(er$ case, the in(ented or -corrected+ data made tobacco smoke seem safer than the technicians+ measurements had indicated. Do cor'orate research de'artments or outside research contractors e(er find a 'roduct to be more dangerous than the tobacco cor'oration has 'ublicl$ declared7 If the$ do, is their em'lo$ment continued7 Tobacco is addicti(e, b$ man$ criteria more so than heroin and cocaine. There was a reason 'eo'le would, as the % E;s ad 'ut it, -walk a mile for a Camel+. #ore 'eo'le ha(e died of tobacco than in all of World War II. "ccording to the World Health 2rgani.ation, smoking kills three million 'eo'le e(er$ $ear worldwide. This will rise to ten million annual deaths b$ G;G;, in 'art because of a massi(e ad(ertising cam'aign to 'ortra$ smoking as ad(anced and fashionable to $oung women in the de(elo'ing world. =art of the success of the tobacco industr$ in 'ur(e$ing this brew of addicti(e 'oisons can be attributed to wides'read unfamiliarit$ with balone$ detection, critical thinking and scientific method. ?ullibilit$ kills.

2bsessed with Aealit$

" shi'owner was about to send to sea an emigrant shi'. He knew that she was old, and not o(erwell built at the first, that she had seen man$ seas and climes, and often had needed re'airs. Doubts had been suggested to him that 'ossibl$ she was not seaworth$. These doubts 're$ed u'on his mind, and made him unha''$, he thought that 'erha's he ought to ha(e her thoroughl$ o(erhauled and refitted, e(en though this should 'ut him to great e)'ense. 3efore the shi' sailed, howe(er, he succeeded in o(ercoming these melanchol$ reflections. He said to himself that she had gone safel$ through so man$ (o$ages and weathered so man$ storms, that it was idle to su''ose that she would not come safel$ home from this tri' also. He would 'ut his trust in =ro(idence, which could hardl$ fail to 'rotect all these unha''$ families that were lea(ing their fatherland to seek for better times elsewhere. He would dismiss from his mind all ungenerous sus'icions about the honest$ of builders and contractors. In such wa$s he ac8uired a sincere and comfortable con(iction that his (essel was thoroughl$ safe and seaworth$, he watched her de'arture with a light heart, and bene(olent wishes for the success of the e)iles in their strange new home that was to be, and he got his insurance mone$ when she went down in mid ocean and told no tales. What shall we sa$ of him7 Surel$ this, that he was (eril$ guilt$ of the death of those men. It is admitted that he did sincerel$ belie(e in the soundness of his shi', but the sincerit$ of his con(iction can in nowise hel' him, because he had no right to +elieve on such evidence as was +efore him! He had ac8uired his belief not b$ honestl$ earning it in 'atient in(estigation, but b$ stifling his doubts... William @. Clifford, "he Ethics of /elief 9%BCE:

12

At the borders of science - and sometimes as a carr$-o(er from

'rescientific thinking - lurks a range of ideas that are a''ealing, or at least modestl$ mind-boggling, but that ha(e not been conscientiousl$ worked o(er with a balone$ detection kit, at least b$ their ad(ocates! the notion, sa$, that the >arth+s surface is on the inside, not the outside, of a s'here, or claims that $ou can le(itate $ourself b$ meditating and that ballet dancers and basketball

'la$ers routinel$ get u' so high b$ le(itating, or the 'ro'osition that I ha(e something called a soul, made not of matter or energ$, but of something else for which there is no other e(idence, and which after m$ death might return to animate a cow or a worm. T$'ical offerings of 'seudoscience and su'erstition - this is merel$ a re'resentati(e, not a com'rehensi(e list - are astrolog$, the 3ermuda Triangle, -3ig <oot+ and the 4och 5ess monster, ghosts, the -e(il e$e+, multi-coloured halo-like -auras+ said to surround the heads of e(er$one 9with colour 'ersonali.ed:, e)trasensor$ 'erce'tion 9>S=:, such as tele'ath$, 'recognition, telekinesis, and -remote (iewing+ of distant 'laces, the belief that %& is an -unluck$+ number 9because of which man$ no-nonsense office buildings and hotels in "merica 'ass directl$ from the twelfth to the fourteenth floors - wh$ take chances7:, bleeding statues, the con(iction that carr$ing the se(ered foot of a rabbit around with $ou brings good luck, di(ining rods, dowsing and water witching, -facilitated communication+ in autism, the belief that ra.or blades sta$ shar'er when ke't inside small cardboard '$ramids, and other tenets of -'$ramidolog$+, 'hone calls 9none of them collect: from the dead, the 'ro'hecies of 5ostradamus, the alleged disco(er$ that untrained flatworms can learn a task b$ eating the ground-u' remains of other, better educated flatworms, the notion that more crimes are committed when the #oon is full, 'almistr$, numerolog$, 'ol$gra'h$, comets, tea lea(es and -monstrous+ births as 'rodigies of future e(ents 9'lus the di(inations fashionable in earlier e'ochs, accom'lished b$ (iewing entrails, smoke, the sha'es of flames, shadows and e)crement, listening to gurgling stomachs, and e(en, for a brief 'eriod, e)amining tables of logarithms:, -'hotogra'h$+ of 'ast e(ents, such as the crucifi)ion of *esus, a Aussian ele'hant that s'eaks fluentl$, -sensiti(es+ who, when carelessl$ blindfolded, read books with their fingerti's, >dgar Ca$ce 9who 'redicted that in the % I;s the -lost+ continent of "tlantis would -rise+: and other -'ro'hets+, slee'ing and awake, diet 8uacker$, out-of-bod$ 9e.g., near-death: e)'eriences inter'reted as real e(ents in the e)ternal world, faith-healer fraud, 2ui1a boards, the emotional li(es of geraniums, unco(ered b$ intre'id use of a -lie detector+, water remembering what molecules used to be dissol(ed in it, telling character from facial features or bum's on the head, the -hundredth monke$+ confusion and other claims that whate(er a small fraction of us wants to be true reall$ is true, human beings s'ontaneousl$ bursting into flame and being burned to a cris', &-c$cle biorh$thms, 'er'etual motion machines, 'romising unlimited su''lies of energ$ 9but all of which, for one reason or another, are withheld from close e)amination b$ sce'tics:, the s$stematicall$ ine't 'redictions of

*eane Di)on 9who -'redicted+ a % 5& So(iet in(asion of Iran and in % I5 that the /SSA would beat the /S to 'ut the first human on the #oonK: and other 'rofessional -'s$chics+, the *eho(ah+s Witnesses+ 'rediction that the world would end in % %C, and man$ similar 'ro'hecies, dianetics and Scientolog$, Carlos Castaneda and -sorcer$+, claims of finding the remains of 5oah+s "rk, the -"mit$(ille Horror+ and other hauntings, and accounts of a small brontosaurus crashing through the rain forests of the Congo Ae'ublic of our time. J"n in-de'th discussion of man$ such claims can be found in Encyclo1edia of the Paranormal, ?ordon Stein, ed., 3uffalo! =rometheus 3ooks, % I.F
JK Diolating the rules for -2raclers and Wi.ards+ gi(en b$ Thomas "d$ in %I5I! -In doubtful things, the$ ga(e doubtful answers... Where were more certain 'robabilities, there the$ ga(e more certain answers.+F

#an$ of these doctrines are re1ected out of hand b$ fundamentalist Christians and *ews because the 3ible so en1oins. Deuteronomy 9)(iii, %;, %%: reads 9in the @ing *ames translation:! There shall not be found among $ou an$ one that maketh his son or his daughter to 'ass through the fire, or that useth di(ination, or an obser(er of times, or an enchanter, or a witch. 2r a charmer, or a consulter with familiar s'irits, or a wi.ard, or a necromancer. "strolog$, channelling, 2ui1a boards, 'redicting the future and much else is forbidden. The author of Deuteronom$ does not argue that such 'ractices fail to deli(er what the$ 'romise. 3ut the$ are -abominations+, 'erha's suitable for other nations, but not for the followers of ?od. "nd e(en the "'ostle =aul, so credulous on so man$ matters, counsels us to -'ro(e all things+. The twelfth-centur$ *ewish 'hiloso'her #oses #aimonides goes further than Deuteronomy, in that he makes e)'licit that these 'seudosciences don+t work! It is forbidden to engage in astrolog$, to utili.e charms, to whis'er incantations... "ll of these 'ractices are nothing more than lies and dece'tions used b$ ancient 'agan 'eo'les to decei(e the masses and lead them astra$... Wise and intelligent 'eo'le know better. J<rom the $ishneh "orah, 0vodah Cara, Cha'ter %%.F Some claims are hard to test - for e)am'le, if an e)'edition fails to find the ghost or the brontosaurus, that doesn+t mean it doesn+t e)ist. "bsence of e(idence is not e(idence of absence. 2thers are easier - for e)am'le, flatworm cannibalistic learning or the announcement that colonies of bacteria sub1ected to an antibiotic or an agar dish thri(e

when their 'ros'erit$ is 'ra$ed for 9com'ared to control bacteria unredeemed b$ 'ra$er:. " few -for e)am'le, 'er'etual motion machines - can be e)cluded on grounds of fundamental 'h$sics. >)ce't for them, it+s not that we know +efore e)amining the e(idence that the notions are false, stranger things are routinel$ incor'orated into the cor'us of science. The 8uestion, as alwa$s, is how good is the e(idence7 The burden of 'roof surel$ rests on the shoulders of those who ad(ance such claims. Ae(ealingl$, some 'ro'onents hold that sce'ticism is a liabilit$, that true science is in8uir$ without sce'ticism. The$ are 'erha's halfwa$ there. 3ut halfwa$ doesn+t doit. =ara's$chologist Susan 3lackmore describes one of the ste's in her transformation to a more sce'tical attitude on -'s$chic+ 'henomena! " mother and daughter from Scotland asserted the$ could 'ick u' images from each other+s minds. The$ chose to use 'la$ing cards for the tests because that is what the$ used at home. I let them choose the room in which the$ would be tested and insured that there was no normal wa$ for the -recei(er+ to see the cards. The$ failed. The$ could not get more right than chance 'redicted and the$ were terribl$ disa''ointed. The$ had honestl$ belie(ed the$ could do it and I began to see how eas$ it was to be fooled b$ $our own desire to belie(e. I had similar e)'eriences with se(eral dowsers, children who claimed the$ could mo(e ob1ects 's$chokineticall$, and se(eral who said the$ had tele'athic 'owers. The$ all failed. >(en now I ha(e a fi(e-digit number, a word, and a small ob1ect in m$ kitchen at home. The 'lace and items were chosen b$ a $oung man who intends to -see+ them while tra(elling out of his bod$. The$ ha(e been there 9though regularl$ changed: for three $ears. So far, though, he has had no success. -Tele'ath$+ literall$ means to feel at a distance, 1ust as -tele'hone+ is to hear at a distance and -tele(ision+ is to see at a distance. The word suggests the communication not of thoughts but of feelings, emotions. "round a 8uarter of all "mericans belie(e the$+(e e)'erienced something like tele'ath$. =eo'le who know each other (er$ well, who li(e together, who are 'ractised in one another+s feeling tones, associations and thinking st$les can often antici'ate what the 'artner will sa$. This is merel$ the usual fi(e senses 'lus human em'ath$, sensiti(it$ and intelligence in o'eration. It ma$ feel e)trasensor$, but it+s not at all what+s intended b$ the word -tele'ath$+. If something like this were e(er conclusi(el$ demonstrated, it would, I think, ha(e discernible 'h$sical causes -'erha's electrical currents in the brain. =seudoscience, rightl$ or wrongl$ labelled, is b$ no means the same thing as the

su'ernatural, which is b$ definition something somehow outside of 5ature. It is barel$ 'ossible that a few of these 'aranormal claims might one da$ be (erified b$ solid scientific data. 3ut it would be foolish to acce't an$ of them without ade8uate e(idence. In the s'irit of garage dragons, it is much better, for those claims not alread$ dis'ro(ed or ade8uatel$ e)'lained, to contain our im'atience, to nurture a tolerance for ambiguit$, and to await - or, much better, to seek - su''orting or disconfirming e(idence.
%n a far=off land in the South Seas, the word went out a+out a wise man, a healer, an em+odied s1irit! &e could s1eak across time! &e was an 0scended $aster! &e was coming, they said! &e was coming!!! In % BB, "ustralian news'a'ers, maga.ines and tele(ision stations began to recei(e the good news (ia 'ress kits and (ideota'e. 2ne broadside read!

C"A42S T2 "==>"A I5 "/STA"4I" Those who ha(e seen it will ne(er forget. The brilliant $oung artist who has been talking to them suddenl$ seems to falter, his 'ulse slows dangerousl$ and (irtuall$ sto's at the 'oint of death. The 8ualified medical attendant, who has been assigned to kee' constant watch, is about to sound the alarm. 3ut then, with a heartstirring burst, the 'ulse is felt again -faster and stronger than e(er before. The life force clearl$ has returned to the bod$ - but the entit$ inside that bod$ is no longer *ose 4uis "l(are., the % -$ear-old whose uni8ue 'ainted ceramics are featured in some of the wealthiest homes in "merica. Instead, the bod$ has been taken o(er b$ Carlos, an ancient soul, whose teachings will come as both a shock and an ins'iration. 2ne being going through a form of death to make wa$ for another! that is the 'henomenon that has made Carlos, as channelled through *ose 4uis "l(are., the dominant new figure in 5ew "ge consciousness. "s e(en one sce'tical 5ew 6ork critic 'uts it! -The first and onl$ case of a channeller offering tangible, 'h$sical 'roof of some m$sterious change within his human 'h$siolog$.+ 5ow *ose, who has gone through more than %C; of these little deaths and transformations, has been told b$ Carlos to (isit "ustralia - in the words of the #aster, -the old new land+ which is to be the source of a s'ecial re(elation. Carlos alread$ has foretold that in % BB catastro'hes will swee' the earth, two ma1or world leaders will die and, later in the $ear, "ustralians will be among the

first to see the rising of a great star which will dee'l$ influence future life on earth. S/5D"6 G%ST [&=#[ 2=>A" H2/S> DA"#" TH>"TA> <ollowing a % BI motorc$cle accident, the 'ress kit e)'lained, *ose "l(are., then %C $ears old, suffered a mild concussion. "fter he reco(ered, those who knew him could tell that he had changed. " (er$ different (oice sometimes emanated from him. 3ewildered, "l(are. sought hel' from a 's$chothera'ist, a s'ecialist in multi'le 'ersonalit$ disorders. The 's$chiatrist -disco(ered that *ose was channelling a distinct entit$ who was known as Carlos. This entit$ takes o(er the bod$ of "l(are. when the bod$+s life force is rela)ed to the right degree.+ Carlos, it turns out, is a two-thousand-$ear-old s'irit disincarnate, a ghost without bodil$ form, who last in(aded a human bod$ in Caracas, Dene.uela, in % ;;. /nfortunatel$, that bod$ died at age %G in a fall from a horse. This ma$ be wh$, the thera'ist e)'lained, Carlos could enter "l(are.+s bod$ following the motorc$cle accident. When "l(are. goes into his trance, the s'irit of Carlos, focused b$ a large and rare cr$stal, enters him and utters the wisdom of the ages. Included in the 'ress kit was a list of ma1or a''earances in "merican cities, a (ideota'e of the tumultuous rece'tion that "l(are.PCarlos recei(ed at a 3roadwa$ theatre, his inter(iew on 5ew 6ork radio station W22=, and other indications that here was a formidable "merican 5ew "ge 'henomenon. Two small substantiating details! an article from a South <lorida news'a'er read, -TH>"T>A 52T>! The three-da$ sta$ of channeler C"A-42S has been e)tended at the War #emorial "uditorium ... in res'onse to the re8uests for further a''earances+, and an e)cer't from a tele(ision 'rogramme guide listed a s'ecial on TH> >5TIT6 C"A42S! This in-de'th stud$ re(eals the facts behind one of toda$+s most 'o'ular and contro(ersial 'ersonalities+. "l(are. and his manager arri(ed in S$dne$ first class on Hantas. The$ tra(elled e(er$where in an enormous white stretch limousine. The$ occu'ied the =residential Suite of one of the cit$+s most 'restigious hotels. "l(are. was attired in an elegant white gown with a golden medallion. In his first 'ress conference, Carlos 8uickl$ emerged. The entit$ was forceful, literate, commanding. "ustralian tele(ision 'rogrammes 8uickl$ lined u' for a''earances b$ "l(are., his manager, and his nurse 9to check his 'ulse and announce the 'resence of Carlos:.

2n "ustralia+s "oday Show, the$ were inter(iewed b$ the host, ?eorge 5egus. When 5egus 'osed a few reasonable and sce'tical 8uestions, the 5ew "gers e)hibited (er$ thin skins. Carlos laid a curse on the anchorman. His manager doused 5egus with a glass of water. 3oth stalked off the set. It was a sensation in the tabloid 'ress, its significance rehashed on "ustralian tele(ision. -TD 2utburst! Water Thrown at 5egus+, was the front-'age headline in the %I <ebruar$ % BB Daily $irror! Tele(ision stations were flooded with calls. 2ne S$dne$ citi.en ad(ised taking the curse on 5egus (er$ seriousl$! the arm$ of Satan had alread$ assumed control of the /nited 5ations, he said, and "ustralia might be ne)t. Carlos+s ne)t a''earance was on the "ustralian (ersion of 0 Current 0ffair! " sce'tic was brought in who described a magician+s trick b$ which the 'ulse in one hand is made briefl$ to sto'! $ou 'ut a rubber ball in $our arm'it and s8uee.e. When Carlos+s authenticit$ was 8uestioned, he was outraged! -This inter(iew is terminated0+ he thundered. 2n the a''ointed da$, the Drama Theatre of the S$dne$ 2'era House was nearl$ filled. "n e)cited crowd, $oung and old, milled about e)'ectantl$. >ntrance was free, which reassured those who (aguel$ wondered if it might be some sort of scam. "l(are. seated himself on a low couch. His 'ulse was monitored. Suddenl$ it sto''ed. Seemingl$, he was near death. 4ow, guttural noises emanated from dee' within him. The audience gas'ed in wonder and awe. Suddenl$, "l(are.+s bod$ took on 'ower. His 'osture radiated confidence. " broad, humane, s'iritual 'ers'ecti(e flowed out of "l(are.+s mouth. Carlos was here0 Inter(iewed afterwards, man$ members of the audience described how the$ had been mo(ed and delighted. The following Sunda$, "ustralia+s most 'o'ular TD 'rogramme named Sixty $inutes after its "merican counter'art - re(ealed that the Carlos affair was a hoa), front to back. The 'roducers thought it would be instructi(e to e)'lore how easil$ a faith-healer or guru could be created to bamboo.le the 'ublic and the media. So naturall$, the$ contacted one of the world+s leading e)'erts on decei(ing the 'ublic 9at least among those not holding or ad(ising 'olitical office: - the magician *ames Aandi. -JTFhere being so man$ disorders which cure themsel(es and such a dis'osition in mankind to decei(e themsel(es and one another+, wrote 3en1amin <ranklin in %CBE [ Land li(ing long ha(ing gi(en me fre8uent o''ortunities of seeing certain remedies cried u' as curing e(er$thing, and $et soon after totall$ laid aside as useless, I cannot but fear that the e)'ectation of great ad(antage from the new method of treating diseases will 'ro(e a delusion. That delusion ma$ howe(er in some cases be of use while it

lasts. He was referring to mesmerism. 3ut -e(er$ age has its 'eculiar foll$+. /nlike <ranklin, most scientists feel it+s not their 1ob to e)'ose 'seudoscientific bamboo.les, much less, 'assionatel$ held selfdece'tions. The$ tend not to be (er$ good at it either. Scientists are used to struggling with 5ature, who ma$ surrender her secrets reluctantl$ but who fights fair. 2ften the$ are un're'ared for those unscru'ulous 'ractitioners of the -'aranormal+ who 'la$ b$ different rules. #agicians, on the other hand, are in the dece'tion business. The$ 'ractise one of the man$ occu'ations - such as acting, ad(ertising, bureaucratic religion and 'olitics - where what a nai(e obser(er might misunderstand as l$ing is sociall$ condoned as in the ser(ice of a higher good. #an$ magicians 'retend the$ don+t cheat, and hint at 'owers conferred b$ m$stic sources or, latel$, b$ alien largesse. Some use their knowledge to e)'ose charlatans in and out of their ranks. " thief is set to catch a thief. <ew rise to this challenge as energeticall$ as *ames SThe "ma.ing+ Aandi, accuratel$ self-described as an angr$ man. He is angr$ not so much about the sur(i(al into our da$ of antedilu(ian m$sticism and su'erstition, but about how uncritical acce'tance of m$sticism and su'erstition works to defraud, to humiliate, and sometimes e(en to kill. 4ike all of us, he is im'erfect! sometimes Aandi is intolerant and condescending, lacking in em'ath$ for the human frailties that underlie credulit$. He is routinel$ 'aid for his s'eeches and 'erformances, but nothing com'ared to what he could recei(e if he declared that his tricks.deri(ed from 's$chic 'owers or di(ine or e)traterrestrial influences. 9#ost 'rofessional con1urors, worldwide, seem to belie(e in the realit$ of 's$chic 'henomena, according to 'olls of their (iews.: "s a con1uror, he has done much to e)'ose remote (iewers, -tele'aths+, and faith-healers who ha(e bilked the 'ublic. He demonstrated the sim'le dece'tions and misdirections b$ which some 's$chic s'oonbend-ers had conned 'rominent theoretical 'h$sicists into deducing new 'h$sical 'henomena. He has recei(ed wide recognition among scientists and is a reci'ient of the #ac"rthur <oundation 9so-called -genius+: =ri.e <ellowshi'. 2ne critic castigated him for being -obsessed with realit$+. I wish the same could be said of our nation and our s'ecies. Aandi has done more than an$one else in recent times to e)'ose 'retension and fraud in the lucrati(e business of faith-healing. He sifts refuse. He re'orts gossi'. He listens in on the stream of -miraculous+ information coming to the itinerant healer - not b$ s'iritual ins'iration from ?od, but at the radio fre8uenc$ of & .%C megahert., transmitted b$ his wife backstage.K
JK Whose minions had inter(iewed the gullible 'atients onl$ an hour or two

earlier. How, e)ce't through ?od, could the 'reacher know their s$m'toms and street addresses7 This scam b$ the Christian fundamentalist faith-healer =eter =o'off, and e)'osed b$ Aandi, was thinl$ fictionali.ed in the % & film Lea1 of Faith!M

He disco(ers that those who rise from their wheelchairs and are declared healed had ne(er before been confined to wheelchairs -the$ were in(ited b$ an usher to sit in them. He challenges the faith-healers to 'ro(ide serious medical e(idence for the (alidit$ of their claims. He in(ites local and federal go(ernment agencies to enforce the laws against fraud and medical mal'ractice. He chastises the news media for their studied a(oidance of the issue. He e)'oses the 'rofound contem't of these faith-healers for their 'atients and 'arishioners. #an$ are conscious charlatans, using Christian e(angelical or 5ew "ge language and s$mbols to 're$ on human frailt$. =erha's there are some with moti(es that are not (enal. 2r am I being too harsh7 How is the occasional charlatan in faithhealing different from the occasional fraud in science7 Is it fair to be sus'icious of an entire 'rofession because of a few bad a''les7 There are at least two im'ortant differences, it seems to me. <irst, no one doubts that science actuall$ works, whate(er mistaken and fraudulent claim ma$ from time to time be offered. 3ut whether there are any -miraculous+ cures from faith-healing, be$ond the bod$+s own abilit$ to cure itself, is (er$ much at issue. Secondl$, the e)'ose of fraud and error in science is made almost e)clusi(el$ b$ science. The disci'line 'olices itself, meaning that scientists are aware of the 'otential for charlatanr$ and mistakes. 3ut the e)'osure of fraud and error in faithhealing is almost ne(er done b$ other faith-healers. Indeed, it is striking how reluctant the churches and s$nagogues are in condemning demonstrable dece'tion in their midst. When con(entional medicine fails, when we must confront 'ain and death, of course we are o'en to other 'ros'ects for ho'e. "nd, after all, some illnesses are 's$chogenic. #an$ can be at least ameliorated b$ a 'ositi(e cast of mind. =lacebos are dumm$ drugs, often sugar 'ills. Drug com'anies routinel$ com'are the effecti(eness of their drugs against 'lacebos gi(en to 'atients with the same disease who had no wa$ to tell the difference between the drug and the 'lacebo. =lacebos can be astonishingl$ effecti(e, es'eciall$ for colds, an)iet$, de'ression, 'ain, and s$m'toms that are 'lausibl$ generated b$ the mind. Concei(abl$, endor'hins -the small brain 'roteins with mor'hine-like effects - can be elicited b$ belief. " 'lacebo works onl$ if the 'atient belie(es it+s an effecti(e medicine. Within strict limits, ho'e, it seems, can be transformed into biochemistr$. "s a t$'ical e)am'le, consider the nausea and (omiting that fre8uentl$ accom'an$ the chemothera'$ gi(en to cancer and "IDS

'atients. 5ausea and (omiting can also be caused 's$cho-genicall$, for instance b$ fear. The drug ondansetron h$drochlo-ride greatl$ reduces the incidence of these s$m'toms, but is it actuall$ the drug or the e)'ectation of relief7 In a double-blind stud$ I 'er cent of 'atients rated the drug effecti(e. So did ten 'er cent of the 'atients taking an identical-looking 'lacebo. In an a''lication of the fallac$ of obser(ational selection, unanswered 'ra$ers ma$ be forgotten or dismissed. There is a real toll, though! some 'atients who are not cured b$ faith re'roach themsel(es - 'erha's it+s their own fault, 'erha's the$ didn+t belie(e hard enough. Sce'ticism, the$ are rightl$ told, is an im'ediment both to faith and to 9'lacebo: healing. 5earl$ half of all "mericans belie(e there is such a thing as 's$chic or s'iritual healing. #iraculous cures ha(e been associated with a wide (ariet$ of healers, real and imagined, throughout human histor$. Scrofula, a kind of tuberculosis, was in >ngland called the -@ing+s e(il+, and was su''osedl$ curable onl$ b$ the @ing+s touch. Dictims 'atientl$ lined u' to be touched, the monarch briefl$ submitted to another burdensome obligation of high office, and, des'ite no one, it seems, actuall$ being cured, the 'ractice continued for centuries. " famous Irish faith-healer of the se(enteenth centur$ was Dalentine ?reatraks. He found, somewhat to his sur'rise, that he had the 'ower to cure disease, including colds, ulcers, -soreness+ and e'ile's$. The demand for his ser(ices became so great that he had no time for an$thing else. He was forced to become a healer, he com'lained. His method was to cast out the demons res'onsible for disease. "ll diseases, he asserted, were caused b$ e(il s'irits, man$ of whom he recogni.ed and called b$ name. " contem'orar$ chronicler, cited b$ #acka$, noted that he boasted of being much better ac8uainted with the intrigues of demons than he was with the affairs of men ... So great was the confidence in him, that the blind fancied the$ saw the light which the$ did not see - the deaf imagined that the$ heard - the lame that the$ walked straight, and the 'aral$tic that the$ had reco(ered the use of their limbs. "n idea of health made the sick forget for awhile their maladies, and imagination, which was not less acti(e in those merel$ drawn b$ curiosit$ than in the sick, ga(e a false (iew to the one class, from the desire of seeing, as it o'erated a false cure on the other from the strong desire of being healed. There are countless re'orts in the world literature of e)'loration and anthro'olog$ not onl$ of sicknesses being cured b$ faith in the

healer, but also of 'eo'le wasting awa$ and d$ing when cursed b$ a sorcerer. " more or less t$'ical e)am'le is told b$ "l(ar 5une. Cabe.a de Daca, who with a few com'anions and under conditions of terrible 'ri(ation wandered on land and sea, from <lorida to Te)as to #e)ico in %5GB-&I. The man$ different communities of 5ati(e "mericans he met longed to belie(e in the su'ernatural healing 'owers of the strange light-skinned, black-bearded foreigners and their black-skinned com'anion from #orocco, >ste-banico. >(entuall$ whole (illages came out to meet them, de'ositing all their wealth at the feet of the S'aniards and humbl$ im'loring cures. It began modestl$ enough! JTFhe$ tried to make us into medicine men, without e)amining us or asking for credentials, for the$ cure illnesses b$ blowing on the sick 'erson... and the$ ordered us to do the same and be of some use... The wa$ in which we cured was b$ making the sign of the cross o(er them and blowing on them and reciting a =ater 5oster and an "(e #aria... J"Fs soon as we made the sign of the cross o(er them, all those for whom we 'ra$ed told the others that the$ were well and health$... Soon the$ were curing cri''les. Cabe.a de Daca re'orts he raised a man from the dead. "fter that, we were (er$ much ham'ered b$ the large number of 'eo'le who were following us ... their eagerness to come and touch us was (er$ great and their im'ortunit$ so e)treme that three hours would 'ass without our being able to 'ersuade them to lea(e us alone. When a tribe begged the S'aniards not to lea(e them, Cabe.a de Daca and his com'anions became angr$. Then, a strange thing ha''ened... J#Fan$ of them fell ill, and eight men died the ne)t da$. "ll o(er the land, in the 'laces where this became known, the$ were so afraid of us that it seemed that the (er$ sight of us made them almost die of fear. The$ im'lored us not to be angr$, nor to wish for an$ more of them to die, and the$ were altogether con(inced that we killed them sim'l$ b$ wishing to. In %B5B, an a''arition of the Dirgin #ar$ was re'orted in 4ourdes, <rance, the #other of ?od confirmed the dogma of her immaculate conce'tion which had been 'roclaimed b$ =o'e =ius IR 1ust four

$ears earlier. Something like a hundred million 'eo'le ha(e come to 4ourdes since then in the ho'e of being cured, man$ with illnesses that the medicine of the time was hel'less to defeat. The Aoman Catholic Church re1ected the authenticit$ of large numbers of claimed miraculous cures, acce'ting onl$ si)t$-fi(e in nearl$ a centur$ and a half 9of tumours, tuberculosis, o'thalmitis, im'etigo, bronchitis, 'aral$sis and other diseases, but not, sa$, the regeneration of a limb or a se(ered s'inal cord:. 2f the si)t$-fi(e, women outnumber men ten to one. The odds of a miraculous cure at 4ourdes, then, are about one in a million, $ou are roughl$ as likel$ to reco(er after (isiting 4ourdes as $ou are to win the lotter$, or to die in the crash of a randoml$ selected regularl$ scheduled air'lane flight -including the one taking $ou to 4ourdes. The s'ontaneous remission rate of all cancers, lum'ed together, is estimated to be something between one in ten thousand and one in a hundred thousand. If no more than fi(e 'er cent of those who come to 4ourdes were there to treat their cancers, there should ha(e been something between fift$ and 5;; -miraculous+ cures of cancer alone. Since onl$ three of the attested si)t$-fi(e cures are of cancer, the rate of s'ontaneous remission at 4ourdes seems to be lower than if the (ictims had 1ust sta$ed at home. 2f course, if $ou+re one of the si)t$-fi(e, it+s going to be (er$ hard to con(ince $ou that $our tri' to 4ourdes wasn+t the cause of the remission of $our disease... Post hoc, ergo 1ro1ter hoc! Something similar seems true of indi(idual faith-healers. "fter hearing much from his 'atients about alleged faith-healing, a #innesota 'h$sician named William 5olen s'ent a $ear and a half tr$ing to track down the most striking cases. Was there clear medical e(idence that the disease was reall$ 'resent before the -cure+7 If so, had the disease actually disa''eared after the cure, or did we 1ust ha(e the healer+s or the 'atient+s sa$-so7 He unco(ered man$ cases of fraud, including the first e)'osure in "merica of -'s$chic surger$+. 3ut he found not one instance of cure of an$ serious organic 9non-'s$chogenic: disease. There were no cases where gallstones or rheumatoid arthritis, sa$, were cured, much less cancer or cardio(ascular disease. When a child+s s'leen is ru'tured, 5olen noted, 'erform a sim'le surgical o'eration and the child is com'letel$ better. 3ut take that child to a faith-healer and she+s dead in a da$. Dr 5olen+s conclusion! When JfaithF-healers treat serious organic disease, the$ are res'onsible for untold anguish and unha''iness... The healers become killers.

>(en a recent book ad(ocating the efficac$ of 'ra$er in treating disease 94arr$ Dosse$, &ealing 'ords6 is troubled b$ the fact that some diseases are more easil$ cured or mitigated than others. If 'ra$er works, wh$ can+t ?od cure cancer or grow back a se(ered limb7 Wh$ so much a(oidable suffering that ?od could so readil$ 're(ent7 Wh$ does ?od ha(e to be 'ra$ed to at all7 Doesn+t He alread$ know what cures need to be 'erformed7 Dosse$ also begins with a 8uote from Stanle$ @ri''ner, #D 9described as -one of the most authoritati(e in(estigators of the (ariet$ of unorthodo) healing methods used around the world+:! JTFhe research data on distant, 'ra$er-based healing are 'romising, but too s'arse to allow an$ firm conclusion to be drawn. This after man$ trillions of 'ra$ers o(er the millennia. "s Cabe.a de Daca+s e)'erience suggests, the mind can cause certain diseases, e(en fatal diseases. When blindfolded 'atients are decei(ed into belie(ing the$+re being touched b$ a leaf such as 'oison i($ or 'oison oak, the$ 'roduce an ugl$ red contact dermatitis. What faith-healing characteristicall$ ma$ hel' are mindmediated or 'lacebo diseases! some back and knee 'ains, headaches, stuttering, ulcers, stress, ha$ fe(er, asthma, h$sterical 'aral$sis and blindness, and false 'regnanc$ 9with cessation of menstrual 'eriods and abdominal swelling:. These are all diseases in which the state of mind ma$ 'la$ a ke$ role. In the late medie(al cures associated with a''aritions of the Dirgin #ar$, most were of sudden, short-li(ed, whole-bod$ or 'artial 'aral$ses that are 'lausibl$ 's$chogenic. It was widel$ held, moreo(er, that onl$ de(out belie(ers could be so cured. It+s no sur'rise that a''eals to a state of mind called faith can relie(e s$m'toms caused, at least in 'art, b$ another, 'erha's not (er$ different state of mind. 3ut there+s something more! the Har(est #oon <esti(al is an im'ortant holida$ in traditional Chinese communities in "merica. In the week 'receding the festi(al, the death rate in the communit$ is found to fall b$ &5 'er cent. In the following week the death rate 1um's b$ &5 'er cent. Control grou's of non-Chinese show no such effect. 6ou might think that suicides are res'onsible, but onl$ deaths from natural causes are counted. 6ou might think that stress or o(ereating might account for it, but this could hardl$ e)'lain the fall in death rate before the har(est moon. The largest effect is for 'eo'le with cardio(ascular disease, which is known to be influenced b$ stress. Cancer showed a smaller effect. 2n more detailed stud$, it turned out that the fluctuations in death rate occurred e)clusi(el$ among women C5 $ears old or older. The Har(est #oon <esti(al is

'resided o(er b$ the oldest women in the households. The$ were able to sta(e off death for a week or two to 'erform their ceremonial res'onsibilities. " similar effect is found among *ewish men in the weeks centred on =asso(er - a ceremon$ in which older men 'la$ a leading role - and likewise, worldwide for birthda$s, graduation ceremonies and the like. In a more contro(ersial stud$, Stanford /ni(ersit$ 's$chiatrists di(ided eight$-si) women with metastatic breast cancer into two grou's - one in which the$ were encouraged to e)amine their fears of d$ing and to take charge of their li(es, and the other gi(en no s'ecial 's$chiatric su''ort. To the sur'rise of the researchers, not onl$ did the su''ort grou' e)'erience less 'ain, but the$ also li(ed, on a(erage, eighteen months longer. The leader of the Stanford stud$, Da(id S'iegel, s'eculates that the cause ma$ be cortisol and other -stress hormones+ which im'air the bod$+s 'rotecti(e immune s$stem. Se(erel$ de'ressed 'eo'le, students during e)am 'eriods, and the berea(ed all ha(e reduced white blood cell counts. ?ood emotional su''ort ma$ not ha(e much effect on ad(anced forms of cancer, but it ma$ work to reduce the chances of secondar$ infections in a 'erson alread$ much weakened b$ the disease or its treatment. In his nearl$ forgotten % ;& book, Christian Science, #ark Twain wrote The 'ower which a man+s imagination has o(er his bod$ to heal it or make it sick is a force which none of us is born without. The first man had it, the last one will 'ossess it. 2ccasionall$, some of the 'ain and an)iet$ or other s$m'toms of more serious diseases can be relie(ed b$ faith-healers - howe(er, without arresting the 'rogress of the disease. 3ut this is no small benefit. <aith and 'ra$er ma$ be able to relie(e some s$m'toms of disease and their treatment, ease the suffering of the afflicted and e(en 'rolong li(es a little. In assessing the religion called Christian Science, #ark Twain - its se(erest critic of the time -ne(ertheless allowed that the bodies and li(es it had -made whole+ b$ the 'ower of suggestion more than com'ensated for those it had killed b$ withholding medical treatment in fa(our of 'ra$er. "fter his death, assorted "mericans re'orted contact with the ghost of =resident *ohn <. @enned$. 3efore home shrines bearing his 'icture, miraculous cures began to be re'orted. -He ga(e his life for his 'eo'le,+ one adherent of this stillborn religion e)'lained. "ccording to the Encyclo1edia of 0merican ,eligions, -To belie(ers, @enned$ is thought of as a god.+ Something similar can be seen in

the >l(is =resle$ 'henomenon, and the heartfelt cr$! SThe @ing li(es.+ If such belief s$stems could arise s'ontaneousl$, think how much more could be done b$ a well-organi.ed, and es'eciall$ an unscru'ulous, cam'aign. In res'onse to their in8uir$, Aandi suggested to "ustralia+s Sixty $inutes that the$ generate a hoa) from scratch, using someone with no training in magic or 'ublic s'eaking, and no e)'erience in the 'ul'it. "s he was thinking the scam through, his e$e fell u'on *ose 4uis "l(are., a $oung 'erformance scul'tor who was Aandi+s tenant. -Wh$ not7+ answered "l(are., who when I met him seemed bright, good-humoured and thoughtful. He went through intensi(e training, including mock TD a''earances and 'ress conferences. He didn+t ha(e to think u' the answers, though, because he had a nearl$ in(isible radio recei(er in his ear, through which Aandi 'rom'ted. >missaries from Sixty $inutes checked "l(are.+s 'erformance. The Carlos 'ersonalit$ was "l(are.+ in(ention. When "l(are. and his -manager+ - likewise recruited for the 1ob with no 're(ious e)'erience - arri(ed in S$dne$, there was *ames Aandi, slouching and incons'icuous, whis'ering into his transmitter, at the 'eri'her$ of the action. The substantiating documentation had all been faked. The curse, the water-throwing and all the rest were rehearsed to attract media attention. The$ did. #an$ of the 'eo'le who showed u' at the 2'era House had done so because of the tele(ision and 'ress attention. 2ne "ustralian news'a'er chain e(en 'rinted (erbatim handouts from the -Carlos <oundation+. "fter Sixty $inutes aired, the rest of the "ustralian media was furious. The$ had been used, the$ com'lained, lied to. -*ust as there are legal guidelines concerning the 'olice use of 'ro(ocateurs,+ thundered =eter Aobinson in the 0ustralian Financial ,eview, there must be limits to how far the media can go in setting u' a misleading situation ... I, for one, can sim'l$ not acce't that telling a lie is an acce'table wa$ of re'orting the truth... >(er$ 'oll of 'ublic o'inion shows that there is a sus'icion among the general 'ublic that the media do not tell the whole truth, or that the$ distort things, or that the$ e)aggerate, or that the$ are biased. #r Aobinson feared that Carlos might ha(e lent credence to this wides'read mis'erce'tion. Headlines ranged from -How Carlos #ade <ools of Them "H+ to -Hoa) Was *ust Dumb+. 5ews'a'ers that had not trum'eted Carlos 'atted themsel(es on the back for their restraint. 5egus said of Sixty $inutes, ->(en 'eo'le of integrit$ can make mistakes,+ and denied being du'ed. "n$one calling himself a

channeller, he said, is -a fraud b$ definition+. Sixty $inutes and Aandi stressed that the "ustralian media had made no serious effort to check an$ of -Carlos+s+ bona fides. He had ne(er a''eared in an$ of the cities listed. The (ideota'e of Carlos on the stage of a 5ew 6ork theatre had been a fa(our granted b$ the magicians =enn and Teller, who were a''earing there. The$ asked the audience 1ust to gi(e a big hand of a''lause, "l(are., in smock and medallion, walked on, the audience dutifull$ a''lauded, Aandi got his (ideota'e, "l(are. wa(ed goodb$e, the show went on. "nd there is no 5ew 6ork Cit$ radio station with call letters W22=. 2ther reasons for sus'icion could readil$ be mined in Carlos+s writings. 3ut because the intellectual currenc$ has been so debased, because credulit$, 5ew "ge and 2ld, is so ram'ant, because sce'tical thinking is so rarel$ 'ractised, no 'arod$ is too im'lausible. The Carlos <oundation offered for sale 9the$ were scru'ulousl$ careful not actuall$ to sell an$thing: an -"tlantis cr$stal+!
<i(e of these uni8ue cr$stals ha(e so far been found b$ the ascended master during his tra(els. /ne)'lained b$ science, each cr$stal harnesses almost 'ure energ$... Jand hasF enormous healing 'owers. The forms are actuall$ fossili.ed s'iritual energ$ and are a great boon to the 're'aration of the >arth for the 5ew "ge ... 2f the <i(e, the ascended master wears one "tlantic cr$stal at all times close to his bod$ for 'rotection and to enhance all s'iritual acti(ities. Two ha(e been ac8uired b$ kindl$ su''licants in the /nited States of "merica in e)change for the substantial contribution the ascended master re8uests. 2r, under the heading TH> W"T>AS 2< C"A42S+! The ascended master finds occasionall$ water of such 'urit$ that he undertakes to energi.e a 8uantit$ of it for others to benefit, an intensi(e 'rocess. To 'roduce what is alwa$s too little, the ascended master 'urifies himself and a 8uantit$ of 'ure 8uart. cr$stal fashioned into flasks. He then 'laces himself and the cr$stals into a large co''er bowl, 'olished and ke't warm. <or a twent$-four hour 'eriod the ascended master 'ours energ$ into the s'iritual re'ositor$ of the water... The water need not be remo(ed from the flask to be utili.ed s'irituall$. Sim'l$ holding the flask and concentrating on healing a wound or illness will 'roduce astounding results. Howe(er, if serious mischance befalls $ou or a close one, a tin$ dab of the energi.ed water will immediatel$ assist reco(er$. 2r, T>"AS 2< C"A42S+!

The red colour im'arted to the holding flasks that the ascended master has fashioned for the tears is 'roof enough of their 'ower, but their affect JsicF during meditation has been described b$ those who ha(e e)'erienced it as -a glorious 2neness+. Then there is a little book, "he "eachings of Carlos, which begins! I "# C"A42S. I H"D> C2#> T2 62/ <A2# #"56 ="ST I5C"A5"TI25S. I H"D> " ?A>"T 4>SS25 T2 T>"CH 62/. 4IST>5 C"A></446 . A>"D C"A></446 . THI5@ C"A></446 . TH> TA/TH IS H>A>. The first teaching asks, -Wh$ are we here...7+ The answer! !Who "an say what is the one answer# "here are many answers to any Auestion, and all the answers are right answers! %t is so! Do you seeD) The book en1oins us not to turn to the ne)t 'age until we ha(e understood the 'age we are on. This is one of se(eral factors that makes finishing it difficult. -2f doubters,+ it re(eals later, -I can sa$ onl$ this! let them take from the matter 1ust what the$ wish. The$ end u' with nothing - a handful of s'ace, 'erha's. "nd what does the belie(er ha(e7 >D>A6THI5?0 "ll 8uestions are answered, since all and an$ answers are correct answers. "nd the answers are right0 "rgue that, doubter.+ 2r! -Don+t ask for e)'lanations of e(er$thing. Westerners, in 'articular, are alwa$s demanding long-winded descri'tions of wh$ this, and wh$ that. #ost of what is asked is ob(ious. Wh$ bother with 'robing into these matters7 ... 3$ belief, all things become true.+ The last 'age of the book dis'la$s a single word in large letters! we are e)horted to -THI5@0+ The full te)t of "he "eachings ofCarlos was of course written b$ Aandi. He dashed it off on his la'to' com'uter in a few hours. The "ustralian media felt betra$ed b$ one of their own. The leading tele(ision 'rogramme in the countr$ had gone out of its wa$ to e)'ose shodd$ standards of fact-checking and wides'read gullibilit$ in institutions de(oted to news and 'ublic affairs. Some media anal$sts

e)cused it on the grounds that it ob(iousl$ wasn+t im'ortant, if it had +een im'ortant, the$ would ha(e checked it out. There were few mea cul1as! 5one who had been taken in were willing to a''ear on a retros'ecti(e of the -Carlos "ffair+ scheduled for the following Sunda$ on Sixty $inutes! 2f course, there+s nothing s'ecial about "ustralia in all of this. "l(are., Aandi, and their co-cons'irators could ha(e chosen an$ nation on >arth and it would ha(e worked. >(en those who ga(e Carlos a national tele(ision audience knew enough to ask some sce'tical 8uestions - but the$ couldn+t resist in(iting him to a''ear in the first 'lace. The internecine struggle within the media dominated the headlines after Carlos+s de'arture. =u..led commentaries were written about the e)'ose. What was the 'oint7 What was 'ro(ed7 "l(are. and Aandi 'ro(ed how little it takes to tam'er with our beliefs, how readil$ we are led, how eas$ it is to fool the 'ublic when 'eo'le are lonel$ and star(ed for something to belie(e in. If Carlos had sta$ed longer in "ustralia and concentrated more on healing - b$ 'ra$er, b$ belie(ing in him, b$ wishing on his bottled tears, b$ stroking his cr$stals - there+s no doubt that 'eo'le would ha(e re'orted being cured of man$ illnesses, es'eciall$ 's$cho-genie ones. >(en with nothing more fraudulent than his a''earance, sa$ings and ancillar$ 'roducts, some 'eo'le would ha(e gotten better because of Carlos. This, again, is the 'lacebo effect found with almost e(er$ faithhealer. We belie(e we+re taking a 'otent medicine and the 'ain goes awa$ - for a time at least. "nd when we belie(e we+(e recei(ed a 'otent s'iritual cure, the disease sometimes also goes awa$ - for a time at least. Some 'eo'le s'ontaneousl$ announce that the$+(e been cured e(en when the$ ha(en+t. Detailed follow-u's b$ 5olen, Aandi and man$ others of those who ha(e been told the$ were cured and agreed that the$ were - in, sa$, tele(ised ser(ices b$ "merican faith-healers were unable to find e(en one 'erson with serious organic disease who was in fact cured. >(en significant im'ro(ement in their condition is dubious. "s the 4ourdes e)'erience suggests, $ou ma$ ha(e to go through ten thousand to a million cases before $ou find one trul$ startling reco(er$. " faith-healer ma$ or ma$ not start out with fraud in mind. 3ut to his ama.ement, his 'atients actuall$ seem to be im'ro(ing. Their emotions are genuine, their gratitude heart-felt. When the healer is critici.ed, such 'eo'le rush to his defence. Se(eral elderl$ attendees of the channelling at the S$dne$ 2'era House were incensed after the Sixty $inutes e)'ose! -5e(er mind what the$ sa$,+ the$ told "l(are., -we belie(e in $ou.+ These successes ma$ be enough to con(ince man$ charlatans, no matter how c$nical the$ were at the beginning, that the$ actuall$ have m$stical 'owers. #a$be the$+re not successful e(er$ time. The 'owers come and go, the$ tell themsel(es. The$ ha(e to co(er the down time.

If the$ must cheat a little now and then, it ser(es a higher 'ur'ose, the$ tell themsel(es. Their s'iel is consumer-tested. It works. #ost of these figures are onl$ after $our mone$. That+s the good news. 3ut what worries me is that a Carlos will come along with bigger fish to fr$ - attracti(e, commanding, 'atriotic, e)uding leadershi'. "ll of us long for a com'etent, uncorru't, charismatic leader. We will lea' at the o''ortunit$ to su''ort, to belie(e, to feel good. #ost re'orters, editors and 'roducers, swe't u' with the rest of us, will sh$ awa$ from real sce'tical scrutin$. He won+t be selling $ou 'ra$ers or cr$stals or tears. =erha's he+ll be selling $ou a war, or a sca'egoat, or a much more all-encom'assing bundle of beliefs than Carlos+s. Whate(er it is, it will be accom'anied b$ warnings about the dangers of sce'ticism. In the celebrated film "he 'i9ard of59, Doroth$, the Scarecrow, the Tin Woodsman and the Cowardl$ 4ion are intimidated - indeed awed b$ the out-si.ed oracular figure called the ?reat 2.. 3ut Doroth$+s little dog Toto sna's at a concealing curtain and re(eals that the ?reat 2. is in fact a machine run b$ a small, tubb$, frightened man, as much an e)ile in this strange land as the$. I think we+re luck$ that *ames Aandi is tugging at the curtain. 3ut it would be as dangerous to rel$ on him to e)'ose all the 8uacks, humbugs and bunkum in the world as it would be to belie(e those same charlatans. If we don+t want to get taken, we need to do this 1ob for oursel(es. 2ne of the saddest lessons of histor$ is this! if we+(e been bamboo.led long enough, we tend to re1ect an$ e(idence of the bamboo.le. We+re no longer interested in finding out the truth. The bamboo.le has ca'tured us. It+s sim'l$ too 'ainful to acknowledge, e(en to oursel(es, that we+(e been taken. 2nce $ou gi(e a charlatan 'ower o(er $ou, $ou almost ne(er get it back. So the old bamboo.les tend to 'ersist as the new ones rise. Seances occur onl$ in darkened rooms, where the ghostl$ (isitors can be seen diml$ at best. If we turn u' the lights a little, so we ha(e a chance to see what+s going on, the s'irits (anish. The$+re sh$, we+re told, and some of us belie(e it. In twentieth-centur$ 'ara's$cholog$ laboratories, there is the -obser(er effect+! those described as gifted 's$chics find that their 'owers diminish markedl$ whene(er sce'tics arri(e, and disa''ear altogether in the 'resence of a con1uror as skilled as *ames Aandi. What the$ need is darkness and gullibilit$. " little girl who had been a co-cons'irator in a famous nineteenthcentur$ flimflam - s'irit-ra''ing, in which ghosts answer 8uestions b$ loud thum'ing - grew u' and confessed it was an im'osture. She was cracking the 1oint in her big toe. She demonstrated how it was done. 3ut the 'ublic a'olog$ was largel$ ignored and, when acknowledged, denounced. S'irit-ra''ing was too reassuring to be abandoned merel$ on the sa$-so of a self-confessed ra''er, e(en if she started the whole

business in the first 'lace. The stor$ began to circulate that the confession was coerced out of her b$ fanatical rationalists. "s I described earlier, 3ritish hoa)ers confessed to ha(ing made -cro' circles+, geometrical figures generated in grain fields. It wasn+t alien artists working in wheat as their medium, but two blokes with a board, a ro'e and a taste for whims$. >(en when the$ demonstrated how the$ did it, though, belie(ers were unim'ressed. #a$be some of the cro' circles are hoa)es, the$ argued, but there are too man$ of them, and some of the 'ictograms are too com'le). 2nl$ e)traterrestrials could do it. Then others in 3ritain confessed. 3ut cro' circles abroad, it was ob1ected, in Hungar$ for e)am'le, how can $ou e)'lain thatH8 Then co'$cat Hungarian teenagers confessed. 3ut what about...7 To test the credulit$ of an alien abduction 's$chiatrist, a woman 'oses as an abductee. The thera'ist is enthusiastic about the fantasies she s'ins. 3ut when she announces it was all a fake, what is his res'onse7 To re-e)amine his 'rotocols or his understanding of what these cases mean7 5o. 2n (arious da$s he suggests 9%: e(en if she isn+t herself aware of it, she was in fact abducted, or 9G: she+s cra.$ after all, she went to a 's$chiatrist, didn+t she7, or 9&: he was on to' of the hoa) from the beginning and 1ust ga(e her enough ro'e to hang herself. If it+s sometimes easier to re1ect strong e(idence than to admit that we+(e been wrong, this is also information about oursel(es worth ha(ing. " scientist 'laces an ad in a =aris news'a'er offering a free horosco'e. He recei(es about %5; re'lies, each, as re8uested, detailing a 'lace and time of birth. >(er$ res'ondent is then sent the identical horosco'e, along with a 8uestionnaire asking how accurate the horosco'e had been. 5inet$-four 'er cent of the res'ondents 9and ; 'er cent of their families and friends: re'l$ that the$ were at least recogni.able in the horosco'e. Howe(er, the horosco'e was drawn u' for a <rench serial killer. If an astrologer can get this far without e(en meeting his sub1ects, think how well someone sensiti(e to human nuances and not o(erl$ scru'ulous might do. Wh$ are we so+easil$ taken in b$ fortune-tellers, 's$chic seers, 'almists, tea-leaf, tarot and $arrow readers, and their ilk7 2f course, the$ note our 'osture, facial e)'ressions, clothing and answers to seemingl$ innocuous 8uestions. Some of them are brilliant at it, and these are areas about which man$ scientists seem almost unconscious. There is also a com'uter network to which -'rofessional+ 's$chics subscribe, the details of their customers+ li(es a(ailable to their colleagues in an instant. " ke$ tool is the so-called -cold read+, a statement of o''osing 'redis'ositions so tenuousl$ balanced that an$one will recogni.e a grain of truth. Here+s an e)am'le!

"t times $ou are e)tro(erted, affable, sociable, while at other times $ou are intro(erted, war$ and reser(ed. 6ou ha(e found it unwise to be too frank in re(ealing $ourself to others. 6ou 'refer a certain amount of change and (ariet$, and become dissatisfied when hemmed in b$ restrictions and limitations. Disci'lined and controlled on the outside, $ou tend to be worrisome and insecure on the inside. While $ou ha(e some 'ersonalit$ weaknesses, $ou are generall$ able to com'ensate for them. 6ou ha(e a great deal of unused ca'acit$, which $ou ha(e not turned to $our ad(antage. 6ou ha(e a tendenc$ to be critical of $ourself. 6ou ha(e a strong need for other 'eo'le to like $ou and for them to admire $ou. "lmost e(er$one finds this characteri.ation recogni.able, and man$ feel that it describes them 'erfectl$. Small wonder! we are all human. The list of -e(idence+ that some thera'ists think demonstrates re'ressed childhood se)ual abuse 9for e)am'le, in "he Courage to &eal b$ >llen 3ass and 4aura Da(is: is (er$ long and 'rosaic! it includes slee' disorders, o(ereating, anore)ia and bulimia, se)ual d$sfunction, (ague an)ieties, and e(en an inabilit$ to remember childhood se)ual abuse. "nother book, b$ the social worker >. Sue 3lume, lists, among other telltale signs of forgotten incest! headaches, sus'icion or its absence, e)cessi(e se)ual 'assion or its absence, and adoring one+s 'arents. "mong diagnostic items for detecting -d$sfunctional+ families listed b$ Charles Whitfield, #D, are -aches and 'ains+, feeling -more ali(e+ in a crisis, being an)ious about -authorit$ figures+, and ha(ing -tried counseling or 's$chothera'$+, $et feeling -that SsomethingT is wrong or missing+. 4ike the cold read, if the list is long and broad enough, e(er$one will ha(e -s$m'toms+. Sce'tical scrutin$ is not onl$ the toolkit for rooting out bunkum and cruelt$ that 're$ on those least able to 'rotect themsel(es and most in need of our com'assion, 'eo'le offered little other ho'e. It is also a timel$ reminder that mass rallies, radio and tele(ision, the 'rint media, electronic marketing, and mail-order technolog$ 'ermit other kinds of lies to be in1ected into the bod$ 'olitic, to take ad(antage of the frustrated, the unwar$ and the defenceless in a societ$ riddled with 'olitical ills that are being treated ineffecti(el$ if at all. 3alone$, bamboo.les, careless thinking, flimflam and wishes disguised as facts are not restricted to 'arlour magic and ambiguous ad(ice on matters of the heart. /nfortunatel$, the$ ri''le through mainstream 'olitical, social, religious and economic issues

in e(er$ nation.

"ntiscience
There+s no such thing as ob1ecti(e truth. We make our own truth. There+s no such things as ob1ecti(e realit$. We make our own realit$. There are s'iritual, m$stical, or inner wa$s of knowing that are su'erior to our ordinar$ wa$s of knowing. If an e)'erience seems real, it is real. If an idea feels right to $ou, it is right. We are inca'able of ac8uiring knowledge of the true nature of realit$. Science itself is irrational or m$stical. It+s 1ust another faith or belief s$stem or m$th, with no more 1ustification than an$ other. It doesn+t matter whether beliefs are true or not, as long as the$+re meaningful to $ou. a summar$ of 5ew "ge beliefs, from Theodore Schick *r and 4ewis Daughn, &ow to "hink 0+out 'eird "hings* Critical "hinking for a .ew 0ge 9#ountain Diew, C"! #a$field =ublishing Com'an$, % 5:

17

If the established framework of science is 'lausibl$ in error 9or

arbitrar$, or irrele(ant, or un'atriotic, or im'ious, or mainl$ ser(ing the interests of the 'owerful:, then 'erha's we can sa(e oursel(es the trouble of understanding what so man$ 'eo'le think of as a com'le), difficult, highl$ mathematical, and counterintuiti(e bod$ of knowledge. Then all the scientists would ha(e their comeu''ance. Science en($ could be transcended. Those who ha(e 'ursued other 'aths to knowledge, those who ha(e secretl$ harboured beliefs that science has scorned, could now ha(e their 'lace in the Sun. The rate of change in science is res'onsible for some of the fire it draws. *ust when we+(e finall$ understood something the scientists are talking about, the$ tell us it isn+t an$ longer true. "nd e(en if it is, there+s a slew of new things - things we ne(er heard of, things difficult to belie(e, things with dis8uieting im'lications - that the$ claim to ha(e disco(ered recentl$. Scientists can be 'ercei(ed as to$ing with us, as wanting to o(erturn e(er$thing, as sociall$ dangerous.

>dward /. Condon was a distinguished "merican 'h$sicist, a 'ioneer in 8uantum mechanics, a 'artici'ant in the de(elo'ment of radar and nuclear wea'ons in World War II, research director of Corning ?lass, director of the 5ational 3ureau of Standards, and 'resident of the "merican =h$sical Societ$ 9as well as, late in his life, 'rofessor of 'h$sics at the /ni(ersit$ of Colorado, where he directed a contro(ersial "ir <orce-funded scientific stud$ of /<2s:. He was one of the 'h$sicists whose lo$alt$ to the /nited States was challenged b$ members of Congress - including Congressman Aichard #. 5i)on, who called for the re(ocation of his securit$ clearance - in the late % E;s and earl$ % 5;s. The su'er'atriotic chairman of the House Committee on /n-"merican "cti(ities 9HC/":, Ae'. *. =arnell Thomas, would call the 'h$sicist -Dr Condom+, the -weakest link+ in "merican securit$, and - at one 'oint - the -missing link+. His (iew on Constitutional guarantees can be gleaned from the following res'onse to a witness+s law$er! The rights $ou ha(e are the rights gi(en $ou b$ this Committee. We will determine what rights $ou ha(e and what rights $ou ha(e not got before the Committee.+ "lbert >instein 'ublicl$ called on all those summoned before HC/" to refuse to coo'erate. In % EB, =resident Harr$ Truman at the "nnual #eeting of the "merican "ssociation for the "d(ancement of Science, and with Condon sitting beside him, denounced Ae'. Thomas and HC/" on the grounds that (ital scientific research -ma$ be made im'ossible b$ the creation of an atmos'here in which no man feels safe against the 'ublic airing of unfounded rumors, gossi' and (ilification+. He called HC/"+s acti(ities -the most un-"merican thing we ha(e to contend with toda$. It is the climate of a totalitarian countr$.K
JK 3ut Truman+s res'onsibilit$ for the witch-hunt atmos'here of the late % E;s and earl$ % 5;s is considerable. His % EC >)ecuti(e 2rder B&5 authori.ed in8uiries into the o'inions and associates of all federal em'lo$ees, without the right to confront the accuser or e(en, in most cases, to know what the accusation was. Those found wanting were fired. His "ttorne$ ?eneral, Tom Clark, established a list of -sub(ersi(e+ organi.ations so wide that at one time it included Consumer+s /nion.F

The 'la$wright "rthur #iller wrote "he Cruci+le, about the Salem Witch Trials, in this 'eriod. When the drama o'ened in >uro'e, #iller was denied a 'ass'ort b$ the State De'artment on the grounds that it was not in the best interests of the /nited States for him to tra(el abroad. 2n o'ening night in 3russels the 'la$ was greeted with tumultuous a''lause, whereu'on the /S "mbassador stood u' and took a bow. 3rought before HC/", #iller was chastised for the

suggestion that Congressional in(estigations might ha(e something in common with witch trials, he re'lied, -The com'arison is ine(itable, sir.+ Thomas was shortl$ afterwards thrown in 1ail for fraud. 2ne summer in graduate school I was a student of Condon+s. I remember (i(idl$ his account of being brought u' before some lo$alt$ re(iew board! -Dr Condon, it sa$s here that $ou ha(e been at the forefront of a re(olutionar$ mo(ement in 'h$sics called+ M and here the in8uisitor read the words slowl$ and carefull$ M -8uantum mechanics. It strikes this hearing that if $ou could be at the forefront of one re(olutionar$ mo(ement... $ou could be at the forefront of another.+ Condon, 8uick on his feet, re'lied that the accusation was untrue. He was not a re(olutionar$ in 'h$sics. He raised his right hand! -I belie(e in "rchimedes+ =rinci'le, formulated in the third centur$ 3C. I belie(e in @e'ler+s laws of 'lanetar$ motion, disco(ered in the se(enteenth centur$. I belie(e in 5ewton+s laws...+ "nd on he went, in(oking the illustrious names of 3ernoulli, <ourier, "m'ere, 3olt.mann and #a)well. This 'h$sicist+s catechism did not gain him much. The tribunal did not a''reciate humour in so serious a matter. 3ut the most the$ were able to 'in on Condon, as I recall, was that in high school he had a 1ob deli(ering a socialist news'a'er door-to-door on his bic$cle. Imagine $ou seriousl$ want to understand what 8uantum mechanics is about. There is a mathematical under'inning that $ou musl first ac8uire, master$ of each mathematical subdisci'line leading $ou to the threshold of the ne)t. In turn $ou must learn arithmetic, >uclidian geometr$, high school algebra, differential and integral calculus, ordinar$ and 'artial differential e8uations, (ector calculus, certain s'ecial functions of mathematical 'h$sics. matri) algebra, and grou' theor$. <or most 'h$sics students, this might occu'$ them from, sa$, third grade to earl$ graduate school - roughl$ fifteen $ears. Such a course of stud$ does not actuall$ in(ol(e learning an$ 8uantum mechanics, but merel$ establishing the mathematical framework re8uired to a''roach it dee'l$. The 1ob of the 'o'ulari.er of science, tr$ing to get across some idea of 8uantum mechanics to a general audience that has nol gone through these initiation rites, is daunting. Indeed, there are no successful 'o'ulari.ations of 8uantum mechanics in m$ o'in ion, 'artl$ for this reason. These mathematical com'le)ities are com'ounded b$ the fact that 8uantum theor$ is so resolutel: counterintuiti(e. Common sense is almost useless in a''roaching it. It+s no good, Aichard <e$nman once said, asking wh$ it is thai wa$. 5o one knows wh$ it is that wa$. That+s 1ust the wa$ it is. 5ow su''ose we were to a''roach some obscure religion ;% 5ew "ge doctrine or shamanistic belief s$stem sce'ticall$. We ha(e an o'en mind, we understand there+s something interesting here, we introduce

oursel(es to the 'ractitioner and ask for ar intelligible summar$. Instead we are told that it+s intrinsicall$ toe difficult to be e)'lained sim'l$, that it+s re'lete with -m$steries+ but if we+re willing to become acol$tes for fifteen $ears, at the ene of that time we might begin to be 're'ared to consider the sub1ec seriousl$. #ost of us, I think, would sa$ that we sim'l$ don+t ha(Z the time, and man$ would sus'ect that the business about fifteei $ears 1ust to get to the threshold of understanding is e(idence tha the whole sub1ect is a bamboo.le! if it+s too hard for us tZ understand, doesn+t it follow that it+s too hard for us to critici.e knowledgeabl$7 Then the bamboo.le has free rein. So how is shamanistic or theological or 5ew "ge doctrine different from 8uantum mechanics7 The answer is that e(en if we cannot understand it, we can (erif$ that 8uantum mechanics works. We can com'are the 8uantitati(e 'redictions of 8uantum theor$ with the measured wa(elengths of s'ectral lines of the chemical elements, the beha(iour of semiconductors and li8uid helium, micro'rocessors, which kinds of molecules form from their constituent atoms, the e)istence and 'ro'erties of white dwarf stars, what ha''ens in masers and lasers, and which materials are susce'tible to which kinds of magnetism. We don+t ha(e to understand the theor$ to see what it 'redicts. We don+t ha(e to be accom'lished 'h$sicists to read what the e)'eriments re(eal. In e(er$ one of these instances, as in man$ others, the 'redictions of 8uantum mechanics are strikingl$, and to high accurac$, confirmed. 3ut the shaman tells us that his doctrine is true because it too works - not on arcane matters of mathematical 'h$sics but on what reall$ counts! he can cure 'eo'le. Der$ well, then, let+s accumulate the statistics on shamanistic cures, and see if the$ work better than 'lacebos. If the$ do, let+s willingl$ grant that there+s something here - e(en if it+s onl$ that some illnesses are 's$chogenic, and can be cured or mitigated b$ the right attitudes and mental states. We can also com'are the efficac$ of alternati(e shamanistic s$stems. Whether the shaman gras's wh$ his cures work is another stor$. In 8uantum mechanics we ha(e a 'ur'orted understanding of 5ature on the basis of which, ste' b$ ste' and 8uantitati(el$, we make 'redictions about what will ha''en if a certain e)'eriment, ne(er before attem'ted, is carried out. If the e)'eriment bears out the 'rediction - es'eciall$ if it does so numericall$ and 'recisel$ -we ha(e confidence that we knew what we were doing. There are at best few e)am'les with this character among shamans, 'riests and 5ew "ge gurus. "nother im'ortant distinction was suggested in ,eason and .ature, the % &% book b$ #orris Cohen, a celebrated 'hiloso'her of science!

To be sure, the (ast ma1orit$ of 'eo'le who are untrained can acce't the results of science onl$ on authorit$. 3ut there is ob(iousl$ an im'ortant difference between an establishment that is o'en and in(ites e(er$ one to come, stud$ its methods, and suggest im'ro(ement, and one that regards the 8uestioning of its credentials as due to wickedness of heart, such as JCardinalF 5ewman attributed to those who 8uestioned the infallibilit$ of the 3ible... Aational science treats its credit notes as alwa$s redeemable on demand, while non-rational authoritarianism regards the demand for the redem'tion of its 'a'er as a dislo$al lack of faith. The m$ths and folklore of man$ 're-modern cultures ha(e e)'lanator$ or at least mnemonic (alue. In stories that e(er$one can a''reciate and e(en witness, the$ encode the en(ironment. Which constellations are rising or the orientation of the #ilk$ Wa$ on a gi(en da$ of the $ear can be remembered b$ a stor$ about lo(ers reunited or a canoe negotiating the sacred ri(er. Since recogni.ing the sk$ is essential for 'lanting and rea'ing and following the game, such stories ha(e im'ortant 'ractical (alue. The$ can also be hel'ful as 's$chological 'ro1ecti(e tests or as reassurances of humanit$+s 'lace in the /ni(erse. 3ut that doesn+t mean that the #ilk$ Wa$ reall$ is a ri(er or that a canoe reall$ is tra(ersing it before our e$es. Huinine comes from an infusion of the bark of a 'articular tree from the "ma.on rain forest. How did 're-modern 'eo'le e(er disco(er that a tea made from this tree, of all the 'lants in the forest, would relie(e the s$m'toms of malaria7 The$ must ha(e tried e(er$ tree and e(er$ 'lant - roots, stems, bark, lea(es -tried chewing on them, mashing them u', making an infusion. This constitutes a massi(e set of scientific e)'eriments continuing o(er generations, e)'eriments that moreo(er could not be du'licated toda$ for reasons of medical ethics. Think of how man$ bark infusions from other trees must ha(e been useless, or made the 'atient retch or e(en die. In such a case, the healer chalks these 'otential medicines off the list, and mo(es on to the ne)t. The data of ethno'harmacolog$ ma$ not be s$stematicall$ or e(en consciousl$ ac8uired. 3$ trial and error, though, and carefull$ remembering what worked, e(entuall$ the$ get there - using the rich molecular riches in the 'lant kingdom to accumulate a 'harmaco'oeia that works. "bsolutel$ essential, life-sa(ing information can be ac8uired from folk medicine and in no other wa$. We should be doing much more than we are to mine the treasures in such folk knowledge worldwide.

4ikewise for, sa$, 'redicting the weather in a (alle$ near the 2rinoco! it is 'erfectl$ 'ossible that 're-industrial 'eo'les ha(e noted o(er the millennia regularities, 'remonitor$ indications, cause-and-effect relationshi's at a 'articular geogra'hic locale of which 'rofessors of meteorolog$ and climatolog$ in some distant uni(ersit$ are wholl$ ignorant. 3ut it does not follow that the shamans of such cultures are able to 'redict the weather in =aris or Tok$o, much less the global climate. Certain kinds of folk knowledge are (alid and 'riceless. 2thers are at best meta'hors and codifiers. >thnomedicine, $es, astro'h$sics, no. It is certainl$ true that all beliefs and all m$ths are worth$ of a res'ectful hearing. It is not true that all folk beliefs are e8uall$ (alid if we+re talking not about an internal mindset, but about understanding the e)ternal realit$. <or centuries, science has been under a line of attack that, rather than 'seudoscience, can be called antiscience. Science, and academic scholarshi' in general, the contention these da$s goes, is too sub1ecti(e. Some e(en allege it+s entirel$ sub1ecti(e, as is, the$ sa$, histor$. Histor$ generall$ is written b$ the (ictors to 1ustif$ their actions, to arouse 'atriotic fer(our, and to su''ress the legitimate claims of the (an8uished. When no o(erwhelming (ictor$ takes 'lace, each side writes self-'romotional accounts of what really ha''ened. >nglish histories castigated the <rench, and (ice (ersa, /S histories until (er$ recentl$ ignored the de facto 'olicies of lebensraum and genocide toward 5ati(e "mericans, *a'anese histories of the e(ents leading to World War II minimi.e *a'anese atrocities, and suggest that their chief 'ur'ose was altruisticall$ to free >ast "sia from >uro'ean and "merican colonialism, =oland was in(aded in % & , 5a.i historians asserted, because =oland, ruthless and un'ro(oked, attacked ?erman$, So(iet historians 'retended that the So(iet troo's that 'ut down the Hungarian 9% 5I: and C.ech 9% IB: Ae(olutions were in(ited in b$ general acclamation in the in(aded nations rather than b$ Aussian stooges, 3elgian histories tend to gloss o(er the atrocities committed when the Congo was a 'ri(ate fiefdom of the @ing of 3elgium, Chinese historians are strangel$ obli(ious of the tens of millions of deaths caused b$ #ao Nedong+s -?reat 4ea' <orward+, that ?od condones and e(en ad(ocates sla(er$ was re'eatedl$ argued from the 'ul'it and in the schools in Christian sla(e-holding societies, but Christian 'olities that ha(e freed their sla(es are mostl$ silent on the matter, as brilliant, widel$ read and sober a historian as >dward ?ibbon would not meet with 3en1amin <ranklin when the$ found themsel(es at the same >nglish countr$ inn, because of the late un'leasantness

of the "merican Ae(olution. 9<ranklin then (olunteered source material to ?ibbon when he turned, as <ranklin was sure he soon would, from the decline and fall of the Aoman >m'ire to the decline and fall of the 3ritish >m'ire. <ranklin was right about the 3ritish >m'ire, but his timetable was about two centuries earl$.: These histories ha(e traditionall$ been written b$ admired academic historians, often 'illars of the establishment. 4ocal dissent is gi(en short shrift. 2b1ecti(it$ is sacrificed in the ser(ice of higher goals. <rom this doleful fact, some ha(e gone so far as to conclude that there is no such thing as histor$, no 'ossibilit$ of reconstructing the actual e(ents, that all we ha(e are biased self-1ustifications, and that this conclusion stretches from histor$ to all of knowledge, science included. "nd $et who would den$ that there were actual se8uences of historical e(ents, with real causal threads, e(en if our abilit$ to reconstruct them in their full wea(e is limited, e(en if the signal is awash in an ocean of self-congratulator$ noise7 The danger of sub1ecti(it$ and 're1udice has been a''arent from the beginning of histor$. Thuc$dides warned against it. Cicero wrote The first law is that the historian shall ne(er dare to set down what is false, the second, that he shall ne(er dare to conceal the truth, the third, that there shall be no sus'icion in his work of either fa(ouritism or 're1udice. 4ucian of Samosata, in &ow &istory Should /e 'ritten, 'ublished in the $ear %C;, urged SThe historian should be fearless and incorru'tible, a man of inde'endence, lo(ing frankness and truth+. It is the res'onsibilit$ of those historians with integrit$ to tr$ to reconstruct that actual se8uence of e(ents, howe(er disa''ointing or alarming it ma$ be. Historians learn to su''ress their natural indignation about affronts to their nations and acknowledge, where a''ro'riate, that their national leaders ma$ ha(e committed atrocious crimes. The$ ma$ ha(e to dodge outraged 'atriots as an occu'ational ha.ard. The$ recogni.e that accounts of e(ents ha(e 'assed through biased human filters, and that historians themsel(es ha(e biases. Those who want to know what actuall$ ha''ened will become full$ con(ersant with the (iews of historians in other, once ad(ersar$, nations. "ll that can be ho'ed for is a set of successi(e a''ro)imations! b$ slow ste's, and through im'ro(ing self-knowledge, our understanding of historical e(ents im'ro(es. Something similar is true in science. We ha(e biases, we breathe in the 're(ailing 're1udices from our surroundings like e(er$one else. Scientists ha(e on occasion gi(en aid and comfort to a (ariet$ of no)ious doctrines 9including the su''osed -su'eriorit$+ of one ethnic

grou' or gender o(er another from measurements of brain si.e or skull bum's or IH tests:. Scientists are often reluctant to offend the rich and 'owerful. 2ccasionall$, a few of them cheat and steal. Some worked man$ without a trace of moral regret -for the 5a.is. Scientists also e)hibit biases connected with human chau(inisms and with our intellectual limitations. "s I+(e discussed earlier, scientists are also res'onsible for deadl$ technologies - sometimes in(enting them on 'ur'ose, sometimes being insufficientl$ cautious about unintended side-effects. 3ut it is also scientists who, in most such cases, ha(e blown the whistle alerting us to the danger. Scientists make mistakes. "ccordingl$, it is the 1ob of the scientist to recogni.e our weakness, to e)amine the widest range of o'inions, to be ruthlessl$ self-critical. Science is a collecti(e enter'rise with the error-correction machiner$ often running smoothl$. It has an o(erwhelming ad(antage o(er histor$, because in science we can do e)'eriments. If $ou are unsure of the negotiations leading to the Treat$ of =aris in %B%E-%5, re'la$ing the e(ents is an una(ailable o'tion. 6ou can onl$ dig into old records. 6ou cannot e(en ask 8uestions of the 'artici'ants. >(er$ one of them is dead. 3ut for man$ 8uestions in science, $ou can rerun the e(ent as man$ times as $ou like, e)amine it in new wa$s, test a wide range of alternati(e h$'otheses. When new tools are de(ised, $ou can 'erform the e)'eriment again and see what emerges from $our im'ro(ed sensiti(it$. In those historical sciences where $ou cannot arrange a rerun, $ou can e)amine related cases and begin to recogni.e their common com'onents. We can+t make stars e)'lode at our con(enience, nor can we re'eatedl$ e(ol(e through man$ trials a mammal from its ancestors. 3ut we can simulate some of the 'h$sics of su'erno(a e)'losions in the laborator$, and we can com'are in staggering detail the genetic instructions of mammals and re'tiles. The claim is also sometimes made that science is as arbitrar$ or irrational as all other claims to knowledge, or that reason itself is an illusion. The "merican re(olutionar$, >than "lien - leader of the ?reen #ountain 3o$s in their ca'ture of <ort Ticonderoga -had some words on this sub1ect! Those who in(alidate reason ought seriousl$ to consider whether the$ argue against reason with or without reason, if with reason, then the$ establish the 'rinci'le that the$ are laboring to dethrone! but if the$ argue without reason 9which, in order to be consistent with themsel(es the$ must do:, the$ are out of reach of rational con(iction, nor do the$ deser(e a rational argument. The reader can 1udge the de'th of this argument. "n$one who witnesses the ad(ance of science first-hand sees an

intensel$ 'ersonal undertaking. There are alwa$s a few - dri(en b$ sim'le wonder and great integrit$, or b$ frustration with the inade8uacies of e)isting knowledge, or sim'l$ u'set with themsel(es for their imagined inabilit$ to understand what e(er$one else can - who 'roceed to ask the de(astating ke$ 8uestions. " few saintl$ 'ersonalities stand out amidst a roiling sea of 1ealousies, ambition, backbiting, su''ression of dissent, and absurd conceits. In some fields, highl$ 'roducti(e fields, such beha(iour is almost the norm. I think all that social turmoil and human weakness aids the enter'rise of science. There is an established framework in which an$ scientist can 'ro(e another wrong and make sure e(er$one else knows about it. >(en when our moti(es are base, we kee' stumbling on something new. The "merican chemistr$ 5obel laureate Harold C. /re$ once confided to me that as he got older 9he was then in his se(enties:, he e)'erienced increasingl$ concerted efforts to 'ro(e him wrong. He described it as -the fastest gun in the West+ s$ndrome! the $oung man who could outdraw the celebrated old gunslinger would inherit his re'utation and the res'ect 'aid to him. It was anno$ing, he grumbled, but it did hel' direct the $oung whi''er-sna''ers into im'ortant areas of research that the$ would ne(er ha(e entered on their own. 3eing human, scientists also sometimes engage in obser(ational selection! the$ like to remember those cases when the$+(e been right and forget when the$+(e been wrong. 3ut in man$ instances, what is -wrong+ is 'artl$ right, or stimulates others to find out what+s right. 2ne of the most 'roducti(e astro'h$sicists of our time has been <red Ho$le, res'onsible for monumental contributions to our understanding of the e(olution of stars, the s$nthesis of the chemical elements, cosmolog$ and much else. Sometimes he+s succeeded b$ being right before an$one else e(en understood that there was something that needed e)'laining. Sometimes he+s succeeded b$ being wrong - b$ being so 'ro(ocati(e, b$ suggesting such outrageous alternati(es that the obser(ers and e)'erimentalists feel obliged to check it out. The im'assioned and concerted effort to -'ro(e <red wrong+ has sometimes failed and sometimes succeeded. In almost e(er$ case, it has 'ushed forward the frontiers of knowledge. >(en Ho$le at his most outrageous -for e)am'le, 'ro'osing that the influen.a and HID (iruses are dro''ed down on >arth from comets, and that interstellar dust grains are bacteria - has led to significant ad(ances in knowledge 9although turning u' nothing to su''ort those 'articular notions.:

It might be useful for scientists now and again to list some of their

mistakes. It might 'la$ an instructi(e role in illuminating and dem$thologi.ing the 'rocess of science and in enlightening $ounger scientists. >(en *ohannes @e'ler, Isaac 5ewton, Charles Darwin, ?regor #endel and "lbert >instein made serious mistakes. 3ut the scientific enter'rise arranges things so that teamwork 're(ails! what one of us, e(en the most brilliant among us, misses, another of us, e(en someone much less celebrated and ca'able, ma$ detect and rectif$. <or m$self, I+(e tended in 'ast books to recount some of the occasions when I+(e been right. 4et me here mention a few of the cases where I+(e been wrong! at a time when no s'acecraft had been to Denus, I thought at first that the atmos'heric 'ressure was se(eral times that on >arth, rather than man$ tens of times. I thought the clouds of Denus were made mainl$ of water, when the$ turn out to be onl$ G5 'er cent water. I thought there might be 'late tectonics on #ars, when close-u' s'acecraft obser(ations now show hardl$ a hint of 'late tectonics. I thought the highish infrared tem'eratures of Titan might be due to a si.eable greenhouse effect there, instead, it turns out, it is caused b$ a stratos'heric tem'erature in(ersion. *ust before Ira8 torched the @uwaiti oil wells in *anuar$ % %, I warned that so much smoke might get so high as to disru't agriculture in much of South "sia, as e(ents trans'ired, it was 'itch black at noon and the tem'eratures dro''ed E-IWC o(er the =ersian ?ulf, but not much smoke reached stratos'heric altitudes and "sia was s'ared. I did not sufficientl$ stress the uncertaint$ of the calculations. Different scientists ha(e different s'eculati(e st$les, some being much more cautious than others. "s long as new ideas are testable and scientists are not o(erl$ dogmatic, no harm is done, indeed, considerable 'rogress can be made. In the first four instances I+(e 1ust mentioned where I was wrong, I was tr$ing to understand a distant world from a few clues in the absence of thorough s'acecraft in(estigations. In the natural course of 'lanetar$ e)'loration more data come in, and we find an arm$ of old ideas 'loughed down b$ an armamentarium of new facts. =ostmodernists ha(e critici.ed @e'ler+s astronom$ because it emerged out of his medie(al, monotheistic religious (iews, Darwin+s e(olutionar$ biolog$ for being moti(ated b$ a wish to 'er'etuate the 'ri(ileged social class from which he came, or to 1ustif$ his su''osed 'rior atheism, and so on. Some of these claims are 1ust. Some are not. 3ut wh$ does it matter what biases and emotional 'redis'ositions scientists bring to their studies, so long as the$ are scru'ulousl$ honest and other 'eo'le with different 'rocli(ities check

their results7 =resumabl$ no one would argue that the conser(ati(e (iew on the sum of fourteen and twent$-se(en differs from the liberal (iew, or that the mathematical function that is its own deri(ati(e is the e)'onential in the northern hemis'here but some other function in the southern. "n$ regular 'eriodic function can be re'resented to arbitrar$ accurac$ b$ a <ourier series in #uslim as well as in Hindu mathematics. 5on-commutati(e algebras 9where " times 3 does not e8ual 3 times ": are as self-consistent and meaningful for s'eakers of Indo->uro'ean languages as for s'eakers of <inno-/gric. #athematics might be 'ri.ed or ignored, but it is e8uall$ true e(er$where inde'endent of ethnicit$, culture, language, religion, ideolog$. Towards the o''osite e)treme, there are 8uestions such as whether abstract e)'ressionism can be -great+ art, or ra' -great+ music, whether it+s more im'ortant to curb inflation or unem'lo$ment, whether <rench culture is su'erior to ?erman culture, or whether 'rohibitions against murder should a''l$ to the nation state. Here the 8uestions are o(ersim'le, or the dichotomies false, or the answers de'endent on uns'oken assum'tions. Here local biases might (er$ well determine the answers. Where in this sub1ecti(e continuum, from almost full$ inde'endent of cultural norms to almost wholl$ de'endent on them, does science lie7 "lthough issues of bias and cultural chau(inism certainl$ arise, and although its content is continuall$ being refined, science is clearl$ much closer to mathematics than it is to fashion. The claim that its findings are in general arbitrar$ and biased is not merel$ tendentious, but s'ecious. The historians *o$ce "''leb$, 4$nn Hunt and #argaret *acob 9in "elling the "ruth 0+out &istory, % E: critici.e Isaac 5ewton! he is said to ha(e re1ected the 'hiloso'hical 'osition of Descartes because it might challenge con(entional religion and lead to social chaos and atheism. Such criticisms amount onl$ to the charge that scientists are human. How 5ewton was buffeted b$ the intellectual currents of his time is of course of interest to the historian of ideas, but it has little bearing on the truth of his 'ro'ositions. <or them to be generall$ acce'ted, the$ must con(ince atheists and theists alike. This is 1ust what ha''ened. "''leb$ and her colleagues claim that -When Darwin formulated his theor$ of e(olution, he was an atheist and a materialist,+ and suggest that e(olution was a 'roduct of a 'ur'orted atheist agenda. The$ ha(e ho'elessl$ confused cause and effect. Darwin was about to become a minister of the Church of >ngland when the o''ortunit$ to sail on H#S /eagle 'resented itself. His religious ideas, as he himself described them, were at the time highl$ con(entional. He found e(er$ one of the "nglican "rticles of <aith entirel$ belie(able. Through his interrogation of 5ature, through science, it slowl$ dawned on him that at least some of his religion was false. That+s wh$ he changed his religious (iews.

"''leb$ and her colleagues are a''alled at Darwin+s descri'tion of -the low moralit$ of sa(ages... their insufficient 'owers of reasoning... JtheirF weak 'ower of self-command+, and state that -now man$ 'eo'le are shocked b$ his racism+. 3ut there was no racism at all, as far as I can tell, in Darwin+s comment. He was alluding to the inhabitants of Tierra del <uego, suffering from grinding scarcit$ in the most barren and "ntarctic 'ro(ince of "rgentina. When he described a South "merican woman of "frican origin who threw herself to her death rather than submit to sla(er$, he noted that it was onl$ 're1udice that ke't us from seeing her defiance in the same heroic light as we would a similar act b$ the 'roud matron of a noble Aoman famil$. He was himself almost thrown off the /eagle b$ Ca'tain <it.Ao$ for his militant o''osition to the Ca'tain+s racism. Darwin was head and shoulders abo(e most of his contem'oraries in this regard. 3ut again, e(en if he was not, how does it affect the truth or falsit$ of natural selection7 Thomas *efferson and ?eorge Washington owned sla(es, "lbert >instein and #ohandas ?andhi were im'erfect husbands and fathers. The list goes on indefinitel$. We are all flawed and creatures of our times. Is it fair to 1udge us b$ the unknown standards of the future7 Some of the habits of our age will doubtless be considered barbaric b$ later generations - 'erha's for insisting that small children and e(en infants slee' alone instead of with their 'arents, or e)citing nationalist 'assions as a means of gaining 'o'ular a''ro(al and achie(ing high 'olitical office, or allowing briber$ and corru'tion as a wa$ of life, or kee'ing 'ets, or eating animals and 1ailing chim'an.ees, or criminali.ing the use of eu'horiants b$ adults, or allowing our children to grow u' ignorant. 2ccasionall$, in retros'ect, someone stands out. In m$ book, the >nglish-born "merican re(olutionar$ Thomas =aine is one such. He was far ahead of his time. He courageousl$ o''osed monarch$, aristocrac$, racism, sla(er$, su'erstition and se)ism when all of these constituted the con(entional wisdom. He was unswer(ing in his criticism of con(entional religion. He wrote in "he 0ge of ,eason* -Whene(er we read the obscene stories, the (olu'tuous debaucheries, the cruel and torturous e)ecutions, the unrelenting (indicti(eness with which more than half the 3ible is filled, it would be more consistent that we called it the word of a demon than the word of ?od. It L has ser(ed to corru't and brutali.e mankind.+ "t the same time the book e)hibited the dee'est re(erence for a Creator of the /ni(erse whose e)istence =aine argued was a''arent at a glance at the natural world. 3ut condemning much of the 3ible while embracing ?od seemed an im'ossible 'osition to most of his contem'oraries. Christian theologians concluded he was drunk, mad or corru't. The *ewish scholar Da(id 4e(i forbade his co-religionists from e(en touching, much less reading, the book. =aine was made to suffer so much for his (iews 9including being thrown into 'rison after the <rench Ae(olution for

being too consistent in his o''osition to t$rann$: that he became an embittered old man.K
JK =aine was the author of the re(olutionar$ 'am'hlet -Common Sense+. =ublished on %; *anuar$ %CCI, it sold o(er half a million co'ies in the ne)t few months and stirred man$ "mericans to the cause of inde'endence. He was the author of the three best-selling books of the eighteenth centur$. 4ater generations re(iled him for his social and religious (iews. Theodore Aoose(elt called him a -filth$ little atheist+ M des'ite his 'rofound belief in ?od. He is 'robabl$ the most illustrious "merican re(olutionar$ uncommemorated b$ a monument in Washington, DC.F

6es, the Darwinian insight can be turned u'side down and grotes8uel$ misused! (oracious robber barons ma$ e)'lain their cutthroat 'ractices b$ an a''eal to Social Darwinism, 5a.is and other racists ma$ call on -sur(i(al of the fittest+ to 1ustif$ genocide. 3ut Darwin did not make *ohn D. Aockefeller or "dolf Hitler. ?reed, the Industrial Ae(olution, the free enter'rise s$stem, and corru'tion of go(ernment b$ the monied are ade8uate to e)'lain nineteenth-centur$ ca'italism. >thnocentrism, )eno'hobia, social hierarchies, the long histor$ of anti-Semitism in ?erman$, the Dersailles Treat$, ?erman child-rearing 'ractices, inflation and the De'ression seem ade8uate to e)'lain Hitler+s rise to 'ower. Der$ like these or similar e(ents would ha(e trans'ired with or without Darwin. "nd modern Darwinism makes it abundantl$ clear that man$ less ruthless traits, some not alwa$s admired b$ robber barons and <iihrers -- altruism, general intelligence, com'assion - ma$ be the ke$ to sur(i(al. If we could censor Darwin, what other kinds of knowledge could also be censored7 Who would do the censoring7 Who among us is wise enough to know which information and insights we can safel$ dis'ense with, and which will be necessar$ ten or a hundred or a thousand $ears into the future7 Surel$ we can e)ert some discretion on which kinds of machines and 'roducts it is safe to de(elo'. We must in an$ case make such decisions, because we do not ha(e the resources to 'ursue all 'ossible technologies. 3ut censoring knowledge, telling 'eo'le what the$ must think, is the a'erture to thought 'olice, authoritarian go(ernment, foolish and incom'etent decision-making and long-term decline. <er(id ideologues and authoritarian regimes find it eas$ and natural to im'ose their (iews and su''ress the alternati(es. 5a.i scientists, such as the 5obel laureate 'h$sicist *ohannes Stark, distinguished fanciful, imaginar$ -*ewish science+, including relati(it$ and 8uantum mechanics, from realistic, 'ractical "r$an science+. "nother e)am'le! -" new era of the magical e)'lanation of the world is rising,+ said "dolf Hitler, -an e)'lanation based on will rather than knowledge. There is no truth, in either the moral or the scientific sense.+

"s he described it to me three decades later, in % GG the "merican geneticist Hermann *. #uller flew from 3erlin to #oscow in a light 'lane to witness the new So(iet societ$ firsthand. He must ha(e liked what he saw, because - after his disco(er$ that radiation makes mutations 9a disco(er$ that would later win him a 5obel =ri.e: - he mo(ed to #oscow to hel' establish modern genetics in the So(iet /nion. 3ut b$ the middle % &;s a charlatan named Trofim 4$senko had caught the notice and then the enthusiastic su''ort of Stalin. 4$senko argued that genetics - which he called -#endelism-Weissmanism-#organism+, after some of the founders of the field - had an unacce'table 'hiloso'hical base, and that 'hiloso'hicall$ -correct+ genetics, genetics that 'aid 'ro'er obeisance to communist dialectical materialism, would $ield (er$ different results. In 'articular, 4$senko+s genetics would 'ermit an additional cro' of winter wheat - welcome news to a So(iet econom$ reeling from Stalin+s forced collecti(i.ation of agriculture. 4$senko+s 'ur'orted e(idence was sus'ect, there were no e)'erimental controls, and his broad conclusions flew in the face of an immense bod$ of contradictor$ data. "s 4$senko+s 'ower grew, #uller 'assionatel$ argued that classical #endelian genetics was in full harmon$ with dialectical materialism, while 4$senko, who belie(ed in the inheritance of ac8uired characteristics and denied a material basis of heredit$, was an -idealist+, or worse. #uller was strongl$ su''orted b$ 5.I. Da(ilo(, erstwhile 'resident of the "ll-/nion "cadem$ of "gricultural Sciences. In a % &I address to the "cadem$ of "gricultural Sciences, now 'resided o(er b$ 4$senko, #uller ga(e a stirring address that included these words! If the outstanding 'ractitioners are going to su''ort theories and o'inions that are ob(iousl$ absurd to e(er$one who knows e(en a little about genetics - such (iews as those recentl$ 'ut forward b$ =resident 4$senko and those who think as he does - then the choice before us will resemble the choice between witchcraft and medicine, between astrolog$ and astronom$, between alchem$ and chemistr$. In a countr$ of arbitrar$ arrests and 'olice terror, this s'eech dis'la$ed e)em'lar$ - man$ thought foolhard$ - integrit$ and courage. In "he 4avilov 0ffair 9% BE:, the So(iet emigre historian #ark =o'o(sk$ describes these words as being accom'anied b$ -thunderous a''lause from the whole hall+ and -remembered b$ e(er$one still li(ing who took 'art in the session+. Three months later, #uller was (isited in #oscow b$ a Western geneticist who e)'ressed astonishment at a widel$ circulated letter, signed b$ #uller, that condemned the 're(alence of -#endelismWeissmanism-#organism+ in the West and that urged a bo$cott of the forthcoming International Congress of ?enetics. Ha(ing ne(er seen,

much less signed, such a letter, an outraged #uller concluded that it was a forger$ 'er'etrated b$ 4$senko. #uller 'rom'tl$ wrote an angr$ denunciation of 4$senko to Pravda and mailed a co'$ to Stalin. The ne)t da$ Da(ilo( came to #uller in a state of some agitation, informing him that he, #uller, had 1ust (olunteered to ser(e in the S'anish Ci(il War. The letter to Pravda had 'ut #uller+s life in danger. He left #oscow the ne)t da$, 1ust e(ading, so he was later told, the 5@DD, the secret 'olice. Da(ilo( was not so luck$, and 'erished in % E& in Siberia. With the continuing su''ort of Stalin and later of @hrushche(, 4$senko ruthlessl$ su''ressed classical genetics. So(iet school biolog$ te)ts in the earl$ % I;s had as little about chromosomes and classical genetics as man$ "merican school biolog$ te)ts ha(e about e(olution toda$. 3ut no new cro' of winter wheat grew, incantations of the 'hrase -dialectical materialism+ went unheard b$ the D5" of domesticated 'lants, So(iet agriculture remained in the doldrums, and toda$, 'artl$ for this reason, Aussia -world-class in man$ other sciences - is still almost ho'elessl$ backward in molecular biolog$ and genetic engineering. Two generations of modern biologists ha(e been lost. 4$senkoism was not o(erthrown until % IE, in a series of debates and (otes at the So(iet "cadem$ of Sciences - one of the few institutions to maintain a degree of inde'endence from the leaders of 'art$ and state - in which the nuclear 'h$sicist "ndrei Sakharo( 'la$ed an outstanding role. "mericans tend to shake their heads in astonishment at the So(iet e)'erience. The idea that some state-endorsed ideolog$ or 'o'ular 're1udice would hogtie scientific 'rogress seems unthinkable. <or two hundred $ears "mericans ha(e 'rided themsel(es on being a 'ractical, 'ragmatic, nonideological 'eo'le. "nd $et anthro'ological and 's$chological 'seudo-science has flourished in the /nited States - on race, for e)am'le. /nder the guise of -creationism+, a serious effort continues to be made to 're(ent e(olutionar$ theor$ - the most 'owerful integrating idea in all of biolog$, and essential for other sciences ranging from astronom$ to anthro'olog$ - from being taught in the schools. Science is different from man$ another human enter'rise - not, of course, in its 'ractitioners+ being influenced b$ the culture the$ grew u' in, nor in sometimes being right and sometimes wrong 9which are common to e(er$ human acti(it$:, but in its 'assion for framing testable h$'otheses, in its search for definiti(e e)'eriments that confirm or den$ ideas, in the (igour of its substanti(e debate, and in its willingness to abandon ideas that ha(e been found wanting. If we were not aware of our own limitations, though, if we were not seeking further data, if we were unwilling to 'erform controlled e)'eriments, if we did not res'ect the e(idence, we would ha(e (er$ little le(erage in

our 8uest for the truth. Through o''ortunism and timidit$ we might then be buffeted b$ e(er$ ideological bree.e, with nothing of lasting (alue to hang on to.

5ewton+s Slee'
#a$ ?od kee' us from single (ision and 5ewton+s slee'. William 3lake, from a 'oem included in a letter to Thomas 3utts 9%B;G: JIFgnorance more fre8uentl$ begets confidence than does knowledge! it is those who know little, and not those who know much, who so 'ositi(el$ assert that this or that 'roblem will ne(er be sol(ed b$ science. Charles Darwin, Introduction, "he Descent of $an 9%BC%:

1;

B$ -5ewton+s slee'+, the 'oet, 'ainter and re(olutionar$ William

3lake seems to ha(e meant a tunnel (ision in the 'ers'ecti(e of 5ewton+s 'h$sics, as well as 5ewton+s own 9incom'lete: disengagement from m$sticism. 3lake thought the idea of atoms and 'articles of light amusing, and 5ewton+s influence on our s'ecies -satanic+. " common criti8ue of science is that it is too narrow. 3ecause of our well-demonstrated fallibilities, it rules out of court, be$ond serious discourse, a wide range of u'lifting images, 'la$ful notions, earnest m$sticism and stu'ef$ing wonders. Without 'h$sical e(idence, science does not admit s'irits, souls, angels, de(ils or dharma bodies of the 3uddha. 2r alien (isitors. The "merican 's$chologist Charles Tart, who belie(es the e(idence for e)trasensor$ 'erce'tion is con(incing, writes! "n im'ortant factor in the current 'o'ularit$ of -5ew "ge+ ideas is a reaction against the dehumani.ing, des'irituali.ing effects otscientism, the 'hiloso'hical belief 9mas8uerading as ob1ecti(e science and held with the emotional tenacit$ of born-again fundamentalism: that we are nothing +ut material beings. To unthinkingl$ embrace an$thing and e(er$thing labeled -s'iritual+ or -'s$chic+ or -5ew "ge+ is, of course, foolish, for man$ of these ideas are factuall$ wrong, howe(er noble or ins'iring the$ are. 2n the other hand, this 5ew "ge interest is a legitimate recognition of some of the realities of human nature! =eo'le ha(e alwa$s had and continue to ha(e e)'eriences that seem to be -'s$chic+ or -s'iritual+.

3ut wh$ should -'s$chic+ e)'eriences challenge the idea that we are made of matter and nothing but7 There is (er$ little doubt that, in the e(er$da$ world, matter 9and energ$: e)ist. The e(idence is all around us. In contrast, as I+(e mentioned earlier, the e(idence for something non-material called -s'irit+ or -soul+ is (er$ much in doubt. 2f course each of us has a rich internal life. Considering the stu'endous com'le)it$ of matter, though, how could we 'ossibl$ 'ro(e that our internal life is not wholl$ due to matter7 ?ranted, there is much about human consciousness that we do not full$ understand and cannot $et e)'lain in terms of neurobiolog$. Humans ha(e limitations, and no one knows this better than scientists. 3ut a multitude of as'ects of the natural world that were considered miraculous onl$ a few generations ago are now thoroughl$ understood in terms of 'h$sics and chemistr$. "t least some of the m$steries of toda$ will be com'rehensi(el$ sol(ed b$ our descendants. The fact that we cannot now 'roduce a detailed understanding of, sa$, altered states of consciousness in terms of brain chemistr$ no more im'lies the e)istence of a -s'irit world+ than a sunflower following the Sun in its course across the sk$ was e(idence of a literal miracle before we knew about 'hototro'ism and 'lant hormones. "nd if the world does not in all res'ects corres'ond to our wishes, is this the fault of science, or of those who would im'ose their wishes on the world7 "ll the mammals - and man$ other animals as well - e)'erience emotions! fear, lust, ho'e, 'ain, lo(e, hate, the need to be led. Humans ma$ brood about the future more, but there is nothing in our emotions uni8ue to us. 2n the other hand, no other s'ecies does science as much or as well as we. How then can science be -dehumani.ing+7 Still, it seems so unfair! some of us star(e to death before we+re out of infanc$, while others - b$ an accident of birth - li(e out their li(es in o'ulence and s'lendour. We can be born into an abusi(e famil$ or a re(iled ethnic grou', or start out with some deformit$, we go through life with the deck stacked against us, and then we die, and that+s it7 5othing but a dreamless and endless slee'7 Where+s the 1ustice in this7 This is stark-and brutal and heartless. Shouldn+t we ha(e a second chance on a le(el 'la$ing field7 How much better if we were born again in circumstances that took account of how well we 'la$ed our 'art in the last life, no matter how stacked against us the deck was then. 2r if there were a time of 1udgement after we die, then - so long as we did well with the 'ersona we were gi(en in this life, and were humble and faithful and all the rest - we should be rewarded b$ li(ing 1o$full$ until the end of time in a 'ermanent refuge from the agon$ and turmoil of the world. That+s how it would be if the world were thought out, 're'lanned, fair. That+s how it would be if those suffering from 'ain and torment were to recei(e the consolation the$ deser(e. So societies that teach contentment with our 'resent station in life,

in e)'ectation of 1ost mortem reward, tend to inoculate themsel(es against re(olution. <urther, fear of death, which in some res'ects is ada'ti(e in the e(olutionar$ struggle for e)istence, is malada'ti(e in warfare. Those cultures that teach an afterlife of bliss for heroes - or e(en for those who 1ust did what those in authorit$ told them - might gain a com'etiti(e ad(antage. Thus, the idea of a s'iritual 'art of our nature that sur(i(es death, the notion of an afterlife, ought to be eas$ for religions and nations to sell. This is not an issue on which we might antici'ate wides'read sce'ticism. =eo'le will want to belie(e it, e(en if the e(idence is meagre to nil. True, brain lesions can make us lose ma1or segments of our memor$, or con(ert us from manic to 'lacid, or (ice (ersa, and changes in brain chemistr$ can con(ince us there+s a massi(e cons'irac$ against us, or make us think we hear the Doice of ?od. 3ut as com'elling testimon$ as this 'ro(ides that our 'ersonalit$, character, memor$ - if $ou will, soul - resides in the matter of the brain, it is eas$ not to focus on it, to find wa$s to e(ade the weight of the e(idence. "nd if there are 'owerful social institutions insisting that there is an afterlife, it should be no sur'rise that dissenters tend to be s'arse, 8uiet and resented. Some >astern, Christian and 5ew "ge religions, as well as =latonism, hold that the world is unreal, that suffering, death and matter itself are illusions, and that nothing reall$ e)ists e)ce't -#ind+. In contrast, the 're(ailing scientific (iew is that the mind is how we 'ercei(e what the brain does, i.e., it+s a 'ro'ert$ of the hundred trillion neural connections in the brain. There is a strangel$ wa)ing academic o'inion, with roots in the % I;s, that holds all (iews to be e8uall$ arbitrar$ and -true+ or -false+ to be a delusion. =erha's it is an attem't to turn the tables on scientists who ha(e long argued that literar$ criticism, religion, aesthetics, and much of 'hiloso'h$ and ethics are mere sub1ecti(e o'inion, because the$ cannot be demonstrated like a theorem in >uclidean geometr$ nor 'ut to e)'erimental test. There are 'eo'le who want e(er$thing to be 'ossible, to ha(e their realit$ unconstrained. 2ur imagination and our needs re8uire more, the$ feel, than the com'arati(el$ little that science teaches we ma$ be reasonabl$ sure of. #an$ 5ew "ge gurus - the actress Shirle$ #ac4aine among them - go so far as to embrace soli'sism, to assert that the onl$ realit$ is their own thoughts. -I am ?od,+ the$ actuall$ sa$. -I reall$ think we are creating our own realit$,+ #ac4aine once told a sce'tic. -I think I+m creating $ou right here.+ If I dream of being reunited with a dead 'arent or child, who is to tell me that it didn+t really ha''en7 If % ha(e a (ision of m$self floating in s'ace looking down on the >arth, ma$be I was reall$ there, who are some scientists, who didn+t e(en share the e)'erience, to tell me that it+s all in m$ head7 If m$ religion teaches that it is the inalterable and

inerrant word of ?od that the /ni(erse is a few thousand $ears old, then scientists are being offensi(e and im'ious, as well as mistaken, when the$ claim it+s a few billion. Irritatingl$, science claims to set limits on what we can do, e(en in 'rinci'le. Who sa$s we can+t tra(el faster than light7 The$ used to sa$ that about sound, didn+t the$7 Who+s going to sto' us, if we ha(e reall$ 'owerful instruments, from measuring the 'osition and the momentum of an electron simultaneousl$7 Wh$ can+t we, if we+re (er$ cle(er, build a 'er'etual motion machine -of the first kind+ 9one that generates more energ$ than is su''lied to it:, or a 'er'etual motion machine -of the second kind+ 9one that ne(er runs down:7 Who dares to set limits on human ingenuit$7 In fact, 5ature does. In fact, a fairl$ com'rehensi(e and (er$ brief statement of the laws of 5ature, of how the /ni(erse works, is contained in 1ust such a list of 'rohibited acts. Tellingl$, 'seudoscience and su'erstition tend to recogni.e no constraints in 5ature. Instead, -all things are 'ossible+. The$ 'romise a limitless 'roduction budget, howe(er often their adherents ha(e been disa''ointed and betra$ed. " related com'laint is that science is too sim'le-minded, too -reductionist+, it nai(el$ imagines that in the final accounting there will be onl$ a few laws of 5ature - 'erha's e(en rather sim'le ones - that e)'lain e(er$thing, that the e)8uisite subtlet$ of the world, all the snow cr$stals, s'iderweb latticework, s'iral gala)ies, and flashes of human insight can ultimatel$ be -reduced+ to such laws. Aeductionism seems to 'a$ insufficient res'ect to the com'le)it$ of the /ni(erse. It a''ears to some as a curious h$brid of arrogance and intellectual la.iness. To Isaac 5ewton - who in the minds of critics of science 'ersonifies -single (ision+ - it looked like a clockwork /ni(erse. 4iterall$. The regular, 'redictable orbital motions of the 'lanets around the Sun, or the #oon around the >arth, were described to high 'recision b$ essentiall$ the same differential e8uation that 'redicts the swing of a 'endulum or the oscillation of a s'ring. We ha(e a tendenc$ toda$ to think we occu'$ some e)alted (antage 'oint, and to 'it$ the 'oor 5ewtonians for ha(ing so limited a world (iew. 3ut within certain reasonable limitations, the same harmonic e8uations that describe clockwork reall$ do describe the motions of astronomical ob1ects throughout the /ni(erse. This is a 'rofound, not a tri(ial 'arallelism. 2f course, there are no gears in the solar s$stem, and the com'onent 'arts of the gra(itational clockwork do not touch. =lanets generall$ ha(e more com'licated motions than 'endulums and s'rings. "lso, the clockwork model breaks down in certain circumstances! o(er (er$ long 'eriods of time, the gra(itational tugs of distant worlds - tugs that might seem wholl$ insignificant o(er a few orbits - can build u', and some little world can go une)'ectedl$

careening out of its accustomed course. Howe(er, something like chaotic motion is also known in 'endulum clocks, if we dis'lace the bob too far from the 'er'endicular, a wild and ugl$ motion ensues. 3ut the solar s$stem kee's better time than an$ mechanical clock, and the whole idea of kee'ing time comes from the obser(ed motion of the Sun and stars. The astonishing fact is that similar mathematics a''lies so well to 'lanets and to clocks. It needn+t ha(e been this wa$. We didn+t im'ose it on the /ni(erse. That+s the wa$ the /ni(erse is. If this is reductionism, so be it. /ntil the middle twentieth centur$, there had been a strong belief among theologians, 'hiloso'hers and man$ biologists -that life was not -reducible+ to the laws of 'h$sics and chemistr$, that there was a -(ital force+, an -entelech$+, a tao, a mana that made li(ing things go. It -animated+ life. It was im'ossible to see how mere atoms and molecules could account for the intricac$ and elegance, the fitting of form to function, of a li(ing thing. The world+s religions were in(oked! ?od or the gods breathed life, soul-stuff, into inanimate matter. The eighteenth-centur$ chemist *ose'h =riestle$ tried to find the -(ital force+. He weighed a mouse 1ust before and 1ust after it died. It weighed the same. "ll such attem'ts ha(e failed. If there is soul-stuff, e(identl$ it weighs nothing, that is, it is not made of matter. 5e(ertheless, e(en biological materialists entertained reser(ations, 'erha's, if not 'lant, animal, fungal and microbial souls, some still undisco(ered 'rinci'le of science was needed to understand life. <or e)am'le, the 3ritish 'h$siologist *.S. Haldane 9father of *.3.S. Haldane: asked in % &G! What intelligible account can the mechanistic theor$ of life gi(e of the ... reco(er$ from disease and in1uries7 Sim'l$ none at all, e)ce't that these 'henomena are so com'le) and strange that as $et we cannot understand them. It is e)actl$ the same with the closel$ related 'henomena of re'roduction. We cannot b$ an$ stretch of the imagination concei(e a delicate and com'le) mechanism which is ca'able, like a li(ing organism, of re'roducing itself indefinitel$ often. 3ut onl$ a few decades later and our knowledge of immunolog$ and molecular biolog$ ha(e enormousl$ clarified these once im'enetrable m$steries. I remember (er$ well when the molecular structure of D5" and the nature of the genetic code were first elucidated in the % 5;s and % I;s, how biologists who studied whole organisms accused the new 'ro'onents of molecular biolog$ of reductionism. 9The$+ll ne(er understand e(en a worm with their D5".+: 2f course reducing e(er$thing to a -(ital force+ is no less reductionism. 3ut it is now clear that all life on >arth, e(er$ single li(ing thing, has its genetic

information encoded in its nucleic acids and em'lo$s fundamentall$ the same codebook to im'lement the hereditar$ instructions. We ha(e learned how to read the code. The same few do.en organic molecules are used o(er and o(er again in biolog$ for the widest (ariet$ of functions. ?enes bearing significant res'onsibilit$ for c$stic fibrosis and breast cancer ha(e been identified. The %.B million rungs of the D5" ladder of the bacterium &aemo1hilis influen9as, com'rising its %,CE& genes, ha(e been se8uenced. The s'ecific function of most of these genes is beautifull$ detailed - from the manufacture and folding of hundreds of com'le) molecules, to 'rotection against heat and antibiotics, to increasing the mutation rate, to making identical co'ies of the bacterium. #uch of the genomes of man$ other organisms 9including the roundworm Caenorha+ditis elegans6 ha(e now been ma''ed. #olecular biologists are busil$ recording the se8uence of the three billion nucleotides that s'ecif$ how to make a human being. In another decade or two, the$+ll be done. 9Whether the benefits will ultimatel$ e)ceed the risks seems b$ no means certain.: The continuit$ between atomic 'h$sics, molecular chemistr$, and that hol$ of holies, the nature of re'roduction and heredit$, has now been established. 5o new 'rinci'le of science need be in(oked. It looks as if there are a small number of sim'le facts that can be used to understand the enormous intricac$ and (ariet$ of li(ing things. 9#olecular genetics also teaches that each organism has its own 'articularit$.: Aeductionism is e(en better established in 'h$sics and chemistr$. I will later describe the une)'ected coalescence of our understanding of electricit$, magnetism, light and relati(it$ into a single framework. We+(e known for centuries that a handful of com'arati(el$ sim'le laws not onl$ e)'lains but 8uantitati(el$ and accuratel$ 'redicts a breathtaking (ariet$ of 'henomena, not 1ust on >arth but through the entire /ni(erse. We hear - for e)am'le from the theologian 4angdon ?ilke$ in his .ature, ,eality and the Sacred = that the notion of the laws of 5ature being e(er$where the same is sim'l$ a 'reconce'tion im'osed on the /ni(erse b$ fallible scientists and their social milieu. He longs for other kinds of -knowledge+, as (alid in their conte)ts as science is in its. 3ut the order of the /ni(erse is not an assum'tion, it+s an obser(ed fact. We detect the light from distant 8uasars onl$ because the laws of electromagnetism are the same ten billion light $ears awa$ as here. The s'ectra of those 8uasars are recogni.able onl$ because the same chemical elements are 'resent there as here, and because the same laws of 8uantum mechanics a''l$. The motion of gala)ies around one another follows familiar 5ewtonian gra(it$. ?ra(itational lenses and binar$ 'ulsar s'in-downs re(eal general relati(it$ in the de'ths of s'ace. We could ha(e li(ed in a /ni(erse with different laws in e(er$ 'ro(ince, but we do not. This fact cannot but elicit feelings of

re(erence and awe. We might ha(e li(ed in a /ni(erse in which nothing could be understood b$ a few sim'le laws, in which 5ature was com'le) be$ond our abilities to understand, in which laws that a''l$ on >arth are in(alid on #ars, or in a distant 8uasar. 3ut the e(idence - not the 'reconce'tions, the e(idence - 'ro(es otherwise. 4uckil$ for us, we li(e in a /ni(erse in which much can be -reduced+ to a small number of com'arati(el$ sim'le laws of 5ature. 2therwise we might ha(e lacked the intellectual ca'acit$ and gras' to com'rehend the world. 2f course, we ma$ make mistakes in a''l$ing a reductionist 'rogramme to science. There ma$ be as'ects which, for all we know, are not reducible to a few com'arati(el$ sim'le laws. 3ut in the light of the findings in the last few centuries, it seems foolish to com'lain about reductionism. It is not a deficienc$ but one of the chief trium'hs of science. "nd, it seems to me, its findings are 'erfectl$ consonant with man$ religions 9although it does not 1rove their (alidit$:. Wh$ should a few sim'le laws of 5ature e)'lain so much and hold swa$ throughout this (ast /ni(erse7 Isn+t this 1ust what $ou might e)'ect from a Creator of the /ni(erse7 Wh$ should some religious 'eo'le o''ose the reductionist 'rogramme in science, e)ce't out of some mis'laced lo(e of m$sticism7 "ttem'ts to reconcile religion and science ha(e been on the religious agenda for centuries - at least for those who did not insist on 3iblical and Hu+ranic literalism with no room for allegor$ or meta'hor. The crowning achie(ements of Aoman Catholic theolog$ are the Summa "heologica and the Summa Contra #entiles 9-"gainst the ?entiles+: of St Thomas "8uinas. 2ut of the maelstrom of so'histicated Islamic 'hiloso'h$ that tumbled into Christendom in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries were the books of the ancient ?reeks, es'eciall$ "ristotle, works e(en on casual ins'ection of high accom'lishment. Was this ancient learning com'atible with ?od+s Hol$ Word7K In the Summa "heologica, "8uinas set himself the task of reconciling I&% 8uestions between Christian and classical sources. 3ut how to do this where a clear dis'ute arises7 It cannot be accom'lished without some su'er(ening organi.ing 'rinci'le, some su'erior wa$ to know the world. 2ften, "8uinas a''ealed to common sense and the natural world, i.e., science used as an error-correcting de(ice. With some contortion of both common sense and 5ature, he managed to reconcile all I&% 'roblems. 9"lthough when 'ush came to sho(e, the desired answer was sim'l$ assumed. <aith alwa$s got the nod o(er Aeason.: Similar attem'ts at reconciliation 'ermeate Talmudic and 'ost-Talmudic *ewish literature and medie(al Islamic 'hiloso'h$.
JK This was no dilemma for man$ others. -I belie(e, therefore I understand+

said St "nselm in the ele(enth centur$.F

3ut tenets at the heart of religion can be tested scientificall$. This in itself makes some religious bureaucrats and belie(ers war$ of science. Is the >ucharist, as the Church teaches, in fact and not 1ust as 'roducti(e meta'hor, the flesh of *esus Christ, or is it, chemicall$, microsco'icall$ and in other wa$s, 1ust a wafer handed to $ou b$ a 'riest7K Will the world be destro$ed at the end of the 5G-$ear Denus c$cle unless humans are sacrificed to the gods7KK Does the occasional uncircumcised *ewish man fare worse than his co-religionists who abide b$ the ancient co(enant in which ?od demands a 'iece of foreskin from e(er$ male worshi''er7 "re there humans 'o'ulating innumerable other 'lanets, as the 4atter Da$ Saints teach7 Were whites created from blacks b$ a mad scientist, as the 5ation of Islam asserts7 Would the Sun indeed not rise if the Hindu sacrificial rite is omitted 9as we are assured would be the case in the Sata1atha /rahmand68
JK There was a time when the answer to this 8uestion was a matter of life or death. #iles =hilli's was an >nglish sailor, stranded in S'anish #e)ico. He and his fellows were brought u' before the In8uisition in the $ear %5CE. The$ were asked -Whether we did not belie(e that the Host of bread which the 'riest did hold u' o(er his head, and the wine that was in the chalice, was the (er$ true and 'erfect bod$ and blood of our Sa(iour Christ, 6ea or 5o7 To which,+ =hilli's adds, -if we answered not S6ea0T then there was no wa$ but death.+F JKK Since this #esoamerican ritual has not reall$ been 'ractised for fi(e centuries, we ha(e the 'ers'ecti(e to reflect on the tens of thousands of willing and unwilling sacrifices to the ".tec and #a$an gods who reconciled themsel(es to their fates with the confident faith that the$ were d$ing to sa(e the /ni(erse.F

We can gain some insight into the human roots of 'ra$er b$ e)amining those of unfamiliar religions and cultures. Here, for e)am'le, is what is written in a cuneiform inscri'tion on a 3ab$lonian c$linder seal from the Second #illennium 3C! 2h, 5inlil, 4ad$ of the 4ands, in $our marriage bed, in the abode of $our delight, intercede for me with >nlil, $our belo(ed. JSignedF #iliShi'ak, Shatammu of 5inmah. It+s been a long time since there+s been a Shatammu in 5inmah, or e(en a 5inmah. Des'ite the fact that >nlil and 5inlil were ma1or gods 'eo'le all o(er the ci(ili.ed western world had 'ra$ed to them for two thousand $ears - was 'oor #ili-Shi'ak in fact 'ra$ing to a 'hantom, to a societall$ condoned 'roduct of his imagination7 "nd if so, what about

us7 2r is this blas'hem$, a forbidden 8uestion, as doubtless it was among the worshi''ers of >nlil7 Does 'ra$er work at all7 Which ones7 There+s a categor$ of 'ra$er in which ?od is begged to inter(ene in human histor$ or 1ust to right some real or imagined in1ustice or natural calamit$ - for e)am'le, when a bisho' from the "merican West 'ra$s for ?od to inter(ene and end a de(astating dr$ s'ell. Wh$ is the 'ra$er needed7 Didn+t ?od know of the drought7 Was he unaware that it threatened the bisho'+s 'arishioners7 What is im'lied here about the limitations of a su''osedl$ omni'otent and omniscient deit$7 The bisho' asked his followers to 'ra$ as well. Is ?od more likel$ to inter(ene when man$ 'ra$ for merc$ or 1ustice than when onl$ a few do7 2r consider the following re8uest, 'rinted in % E in "he Prayer and 0ction 'eekly .ews* %owa)s 'eekly Christian %nformation Source* Can $ou 1oin me in 'ra$ing that ?od will burn down the =lanned =arenthood in Des #oines in a manner no one can mistake for an$ human torching, which im'artial in(estigators will ha(e to attribute to miraculous 9une)'lainable: causes, and which Christians will ha(e to attribute to the Hand of ?od7 We+(e discussed faith-healing. What about longe(it$ through 'ra$er7 The Dictorian statistician <rancis ?allon argued that, other things being e8ual, 3ritish monarchs ought to be (er$ long-li(ed, because millions of 'eo'le all o(er the world dail$ intoned the heartfelt mantra -?od Sa(e the Hueen+ 9or @ing:. 6et, he showed, if an$thing, the$ don+t li(e as long as other members of the wealth$ and 'am'ered aristocratic class. Tens of millions of 'eo'le in concert 'ublicl$ wished 9although the$ did not e)actl$ 'ra$: that #ao Nedong would li(e -for ten thousand $ears+. 5earl$ e(er$one in ancient >g$'t e)horted the gods to let the =haraoh li(e -fore(er+. These collecti(e 'ra$ers failed. Their failure constitutes data. 3$ making 'ronouncements that are, e(en if onl$ in 'rinci'le, testable, religions, howe(er unwillingl$, enter the arena of science. Aeligions can no longer make unchallenged assertions about realit$ so long as the$ do not sei.e secular 'ower, 'ro(ided the$ cannot coerce belief. This, in turn, has infuriated some followers of some religions. 2ccasionall$ the$ threaten sce'tics with the direst imaginable 'enalties. Consider the following high stakes alternati(e b$ William 3lake in his innocuousl$ titled 0uguries of %nnocence* He who shall teach the Child to Doubt The rotting ?ra(e shall ne+er get out. He who res'ects the Infant+s <aith Trium'hs o(er Hell V Death

2f course man$ religions, de(oted to re(erence, awe, ethics, ritual, communit$, famil$, charit$, and 'olitical and economic 1ustice, are in no wa$ challenged, but rather u'lifted, b$ the findings of science. There is no necessar$ conflict between science and religion. 2n one le(el, the$ share similar and consonant roles, and each needs the other. 2'en and (igorous debate, e(en the consecration of doubt, is a Christian tradition going back to *ohn #ilton+s 0reo1agitica 9%IEE:. Some of mainstream Christianit$ and *udaism embraces and e(en antici'ated at least a 'ortion of the humilit$, self-criticism, reasoned debate, and 8uestioning of recei(ed wisdom that the best of science offers. 3ut other sects, sometimes called conser(ati(e or fundamentalist - and toda$ the$ seem to be in the ascendant, with the mainstream religions almost inaudible and in(isible - ha(e chosen to make a stand on matters sub1ect to dis'roof, and thus ha(e something to fear from science. The religious traditions are often so rich and multi(ariate that the$ offer am'le o''ortunit$ for renewal and re(ision, again es'eciall$ when their sacred books can be inter'reted meta'horicall$ and allegoricall$. There is thus a middle ground of confessing 'ast errors, as the Aoman Catholic Church did in its % G acknowledgement that ?alileo was right after all, that the >arth does re(ol(e around the Sun! three centuries late, but courageous and most welcome none the less. #odern Aoman Catholicism has no 8uarrel with the 3ig 3ang, with a /ni(erse %5 billion or so $ears old, with the first li(ing things arising from 'rebiological molecules, or with humans e(ol(ing from a'e-like ancestors -although it has s'ecial o'inions on -ensoulment+. #ost mainstream =rotestant and *ewish faiths take the same sturd$ 'osition. In theological discussion with religious leaders, I often ask what their res'onse would be if a central tenet of their faith were dis'ro(ed b$ science. When I 'ut this 8uestion to the current, <ourteenth, Dalai 4ama, he unhesitatingl$ re'lied as no conser(ati(e or fundamentalist religious leaders do! in such a case, he said, Tibetan 3uddhism would ha(e to change. >(en, I asked, if it+s a really central tenet, like 9I searched for an e)am'le: reincarnation7 >(en then, he answered. Howe(er, he added with a twinkle, it+s going to be hard to dis'ro(e reincarnation. =lainl$, the Dalai 4ama is right. Aeligious doctrine that is insulated from dis'roof has little reason to worr$ about the ad(ance of science. The grand idea, common to man$ faiths, of a Creator of the /ni(erse is one such doctrine - difficult alike to demonstrate or to dismiss. #oses #aimonides, in his #uide for the Per1lexed, held that ?od could be trul$ known onl$ if there were free and o'en stud$ of both 'h$sics and theolog$ JI, 55F. What would ha''en if science

demonstrated an infinitel$ old /ni(erse7 Then theolog$ would ha(e to be seriousl$ re(am'ed JII, G5F. Indeed, this is the one concei(able finding of science that could dis'ro(e a Creator -because an infinitel$ old uni(erse would ne(er ha(e been created. It would ha(e alwa$s been here. There are other doctrines, interests and concerns that also worr$ about what science will find out. =erha's, the$ suggest, it+s better not to know. If men and women turn out to ha(e different hereditar$ 'ro'ensities, won+t this be used as an e)cuse for the former to su''ress the latter7 If there+s a genetic com'onent of (iolence, might this 1ustif$ re'ression of one ethnic grou' b$ another, or e(en 'recautionar$ incarceration7 If mental illness is 1ust brain chemistr$, doesn+t this unra(el our efforts to kee' a gras' on realit$ or to be res'onsible for our actions7 If we are not the s'ecial handiwork of the Creator of the /ni(erse, if our basic moral laws are merel$ in(ented b$ fallible lawgi(ers, isn+t our struggle to maintain an orderl$ societ$ undermined7 I suggest that in e(er$ one of these cases, religious or secular, we are much better off if we know the best a(ailable a''ro)imation to the truth, and if we kee' before us a keen a''rehension of the errors our interest grou' or belief s$stem has committed in the 'ast. In e(er$ case the imagined dire conse8uences of the truth being generall$ known are e)aggerated. "nd again, we are not wise enough to know which lies, or e(en which shadings of the facts, can com'etentl$ ser(e some higher social 'ur'ose, es'eciall$ in the long run.

When Scientists @now Sin

The mind of man - how far will it ad(ance7 Where will its daring im'udence find limits7 If human (illain$ and human life shall wa) in due 'ro'ortion, if the son shall alwa$s grow in wickedness 'ast his father, the gods must add another world to this that all the sinners ma$ ha(e s'ace enough. >uri'ides, &i11olytus 9EGB 3C: In a 'ost-war meeting with =resident Harr$ S Truman, *. Aobert 2''enheimer - the scientific director of the #anhattan nuclear wea'ons 'ro1ect - mournfull$ commented that scientists had blood$ hands, the$ had now known sin. "fterwards, Truman instructed his aides that he ne(er wished to see 2''enheimer again. Sometimes scientists are castigated for doing e(il, and sometimes for warning about the e(il uses to which science ma$ be 'ut. #ore often, science is taken to task because it and its 'roducts are said to be morall$ neutral, ethicall$ ambiguous, as readil$ em'lo$ed in the ser(ice of e(il as of good. This is an old indictment. It goes back 'robabl$ to the flaking of stone tools and the domestication of fire. Since technolog$ has been with our ancestral line from before the first human, since we are a technological s'ecies, this 'roblem is not so much one of science as of human nature. 3$ this I don+t mean that science has no res'onsibilit$ for the misuse of its findings. It has 'rofound res'onsibilit$, and the more 'owerful its 'roducts the greater its res'onsibilit$. 4ike assault wea'ons and market deri(ati(es, the technologies that allow us to alter the global en(ironment that sustains us should mandate caution and 'rudence. 6es, it+s the same old humans who ha(e made it so far. 6es, we+re de(elo'ing new technologies as we alwa$s ha(e. 3ut when the weaknesses we+(e alwa$s had 1oin forces with a ca'acit$ to do harm on an un'recedented 'lanetar$ scale, something more is re8uired of us - an emerging ethic that also must be established on an un'recedented 'lanetar$ scale. Sometimes scientists tr$ to ha(e it both wa$s! to take credit for those a''lications of science that enrich our li(es, but to distance themsel(es from the instruments of death, intentional and inad(ertent,

1>

that also trace back to scientific research. The "ustralian 'hiloso'her *ohn =assmore writes in his book Science and %ts Critics* The S'anish In8uisition sought to a(oid direct res'onsibilit$ for the burning of heretics b$ handing them o(er to the secular arm, to burn them itself, it 'iousl$ e)'lained, would be wholl$ inconsistent with its Christian 'rinci'les. <ew of us would allow the In8uisition thus easil$ to wi'e its hands clean of bloodshed, it knew 8uite well what would ha''en. >8uall$, where the technological a''lication of scientific disco(eries is clear and ob(ious - as when a scientist works on ner(e gases - he cannot 'ro'erl$ claim that such a''lications are -none of his business+, merel$ on the grounds that it is the militar$ forces, not scientists, who use the gases to disable or kill. This is e(en more ob(ious when the scientist deliberatel$ offers hel' to go(ernments, in e)change for funds. If a scientist, or a 'hiloso'her, acce'ts funds from some such bod$ as an office of na(al research, then he is cheating if he knows his work will be useless to them and must take some res'onsibilit$ for the outcome if he knows that it will be useful. He is sub1ect, 'ro'erl$ sub1ect, to 'raise or blame in relation to an$ inno(ations which flow from his work. "n im'ortant case histor$ is 'ro(ided b$ the career of the Hungarianborn 'h$sicist >dward Teller. Teller was marked at a $oung age b$ the 3ela @uhn communist re(olution in Hungar$, in which the 'ro'ert$ of middle-class families like his was e)'ro'riated, and b$ losing 'art of his leg in a streetcar accident, lea(ing him in 'ermanent 'ain. His earl$ contributions ranged from 8uantum mechanical selection rules and solid state 'h$sics to cosmolog$. It was he who chauffeured the 'h$sicist 4eo S.ilard to the (acationing "lbert >instein on 4ong Island in *ul$ % & - a meeting that led to the historic letter from >instein to =resident <ranklin Aoose(elt urging, in (iew of both scientific and 'olitical e(ents in 5a.i ?erman$, that the /nited States de(elo' a fission, or -atomic+ bomb. Aecruited to work on the #anhattan =ro1ect, Teller arri(ed at 4os "lamos and 'rom'tl$ refused to coo'erate -not because he was disma$ed at what an atomic bomb might do, but 1ust the o''osite! because he wanted to work on a much more destructi(e wea'on, the fusion, or thermonuclear, or h$drogen bomb. 9While there is a 'ractical u''er limit on the $ield or destructi(e energ$ of an atomic bomb, there is no such limit for a h$drogen bomb. 3ut a h$drogen bomb needs an atomic bomb as trigger.: "fter the fission bomb was in(ented, after ?erman$ and *a'an surrendered, after the war was o(er, Teller remained a 'ersistent ad(ocate of what was called -the Su'er+, s'ecificall$ intended to intimidate the So(iet /nion. Concern about the rebuilding, toughened and militari.ed So(iet /nion under Stalin and the national 'aranoia in "merica called #cCarth$ism, eased Teller+s 'ath. " substantial obstacle

was offered, though, in the 'erson of 2''enheimer, who had become the chairman of the ?eneral "d(isor$ Committee to the 'ost-war "tomic >nerg$ Commission. Teller 'ro(ided critical testimon$ at a go(ernment hearing, 8uestioning 2''enheimer+s lo$alt$ to the /nited States. Teller+s in(ol(ement is generall$ thought to ha(e 'la$ed a ma1or role in the aftermath! although 2''enheimer+s lo$alt$ was not e)actl$ im'ugned b$ the re(iew board, somehow his securit$ clearance was denied, he was retired from the ">C, and Teller+s wa$ to the Su'er was greased. The techni8ue for making a thermonuclear wea'on is generall$ attributed to Teller and the mathematician Stanislas /lam. Hans 3ethe, the 5obel laureate 'h$sicist who headed the Theoretical Di(ision at the #anhattan =ro1ect and who 'la$ed a ma1or role in the de(elo'ment of both the atomic and the h$drogen bombs, attests that Teller+s original suggestion was flawed, and that the work of man$ 'eo'le was necessar$ to bring the thermonuclear wea'on to realit$. With fundamental technical contributions from a $oung 'h$sicist named Aichard ?arwin, the first /S thermonuclear -de(ice+ was e)'loded in % 5G. It was too unwield$ to be carried b$ a missile or bomber, it 1ust sat there where it was assembled and blew u'. The first true h$drogen bomb was a So(iet in(ention e)'loded one $ear later. There has been debate on whether the So(iet /nion would ha(e de(elo'ed a thermonuclear wea'on if the /nited States had not, and whether a /S thermonuclear wea'on was e(en needed to deter So(iet use of their h$drogen bomb, since the /S b$ then 'ossessed a substantial arsenal of fission wea'ons. The 're'onderance of current e(idence is that the /SSA, e(en before it e)'loded its first fission bomb, had a workable design for a thermonuclear wea'on. It was -the ne)t logical ste'+. 3ut So(iet 'ursuit of fusion wea'ons was much aided b$ the knowledge, from es'ionage, that the "mericans were working on them. <rom m$ 'oint of (iew, the conse8uences of global nuclear war became much more dangerous with the in(ention of the h$drogen bomb, because airbursts of thermonuclear wea'ons are much more ca'able of burning cities, generating (ast amounts of smoke, cooling and darkening the >arth, and inducing global-scale nuclear winter. This was 'erha's the most contro(ersial scientific debate I+(e been in(ol(ed in 9from about % B&- ;:. #uch of the debate was 'oliticall$ dri(en. The strategic im'lications of nuclear winter were dis8uieting to those wedded to a 'olic$ of massi(e retaliation to deter a nuclear attack, or to those wishing to 'reser(e the o'tion of a massi(e first strike. In either case, the en(ironmental conse8uences work the selfdestruction of an$ nation launching large numbers of thermonuclear wea'ons e(en with no retaliation from the ad(ersar$. " ma1or segment of the strategic 'olic$ of decades, and the reason for accumulating tens of thousands of nuclear wea'ons, suddenl$ became much less credible.

The global tem'erature declines 'redicted in the original 9% B&: nuclear winter scientific 'a'er were %5-G;WC, current estimates are %;%5WC. The two (alues are in good agreement considering the irreducible uncertainties in the calculations. 3oth tem'erature declines are much greater than the difference between current global tem'eratures and those of the last Ice "ge. The long-term conse8uences of global thermonuclear war ha(e been estimated b$ an international team of G;; scientists, who concluded that through nuclear winter the global ci(ili.ation and most of the 'eo'le on >arth, including those far from the northern mid-latitude target .one, would be at risk, mainl$ from star(ation. If large-scale nuclear war e(er occurs, with cities targeted, the effort of >dward Teller and his colleagues in the /nited States 9and the counter'art team headed b$ "ndrei Sakharo( in the So(iet /nion: might be res'onsible for lowering the curtain on the human future. The h$drogen bomb is b$ far the most horrific wea'on e(er in(ented. When nuclear winter was disco(ered in % B&, Teller was 8uick to argue both 9%: that the 'h$sics was mistaken, and 9G: that the disco(er$ had been made $ears earlier under his tutelage at the 4awrence 4i(ermore 5ational 4aborator$. There is in fact no e(idence for such a 'rior disco(er$, and considerable e(idence that those in e(er$ nation charged to inform their national leaders of the effects of nuclear wea'ons had consistentl$ o(erlooked nuclear winter. 3ut if Teller is right, then it was unconscionable of him not to ha(e disclosed the 'ur'orted disco(er$ to the affected 'arties - the citi.ens and leaders of his nation and the world. "s in the Stanle$ @ubrick mo(ie Dr Strangelove, classif$ing the ultimate wea'on - so no one knows that it e)ists or what it can do - is the ultimate absurdit$. It seems to me im'ossible for an$ normal human being to be untroubled b$ hel'ing to make such an in(ention, e(en 'utting nuclear winter aside. The stresses, conscious or unconscious, on those who take credit for the contri(ance must be considerable. Whate(er his actual contributions, >dward Teller has been widel$ described as the -father+ of the h$drogen bomb. In an admiring % 5E article, Life maga.ine described his -almost fanatic determination+ to build the h$drogen bomb. #uch of his subse8uent career can, I think, be understood as an attem't to 1ustif$ what he begat. Teller has contended, not im'lausibl$, that h$drogen bombs kee' the 'eace, or at least 're(ent thermonuclear war, because the conse8uences of warfare between nuclear 'owers are now too dangerous. We ha(en+t had a nuclear war $et, ha(e we7 3ut all such arguments assume that the nuclear-armed nations are and alwa$s will be, without e)ce'tion, rational actors, and that bouts of anger and re(enge and madness will ne(er o(ertake their leaders 9or militar$ and secret 'olice officers in charge of nuclear wea'ons:. In the centur$ of Hitler and Stalin, this seems ingenuous.

Teller has been a ma1or force in 're(enting a com'rehensi(e treat$ banning nuclear wea'ons tests. He made it much more difficult to accom'lish the % I& 4imited 9abo(e-ground: Test 3an Treat$. His argument that abo(e-ground testing was essential to maintain and -im'ro(e+ the nuclear arsenals, that ratif$ing the treat$ would -gi(e awa$ the future safet$ of our countr$+ has 'ro(en s'ecious. He has also been a (igorous 'ro'onent of the safet$ and cost-effecti(eness of fission 'ower 'lants, claiming himself to be the onl$ casualt$ of the Three #ile Island nuclear accident in =enns$l(ania in % C , he had a heart attack, he sa$s, debating the issue. Teller ad(ocated e)'loding nuclear wea'ons from "laska to South "frica, to dredge harbours and canals, to obliterate troublesome mountains, to do hea($ earth-mo(ing. When he 'ro'osed such a scheme to Hueen <rederika of ?reece, she is said to ha(e res'onded, -Thank $ou, Dr Teller, but ?reece has enough 8uaint ruins alread$.+ Want to test >instein+s general relati(it$7 Then e)'lode a nuclear wea'on on the far side of the Sun, Teller 'ro'osed. Want to understand the chemical com'osition of the #oon7 Then fl$ a h$drogen bomb to the #oon, e)'lode it, and e)amine the s'ectrum of the flash and fireball. "lso in the % B;s, Teller sold =resident Aonald Aeagan the notion of Star Wars, called b$ them the -Strategic Defense Initiati(e+, SDI. Aeagan seems to ha(e belie(ed a highl$ imaginati(e stor$ of Teller+s that it was 'ossible to build a desk-si.ed orbiting h$drogen-bombdri(en R-ra$ laser that would destro$ %;,;;; So(iet warheads in flight, and 'ro(ide genuine 'rotection for the citi.ens of the /nited States in case of global thermonuclear war. It is claimed b$ a'ologists for the Aeagan administration that, whate(er the e)aggerations in ca'abilit$, some of it intentional, SDI was res'onsible for the colla'se of the So(iet /nion. There is no serious e(idence in su''ort of this contention. "ndrei Sakharo(, 6e(gen$ Delikho(, Aoald Sagdee(, and other scientists who ad(ised =resident #ikhail ?orbache( made it clear that if the /nited States reall$ went ahead with a Star Wars 'rogramme, the safest and chea'est So(iet res'onse would be merel$ to augment its e)isting arsenal of nuclear wea'ons and deli(er$ s$stems. In this wa$ Star Wars could ha(e increased, not decreased, the 'eril of thermonuclear war. "t an$ rate, So(iet e)'enditures on s'ace-based defences against "merican nuclear missiles were com'arati(el$ 'altr$, hardl$ of a magnitude to trigger a colla'se of the So(iet econom$. The fall of the /SSA has much more to do with the failure of the command econom$, growing awareness of the standard of li(ing in the west, wides'read disaffection from a moribund Communist ideolog$, and - although he did not intend such an outcome - ?orbache(+s 'romotion of glasnost, or o'enness. Ten thousand "merican scientists and engineers 'ublicl$ 'ledged

the$ would not work on Star Wars or acce't mone$ from the SDI organi.ation. This 'ro(ides an e)am'le of wides'read and courageous non-coo'eration b$ scientists 9at some concei(able 'ersonal cost: with a democratic go(ernment that had, tem'oraril$ at least, lost its wa$. Teller has also ad(ocated the de(elo'ment of burrowing nuclear warheads, so that underground command centres and dee'l$ buried shelters for the leadershi' 9and their families: of an ad(ersar$ nation might be dug down to and wi'ed out, and ;.%-kiloton nuclear warheads that would saturate an enem$ countr$, obliterating its infrastructure -without a single casualt$+. Ci(ilians would be alerted in ad(ance. 5uclear war would be humane. "s I write, >dward Teller - still (igorous and retaining considerable intellectual 'owers into his late eighties - has mounted a cam'aign, with his counter'art in the former So(iet nuclear wea'ons establishment, to de(elo' and e)'lode new generations of high-$ield thermonuclear wea'ons in s'ace, in order to destro$ or deflect asteroids that might be on collision tra1ectories with the >arth. I worr$ that 'remature e)'erimentation with the orbits of nearb$ asteroids ma$ in(ol(e e)treme dangers for our s'ecies. Dr Teller and I ha(e met 'ri(atel$. We+(e debated at scientific meetings, in the national media, and in a closed rum' session of Congress. We+(e had strong disagreements, es'eciall$ on Star Wars, nuclear winter and asteroid defence. =erha's all this has ho'elessl$ coloured m$ (iew of him. "lthough he has alwa$s been a fer(ent anticommunist and techno'hile, as I look back o(er his life it seems to me I see something more in his des'erate attem't to 1ustif$ the h$drogen bomb! its effects aren+t as bad as $ou might think. It can be used to defend the world from other h$drogen bombs, for science, for ci(il engineering, to 'rotect the 'o'ulation of the /nited States against an enem$+s thermonuclear wea'ons, to wage war humanel$, to sa(e the 'lanet from random ha.ards from s'ace. Somehow, somewhere, he wants to belie(e that thermonuclear wea'ons, and he, will be acknowledged b$ the human s'ecies as its sa(iour and not its destro$er. When scientific research 'ro(ides fallible nations and 'olitical leaders with formidable, indeed awesome 'owers, man$ dangers 'resent themsel(es! one is that some of the scientists in(ol(ed ma$ lose all but a su'erficial semblance of ob1ecti(it$. "s alwa$s, 'ower tends to corru't. In this circumstance, the institution of secrec$ is es'eciall$ 'ernicious, and the checks and balances of a democrac$ become es'eciall$ (aluable. 9Teller, who has flourished in the secrec$ culture, has also re'eatedl$ attacked it.: The CI" Ins'ector ?eneral commented in % 5 that -absolute secrec$ corru'ts absolutel$+. The most o'en and (igorous debate is often the onl$ 'rotection against the most 'erilous misuse of technolog$. The critical 'iece of the counterargument ma$ be something ob(ious that man$ scientists or

e(en la$ 'eo'le could come u' with 'ro(ided there were no 'enalties for s'eaking out. 2r it might be something more subtle, something that would be noted b$ an obscure graduate student in some locale remote from Washington, DC, who, if the arguments were closel$ held and highl$ secret, would ne(er ha(e the o''ortunit$ to address the issue. What realm of human endea(our is not morall$ ambiguous7 >(en folk institutions that 'ur'ort to gi(e us ad(ice on beha(iour and ethics seem fraught with contradictions. Consider a'horisms -haste makes waste, $es, but a stitch in time sa(es nine. 3etter safe than sorr$, but nothing (entured, nothing gained. Where there+s smoke, there+s fire, but $ou can+t tell a book b$ its co(er. " 'enn$ sa(ed is a 'enn$ earned, but $ou can+t take it with $ou. He who hesitates is lost, but fools rush in where angels fear to tread. Two heads are better than one, but too man$ cooks s'oil the broth. There was a time when 'eo'le 'lanned or 1ustified their actions on the basis of such contradictor$ 'latitudes. What is the moral res'onsibilit$ of the a'horist7 2r the Sun-sign astrologer, the Tarot card reader, the tabloid 'ro'het7 2r consider the mainstream religions. We are en1oined in $icah to do 1ustl$ and lo(e merc$, in Exodus we are forbidden to commit murder, in Leviticus we are commanded to lo(e our neighbour as oursel(es, and in the #os1els we are urged to lo(e our enemies. 6et think of the ri(ers of blood s'illed b$ fer(ent followers of the books in which these well-meaning e)hortations are embedded. In oshua and in the second half of .um+ers is celebrated the mass murder of men, women, children, down to the domestic animals in cit$ after cit$ across the whole land of Canaan. *ericho is obliterated in a kherem, a -hol$ war+. The onl$ 1ustification offered for this slaughter is the mass murderers+ claim that, in e)change for circumcising their sons and ado'ting a 'articular set of rituals, their ancestors were long before 'romised that this land was their land. 5ot a hint of selfre'roach, not a muttering of 'atriarchal or di(ine dis8uiet at these cam'aigns of e)termination can be dug out of hol$ scri'ture. Instead, *oshua -destro$ed all that breathed, as the 4ord ?od of Israel commanded+ 9*oshua, ), E;:. "nd these e(ents are not incidental, but central to the main narrati(e thrust of the 2ld Testament. Similar stories of mass murder 9and in the case of the "malekites, genocide: can be found in the books of Saul, Esther, and elsewhere in the 3ible, with hardl$ a 'ang of moral doubt. It was all, of course, troubling to liberal theologians of a later age. It is 'ro'erl$ said that the De(il can -8uote Scri'ture to his 'ur'ose+. The 3ible is full of so man$ stories of contradictor$ moral 'ur'ose that e(er$ generation can find scri'tural 1ustification for nearl$ an$ action it 'ro'oses, from incest, sla(er$ and mass murder to the most refined lo(e, courage and self-sacrifice. "nd this moral multi'le 'ersonalit$ disorder is hardl$ restricted to *udaism and Christianit$. 6ou can find it

dee' within Islam, the Hindu tradition, indeed nearl$ all the world+s religions. =erha's then it is not so much scientists as 'eo'le who are morall$ ambiguous. It is the 'articular task of scientists, I belie(e, to alert the 'ublic to 'ossible dangers, es'eciall$ those emanating from science or foreseeable through the use of science. Such a mission is, $ou might sa$, 'ro'hetic. Clearl$ the warnings need to be 1udicious and not more flambo$ant than the dangers re8uire, but if we must make errors, gi(en the stakes, the$ should be on the side of safet$. "mong the I@ung San hunter-gatherers of the @alahari Desert, when two men, 'erha's testosterone-inflamed, would begin to argue, the women would reach for their 'oison arrows and 'ut the wea'ons out of harm+s wa$. Toda$ our 'oison arrows can destro$ the global ci(ili.ation and 1ust 'ossibl$ annihilate our s'ecies. The 'rice of moral ambiguit$ is now too high. <or this reason - and not because of its a''roach to knowledge - the ethical res'onsibilit$ of scientists must also be high, e)traordinaril$ high, un'recedent-edl$ high. I wish graduate science 'rogrammes e)'licitl$ and s$stematicall$ raised these 8uestions with fledgling scientists and engineers. "nd sometimes I wonder whether in our societ$, too, the women - and the children - will e(entuall$ 'ut the 'oison arrows out of harm+s wa$.

The #arriage of Sce'ticism and Wonder

5othing is too wonderful to be true. Aemark attributed to #ichael <arada$ 9%C %-%BIC: Insight, untested and unsu''orted, is an insufficient guarantee of truth. 3ertrand Aussell, $ysticism and Logic 9% G :

1@

When we are asked to swear in courts of law that we will tell -the
truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth+, we are being asked the im'ossible. It is sim'l$ be$ond our 'owers. 2ur memories are fallible, e(en scientific truth is merel$ an a''ro)imation, and we are ignorant about nearl$ all of the /ni(erse. 5e(ertheless, a life ma$ de'end on our testimon$. To swear to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth to the limit of our a+ilities is a fair re8uest. Without the 8ualif$ing 'hrase, though, it+s sim'l$ out of touch. 3ut such a 8ualification, howe(er consonant with human realit$, is unacce'table to an$ legal s$stem. If e(er$one tells the truth onl$ to a degree determined b$ indi(idual 1udgement, then incriminating or awkward facts might be withheld, e(ents shaded, cul'abilit$ hidden, res'onsibilit$ e(aded, and 1ustice denied. So the law stri(es for an im'ossible standard of accurac$, and we do the best we can. In the 1ur$ selection 'rocess, the court needs to be reassured that the (erdict will be based on e(idence. It makes heroic efforts to weed out bias. It is aware of human im'erfection. Does the 'otential 1uror 'ersonall$ know the district attorne$, or the 'rosecutor, or the defence attorne$7 What about the 1udge or the other 1urors7 Has she formed an o'inion about this case not from the facts laid out in court but from 're-trial 'ublicit$7 Will she assign e(idence from 'olice officers greater or lesser weight than e(idence from witnesses for the defence7 Is she biased against the defendant+s ethnic grou'7 Does the 'otential 1uror li(e in the neighbourhood where the crimes were committed, and might that influence her 1udgement7 Does she ha(e a scientific background about matters on which e)'ert witnesses will testif$7 9This

is often a count against her.: "re an$ of her relati(es or close famil$ members em'lo$ed in law enforcement or criminal law7 Has she herself e(er had an$ run-ins with 'olice that might influence her 1udgement in the trial7 Was an$ close friend or relati(e e(er arrested on a similar charge7 The "merican s$stem of 1uris'rudence recogni.es a wide range of factors, 'redis'ositions, 're1udices and e)'eriences that might cloud our 1udgement, or affect our ob1ecti(it$, sometimes e(en without our knowing it. It goes to great, 'erha's e(en e)tra(agant, lengths to safeguard the 'rocess of 1udgement in a criminal trial from the human weaknesses of those who must decide on innocence or guilt. >(en then, of course, the 'rocess sometimes fails. Wh$ would we settle for an$thing less when interrogating the natural world, or when attem'ting to decide on (ital matters of 'olitics, economics, religion and ethics7 If it is to be a''lied consistentl$, science im'oses, in e)change for its manifold gifts, a certain onerous burden! we are en1oined, no matter how uncomfortable it might be, to consider ourselves and our cultural institutions scientificall$ and not to acce't uncriticall$ whate(er we+re told, to surmount as best we can our ho'es, conceits and une)amined beliefs, to (iew oursel(es as we reall$ are. Can we conscientiousl$ and courageousl$ follow 'lanetar$ motion or bacterial genetics where(er the search ma$ lead, but declare the origin of matter or human beha(iour off-limits7 3ecause its e)'lanator$ 'ower is so great, once $ou get the hang of scientific reasoning $ou+re eager to a''l$ it e(er$where. Howe(er, in the course of looking dee'l$ within oursel(es, we ma$ challenge notions that gi(e comfort before the terrors of the world. I+m aware that some of the discussion in, sa$, the 'receding cha'ter ma$ ha(e such a character. When anthro'ologists sur(e$ the thousands of distinct cultures and ethnicities that com'rise the human famil$, the$ are struck b$ how few features there are that are gi(ens, alwa$s 'resent no matter how e)otic the societ$. There are, for e)am'le, cultures - the Ik of /ganda is one - where all Ten Commandments seem to be s$stematicall$, institutionall$ ignored. There are societies that abandon their old and their newborn, that eat their enemies, that use seashells or 'igs or $oung women for mone$. 3ut the$ all ha(e a strong incest taboo, the$ all use technolog$, and almost all belie(e in a su'ernatural world of gods and s'irits, often connected with the natural en(ironment the$ inhabit and the well-being of the 'lants and animals the$ eat. 9The ones with a su'reme god who li(es in the sk$ tend to be the most ferocious - torturing their enemies for e)am'le. 3ut this is a statistical correlation onl$, the causal link has not been established, although s'eculations naturall$ 'resent themsel(es.: In e(er$ such societ$, there is a cherished world of m$th and

meta'hor which co-e)ists with the workada$ world. >fforts to reconcile the two are made, and an$ rough edges at the 1oints tend to be offlimits and ignored. We com'artmentali.e. Some scientists do this too, effortlessl$ ste''ing between the sce'tical world of science and the credulous world of religious belief without ski''ing a beat. 2f course, the greater the mismatch between these two worlds, the more difficult it is to be comfortable, with untroubled conscience, with both. In a life short and uncertain, it seems heartless to do an$thing that might de'ri(e 'eo'le of the consolation of faith when science cannot remed$ their anguish. Those who cannot bear the burden of science are free to ignore its 'rece'ts. 3ut we cannot ha(e science in bits and 'ieces, a''l$ing it where we feel safe and ignoring it where we feel threatened - again, because we are not wise enough to do so. >)ce't b$ sealing the brain off into se'arate air-tight com'artments, how is it 'ossible to fl$ in air'lanes, listen to the radio or take antibiotics while holding that the >arth is around %;,;;; $ears old or that all Sagittarians are gregarious and affable7 Ha(e I e(er heard a sce'tic wa) su'erior and contem'tuous7 Certainl$. I+(e e(en sometimes heard, to m$ retros'ecti(e disma$, that un'leasant tone in m$ own (oice. There are human im'erfections on both sides of this issue. >(en when it+s a''lied sensiti(el$, scientific sce'ticism ma$ come across as arrogant, dogmatic, heartless and dismissi(e of the feelings and dee'l$ held beliefs of others. "nd, it must be said, some scientists and dedicated sce'tics a''l$ this tool as a blunt instrument, with little finesse. Sometimes it looks as if the sce'tical conclusion came first, that contentions were dismissed before, not after, the e(idence was e)amined. "ll of us cherish our beliefs. The$ are, to a degree, self-defining. When someone comes along who challenges our belief s$stem as insufficientl$ well based - or who, like Socrates, merel$ asks embarrassing 8uestions that we ha(en+t thought of, or demonstrates that we+(e swe't ke$ underl$ing assum'tions under the rug - it becomes much more than a search for knowledge. It feels like a 'ersonal assault. The scientist who first 'ro'osed to consecrate doubt as a 'rime (irtue of the in8uiring mind made it clear that it was a tool and not an end in itself. Aene Descartes wrote, I did not imitate the sce'tics who doubt onl$ for doubting+s sake, and 'retend to be alwa$s undecided, on the contrar$, m$ whole intention was to arri(e at a certaint$, and to dig awa$ the drift and the sand until I reached the rock or the cla$ beneath. In the wa$ that sce'ticism is sometimes a''lied to issues of 'ublic concern, there is a tendenc$ to belittle, to condescend, to ignore the fact that, deluded or not, su''orters of su'erstition and 'seudoscience are human beings with real feelings, who, like the sce'tics, are tr$ing

to figure out how the world works and what our role in it might be. Their moti(es are in man$ cases consonant with science. If their culture has not gi(en them all the tools the$ need to 'ursue this great 8uest, let us tem'er our criticism with kindness. 5one of us comes full$ e8ui''ed. Clearl$ there are limits to the uses of sce'ticism. There is some cost-benefit anal$sis which must be a''lied, and if the comfort, consolation and ho'e deli(ered b$ m$sticism and su'erstition is high, and the dangers of belief com'arati(el$ low, should we not kee' our misgi(ings to oursel(es7 3ut the issue is trick$. Imagine that $ou enter a big-cit$ ta)icab and the moment $ou get settled in the dri(er begins a harangue about the su''osed ini8uities and inferiorities of another ethnic grou'. Is $our best course to kee' 8uiet, bearing in mind that silence con(e$s assent7 2r is it $our moral res'onsibilit$ to argue with him, to e)'ress outrage, e(en to lea(e the cab - because $ou know that e(er$ silent assent will encourage him ne)t time, and e(er$ (igorous dissent will cause him ne)t time to think twice7 4ikewise, if we offer too much silent assent about m$sticism and su'erstition - e(en when it seems to be doing a little good - we abet a general climate in which sce'ticism is considered im'olite, science tiresome, and rigorous thinking somehow stuff$ and ina''ro'riate. <iguring out a 'rudent balance takes wisdom. The Committee for the Scientific In(estigation of Claims of the =aranormal is an organi.ation of scientists, academics, magicians and others dedicated to sce'tical scrutin$ of emerging or fullblown 'seudosciences. It was founded b$ the /ni(ersit$ of 3uffalo 'hiloso'her =aul @urt. in % CI. I+(e been affiliated with it since its beginning. Its acron$m, CSIC2=, is 'ronounced -sci-co'+ - as if it+s an organi.ation of scientists 'erforming a 'olice function. Those wounded b$ CSIC2=+s anal$ses sometimes make 1ust such a com'laint! it+s hostile to e(er$ new idea, the$ sa$, will go to absurd lengths in its knee-1erk debunking, is a (igilante organi.ation, a 5ew In8uisition, and so on. CSIC2= is im'erfect. In certain cases such a criti8ue is to some degree 1ustified. 3ut from m$ 'oint of (iew CSIC2= ser(es an im'ortant social function as a well-known organi.ation to which media can a''l$ when the$ wish to hear the other side of the stor$, es'eciall$ when some ama.ing claim to 'seudoscience is ad1udged newsworth$. It used to be 9and for much of the global news media it still is: that e(er$ le(itating guru, (isiting alien, channeller and faith-healer, when co(ered b$ the media, would be treated nonsubstanti(el$ and uncriticall$. There would be no institutional memor$ at the tele(ision studio or news'a'er or maga.ine about other, similar claims 're(iousl$ shown to be scams and bamboo.les. CSIC2= re'resents a counterbalance, although not $et nearl$ a loud enough (oice, to the

'seudoscience gullibilit$ that seems second nature to so much of the media. 2ne of m$ fa(ourite cartoons shows a fortune-teller scrutini.ing the mark+s 'alm and gra(el$ concluding, -6ou are (er$ gullible.+ CSIC2= 'ublishes a bi-monthl$ 'eriodical called "he Ske1tical %nAuirer! 2n the da$ it arri(es, I take it home from the office and 'ore through its 'ages, wondering what new misunderstandings will be re(ealed. There+s alwa$s another bamboo.le that I ne(er thought of. Cro' circles0 "liens ha(e come and made 'erfect circles and mathematical messages ... in wheat0 Who would ha(e thought it7 So unlikel$ an artistic medium. 2r the$+(e come and e(iscerated cows - on a large scale, s$stematicall$. <armers are furious. "t first, I+m im'ressed b$ the in(enti(eness of the stories. 3ut then, on more sober reflection, it alwa$s strikes me how dull and routine these accounts are, what a com'ilation of unimaginati(e stale ideas, chau(inisms, ho'es and fears dressed u' as facts. The contentions, from this 'oint of (iew, are sus'ect on their face. That+s all the$ can concei(e the e)traterrestrials doing... making circles in wheat7 What a failure of the imagination0 With e(er$ issue, another facet of 'seudoscience is re(ealed and critici.ed. "nd $et, the chief deficienc$ I see in the sce'tical mo(ement is in its 'olari.ation! /s (. Them - the sense that we ha(e a mono'ol$ on the truth, that those other 'eo'le who belie(e in all these stu'id doctrines are morons, that if $ou+re sensible, $ou+ll listen to us, and if not, $ou+re be$ond redem'tion. This is unconstructi(e. It does not get the message across. It condemns the sce'tics to 'ermanent minorit$ status, whereas, a com'assionate a''roach that from the beginning acknowledges the human roots of 'seudoscience and su'erstition might be much more widel$ acce'ted. If we understand this, then of course we feel the uncertaint$ and 'ain of the abductees, or those who dare not lea(e home without consulting their horosco'es, or those who 'in their ho'es on cr$stals from "tlantis. "nd such com'assion for kindred s'irits in a common 8uest also works to make science and the scientific method less off'utting, es'eciall$ to the $oung. #an$ 'seudoscientific and 5ew "ge belief s$stems emerge out of dissatisfaction with con(entional (alues and 'ers'ecti(es and are therefore themsel(es a kind of sce'ticism. 9The same is true of the origins of most religions.: Da(id Hess 9in Science and the .ew 0ge6 argues that the world of 'aranormal beliefs and 'ractices cannot be reduced to cranks, crack'ots, and charlatans. " large number of sincere 'eo'le are e)'loring alternati(e a''roaches to 8uestions of 'ersonal meaning, s'iritualit$, healing, and 'aranormal e)'erience in general. To the sce'tic, their 8uest ma$ ultimatel$ rest on a delusion, but debunking is hardl$ likel$ to be an effecti(e rhetorical de(ice for their rationalist

'ro1ect of getting J'eo'leF to recogni.e what a''ears to the sce'tic as mistaken or magical thinking. ... JTFhe sce'tic might take a clue from cultural anthro'olog$ and de(elo' a more so'histicated sce'ticism b$ understanding alternati(e belief s$stems from the 'ers'ecti(e of the 'eo'le who hold them and b$ situating these beliefs in their historical, social, and cultural conte)ts. "s a result, the world of the 'aranormal ma$ a''ear less as a sill$ turn toward irrationalism and more as an idiom through which segments of societ$ e)'ress their conflicts, dilemmas, and identities... To the e)tent that sce'tics ha(e a 's$chological or sociological theor$ of 5ew "ge beliefs, it tends to be (er$ sim'listic! 'aranormal beliefs are -comforting+ to 'eo'le who cannot handle the realit$ of an atheistic uni(erse, or their beliefs are the 'roduct of an irres'onsible media that is not encouraging the 'ublic to think criticall$... 3ut Hess+s 1ust criticism 'rom'tl$ deteriorates into com'laints that 'ara's$chologists -ha(e had their careers ruined b$ sce'tical colleagues+, and that sce'tics e)hibit -a kind of religious .eal to defend the materialistic and atheistic world (iew that smacks of what has been called Sscientific fundamentalismT or Sirrational rationalismT -. This is a common but to me dee'l$ m$sterious - indeed, occult com'laint. "gain, we know a great deal about the e)istence and 'ro'erties of matter. If a gi(en 'henomenon can alread$ be 'lausibl$ understood in terms of matter and energ$, wh$ should we h$'othesi.e that something else, something for which there is as $et no other good e(idence, is res'onsible7 6et the com'laint 'ersists! sce'tics won+t acce't that there+s an in(isible fire-breathing dragon in m$ garage because the$+re all atheistic materialists. In Science in the .ew 0ge, sce'ticism is discussed, but it is not understood, and it is certainl$ not 'ractised. "ll sorts of 'aranormal claims are 8uoted, sce'tics are -deconstructed+, but $ou can ne(er learn from reading it that there are wa$s to decide whether 5ew "ge and 'ara's$chological claims to knowledge are 'romising or false. It+s all, as in man$ 'ostmodernist te)ts, a matter of how strongl$ 'eo'le feel and what their biases ma$ be. Aobert "nton Wilson 9in "he .ew %nAuisition* %rrational ,ationalism and the Citadel of Science, % BI: describes sce'tics as the -5ew In8uisition+. 3ut to m$ knowledge no sce'tic com'els belief. Indeed, on most TD documentaries and talk shows, sce'tics get short shrift and almost no air time. "ll that+s ha''ening is that some doctrines and methods are being critici.ed - at the worst, ridiculed - in maga.ines like "he Ske1tical %nAuirer with circulations of a few tens of thousands. 5ew "gers are not much, as in earlier times, being called u' before criminal tribunals, nor whi''ed for ha(ing (isions, and the$ are certainl$ not being burned at the stake. Wh$ fear a little criticism7 "ren+t the$ interested to see how well their beliefs hold u' against the best

counterarguments the sce'tics can muster7 =erha's one 'er cent of the time, someone who has an idea that smells, feels and looks indistinguishable from the usual run of 'seudoscience will turn out to be right. #a$be some undisco(ered re'tile left o(er from the Cretaceous 'eriod will indeed be found in 4och 5ess or the Congo Ae'ublic, or we will find artefacts of an ad(anced, non-human s'ecies elsewhere in the solar s$stem. "t the time of writing there are three claims in the >S= field which, in m$ o'inion, deser(e serious stud$! 9%: that b$ thought alone humans can 9barel$: affect random number generators in com'uters, 9G: that 'eo'le under mild sensor$ de'ri(ation can recei(e thoughts or images -'ro1ected+ at them, and 9&: that $oung children sometimes re'ort the details of a 're(ious life, which u'on checking turn out to be accurate and which the$ could not ha(e known about in an$ other wa$ than reincarnation. I 'ick these claims not because I think the$+re likel$ to be (alid 9I don+t:, but as e)am'les of contentions that might be true. The last three ha(e at least some, although still dubious, e)'erimental su''ort. 2f course, I could be wrong. In the middle % C;s an astronomer I admire 'ut together a modest manifesto called -2b1ections to "strolog$+ and asked me to endorse it. I struggled with his wording, and in the end found m$self unable to sign, not because I thought astrolog$ has an$ (alidit$ whate(er, but because I felt 9and still feel: that the tone of the statement was authoritarian. It critici.ed astrolog$ for ha(ing origins shrouded in su'erstition. 3ut this is true as well for religion, chemistr$, medicine and astronom$, to mention onl$ four. The issue is not what faltering and rudimentar$ knowledge astrolog$ came from, but what is its 'resent (alidit$. Then there was s'eculation on the 's$chological moti(ations of those who belie(e in astrolog$. These moti(ations - for e)am'le, the feeling of 'owerlessness in a com'le), troublesome and un'redictable world might e)'lain wh$ astrolog$ is not generall$ gi(en the sce'tical scrutin$ it deser(es, but is 8uite 'eri'heral to whether it works. The statement stressed that we can think of no mechanism b$ which astrolog$ could work. This is certainl$ a rele(ant 'oint but b$ itself it+s uncon(incing. 5o mechanism was known for continental drift 9now subsumed in 'late tectonics: when it was 'ro'osed b$ "lfred Wegener in the first 8uarter of the twentieth centur$ to e)'lain a range of 'u..ling data in geolog$ and 'alaeontolog$. 92re-bearing (eins of rocks and fossils seemed to run continuousl$ from eastern South "merica to West "frica, were the two continents once touching and the "tlantic 2cean new to our 'lanet7: The notion was roundl$ dismissed b$ all the great geo'h$sicists, who were certain that continents were fi)ed, not floating on an$thing, and therefore unable to -drift+. Instead, the ke$ twentieth-centur$ idea in geo'h$sics turns out to be 'late tectonics, we now understand that continental 'lates do indeed float

and -drift+ 9or better, are carried b$ a kind of con(e$or belt dri(en b$ the great heat engine of the >arth+s interior:, and all those great geo'h$sicists were sim'l$ wrong. 2b1ections to 'seu-doscience on the grounds of una(ailable mechanism can be mistaken - although if the contentions (iolate well-established laws of 'h$sics, such ob1ections of course carr$ great weight. #an$ (alid criticisms of astrolog$ can be formulated in a few sentences! for e)am'le, its acce'tance of 'recession of the e8uino)es in announcing an -"ge of "8uarius+ and its re1ection of 'recession of the e8uino)es in casting horosco'es, its neglect of atmos'heric refraction, its list of su''osedl$ significant celestial ob1ects that is mainl$ limited to naked e$e ob1ects known to =tolem$ in the second centur$, and that ignores an enormous (ariet$ of new astronomical ob1ects disco(ered since 9where is the astrolog$ of near->arth asteroids7:, inconsistent re8uirements for detailed information on the time as com'ared to the latitude and longitude of birth, the failure of astrolog$ to 'ass the identical-twin test, the ma1or differences in horosco'es cast from the same birth information b$ different astrologers, and the absence of demonstrated correlation between horosco'es and such 's$chological tests as the #innesota #ulti'hasic =ersonalit$ In(entor$. What I would ha(e signed is a statement describing and refuting the 'rinci'al tenets of astrological belief. Such a statement would ha(e been far more 'ersuasi(e than what was actuall$ circulated and 'ublished. 3ut astrolog$, which has been with us for four thousand $ears or more, toda$ seems more 'o'ular than e(er. "t least a 8uarter of all "mericans, according to o'inion 'olls, -belie(e+ in astrolog$. " third think Sun-sign astrolog$ is -scientific+. The fraction of schoolchildren belie(ing in astrolog$ rose from E; 'er cent to 5 'er cent between % CB and % BE. There are 'erha's ten times more astrologers than astronomers in the /nited States. In <rance there are more astrologers than Aoman Catholic clerg$. 5o stuff$ dismissal b$ a gaggle of scientists makes contact with the social needs that astrolog$ - no matter how in(alid it is - addresses, and science does not. "s I+(e tried to stress, at the heart of science is an essential balance between two seemingl$ contradictor$ attitudes - an o'enness to new ideas, no matter how bi.arre or counterintuiti(e, and the most ruthlessl$ sce'tical scrutin$ of all ideas, old and new. This is how dee' truths are winnowed from dee' nonsense. The collecti(e enter'rise of creati(e thinking and sce'tical thinking, working together, kee's the field on track. Those two seemingl$ contradictor$ attitudes are, though, in some tension. Consider this claim! as I walk along, time [ as measured b$ m$ wristwatch or m$ ageing 'rocess - slows down. "lso, I shrink in the direction of motion. "lso, I get more massi(e. Who has e(er witnessed

such a thing7 It+s eas$ to dismiss it out of hand. Here+s another! matter and antimatter are all the time, throughout the uni(erse, being created from nothing. Here+s a third! once in a very great while, $our car will s'ontaneousl$ oo.e through the brick wall of $our garage and be found the ne)t morning on the street. The$+re all absurd0 3ut the first is a statement of s'ecial relati(it$, and the other two are conse8uences of 8uantum mechanics 9(acuum fluctuations and barrier tunnelling,K the$+re called:. 4ike it or not, that+s the wa$ the world is. If $ou insist it+s ridiculous, $ou+ll be fore(er closed to some of the ma1or findings on the rules that go(ern the /ni(erse.
JK The a(erage waiting time 'er stochastic oo.e is much longer than the age of the /ni(erse since the 3ig 3ang. 3ut, howe(er im'robable, in 'rinci'le it might ha''en tomorrow.F

If $ou+re onl$ sce'tical, then no new ideas make it through to $ou. 6ou ne(er learn an$thing. 6ou become a crochet$ misanthro'e con(inced that nonsense is ruling the world. 9There is, of course, much data to su''ort $ou.: Since ma1or disco(eries in the borderlines of science are rare, e)'erience will tend to confirm $our grum'iness. 3ut e(er$ now and then a new idea turns out to be on the mark, (alid and wonderful. If $ou+re too resolutel$ and uncom'romisingl$ sce'tical, $ou+re going to miss 9or resent: the transforming disco(eries in science, and either wa$ $ou will be obstructing understanding and 'rogress. #ere sce'ticism is not enough. "t the same time, science re8uires the most (igorous and uncom'romising sce'ticism, because the (ast ma1orit$ of ideas are sim'l$ wrong, and the onl$ wa$ to winnow the wheat from the chaff is b$ critical e)'eriment and anal$sis. If $ou+re o'en to the 'oint of gullibilit$ and ha(e not a microgram of sce'tical sense in $ou, then $ou cannot distinguish the 'romising ideas from the worthless ones. /ncriticall$ acce'ting e(er$ 'roffered notion, idea and h$'othesis is tantamount to knowing nothing. Ideas contradict one another, onl$ through sce'tical scrutin$ can we decide among them. Some ideas reall$ are better than others. The 1udicious mi) of these two modes of thought is central to the success of science. ?ood scientists do both. 2n their own, talking to themsel(es, the$ churn u' man$ new ideas, and critici.e them s$stematicall$. #ost of the ideas ne(er make it to the outside world. 2nl$ those that 'ass a rigorous self-filtration make it out to be critici.ed b$ the rest of the scientific communit$. 3ecause of this dogged mutual and self-criticism, and the 'ro'er reliance on e)'eriment as the arbiter between contending h$'otheses, man$ scientists tend to be diffident about describing their own sense of wonder at the dawning of a wild surmise. This is a 'it$, because these rare e)ultant moments dem$stif$ and humani.e the scientific

endea(our. 5o one can be entirel$ o'en or com'letel$ sce'tical. We all must draw the line somewhere.K "n ancient Chinese 'ro(erb ad(ises, -3etter to be too credulous than too sce'tical+, but this is from an e)tremel$ conser(ati(e societ$ in which stabilit$ was much more 'ri.ed than freedom and where the rulers had a 'owerful (ested interest in not being challenged. #ost scientists, I belie(e, would sa$, -3etter to be too sce'tical than too credulous+. 3ut neither is eas$. Aes'onsible, thoroughgoing, rigorous sce'ticism re8uires a hardnosed habit of thought that takes 'ractice and training to master. Credulit$ [ I think a better word here is -o'enness+ or -wonder+ - does not come easil$ either. If we reall$ are to be o'en to counterintuiti(e ideas in 'h$sics or social organi.ation or an$thing else, we must gras' those ideas. It means nothing to be o'en to a 'ro'osition we don+t understand.
JK "nd in some cases sce'ticism would be sim'l$ sill$, as for e)am'le in learning to s'ell.F

3oth sce'ticism and wonder are skills that need honing and 'ractice. Their harmonious marriage within the mind of e(er$ schoolchild ought to be a 'rinci'al goal of 'ublic education. I+d lo(e to see such a domestic felicit$ 'ortra$ed in the media, tele(ision es'eciall$! a communit$ of 'eo'le reall$ working the mi) - full of wonder, generousl$ o'en to e(er$ notion, dismissing nothing e)ce't for good reason, but at the same time, and as second nature, demanding stringent standards of e(idence, and these standards a''lied with at least as much rigour to what the$ hold dear as to what the$ are tem'ted to re1ect with im'unit$.

The Wind #akes Dust

JTFhe wind makes dust because it intends to blow, taking awa$ our foot'rints. S1ecimens of /ushmen Folklore, W.H.I. 3leek and 4.C. 4lo$d, collectors, 4.C. 4lo$d, editor 9% %%: J>F(er$ time a sa(age tracks his game he em'lo$s a minuteness of obser(ation, and an accurac$ of inducti(e and deducti(e reasoning which, a''lied to other matters, would assure some re'utation as a man of science... JTFhe intellectual labour of a -good hunter or warrior+ considerabl$ e)ceeds that of an ordinar$ >nglishman. Thomas H. Hu)le$, Collected Essays, Dolume II, Darwiniana* Essays 94ondon! #acmillan, % ;C:, ''. %C5-I Jfrom -#r Darwin+s Critics+ 9%BC%:F

1F

Wh$ should so man$ 'eo'le find science hard to learn and hard

to teach7 I+(e tried to suggest some of the reasons - its 'recision, its counterintuiti(e and dis8uieting as'ects, its 'ros'ects of misuse, its inde'endence of authorit$, and so on. 3ut is there something dee'er7 "lan Cromer is a 'h$sics 'rofessor at 5ortheastern /ni(ersit$ in 3oston who was sur'rised to find so man$ students unable to gras' the most elementar$ conce'ts in his 'h$sics class. In ?ncommon Sense* "he &eretical .ature of Science 9% &:, Cromer 'ro'oses that science is difficult because it+s new. We, a s'ecies that+s a few hundred thousand $ears old, disco(ered the method of science onl$ a few centuries ago, he sa$s. 4ike writing, which is onl$ a few millennia old, we ha(en+t gotten the hang of it $et - or at least not without (er$ serious and attenti(e stud$. >)ce't for an unlikel$ concatenation of historical e(ents, he suggests, we would ne(er ha(e in(ented science! This hostilit$ to science, in the face of its ob(ious trium'hs and benefits, is ... e(idence that it is something outside the mainstream

of human de(elo'ment, 'erha's a fluke. Chinese ci(ili.ation in(ented mo(able t$'e, gun'owder, the rocket, the magnetic com'ass, the seismogra'h, and s$stematic obser(ations and chronicles of the hea(ens. Indian mathematicians in(ented the .ero, the ke$ to comfortable arithmetic and therefore to 8uantitati(e science. ".tec ci(ili.ation de(elo'ed a far better calendar than that of the >uro'ean ci(ili.ation that inundated and destro$ed it, the$ were better able, and for longer 'eriods into the future, to 'redict where the 'lanets would be. 3ut none of these ci(ili.ations, Cromer argues, had de(elo'ed the sce'tical, in8uiring, e)'erimental method of science. "ll of that came out of ancient ?reece! The de(elo'ment of ob1ecti(e thinking b$ the ?reeks a''ears to ha(e re8uired a number of s'ecific cultural factors. <irst was the assembl$, where men first learned to 'ersuade one another b$ means of rational debate. Second was a maritime econom$ that 're(ented isolation and 'arochialism. Third was the e)istence of a wides'read ?reek-s'eaking world around which tra(elers and scholars could wander. <ourth was the e)istence of an inde'endent merchant class that could hire its own teachers. <ifth was the %liad and the 5dyssey, literar$ master'ieces that are themsel(es the e'itome of liberal rational thinking. Si)th was a literar$ religion not dominated b$ 'riests. "nd se(enth was the 'ersistence of these factors for %,;;; $ears. That all these factors came together in one great ci(ili.ation is 8uite fortuitous, it didn+t ha''en twice.
I+m s$m'athetic to 'art of this thesis. The ancient lonians were the first we know of to argue s$stematicall$ that laws and forces of 5ature, rather than gods, are res'onsible for the order and e(en the e)istence of the world. "s 4ucretius summari.ed their (iews, -5ature free at once and rid of her haught$ lords is seen to do all things s'ontaneousl$ of herself without the meddling of the gods.+ >)ce't for the first week of introductor$ 'hiloso'h$ courses, though, the names and notions of the earl$ lonians are almost ne(er mentioned in our societ$. Those who dismiss the gods tend to be forgotten. We are not an)ious to 'reser(e the memor$ of such sce'tics, much less their ideas. Heroes who tr$ to e)'lain the world in terms of matter and energ$ ma$ ha(e arisen man$ times in man$ cultures, onl$ to be obliterated b$ the 'riests and 'hiloso'hers in charge of the con(entional wisdom, as the Ionian a''roach was almost wholl$ lost after the time of =lato and "ristotle. With man$ cultures and man$ e)'eriments of this sort, it ma$ be that onl$ on rare occasions does the idea take root.

=lants and animals were domesticated and ci(ili.ation began onl$ ten or twel(e thousand $ears ago. The Ionian e)'eriment is G,5;; $ears old. It was almost entirel$ e)'unged. We can see ste's towards science in ancient China, India and elsewhere, e(en though faltering, incom'lete, and bearing less fruit. 3ut su''ose the lonians had ne(er e)isted, and ?reek science and mathematics ne(er flourished. Is it 'ossible that ne(er again in the histor$ of the human s'ecies would science ha(e emerged7 2r, gi(en man$ cultures and man$ alternati(e historical skeins, isn+t it likel$ that the right combination of factors would come into 'la$ somewhere else, sooner or later - in the islands of Indonesia, sa$, or in the Caribbean on the outskirts of a #esoamerican ci(ili.ation untouched b$ Con8uistadores, or in 5orse colonies on the shores of the 3lack Sea7 The im'ediment to scientific thinking is not, I think, the difficult$ of the sub1ect. Com'le) intellectual feats ha(e been mainsta$s e(en of o''ressed cultures. Shamans, magicians and theologians are highl$ skilled in their intricate and arcane arts. 5o, the im'ediment is 'olitical and hierarchical. In those cultures lacking unfamiliar challenges, e)ternal or internal, where fundamental change is unneeded, no(el ideas need not be encouraged. Indeed, heresies can be declared dangerous, thinking can be rigidified, and sanctions against im'ermissible ideas can be enforced - all without much harm. 3ut under (aried and changing en(ironmental or biological or 'olitical circumstances, sim'l$ co'$ing the old wa$s no longer works. Then, a 'remium awaits those who, instead of blandl$ following tradition, or tr$ing to foist their 'references on to the 'h$sical or social /ni(erse, are o'en to what the /ni(erse teaches. >ach societ$ must decide where in the continuum between o'enness and rigidit$ safet$ lies. ?reek mathematics was a brilliant ste' forward. ?reek science, on the other hand - its first ste's rudimentar$ and often uninformed b$ e)'eriment - was riddled with error. Des'ite the fact that we cannot see in 'itch darkness, the$ belie(ed that (ision de'ends on a kind of radar that emanates from the e$e, bounces off what we+re seeing, and returns to the e$e. 95e(ertheless, the$ made substantial 'rogress in o'tics.: Des'ite the ob(ious resemblance of children to their mothers, the$ belie(ed that heredit$ was carried b$ semen alone, the woman a mere 'assi(e rece'tacle. The$ belie(ed that the hori.ontal motion of a thrown rock somehow lifts it u', so that it takes longer to reach the ground than a rock dro''ed from the same height at the same moment. >namoured of sim'le geometr$, the$ belie(ed the circle to be -'erfect+, des'ite the -#an in the #oon+ and suns'ots 9occasionall$ (isible to the naked e$e at sunset:, the$ held the hea(ens also to be -'erfect+, therefore, 'lanetar$ orbits had to be circular. 3eing freed from su'erstition isn+t enough for science to grow. 2ne must also ha(e the idea of interrogating 5ature, of doing e)'eriments. There were some brilliant e)am'les ->ratosthenes+s measurement of

the >arth+s diameter, sa$, or >m'edocles+s cle's$dra e)'eriment demonstrating the material nature of air. 3ut in a societ$ in which manual labour is demeaned and thought fit onl$ for sla(es, as in the classical ?raeco-Aoman world, the e)'erimental method does not thri(e. Science re8uires us to be freed of gross su'erstition and gross in1ustice both. 2ften, su'erstition and in1ustice are im'osed b$ the same ecclesiastical and secular authorities, working hand in glo(e. It is no sur'rise that 'olitical re(olutions, sce'ticism about religion, and the rise of science might go together. 4iberation from su'erstition is a necessar$ but not a sufficient condition for science. "t the same time, it is undeniable that central figures in the transition from medie(al su'erstition to modern science were 'rofoundl$ influenced b$ the idea of one Su'reme ?od who created the /ni(erse and established not onl$ commandments that humans must li(e b$, but laws that 5ature itself must abide b$. The se(enteenthcentur$ ?erman astronomer *ohannes @e'ler, without whom 5ewtonian 'h$sics might not ha(e come to be, described his 'ursuit of science as a wish to know the mind of ?od. In our own time, leading scientists, including "lbert >instein and Ste'hen Hawking, ha(e described their 8uest in nearl$ identical terms. The 'hiloso'her "lfred 5orth Whitehead and the historian of Chinese technolog$ *ose'h 5eedham ha(e also suggested that what was lacking in the de(elo'ment of science in non-western cultures was monotheism. "nd $et, I think there is strong contrar$ e(idence to this whole thesis, calling out to us from across the millennia... "he small hunting 1arty follows the trail of hoof1rints and other s1oor! "hey 1ause for a moment +y a stand of trees! SAuatting on their heels, they examine the evidence more carefully! "he trail they)ve +een following has +een crossed +y another! Ouickly they agree on which animals are res1onsi+le, how many of them, what ages and sexes, whether any are inIured, how fast they)re travelling, how long ago they 1assed, whether any other hunters are in 1ursuit, whether the 1arty can overtake the game, and if so, how long it will take! "he decision made, they flick their hands over the trail they will follow, make a Auiet sound +etween their teeth like the wind, and off they lo1e! Des1ite their +ows and 1oison arrows, they continue at cham1ionshi1 marathon racing form for hours! 0lmost always they)ve read the message in the ground correctly! "he wilde+eests or elands or oka1is are where they thought, in the num+ers and condition they estimated! "he hunt is successful! $eat is carried +ack to the tem1orary cam1! Everyone feasts! This more or less t$'ical hunting (ignette comes from the I@ung San 'eo'le of the @alahari Desert, in the Ae'ublics of 3otswana and 5amibia, who are now, tragicall$, on the (erge of e)tinction. 3ut for

decades the$ and their wa$ of life were studied b$ anthro'ologists. The I@ung San ma$ be t$'ical of the hunter-gatherer mode of e)istence in which we humans s'ent most of our time, until ten thousand $ears ago, when 'lants and animals were domesticated and the human condition began to change, 'erha's fore(er. The$ were trackers of such legendar$ 'rowess that the$ were enlisted b$ the a'artheid South "frican arm$ to hunt down human 're$ in the wars against the -frontline states+. This encounter with the white South "frican militar$ in se(eral different wa$s accelerated the destruction of the I@ung San wa$ of life. It had, in an$ case, been deteriorating bit b$ bit o(er the centuries from e(er$ contact with >uro'ean ci(ili.ation. How did the$ do it7 How could the$ tell so much from barel$ more than a glance7 Sa$ing the$+re keen obser(ers e)'lains nothing. What actuall$ did the$ do7 "ccording to anthro'ologist Aichard 4ee! The$ scrutini.ed the sha'e of the de'ressions. The foot'rints of a fast-mo(ing animal dis'la$ a more elongated s$mmetr$. " slightl$ lame animal fa(ours the afflicted foot, 'uts less weight on it, and lea(es a fainter im'rint. " hea(ier animal lea(es a dee'er and broader hollow. The correlation functions are in the heads of the hunters. In the course of the da$, the foot'rints erode a little. The walls of the de'ression tend to crumble. Windblown sand accumulates on the floor of the hollow. =erha's bits of leaf, twigs or grass are blown into it. The longer $ou wait, the more erosion there is. This method is essentiall$ identical to what 'lanetar$ astronomers use in anal$sing craters left b$ im'acting worldlets! other things being e8ual, the shallower the crater, the older it is. Craters with slum'ed walls, with modest de'th-to-diameter ratios, with fine 'articles accumulated in their interiors tend to be more ancient, because the$ had to be around long enough for these erosi(e 'rocesses to come into 'la$. The sources of degradation ma$ differ from world to world, or desert to desert, or e'och to e'och. 3ut if $ou know what the$ are $ou can determine a great deal from how cris' or blurred the crater is. If insect or other animal tracks are su'er'osed on the hoof'rints, this also argues against their freshness. The subsurface moisture content of the soil and the rate at which it dries out after being e)'osed b$ a hoof determine how crumbl$ the crater walls are. "ll these matters are closel$ studied b$ the I@ung. The gallo'ing herd hates the hot Sun. The animals will use whate(er shade the$ can find. The$ will alter course to take brief ad(antage of the shade from a stand of trees. 3ut where the shadow is de'ends on the time of da$, because the Sun is mo(ing across the sk$. In the morning, as the Sun is rising in the east, shadows are cast west of the trees. 4ater in the afternoon, as the Sun is setting toward the west, shadows are cast to the east. <rom the swer(e of the tracks, it+s 'ossible to tell how long ago the animals 'assed. This calculation will

be different in different seasons of the $ear. So the hunters must carr$ in their heads a kind of astronomical calendar 'redicting the a''arent solar motion. To me, all of these formidable forensic tracking skills are science in action. 5ot onl$ are hunter-gatherers e)'ert in the tracks of other animals, the$ also know human tracks (er$ well. >(er$ member of the band is recogni.able b$ his or her foot'rints, the$ are as familiar as their faces. 4aurens (an der =ost recounts, J#Fan$ miles from home and se'arated from the rest, 5)ou and I, on the track of a wounded buck, suddenl$ found another set of 'rints and s'oor 1oining our own. He ga(e a dee' grunt of satisfaction and said it was 3au)hau+s footmarks made not man$ minutes before. He declared 3au)hau was running fast and that we would soon see him and the animal. We to''ed the dune in front of us and there was 3au)hau, alread$ skinning the animal. 2r Aichard 4ee, also among the I@ung San, relates how when briefl$ e)amining some tracks a hunter commented, -2h, look, Tunu is here with his brother-in-law. 3ut where is his son7+ Is this reall$ science7 Does e(er$ tracker in the course of his training sit on his haunches for hours, following the slow degradation of an eland hoof'rint7 When the anthro'ologist asks this 8uestion, the answer gi(en is that hunters ha(e alwa$s used such methods. The$ obser(ed their fathers and other accom'lished hunters during their a''renticeshi's. The$ learned b$ imitation. The general 'rinci'les were 'assed down from generation to generation. The local (ariations - wind s'eed, soil moisture - are u'dated as needed in each generation, or seasonall$, or da$-b$-da$. 3ut modern scientists do 1ust the same. >(er$ time we tr$ to 1udge the age of a crater on the #oon or #ercur$ or Triton b$ its degree of erosion, we do not 'erform the calculation from scratch. We dust off a certain scientific 'a'er and read the tried-and-true numbers that ha(e been set down 'erha's as much as a generation earlier. =h$sicists do not deri(e #a)well+s e8uations or 8uantum mechanics from scratch. The$ tr$ to understand the 'rinci'les and the mathematics, the$ obser(e its utilit$, the$ note how 5ature follows these rules, and the$ take these sciences to heart, making them their own. 6et someone had to figure out all these tracking 'rotocols for the first time, 'erha's some 'alaeolithic genius, or more likel$ a succession of geniuses in widel$ se'arated times and 'laces. There is no hint in the I@ung tracking 'rotocols of magical methods -e)amining the stars the night before or the entrails of an animal, or casting dice, or inter'reting dreams, or con1uring demons, or an$ of the m$riad other s'urious claims to knowledge that humans ha(e intermittentl$

entertained. Here there+s a s'ecific, well-defined 8uestion! which wa$ did the 're$ go and what are its characteristics7 6ou need a 'recise answer that magic and di(ination sim'l$ do not 'ro(ide, or at least not often enough to sta(e off star(ation. Instead hunter-gatherers - who are not (er$ su'erstitious in their e(er$da$ life, e)ce't during trance dances around the fire and under the influence of mild eu'horiants are 'ractical, workada$, moti(ated, social, and often (er$ cheerful. The$ em'lo$ skills winnowed from 'ast successes and failures. Scientific thinking has almost certainl$ been with us from the beginning. 6ou can e(en see it in chim'an.ees when tracking on 'atrol of the frontiers of their territor$, or when 're'aring a reed to insert into the termite mound to e)tract a modest but much-needed source of 'rotein. The de(elo'ment of tracking skills deli(ers a 'owerful e(olutionar$ selecti(e ad(antage. Those grou's unable to figure it out get less 'rotein and lea(e fewer offs'ring. Those with a scientific bent, those able 'atientl$ to obser(e, those with a 'enchant for figuring out ac8uire more food, es'eciall$ more 'rotein, and li(e in more (aried habitats, the$ and their hereditar$ lines 'ros'er. The same is true, for instance, of =ol$nesian seafaring skills. " scientific bent brings tangible rewards. The other 'rinci'al food-garnering acti(it$ of 're-agrarian societies is foraging. To forage, $ou must know the 'ro'erties of man$ 'lants, and $ou must certainl$ be able to distinguish one from another. 3otanists and anthro'ologists ha(e re'eatedl$ found that all o(er the world hunter-gatherer 'eo'les ha(e distinguished the (arious 'lant s'ecies with the 'recision of western ta)onomists. The$ ha(e mentall$ ma''ed their territor$ with the finesse of cartogra'hers. "gain, all this is a 'recondition for sur(i(al. So the claim that, 1ust as children are not de(elo'mentall$ read$ for certain conce'ts in mathematics or logic, so -'rimiti(e+ 'eo'les are not intellectuall$ able to gras' science and technolog$, is nonsense. This (estige of colonialism and racism is belied b$ the e(er$da$ acti(ities of 'eo'le li(ing with no fi)ed abode and almost no 'ossessions, the few remaining hunter-gatherers - the custodians of our dee' 'ast. 2f Cromer+s criteria for -ob1ecti(e thinking+, we can certainl$ find in hunter-gatherer 'eo'les (igorous and substanti(e debate, direct 'artici'ator$ democrac$, wide-ranging tra(el, no 'riests, and the 'ersistence of these factors not for %,;;; but for &;;,;;; $ears or more. 3$ his criteria hunter-gatherers ought to ha(e science. I think the$ do. 2r did. What Ionia and ancient ?reece 'ro(ided is not so much in(entions or technolog$ or engineering, but the idea of s$stematic in8uir$, the notion that laws of 5ature, rather than ca'ricious gods, go(ern the world. Water, air, earth and fire all had their turn as candidate -e)'lanations+ of the nature and origin of the world. >ach such

e)'lanation - identified with a different 're-Socratic 'hiloso'her - was dee'l$ flawed in its details. 3ut the mode of e)'lanation, an alternati(e to di(ine inter(ention, was 'roducti(e and new. 4ikewise, in the histor$ of ancient ?reece, we can see nearl$ all significant e(ents dri(en b$ the ca'rice of the gods in Homer, onl$ a few e(ents in Herodotus, and essentiall$ none at all in Thuc$dides. In a few hundred $ears, histor$ 'assed from god-dri(en to human-dri(en. Something akin to laws of 5ature were once glim'sed in a determinedl$ 'ol$theistic societ$, in which some scholars to$ed with a form of atheism. This a''roach of the 're-Socratics was, beginning in about the fourth centur$ 3C, 8uenched b$ =lato, "ristotle and then Christian theologians. If the skein of historical causalit$ had been different - if the brilliant guesses of the atomists on the nature of matter, the 'luralit$ of worlds, the (astness of s'ace and time had been treasured and built u'on, if the inno(ati(e technolog$ of "rchimedes had been taught and emulated, if the notion of in(ariable laws of 5ature that humans must seek out and understand had been widel$ 'ro'agated - I wonder what kind of world we would li(e in now. I don+t think science is hard to teach because humans aren+t read$ for it, or because it arose onl$ through a fluke, or because, b$ and large, we don+t ha(e the brain'ower to gra''le with it. Instead, the enormous .est for science that I see in first-graders and the lesson from the remnant hunter-gatherers both s'eak elo8uentl$! a 'rocli(it$ for science is embedded dee'l$ within us, in all times, 'laces and cultures. It has been the means for our sur(i(al. It is our birthright. When, through indifference, inattention, incom'etence, or fear of sce'ticism, we discourage children from science, we are disenfranchising them, taking from them the tools needed to manage their future.

5o Such Thing as a Dumb Huestion

So we kee' asking, o(er and o(er, /ntil a handful of earth Sto's our mouths[ 3ut is that an answer7 Heinrich Heine, -4a.arus+ 9%B5E:

13

In >ast "frica, in the records of the rocks dating back to about two
million $ears ago, $ou can find a se8uence of worked tools that our ancestors designed and e)ecuted. Their li(es de'ended on making and using these tools. This was, of course, >arl$ Stone "ge technolog$. 2(er time, s'eciall$ fashioned stones were used for stabbing, chi''ing, flaking, cutting, car(ing. "lthough there are man$ wa$s of making stone tools, what is remarkable is that in a gi(en site for enormous 'eriods of time the tools were made in the same wa$ - which means that there must ha(e been educational institutions hundreds of thousands of $ears ago, e(en if it was mainl$ an a''renticeshi' s$stem. While it+s eas$ to e)aggerate the similarities, it+s also eas$ to imagine the e8ui(alent of 'rofessors and students in loincloths, laborator$ courses, e)aminations, failing grades, graduation ceremonies and 'ostgraduate education. When the training is unchanged for immense 'eriods of time, traditions are 'assed on intact to the ne)t generation. 3ut when what needs to be learned changes 8uickl$, es'eciall$ in the course of a single generation, it becomes much harder to know what to teach and how to teach it. Then, students com'lain about rele(ance, res'ect for their elders diminishes. Teachers des'air at how educational standards ha(e deteriorated, and how lackadaisical students ha(e become. In a world in transition, students and teachers both need to teach themsel(es one essential skill -learning how to learn. >)ce't for children 9who don+t know enough not to ask the im'ortant 8uestions:, few of us s'end much time wondering wh$ 5ature is the

wa$ it is, where the Cosmos came from, or whether it was alwa$s here, if time will one da$ flow backward, and effects 'recede causes, or whether there are ultimate limits to what humans can know. There are e(en children, and I ha(e met some of them, who want to know what a black hole looks like, what is the smallest 'iece of matter, wh$ we remember the 'ast and not the future, and wh$ there is a /ni(erse. >(er$ now and then, I+m luck$ enough to teach a kindergarten or first-grade class. #an$ of these children are natural-born scientists although hea($ on the wonder side and light on sce'ticism. The$+re curious, intellectuall$ (igorous. =ro(ocati(e and insightful 8uestions bubble out of them. The$ e)hibit enormous enthusiasm. I+m asked follow-u' 8uestions. The$+(e ne(er heard of the notion of a -dumb 8uestion+. 3ut when I talk to high school seniors, I find something different. The$ memori.e -facts+. 3$ and large, though, the 1o$ of disco(er$, the life behind those facts, has gone out of them. The$+(e lost much of the wonder, and gained (er$ little sce'ticism. The$+re worried about asking -dumb+ 8uestions, the$+re willing to acce't inade8uate answers, the$ don+t 'ose follow-u' 8uestions, the room is awash with sidelong glances to 1udge, second-b$-second, the a''ro(al of their 'eers. The$ come to class with their 8uestions written out on 'ieces of 'a'er, which the$ surre'titiousl$ e)amine, waiting their turn and obli(ious of whate(er discussion their 'eers are at this moment engaged in. Something has ha''ened between first and twelfth grade, and it+s not 1ust 'ubert$. I+d guess that it+s 'artl$ 'eer 'ressure not to e)cel 9e)ce't in s'orts:, 'artl$ that the societ$ teaches short-term gratification, 'artl$ the im'ression that science or mathematics won+t bu$ $ou a s'orts car, 'artl$ that so little is e)'ected of students, and 'artl$ that there are few rewards or role models for intelligent discussion of science and technolog$ - or e(en for learning for its own sake. Those few who remain interested are (ilified as -nerds+ or -geeks+ or -grinds+. 3ut there+s something else! I find man$ adults are 'ut off when $oung children 'ose scientific 8uestions. Wh$ is the #oon round7 the children ask. Wh$ is grass green7 What is a dream7 How dee' can $ou dig a hole7 When is the world+s birthda$7 Wh$ do we ha(e toes7 Too man$ teachers and 'arents answer with irritation or ridicule, or 8uickl$ mo(e on to something else! -What did $ou e)'ect the #oon to be, s8uare7+ Children soon recogni.e that somehow this kind of 8uestion anno$s the grown-u's. " few more e)'eriences like it, and another child has been lost to science. Wh$ adults should 'retend to omniscience before I-$ear-olds, I can+t for the life of me understand. What+s wrong with admitting that we don+t know something7 Is our self-esteem so fragile7 What+s more, man$ of these 8uestions go to dee' issues in science, a few of which are not $et full$ resol(ed. Wh$ the #oon is round has to

do with the fact that gra(it$ is a central force 'ulling towards the middle of an$ world, and with how strong rocks are. ?rass is green because of the 'igment chloro'h$ll, of course - we+(e all had that drummed into us b$ high schools - but wh$ do 'lants ha(e chloro'h$ll7 It seems foolish, since the Sun 'uts out its 'eak energ$ in the $ellow and green 'art of the s'ectrum. Wh$ should 'lants all o(er the world re1ect sunlight in its most abundant wa(elengths7 #a$be it+s a fro.en accident from the ancient histor$ of life on >arth. 3ut there+s something we still don+t understand about wh$ grass is green. There are man$ better res'onses than making the child feel that asking dee' 8uestions constitutes a social blunder. If we ha(e an idea of the answer, we can tr$ to e)'lain. >(en an incom'lete attem't constitutes a reassurance and encouragement. If we ha(e no idea of the answer, we can go to the enc$clo'edia. If we don+t ha(e an enc$clo'edia, we can take the child to the librar$. 2r we might sa$! -I don+t know the answer. #a$be no one knows. #a$be when $ou grow u', $ou+ll be the first 'erson to find out.+ There are nai(e 8uestions, tedious 8uestions, ill-'hrased 8uestions, 8uestions 'ut after inade8uate self-criticism. 3ut e(er$ 8uestion is a cr$ to understand the world.K There is no such thing as a dumb 8uestion.
JK I+m e)cluding the fusillade of -wh$s+ that two-$ear-olds sometimes 'elt their 'arents with - 'erha's in an effort to control adult beha(iour.F

3right, curious children are a national and world resource. The$ need to be cared for, cherished, and encouraged. 3ut mere encouragement isn+t enough. We must also gi(e them the essential tools to think with. -It+s 2fficial+, reads one news'a'er headline! -We Stink in Science+. In tests of a(erage %C-$ear-olds in man$ world regions, the /S ranked dead last in algebra. 2n identical tests, the /S kids a(eraged E&Y and their *a'anese counter'arts CBY. In m$ book, CBY is 'rett$ good - it corres'onds to a C\, or ma$be e(en a 3-, E&Y is an <. In a chemistr$ test, students in onl$ two of %& nations did worse than the /S. 3ritain, Singa'ore and Hong @ong were so high the$ were almost off-scale, and G5Y of Canadian %B-$ear-olds knew 1ust as much chemistr$ as a select %Y of "merican high school seniors 9in their second chemistr$ course, and most of them in -ad(anced+ 'lacement 'rogrammes:. The best of G; fifth-grade classrooms in #innea'olis was out'aced b$ e(er$ one of G; classrooms in Sendai, *a'an, and % out of G; in Tai'ei, Taiwan. South @orean students were far ahead of "merican students in all as'ects of mathematics and science, and %&-$ear-olds in 3ritish Columbia 9in western Canada: out'aced their /S counter'arts across the board 9in some areas the$ did better than the @oreans:. 2f the /S

kids, GGY sa$ the$ dislike school, onl$ BY of the @oreans do. 6et twothirds of the "mericans, but onl$ a 8uarter of the @oreans, sa$ the$ are -good at mathematics+. Such dismal trends for a(erage students in the /nited States are occasionall$ offset b$ the 'erformance of outstanding students. In % E, "merican students at the International #athematical 2l$m'iad in Hong @ong achie(ed an un'recedented 'erfect score, defeating &I; other students from IB nations in algebra, geometr$ and number theor$. 2ne of them, %C-$ear-old *erem$ 3ern, commented -#aths 'roblems are logic 'u..les. There+s no routine - it+s all (er$ creati(e and artistic.+ 3ut here I+m concerned not with 'roducing a new generation of first-rate scientists and mathematicians, but a scientificall$ literate 'ublic. Si)t$-three 'er cent of "merican adults are unaware that the last dinosaur died before the first human arose, C5 'er cent do not know that antibiotics kill bacteria but not (iruses, 5C 'er cent do not know that -electrons are smaller than atoms+. =olls show that something like half of "merican adults do not know that the >arth goes around the Sun and takes a $ear to do it. I can find in m$ undergraduate classes at Cornell /ni(ersit$ bright students who do not know that the stars rise and set at night, or e(en that the Sun is a star. 3ecause of science fiction, the educational s$stem, 5"S", and the role that science 'la$s in societ$, "mericans ha(e much more e)'osure to the Co'ernican insight than does the a(erage human. " % & 'oll b$ the China "ssociation of Science and Technolog$ shows that, as in "merica, no more than half the 'eo'le in China know that the >arth re(ol(es around the Sun once a $ear. It ma$ (er$ well be, then, that more than four and a half centuries after Co'ernicus, most 'eo'le on >arth still think, in their heart of hearts, that our 'lanet sits immobile at the centre of the /ni(erse, and that we are 'rofoundl$ -s'ecial+. These are t$'ical 8uestions in -scientific literac$+. The results are a''alling. 3ut what do the$ measure7 The memori.ation of authoritati(e 'ronouncements. What the$ should be asking is how we know = that antibiotics discriminate between microbes, that electrons are -smaller+ than atoms, that the Sun is a star which the >arth orbits once a $ear. Such 8uestions are a much truer measure of 'ublic understanding of science, and the results of such tests would doubtless be more disheartening still. If $ou acce't the literal truth of e(er$ word of the 3ible, then the >arth must be flat. The same is true for the Hu+ran. =ronouncing the >arth round then means $ou+re an atheist. In % &, the su'reme religious authorit$ of Saudi "rabia, Sheik "bdel-".i. Ibn 3aa., issued an edict, or fatwa, declaring that the world is flat. "n$one of the round 'ersuasion does not belie(e in ?od and should be 'unished. "mong man$ ironies, the lucid e(idence that the >arth is a s'here,

accumulated b$ the second-centur$ ?raeco->g$'tian astronomer Claudius =tolemaeus, was transmitted to the west b$ astronomers who were #uslim and "rab. In the ninth centur$, the$ named =tolem$+s book in which the s'hericit$ of the >arth is demonstrated, the 0lmagest, -The ?reatest+. I meet man$ 'eo'le offended b$ e(olution, who 'assionatel$ 'refer to be the 'ersonal handicraft of ?od than to arise b$ blind 'h$sical and chemical forces o(er aeons from slime. The$ also tend to be less than assiduous in e)'osing themsel(es to the e(idence. >(idence has little to do with it! what the$ wish to be true, the$ belie(e is true. 2nl$ nine 'er cent of "mericans acce't the central finding of modern biolog$ that human beings 9and all the other s'ecies: ha(e slowl$ e(ol(ed b$ natural 'rocesses from a succession of more ancient beings with no di(ine inter(ention needed along the wa$. 9When asked merel$ if the$ acce't e(olution, E5 'er cent of "mericans sa$ $es. The figure is C; 'er cent in China.: When the mo(ie urassic Park was shown in Israel, it was condemned b$ some 2rthodo) rabbis because it acce'ted e(olution and because it taught that dinosaurs li(ed a hundred million $ears ago, when, as is 'lainl$ stated at e(er$ Aosh Hashanah and e(er$ *ewish wedding ceremon$, the /ni(erse is less than I,;;; $ears old. The clearest e(idence of our e(olution can be found in our genes. 3ut e(olution is still being fought, ironicall$ b$ those whose own D5" 'roclaims it - in the schools, in the courts, in te)tbook 'ublishing houses, and on the 8uestion of 1ust how much 'ain we can inflict on other animals without crossing some ethical threshold. During the ?reat De'ression in "merica, teachers en1o$ed 1ob securit$, good salaries, res'ectabilit$. Teaching was an admired 'rofession, 'artl$ because learning was widel$ recogni.ed as the road out of 'o(ert$. 4ittle of that is true toda$. "nd so science 9and other: teaching is too often incom'etentl$ or unins'iringl$ done, its 'ractitioners, astonishingl$, ha(ing little or no training in their sub1ects, im'atient with the method and in a hurr$ to get to the findings of science - and sometimes themsel(es unable to distinguish science from 'seudoscience. Those who do ha(e the training often get higher'a$ing 1obs elsewhere. Children need hands-on e)'erience with the e)'erimental method rather than 1ust reading about science in a book. We can be told about o)idation of wa) as the e)'lanation of the candle flame. 3ut we ha(e a much more (i(id sense of what+s going on if we witness the candle burning briefl$ in a bell 1ar until the carbon dio)ide 'roduced b$ the burning surrounds the wick, blocks access to o)$gen, and the flame flickers and dies. We can be taught about mitochondria in cells, how the$ mediate the o)idation of food like the flame burning the wa), but it+s another thing altogether to see them under the microsco'e. We ma$ be told that o)$gen is necessar$ for the life of some organisms and not others. 3ut we begin reall$ to understand when we test the

'ro'osition in a bell 1ar full$ de'leted of o)$gen. What does o)$gen do for us7 Wh$ do we die without it7 Where does the o)$gen in the air come from7 How secure is the su''l$7 >)'eriment and the scientific method can be taught in man$ matters other than science. Daniel @unit. is a friend of mine from college. He+s s'ent his life as an inno(ati(e 1unior and senior high school social sciences teacher. Want the students to understand the Constitution of the /nited States7 6ou could ha(e them read it, "rticle b$ "rticle, and then discuss it in class but, sadl$, this will 'ut most of them to slee'. 2r $ou could tr$ the @unit. method! $ou forbid the students to read the Constitution. Instead, $ou assign them, two for each state, to attend a Constitutional Con(ention. 6ou brief each of the thirteen teams in detail on the 'articular interests of their state and region. The South Carolina delegation, sa$, would be told of the 'rimac$ of cotton, the necessit$ and moralit$ of the sla(e trade, the danger 'osed b$ the industrial north, and so on. The thirteen delegations assemble, and with a little facult$ guidance, but mainl$ on their own, o(er some weeks write a constitution. "hen the$ read the real Constitution. The students ha(e reser(ed war-making 'owers to the =resident. The delegates of %CBC assigned them to Congress. Wh$7 The students ha(e freed the sla(es. The original Constitutional Con(ention did not. Wh$7 This takes more 're'aration b$ the teachers and more work b$ the students, but the e)'erience is unforgettable. It+s hard not to think that the nations of the >arth would be in better sha'e if e(er$ citi.en went through a com'arable e)'erience. We need more mone$ for teachers+ training and salaries, and for laboratories. 3ut all across "merica, school-bond issues are regularl$ (oted down. 5o one suggests that 'ro'ert$ ta)es be used to 'ro(ide for the militar$ budget, or for agriculture subsidies, or for cleaning u' to)ic wastes. Wh$ 1ust education7 Wh$ not su''ort it from general ta)es on the local and state le(els7 What about a s'ecial education ta) for those industries with s'ecial needs for technicall$ trained workers7 "merican schoolchildren don+t do enough schoolwork. There are %B; da$s in the standard school $ear in the /nited States, as com'ared with GG; in South @orea, about G&; in ?erman$, and GE& in *a'an. Children in some of these countries go to school on Saturda$. The a(erage "merican high school student s'ends &.5 hours a week on homework. The total time de(oted to studies, in and out of the classroom, is about G; hours a week. *a'anese fifth=graders a(erage && hours a week. *a'an, with half the 'o'ulation of the /nited States, 'roduces twice as man$ scientists and engineers with ad(anced degrees e(er$ $ear. During four $ears of high school, "merican students s'end less than %,5;; hours on such sub1ects as mathematics, science and histor$. *a'anese, <rench and ?erman students s'end more than twice as much time. " % E re'ort commissioned b$ the /S De'artment of

>ducation notes! The traditional school da$ must now fit in a whole set of re8uirements for what has been called the -new work of the schools+ - education about 'ersonal safet$, consumer affairs, "IDS, conser(ation and energ$, famil$ life and dri(er+s training. So, because of the deficiencies of societ$ and the inade8uacies of education in the home, onl$ about three hours a da$ are s'ent in high school on the core academic sub1ects. There+s a widel$ held 'erce'tion that science is -too hard+ for ordinar$ 'eo'le. We can see this reflected in the statistic that onl$ around %; 'er cent of "merican high school students e(er o't for a course in 'h$sics. What makes science suddenl$ -too hard+7 Wh$ isn+t it too hard for the citi.ens of all those other countries that are out'erforming the /nited States7 What has ha''ened to the "merican genius for science, technical inno(ation and hard work7 "mericans once took enormous 'ride in their in(entors, who 'ioneered the telegra'h, tele'hone, electric light, 'honogra'h, automobile and air'lane. >)ce't for com'uters, all that seems a thing of the 'ast. Where did all that -6ankee ingenuit$+ go7 #ost "merican children aren+t stu'id. =art of the reason the$ don+t stud$ hard is that the$ recei(e few tangible benefits when the$ do. Com'etenc$ 9that is, actuall$ knowing the stuff: in (erbal skills, mathematics, science and histor$ these da$s doesn+t increase earnings for a(erage $oung men in their first eight $ears out of high school, man$ of whom take ser(ice rather than industrial 1obs. In the 'roducti(e sectors of the econom$, though, the stor$ is often different. There are furniture factories, for e)am'le, in danger of going out of business - not because there are no customers, but because so few entr$-le(el workers can do sim'le arithmetic. " ma1or electronics com'an$ re'orts that B; 'er cent of its 1ob a''licants can+t 'ass a fifth=grade mathematics test. The /nited States alread$ is losing some OE; billion a $ear 9mainl$ in lost 'roducti(it$ and the cost of remedial education: because workers, to too great a degree, can+t read, write, count or think. In a sur(e$ b$ the /S 5ational Science 3oard of %& high technolog$ com'anies in the /nited States, the chief causes of the research and de(elo'ment decline attributable to national 'olic$ were 9%: lack of a long-term strateg$ for dealing with the 'roblem, 9G: too little attention 'aid to the training of future scientists and engineers, 9&: too much in(estment in -defence+, and not enough in ci(ilian research and de(elo'ment, and 9E: too little attention 'aid to 'recollege education. Ignorance feeds on ignorance. Science 'hobia is contagious. Those in "merica with the most fa(ourable (iew of science tend to

be $oung, well-to-do, college-educated white males. 3ut three-8uarters of new "merican workers in the ne)t decade will be women, nonwhites and immigrants. <ailing to rouse their enthusiasm, to sa$ nothing of discriminating against them, isn+t onl$ un1ust, it+s also stu'id and selfdefeating. It de'ri(es the econom$ of des'eratel$ needed skilled workers. "frican-"merican and His'anic students are doing significantl$ better in standardi.ed science tests now than in the late % I;s, but the$+re the onl$ ones who are. The a(erage maths ga' between white and black /S high school graduates is still huge - two to three grade le(els, but the ga' between white /S high school graduates and those in, sa$, *a'an, Canada, ?reat 3ritain or <inland is more than twice as large 9with the /S students behind:. If $ou+re 'oorl$ moti(ated and 'oorl$ educated, $ou won+t know much - no m$ster$ there. Suburban "frican-"mericans with college-educated 'arents do 1ust as well in college as suburban whites with college-educated 'arents. "ccording to some statistics, enrolling a 'oor child in a Head Start 'rogramme doubles his or her chances to be em'lo$ed later in life, one who com'letes an /'ward 3ound 'rogramme is four times as likel$ to get a college education. If we+re serious, we know what to do. What about college and uni(ersit$7 There are ob(ious ste's to take! im'ro(ed status based on teaching success, and 'romotions of teachers based on the 'erformance of their students in standardi.ed, double-blind tests, salaries for teachers that a''roach what the$ could get in industr$, more scholarshi's, fellowshi's and laborator$ e8ui'ment, imaginati(e, ins'iring curricula and te)tbooks in which the leading facult$ members 'la$ a ma1or role, laborator$ courses re8uired of e(er$one to graduate, and s'ecial attention 'aid to those traditionall$ steered awa$ from science. We should also encourage the best academic scientists to s'end more time on 'ublic education te)tbooks, lectures, news'a'er and maga.ine articles, TD a''earances. "nd a mandator$ freshman or so'homore 9first- or second-$ear: course in sce'tical thinking and the methods of science might be worth tr$ing. The m$stic William 3lake stared at the Sun and saw angels there, while others, more worldl$, -'ercei(ed onl$ an ob1ect of about the si.e and colour of a golden guinea+. Did 3lake reall$ see angels in the Sun, or was it some 'erce'tual or cogniti(e error7 I know of no 'hotogra'h of the Sun that shows an$thing of the sort. Did 3lake see what the camera and the telesco'e cannot7 2r does the e)'lanation lie much more inside 3lake+s head than outside7 "nd is not the truth of the Sun+s nature as re(ealed b$ modern science far more wonderful! no mere angels or gold coin, but an enormous s'here into which a million >arths could be 'acked, in the core of which the hidden nuclei of atoms are being 1ammed together, h$drogen transfigured into helium, the

energ$ latent in h$drogen for billions of $ears released, the >arth and other 'lanets warmed and lit thereb$, and the same 'rocess re'eated four hundred billion times elsewhere in the #ilk$ Wa$ gala)$7 The blue'rints, detailed instructions, and 1ob orders for building $ou from scratch would fill about %,;;; enc$clo'edia (olumes if written out in >nglish. 6et e(er$ cell in $our bod$ has a set of these enc$clo'edias. " 8uasar is so far awa$ that the light we see from it began its intergalactic (o$age before the >arth was formed. >(er$ 'erson on >arth is descended from the same not-8uite-human ancestors in >ast "frica a few million $ears ago, making us all cousins. Whene(er I think about an$ of these disco(eries, I feel a tingle of e)hilaration. #$ heart races. I can+t hel' it. Science is an astonishment and a delight. >(er$ time a s'acecraft flies b$ a new world, I find m$self ama.ed. =lanetar$ scientists ask themsel(es! -2h, is that the wa$ it is7 Wh$ didn+t we think of that7+ 3ut nature is always more subtle, more intricate, more elegant than what we are able to imagine. ?i(en our manifest human limitations, what is sur'rising is that we ha(e been able to 'enetrate so far into the secrets of 5ature. 5earl$ e(er$ scientist has e)'erienced, in a moment of disco(er$ or sudden understanding, a re(erential astonishment. Science - 'ure science, science not for an$ 'ractical a''lication but for its own sake is a dee'l$ emotional matter for those who 'ractise it, as well as for those nonscientists who e(er$ now and then di' in to see what+s been disco(ered latel$. "nd, as in a detecti(e stor$, it+s a 1o$ to frame ke$ 8uestions, to work through alternati(e e)'lanations, and ma$be e(en to ad(ance the 'rocess of scientific disco(er$. Consider these e)am'les, some (er$ sim'le, some not, chosen more or less at random! Q Could there be an undisco(ered integer between I and C7 Q Could there be an undisco(ered chemical element between atomic number I 9which is carbon: and atomic number C 9which is nitrogen:7 Q 6es, the new 'reser(ati(e causes cancer in rats. 3ut what if $ou ha(e to gi(e a 'erson, who weighs much more than a rat, a 'ound a da$ of the stuff to induce cancer7 In that case, ma$be the new 'reser(ati(e isn+t all that dangerous. #ight the benefit of ha(ing food 'reser(ed for long 'eriods outweigh the small additional risk of cancer7 Who decides7 What data do the$ need to make a 'rudent decision7 Q In a &.B billion-$ear-old rock, $ou find a ratio of carbon isoto'es t$'ical of li(ing things toda$, and different from inorganic sediments. Do $ou deduce abundant life on >arth &.B billion $ears ago7 2r could the chemical remains of more modern organisms ha(e infiltrated into the rock7 2r is there a wa$ for isoto'es to se'arate in the rock a'art from biological 'rocesses7 Q Sensiti(e measurements of electrical currents in the human brain show that when certain memories or mental 'rocesses occur,

'articular regions of the brain go into action. Can our thoughts, memories and 'assions all be generated b$ 'articular circuitr$ of the brain neurons7 #ight it e(er be 'ossible to simulate such circuitr$ in a robot7 Would it e(er be feasible to insert new circuits or alter old ones in the brain in such a wa$ as to change o'inions, memories, emotions, logical deductions7 Is such tam'ering wildl$ dangerous7 Q 6our theor$ of the origin of the solar s$stem 'redicts man$ flat discs of gas and dust all o(er the #ilk$ Wa$ gala)$. 6ou look through the telesco'e and $ou find flat discs e(er$where. 6ou ha''il$ conclude that $our theor$ is confirmed. 3ut it turns out the discs $ou sighted were s'iral gala)ies far be$ond the #ilk$ Wa$, and much too big to be nascent solar s$stems. Should $ou abandon $our theor$7 2r should $ou look for a different kind of disc7 2r is this 1ust an e)'ression of $our unwillingness to abandon a discredited h$'othesis7 Q " growing cancer sends out an all-'oints bulletin to the cells lining ad1acent blood (essels! -We need blood,+ the message sa$s. The endothelial cells obligingl$ build blood (essel bridges to su''l$ the cancer cells with blood. How does this come about7 Can the message be interce'ted or cancelled7 Q 6ou mi) (iolet, blue, green, $ellow, orange and red 'aints and make a murk$ brown. Then $ou mi) light of the same colours and $ou get white. What+s going on7 Q In the genes of humans and man$ other animals there are long, re'etiti(e se8uences of hereditar$ information 9called -nonsense+:. Some of these se8uences cause genetic diseases. Could it be that segments of the D5" are rogue nucleic acids, re'roducing on their own, in business for themsel(es, disdaining the well-being of the organism the$ inhabit7 Q #an$ animals beha(e strangel$ 1ust before an earth8uake. What do the$ know that seismologists don+t7 Q The ancient ".tec and the ancient ?reek words for -?od+ are nearl$ the same. Is this e(idence of some contact or commonalit$ between the two ci(ili.ations, or should we e)'ect occasional such coincidences between two wholl$ unrelated languages merel$ b$ chance7 2r could, as =lato thought in the Cratylus, certain words be built into us from birth7 Q The Second 4aw of Thermod$namics states that in the /ni(erse as a whole, disorder increases as time goes on. 92f course, locall$ worlds and life and intelligence can emerge, at the cost of a decrease in order elsewhere in the /ni(erse.: 3ut if we li(e in a /ni(erse in which the 'resent 3ig 3ang e)'ansion will slow, sto', and be re'laced b$ a contraction, might the Second 4aw then be re(ersed7 Can effects 'recede causes7 Q The human bod$ uses concentrated h$drochloric acid in the stomach to dissol(e food and aid digestion. Wh$ doesn+t the h$drochloric acid dissol(e the stomach7

Q The oldest stars seem to be, at the time I+m writing, older than the /ni(erse. 4ike the claim that an ac8uaintance has children older than she is, $ou don+t ha(e to know (er$ much to recogni.e that someone has made a mistake. Who7 Q The technolog$ now e)ists to mo(e indi(idual atoms around, so long and com'le) messages can be written on an ultra-microsco'ic scale. It is also 'ossible to make machines the si.e of molecules. Audimentar$ e)am'les of both these -nano-technologies+ are now well demonstrated. Where does this take us in another few decades7 Q In se(eral different laboratories, com'le) molecules ha(e been found that under suitable conditions make co'ies of themsel(es in the test tube. Some of these molecules are, like D5" and A5", built out of nucleotides, others are not. Some use en.$mes to hasten the 'ace of the chemistr$, others do not. Sometimes there is a mistake in co'$ing, from that 'oint forward the mistake is co'ied in successi(e generations of molecules. Thus there get to be slightl$ different s'ecies of selfre'licating molecules, some of which re'roduce faster or more efficientl$ than others. These 'referentiall$ thri(e. "s time goes on, the molecules in the test tube become more and more efficient. We are beginning to witness the e(olution of molecules. How much insight does this 'ro(ide about the origin of life7 Q Wh$ is ordinar$ ice white, but 'ure glacial ice blue7 Q 4ife has been found miles below the surface of the >arth. How dee' does it go7 Q The Dogon 'eo'le in the Ae'ublic of #ali are said b$ a <rench anthro'ologist to ha(e a legend that the star Sirius has an e)tremel$ dense com'anion star. Sirius in fact does ha(e such a com'anion, although it re8uires fairl$ so'histicated astronom$ to detect it. So 9%: did the Dogon 'eo'le descend from a forgotten ci(ili.ation that had large o'tical telesco'es and theoretical astro'h$sics7 2r, 9G: were the$ instructed b$ e)traterrestrials7 2r, 9&: did the Dogon hear about the white dwarf com'anion of Sirius from a (isiting >uro'ean7 2r, 9E: was the <rench anthro'ologist mistaken and the Dogon in fact ne(er had such a legend7 Wh$ should it be hard for scientists to get science across7 Some scientists, including some (er$ good ones, tell me the$+d lo(e to 'o'ulari.e, but feel the$ lack talent in this area. @nowing and e)'laining, the$ sa$, are not the same thing. What+s the secret7 There+s onl$ one, I think! don+t talk to the general audience as $ou would to $our scientific colleagues. There are terms that con(e$ $our meaning instantl$ and accuratel$ to fellow e)'erts. 6ou ma$ 'arse these 'hrases e(er$ da$ in $our 'rofessional work. 3ut the$ do no more than m$stif$ an audience of non-s'ecialists. /se the sim'lest 'ossible language. "bo(e all, remember how it X(as before $ou $ourself gras'ed whate(er it is $ou+re e)'laining. Aemember the

misunderstandings that $ou almost fell into, and note them e)'licitl$. @ee' firml$ in mind that there was a time when $ou didn+t understand an$ of this either. Aeca'itulate the first ste's that led $ou from ignorance to knowledge. 5e(er forget that nati(e intelligence is widel$ distributed in our s'ecies. Indeed, it is the secret of our success. The effort in(ol(ed is slight, the benefits great. "mong the 'otential 'itfalls are o(ersim'lification, the need to be s'aring with 8ualifications 9and 8uantifications:, inade8uate credit gi(en to the man$ scientists in(ol(ed, and insufficient distinctions drawn between hel'ful analog$ and realit$. Doubtless, com'romises must be made. The more $ou make such 'resentations, the clearer it is which a''roaches work and which do not. There is a natural selection of meta'hors, images, analogies, anecdotes. "fter a while $ou find that $ou can get almost an$where $ou want to go, walking on consumertested ste''ing-stones. 6ou can then fine-tune $our 'resentations for the needs of a gi(en audience. 4ike some editors and tele(ision 'roducers, some scientists belie(e the 'ublic is too ignorant or too stu'id to understand science, that the enter'rise of 'o'ulari.ation is fundamentall$ a lost cause, or e(en that it+s tantamount to fraterni.ation, if not outright cohabitation, with the enem$. "mong the man$ criticisms that could be made of this 1udgement - along with its insufferable arrogance and its neglect of a host of e)am'les of highl$ successful science 'o'ulari.ations - is that it is self-confirming. "nd also, for the scientists in(ol(ed, self-defeating. 4arge-scale go(ernment su''ort for science is fairl$ new, dating back onl$ to World War Two - although 'atronage of a few scientists b$ the rich and 'owerful is much older. With the end of the Cold War, the national defence trum' card that 'ro(ided su''ort for all sorts of fundamental science became (irtuall$ un'la$able. 2nl$ 'artl$ for this reason, most scientists, I think, are now comfortable with the idea of 'o'ulari.ing science. 9Since nearl$ all su''ort for science comes from the 'ublic coffers, it would be an odd flirtation with suicide for scientists to o''ose com'etent 'o'ulari.ation.: What the 'ublic understands and a''reciates, it is more likel$ to su''ort. I don+t mean writing articles for Scientific 0merican, sa$, that are read b$ science enthusiasts and scientists in other fields. I+m not 1ust talking about teaching introductor$ courses for undergraduates. I+m talking about efforts to communicate the substance and a''roach of science in news'a'ers, maga.ines, on radio and tele(ision, in lectures for the general 'ublic, and in elementar$, middle and high school te)tbooks. 2f course there are 1udgement calls to be made in 'o'ulari.ing. It+s im'ortant neither to m$stif$ nor to 'atroni.e. In attem'ting to 'rod 'ublic interest, scientists ha(e on occasion gone too far - for e)am'le, in drawing un1ustified religious conclusions. "stronomer ?eorge Smoot described his disco(er$ of small irregularities in the ratio radiation left o(er from the 3ig 3ang as -seeing ?od face-to-face+. =h$sics 5obel

laureate 4eon 4ederman described the Higgs boson, a h$'othetical building block of matter, as -the ?od 'article+, and so titled a book. 9In m$ o'inion, the$+re all ?od 'articles.: If the Higgs boson doesn+t e)ist, is the ?od h$'othesis dis'ro(ed7 =h$sicist <rank Ti'ler 'ro'oses that com'uters in the remote future will 'ro(e the e)istence of ?od and work our bodil$ resurrection. =eriodicals and tele(ision can strike s'arks as the$ gi(e us a glim'se of science, and this is (er$ im'ortant. 3ut - a'art from a''renticeshi' or well-structured classes and seminars - the best wa$ to 'o'ulari.e science is through te)tbooks, 'o'ular books, CD-A2#s and laser discs. 6ou can mull things o(er, go at $our own 'ace, re(isit the hard 'arts, com'are te)ts, dig dee'. It has to be done right, though, and in the schools es'eciall$ it generall$ isn+t. There, as the 'hiloso'her *ohn =assmore comments, science is often 'resented as a matter of learning 'rinci'les and a''l$ing them b$ routine 'rocedures. It is learned from te)tbooks, not b$ reading the works of great scientists or e(en the da$-to-da$ contributions to the scientific literature ... The beginning scientist, unlike the beginning humanist, does not ha(e an immediate contact with genius. Indeed... school courses can attract 8uite the wrong sort of 'erson into science -unimaginati(e bo$s and girls who like routine. I hold that 'o'ulari.ation of science is successful if, at first, it does no more than s'ark the sense of wonder. To do that, it is sufficient to 'ro(ide a glim'se of the findings of science without thoroughl$ e)'laining how those findings were achie(ed. It is easier to 'ortra$ the destination than the 1ourne$. 3ut, where 'ossible, 'o'ulari.ers should tr$ to chronicle some of the mistakes, false starts, dead ends and a''arentl$ ho'eless confusion along the wa$. "t least e(er$ now and then, we should 'ro(ide the e(idence and let the reader draw his or her own conclusion. This con(erts obedient assimilation of new knowledge into 'ersonal disco(er$. When $ou make the finding $ourself - e(en if $ou+re the last 'erson on >arth to see the light - $ou ne(er forget it. "s a $oungster, I was ins'ired b$ the 'o'ular science books and articles of ?eorge ?amow, *ames *eans, "rthur >dding-ton, *.3.S. Haldane, *ulian Hu)le$, Aachel Carson and "rthur C. Clarke - all of them trained in, and most of them leading 'ractitioners of science. The 'o'ularit$ of well-written, well-e)'lained, dee'l$ imaginati(e books on science that touch our hearts as well as our minds seems greater in the last twent$ $ears than e(er before, and the number and disci'linar$ di(ersit$ of scientists writing these books is likewise un'recedented. "mong the best contem'orar$ scientist-'o'ulari.ers, I think of Ste'hen *a$ ?ould, >.2. Wilson, 4ewis Thomas and Aichard Dawkins in biolog$, Ste(en Weinberg, "lan 4ightman and @i' Thorne in

'h$sics, Aoald Hoffmann in chemistr$, and the earl$ works of <red Ho$le in astronom$. Isaac "simo( wrote ca'abl$ on e(er$thing. 9"nd while re8uiring calculus, the most consistentl$ e)citing, 'ro(ocati(e and ins'iring science 'o'ulari.ation of the last few decades seems to me to be Dolume I of Aichard <e$nman+s %ntroductory Lectures on Physics!6 5e(ertheless, current efforts are clearl$ nowhere near commensurate with the 'ublic good. "nd, of course, if we can+t read, we can+t benefit from such works, no matter how ins'iring the$ are. I want us to rescue #r -3uckle$+ and the millions like him. I also want us to sto' turning out leaden, incurious, uncritical and unimaginati(e high school seniors. 2ur s'ecies needs, and deser(es, a citi.enr$ with minds wide awake and a basic understanding of how the world works. Science, I maintain, is an absolutel$ essential tool for an$ societ$ with a ho'e of sur(i(ing well into the ne)t centur$ with its fundamental (alues intact - not 1ust science as engaged in b$ its 'ractitioners, but science understood and embraced b$ the entire human communit$. "nd if the scientists will not bring this about, who will7

-B
House on <ireK
]K Written with "nn Dru$an.^

The 4ord J3uddhaF re'lied to the Denerable Sari'utra! -In some (illage, cit$, market town, countr$ district, 'ro(ince, kingdom, or ca'ital there li(ed a householder, old, ad(anced in $ears, decre'it, weak in health and strength, but rich, wealth$, and well-to-do. His house was a large one, both e)tensi(e and high, and it was old, ha(ing been built a long time ago. It was inhabited b$ man$ li(ing beings, some two, three, four, or fi(e hundred. It had one single door onl$. It was thatched with straw, its terraces had fallen down, its foundations were rotten, its walls, matting-screens, and 'laster were in an ad(anced state of deca$. Suddenl$ a great bla.e of fire broke out, and the house started burning on all sides. "nd that man had man$ $oung sons, fi(e, or ten, or twent$, and he himself got out of the house. -When that man saw his own house abla.e all around with the great mass of fire, he became afraid and trembled, his mind became agitated, and he thought to himself! SI, it is true, ha(e been com'etent enough to run out of the door, and to esca'e from m$ burning house, 8uickl$ and safel$, without being touched or scorched b$ that great mass of fire. 3ut what about m$ sons, m$ $oung bo$s, m$ little sons7 There, in this burning house, the$ 'la$, s'ort, and amuse themsel(es with all sorts of games. The$ do not know that this dwelling is afire, the$ do not understand it, do not 'ercei(e it, 'a$ no attention to it, and so the$ feel no agitation. Though threatened b$ this great JfireF, though in such close contact with so much ill, the$ 'a$ no attention to their danger, and make no efforts to get out.T from "he Saddharma1undarika, in /uddhist Scri1tures, >dward Con.e, ed. 9=enguin 3ooks, % 5 :

$ne of the reasons it+s so interesting to write for Parade maga.ine is

feedback. With eight$ million readers $ou can reall$ sam'le the o'inion of the citi.ens of the /nited States. 6ou can understand how 'eo'le think, what their an)ieties and ho'es are, and e(en 'erha's where we ha(e lost our wa$.

"n abbre(iated (ersion of the 'receding cha'ter, em'hasi.ing the 'erformance of students and teachers, was 'ublished in Parade! I was flooded with mail. Some 'eo'le denied there was a 'roblem, others said that "mericans were losing cutting-edge intelligence and knowhow. Some thought there were eas$ solutions, others, that the 'roblems were too dee'l$ ingrained to fi). #an$ o'inions were a sur'rise to me. " tenth-grade teacher in #innesota handed out co'ies of the article and asked his students to tell me what the$ thought. Here+s what some "merican high school students wrote 9s'elling, grammar and 'unctuation as in the original letters:! Q 5ot a "mericans are stu'id We 1ust rank lower in school big deal. Q #a$be that+s good that we are not as smart as the other countries. So then we can 1ust im'ort all of our 'roducts and then we don+t ha(e to s'end all of our mone$ on the 'arts for the goods. Q "nd if other countries are doing better, what does it matter, their most likel$ going to come o(er the /.S. an$wa$7 Q 2ur societ$ is doing 1ust fine with what disco(eries we are making. It+s going slowl$, but the cure for cancer is coming right along. Q The /.S. has its own learning s$stem and it ma$ not be as ad(anced as theirs, but it is 1ust as good. 2therwise I think $our article is a (er$ educating one. Q 5ot one kid in this school likes science. I reall$ didn+t understand the 'oint of the article. I thought that it was (er$ boring. I+m 1ust not into an$thing like that. Q I am stud$ing to be a law$er and frankl$ I do agree with m$ 'arents when the$ sa$ I ha(e an attitude 'roblem toward science. Q It+s true that some "merican kids don+t tr$, but we could be smarter than an$ other countr$ if we wanted to. Q Instead of homework, kids will watch TD. I ha(e to agree that I do it. I ha(e cut it down from about E hrs. a da$. Q I don+t belie(e it is the school s$stems fault, I think the whole countr$ is brought u' with not enough em'hasis on school. I know m$ mom would rather be watching me 'la$ basketball or soccer, instead of hel'ing me with an assignment. #ost of the kids I know could care less about making sure there doing there work right. Q I don+t think "merican kids are stu'id. It 1ust the$ don+t stud$ hard enough because most of kids work... 4ots of 'eo'le said that "sian 'eo'le are smarter than "merican and the$ are good at e(er$thing, but that+s not true. The$ are not good at s'orts. The$ don+t ha(e time to 'la$ s'orts. Q I+m in s'orts m$self, and I feel that the other kids on m$ team 'ush to $ou to e)cel more in that s'ort than in school. Q If we want to rank first, we could go to school all da$ and not ha(e an$ social life.

Q I can see wh$ a lot of science teachers would get mad at $ou for insulting there 1ob. Q #a$be if the teachers could be more e)citing, the children will want to learn ... If science is made to be fun, kids will want to learn. To accom'lish this, it needs to be started earl$ on, not 1ust taught as facts and figures. Q I reall$ find it hard to belie(e those facts about the /.S. in science. Q If we are so far behind, how come #ichael ?orbache( came to #innesota and #ontana to Control Data to see how we run are com'uters and thing7 Q "round && hours for fifth graders0 In m$ o'inion thats too much thats almost as man$ hours as a full 1ob 'racticall$. So instead of homework we can be making mone$. Q When $ou 'ut down how far behind we are in science and math, wh$ don+t $ou tr$ tell us this in a little nicer manner7... Ha(e a little 'ride in $our countr$ and its ca'abilities. Q I think $our facts were inconclusi(e and the e(idence (er$ flims$. "ll in all, $ou raised a good 'oint. "ll in all, these students don+t think there+s much of a 'roblem, and if there is, not much can be done about it. #an$ also com'lained that the lectures, classroom discussions and homework were -boring+. >s'eciall$ for an #TD generation beset b$ attention deficit disorders in (arious degrees of se(erit$, it is boring. 3ut s'ending three or four grades 'ractising once again the addition, subtraction, multi'lication and di(ision of fractions would bore an$one, and the traged$ is that, sa$, elementar$ 'robabilit$ theor$ is within reach of these students. 4ikewise for the forms of 'lants and animals 'resented without e(olution, histor$ 'resented as wars, dates and kings without the role of obedience to authorit$, greed, incom'etence and ignorance, >nglish without new words entering the language and old words disa''earing, and chemistr$ without where the elements come from. The means of awakening these students are at hand and ignored. Since most school children emerge with onl$ a tin$ fraction of what the$+(e been taught 'ermanentl$ engra(ed in their long-term memories, isn+t it essential to infect them with consumer-tested to'ics that aren+t boring... and a .est for learning7 #ost adults who wrote thought there+s a substantial 'roblem. I recei(ed letters from 'arents about in8uisiti(e children willing to work hard, 'assionate about science but with no ade8uate communit$ or school resources to satisf$ their interests. 2ther letters told of 'arents who knew nothing about science sacrificing their own comfort so their children could ha(e science books, microsco'es, telesco'es, com'uters or chemistr$ sets, of 'arents teaching their children that hard work will get them out of 'o(ert$, of a grandmother bringing tea to a student u' late at night still doing homework, of 'eer 'ressure not

to do well in school because -it makes the other kids look bad+. Here+s a sam'ling - not an o'inion 'oll, but re'resentati(e commentar$ - of other res'onses b$ 'arents! Q Do 'arents understand that $ou can+t be a full human being if $ou+re ignorant7 "re there books at home7 How about a magnif$ing glass7 >nc$clo'edia7 Do the$ encourage children to learn7 Q =arents ha(e to teach 'atience and 'erse(erance. The most im'ortant gift the$ can gi(e their children is the ethos of hard work, but the$ can+t 1ust talk about it. The kids who learn to work hard are the ones who see their 'arents work hard and ne(er gi(e u'. Q #$ child is fascinated b$ science, but she doesn+t get an$ in school or on TD. Q #$ child is identified as gifted, but the school has no 'rogram for science enrichment. The guidance counselor told me to send her to a 'ri(ate school, but we can+t afford a 'ri(ate school. Q There+s enormous 'eer 'ressure, sh$ children don+t want to -stand out+ b$ doing well in science. When m$ daughter reached %& and %E, her life-long interest in science seemed to disa''ear. =arents also had much to sa$ about teachers, and some of the comments b$ teachers echoed the 'arents. <or e)am'le, 'eo'le com'lained that teachers are trained how to teach but not what to teach! that a large number of 'h$sics and chemistr$ teachers ha(e no degree in 'h$sics or chemistr$ and are -uncomfortable and incom'etent+ in teaching science, that teachers themsel(es ha(e too much science and maths an)iet$, that the$ resist being asked 8uestions, or the$ answer, -It+s in the book. 4ook it u'.+ Some com'lained that the biolog$ teacher was a -Creationist+, some com'lained that he wasn+t. "mong other comments b$ or about teachers! Q We are breeding a collection of half-wits. Q It+s easier to memori.e than to think. @ids ha(e to be taught to think. Q The teachers and curricula are -dumbing down+ to the lowest common denominator. Q Wh$ is the basketball coach teaching chemistr$7 Q Teachers are re8uired to s'end much too much time on disci'line and on -social curricula+. There+s no incenti(e to use our own 1udgment. The -brass+ are alwa$s looking o(er our shoulders. Q "bandon tenure in schools and colleges. ?et rid of the deadwood. 4ea(e hiring and firing to 'rinci'als, deans, and su'erintendents. Q #$ 1o$ in teaching was re'eatedl$ thwarted b$ militaristic-t$'e 'rinci'als. Q Teachers should be rewarded on the basis of 'erformance -es'eciall$ student 'erformance on standardi.ed, nationwide tests, and

im'ro(ements in student 'erformance on such tests from one $ear to the ne)t. Q Teachers are stifling our children+s minds b$ telling them the$+re not -smart+ enough - for e)am'le, for a career in 'h$sics. Wh$ not gi(e the students a chance to take the course7 Q #$ son was 'romoted e(en though he+s reading two grade le(els behind the rest of his class. The reason gi(en was social, not educational. He+ll ne(er catch u' unless he+s left back. Q Science should be re8uired in all school 9and es'eciall$ high school: curricula. It should be carefull$ coordinated with the math courses the students are taking at the same time. Q Q #ost homework is -bus$ work+ rather than something that makes $ou think. Q I think Diane Aa(itch J.ew ,e1u+lic, I #arch % B F tells it like it is! -"s a female student at Hunter High School in 5ew 6ork Cit$ recentl$ e)'lained, SI make straight "s, but I ne(er talk about it ... It+s cool to do reall$ badl$. If $ou are interested in school and $ou show it, $ou+re a nerdT... The 'o'ular culture - through tele(ision, mo(ies, maga.ines, and (ideos - incessantl$ drums in the message to $oung women that it is better to be 'o'ular, se)$, and ScoolT than to be intelligent, accom'lished, and outs'oken...+In % BI researchers found a similar antiacademic ethos among both high school and female students in Washington, D.C. The$ noted that able students faced strong 'eer 'ressure not to succeed in school. If the$ did well in their studies, the$ might be accused of -acting white+. Q Schools could easil$ gi(e much more recognition and rewards to kids who are outstanding in science and math. Wh$ don+t the$7 Wh$ not s'ecial 1ackets with school letters7 "nnouncements in assembl$ and the school news'a'er and the local 'ress7 4ocal industr$ and social organi.ations to gi(e s'ecial awards7 This costs (er$ little and could o(ercome 'eer 'ressure not to e)cel. Q Headstart is the single most effecti(e... 'rogram for im'ro(ing children+s understanding of science and e(er$thing else. There were also man$ 'assionate, highl$ contro(ersial o'inions e)'ressed which, at the (er$ least, gi(e a sense of how dee'l$ 'eo'le feel about the sub1ect. Here+s a smattering! Q "ll the smart kids are looking for the fast buck these da$s, so the$ become law$ers, not scientists. Q I don+t want $ou to im'ro(e education. Then there+d be nobod$ to dri(e the cabs. Q The 'roblem in science education is that ?od isn+t sufficientl$ honored. Q The fundamentalist teaching that science is -humanism+ and is to be mistrusted is the reason nobod$ understands science. Aeligions are afraid of the sce'tical thinking at the heart of science. Students are

brainwashed not to acce't scientific thinking long before the$ get to college. Q Science has discredited itself. It works for 'oliticians. It makes wea'ons, it lies about mari1uana -ha.ards+, it ignores about the dangers of agent orange, etc. Q The 'ublic schools don+t work. "bandon them. 4et+s ha(e 'ri(ate schools onl$. Q We ha(e let the ad(ocates of 'ermissi(eness, fu..$ thinking and ram'ant socialism destro$ what was once a great educational s$stem. Q The school s$stem has enough mone$. The 'roblem is that the white males, usuall$ coaches, who run the schools would ne(er 9and I mean ne(er: hire an intellectual... The$ care more about the football team than the curriculum and hire onl$ submediocre, flag-wa(ing, ?odlo(ing automatons to teach. What kind of students can emerge from schools that o''ress, 'unish and neglect logical thinking7 Q Aelease schools from the stranglehold of the "C4/ J"merican Ci(il 4iberties /nionF, 53" J5ational >ducation "ssociationF, and others engaged in the breakdown of the disci'line and com'etence in the schools. Q I+m afraid $ou ha(e no understanding of the countr$ in which $ou li(e. The 'eo'le are incredibl$ ignorant and fearful. The$ will not tolerate listening to an$ JnewF idea... Don+t $ou get it7 The s$stem sur(i(es onl$ because it has an ignorant ?odfearing 'o'ulation. There+s a reason lots of Jeducated 'eo'leF are unem'lo$ed. Q I+m sometimes re8uired to e)'lain technological issues to Congressional staffers. 3elie(e me, there+s a 'roblem in science education in this countr$. There is no single solution to the 'roblem of illiterac$ in science -or maths, histor$, >nglish, geogra'h$, and man$ of the other skills which our societ$ needs more of. The res'onsibilities are broadl$ shared 'arents, the (oting 'ublic, local school boards, the media, teachers, administrators, federal, state and logical go(ernments, 'lus, of course, the students themsel(es. "t e(er$ le(el teachers com'lain that the 'roblem lies in earlier grades. "nd first-grade teachers can with 1ustice des'air of teaching children with learning deficits because of malnutrition, or no books in the home, or a culture of (iolence in which the leisure to think is una(ailable. I know (er$ well from m$ own e)'erience how much a child can benefit from 'arents who ha(e a little learning and are able to 'ass it on. >(en small im'ro(ements in the education, communication skills and 'assion for learning in one generation might work much larger im'ro(ements in the ne)t. I think of this e(er$ time I hear a com'laint that school and collegiate -standards+ are falling, or that a 3achelor+s degree doesn+t -mean+ what it once did. Doroth$ Aich, an inno(ati(e teacher from 6onkers, 5ew 6ork,

belie(es that far more im'ortant than s'ecific academic sub1ects is the honing of ke$ skills which she lists as! -confidence, 'erse(erance, caring, teamwork, common sense and 'roblem-sol(ing.+ To which I+d add sce'tical thinking and an a'titude for wonder. "t the same time, children with s'ecial abilities and skills need to be nourished and encouraged. The$ are a national treasure. Challenging 'rogrammes for the -gifted+ are sometimes decried as -elitism+. Wh$ aren+t intensi(e 'ractice sessions for (arsit$ football, baseball and basketball 'la$ers and interschool com'etition deemed elitism7 "fter all, onl$ the most gifted athletes 'artici'ate. There is a self-defeating double-standard at work here, nationwide. The 'roblems in 'ublic education in science and other sub1ects run so dee' that it+s eas$ to des'air and conclude that the$ can ne(er be fi)ed. "nd $et, there are institutions hidden awa$ in big cities and small towns that 'ro(ide reason for ho'e, 'laces that strike the s'ark, awaken slumbering curiosities and ignite the scientist that li(es in all of us! Q The enormous metallic iron meteorite in front of $ou is as full of holes as a Swiss cheese. ?ingerl$ $ou reach out to touch it. It feels smooth and cold. The thought occurs to $ou that this is a 'iece of another world. How did it get to >arth7 What ha''ened in s'ace to make it so beat u'7 Q The dis'la$ shows ma's of eighteenth-centur$ 4ondon, and the s'read of a horrif$ing cholera e'idemic. =eo'le in one house got it from 'eo'le in neighbouring houses. 3$ running the wa(e of infection back, $ou can see where it started. It+s like being a detecti(e. "nd when $ou 'in'oint the origin $ou find it+s a 'lace with o'en sewers. It occurs to $ou that there+s a life and death reason wh$ modern cities ha(e ade8uate sanitation. 6ou think of all those cities and towns and (illages in the world that don+t. 6ou get to thinking ma$be there+s a sim'ler, chea'er wa$ to do it ... Q 6ou+re crawling through a long, utterl$ black tunnel. There are sudden turns, u's and downs. 6ou go through a forest of feather$ things, bead$ things, big solid round things. 6ou imagine what it must be like to be blind. 6ou think about how little we rel$ on our sense of touch. In the dark and the 8uiet, $ou+re alone with $our thoughts. Somehow the e)'erience is e)hilarating... Q 6ou e)amine a detailed reconstruction of a 'rocession of 'riests climbing u' one of the great .iggurats of Sumer, or a gorgeousl$ 'ainted tomb in the Dalle$ of the @ings in ancient >g$'t, or a house in ancient Aome, or a full-scale turn-of-the-centur$ street in small town "merica. 6ou think of all those ci(ili.ations, so different from $ours, how if $ou+d been born into them $ou would ha(e thought them com'letel$ natural, how $ou+d consider our societ$ - if $ou had

somehow been told of it - as weird... Q 6ou s8uee.e the e$edro''er, and a dro' of 'ond water dri's out on to the microsco'e stage. 6ou look at the 'ro1ected image. The dro' is full of life, strange beings swimming, crawling, tumbling, high dramas of 'ursuit and esca'e, trium'h and traged$. This is a world 'o'ulated b$ beings far more e)otic than in an$ science-fiction mo(ie... Q Seated in the theatre, $ou find $ourself inside the head of an ele(en$ear-old bo$. 6ou look out through his e$es. 6ou encounter his t$'ical dail$ crises! bullies, authoritarian adults, crushes on girls. 6ou hear the (oice inside his head. 6ou witness his neurological and hormonal res'onses to his social en(ironment. "nd $ou get to wonder how you work on the inside... Q <ollowing the sim'le instructions, $ou t$'e in the commands. What will the >arth look like if we continue to burn coal, oil and gas, and double the amount of carbon dio)ide in the atmos'here7 How much hotter will it be7 How much 'olar ice will melt7 How much higher will the oceans be7 'hy are we 'ouring so much carbon dio)ide into the atmos'here7 What if we 'ut fi(e times more carbon dio)ide into the atmos'here7 "lso, how could an$bod$ know what the future_climate will be like7 It gets $ou thinking... In m$ childhood, I was taken to the "merican #useum of 5atural Histor$ in 5ew 6ork Cit$. I was transfi)ed b$ the dioramas -lifelike re'resentations of animals and their habitats all o(er the world. =enguins on the diml$ lit "ntarctic ice, oka'i in the bright "frican (eldt, a famil$ of gorillas, the male beating his chest, in a shaded forest glade, an "merican gri..l$ bear standing on his hind legs, ten or twel(e feet tall, and staring me right in the e$e. These were three-dimensional free.e-frames ca'tured b$ some genie of the lam'. Did the gri..l$ mo(e 1ust then7 Did the gorilla blink7 #ight the genie return, lift the s'ell and 'ermit this gorgeous arra$ of li(ing things to go on with their li(es as, 1aws aga'e, I watch7 @ids ha(e an irresistible urge to touch. 3ack in those da$s, the most commonl$ heard two words in museums were -don+t touch+. Decades ago there was almost nothing -hands-on+ in museums of science or natural histor$, not e(en a simulated tidal 'ool in which $ou could 'ick u' a crab and ins'ect it. The closest thing to an interacti(e e)hibit that I knew were the scales in the Ha$den =lanetarium, one for each 'lanet. Weighing a mere fort$ 'ounds on >arth, there was something reassuring in the thought that if onl$ $ou li(ed on *u'iter, $ou would weigh a hundred 'ounds. 3ut sadl$, on the #oon $ou would weigh onl$ se(en 'ounds, on the #oon it seemed $ou would hardl$ be there at all. Toda$, children are encouraged to touch, to 'oke, to run through a branched contingenc$ tree of 8uestions and answers (ia com'uter, or to make funn$ noises and see what the sound wa(es look like. >(en kids who don+t get e(er$thing out of the e)hibit, or who don+t e(en get

the 'oint of the e)hibit, usuall$ e)tract something (aluable. 6ou go to these museums and $ou+re struck b$ the wide-e$ed looks of wonder, b$ kids racing from e)hibit to e)hibit, b$ the trium'hant smiles of disco(er$. The$+re wildl$ 'o'ular. "lmost as man$ of us go to them each $ear as attend 'rofessional baseball, basketball and football games combined. These e)hibits do not re'lace instruction in school or at home, but the$ awaken and e)cite. " great science museum ins'ires a child to read a book, or take a course, or return to the museum again to engage in a 'rocess of disco(er$ - and, most im'ortant, to learn the method of scientific thinking. "nother glorious feature of man$ modern scientific museums is a mo(ie theatre showing I#"R or 2#5I#"R films. In some cases the screen is ten store$s tall and wra's around $ou. The Smithsonian+s 5ational "ir and S'ace #useum, the most 'o'ular museum on >arth, has 'remiered in its 4angle$ Theater some of the best of these films. "o Fly brings a catch to m$ throat e(en after fi(e or si) (iewings. I+(e seen religious leaders of man$ denominations witness /lue Planet and be con(erted on the s'ot to the need to 'rotect the >arth+s en(ironment. 5ot e(er$ e)hibit and science museum is e)em'lar$. " few still are commercials for firms that ha(e contributed mone$ to 'romote their 'roducts - how an automobile engine works or the -cleanliness+ of one fossil fuel as com'ared to another. Too man$ museums that claim to be about science are reall$ about technolog$ and medicine. Too man$ biolog$ e)hibits are still afraid to mention the ke$ idea of modern biolog$! e(olution. 3eings -de(elo'+ or -emerge+, but ne(er e(ol(e. The absence of humans from the dee' fossil record is under'la$ed. We are shown nothing of the anatomical and D5" near-identit$ between humans and chim's or gorillas. 5othing is dis'la$ed on com'le) organic molecules in s'ace and on other worlds, nor about e)'eriments showing the stuff of life forming in enormous numbers in the known atmos'heres of other worlds and the 'resum'ti(e atmos'here of the earl$ >arth. " notable e)ce'tion! the 5atural Histor$ #useum of The Smithsonian Institution once had an unforgettable e)hibit on e(olution. It began with two cockroaches in a modern kitchen with o'en cereal bo)es and other food. 4eft alone for a few weeks, the 'lace was crowded with cockroaches, buckets of them e(er$where, com'eting for the little food now a(ailable, and the longterm hereditar$ ad(antage that a slightl$ better ada'ted cockroach might ha(e o(er its com'etitors became cr$stal clear. "lso, too, man$ 'lanetaria are still de(oted to 'icking out constellations rather than tra(elling to other worlds, and de'icting the e(olution of gala)ies, stars and 'lanets, the$ also ha(e an insect-like 'ro1ector alwa$s (isible which robs the sk$ of its realit$. =erha's the grandest museum e)hibit can+t be seen. It has no

home! ?eorge "wad is one of the leading architectural model makers in "merica, s'eciali.ing in sk$scra'ers. He is also a dedicated student of astronom$ who has made a s'ectacular model of the /ni(erse. Starting with a 'rosaic scene on >arth, and following a scheme 'ro'osed b$ the designers Charles and Aa$ >ames, he goes 'rogressi(el$ b$ factors of ten to show us the whole >arth, the Solar S$stem, the #ilk$ Wa$ and the /ni(erse. >(er$ astronomical bod$ is meticulousl$ detailed. 6ou can lose $ourself in them. It+s one of the best tools I know of to e)'lain the scale and nature of the /ni(erse to children. Isaac "simo( described it as -the most imaginati(e re'resentation of the uni(erse that I ha(e e(er seen, or could ha(e concei(ed of. I could ha(e wandered through it for hours, seeing something new at e(er$ turn that I hadn+t obser(ed before.+ Dersions of it ought to be a(ailable throughout the countr$ - for stirring the imagination, for ins'iration and for teaching. 3ut instead, #r "wad cannot gi(e this e)hibit to an$ ma1or science museum in the countr$. 5o one is willing to de(ote to it the floor s'ace needed. "s I write, it still sits forlornl$, crated in storage. The 'o'ulation of m$ town, Ithaca, 5ew 6ork, doubles to a grand total of about 5;,;;; when Cornell /ni(ersit$ and Ithaca College are in session. >thnicall$ di(erse, surrounded b$ farmland, it has suffered, like so much of the northeast, the decline of its nineteenth-centur$ manufacturing base. Half the children at 3e(-erl$ *. #artin elementar$ school, which our daughter attended, li(e below the 'o(ert$ line. Those are the kids that two (olunteer science teachers, Debbie 4e(in and lima 4e(ine, worried about most. It didn+t seem right that for some, the children of Cornell facult$, sa$, e(en the sk$ wasn+t the limit. <or others there was no access to the liberating 'ower of science education. Starting in the % I;s, the$ made regular tri's to the school, dragging their 'ortable librar$ cart, laden with household chemicals and other familiar items to con(e$ something of the magic of science. The$ dreamed of creating a 'lace for kids to go, where the$ could get a 'ersonal, hands-on feel for science. In % B& 4e(in and 4e(ine 'laced a small ad in our local 'a'er in(iting the communit$ to discuss the idea. <ift$ 'eo'le showed u'. <rom that grou' came the first board of directors of the Sciencenter. Within a $ear the$ secured e)hibition s'ace in the first floor of an unrented office building. When the owner found a 'a$ing tenant, the tad'oles and litmus 'a'er were 'acked u' again and carted off to a (acant sho'. #o(es to other em't$ sho's followed until an Ithacan named 3ob 4eathers, an architect world-renowned for designing inno(ati(e communit$-built 'la$grounds, drew u' and donated the 'lans for a 'ermanent Sciencenter. ?ifts from local firms 'ro(ided enough mone$ to 'urchase an abandoned lot from the cit$ and then hire an e)ecuti(e director, Charles Trautmann, a Cornell ci(il engineer. He and 4eathers

tra(elled to the annual meeting of the 5ational "ssociation of Homebuilders in "tlanta. Trautmann relates how the$ told the stor$ -of a communit$ eager to take res'onsibilit$ for the education of its $outh and secured donations of man$ ke$ items such as windows, sk$lights and lumber+. 3efore the$ could start building, some of the old 'um'house on the site had to be torn down. #embers of a Cornell fraternit$ were enlisted. With hardhats and sledge-hammers, the$ demolished the 'lace 1o$full$. -This is the kind of thing,+ the$ said, -we usuall$ get into trouble for doing.+ In two da$s, the$ carted awa$ G;; tons of rubble. What followed were images straight out of an "merica that man$ of us fear has (anished. In the tradition of 'ioneer barnrais-ing, members of the communit$ - brickla$ers, doctors, car'enters, uni(ersit$ 'rofessors, 'lumbers, farmers, the (er$ $oung and the (er$ old - all rolled u' their slee(es to build the Sciencenter. -The continuous se(en-da$s-a-week schedule was maintained,+ sa$s Trautmann, -so that an$one would be able to hel' an$time. >(er$one was gi(en a 1ob. >)'erienced (olunteers built stairs, laid car'et and tile, and trimmed windows. 2thers 'ainted, nailed and carried su''lies.+ Some G,G;; towns'eo'le donated more than E;,;;; hours. Aoughl$ ten 'er cent of the construction work was 'erformed b$ 'eo'le con(icted of minor offences, the$ 'referred to do something for the communit$ than to sit idle in 1ail. Ten months later, Ithaca had the onl$ communit$-built science museum in the world. "mong the se(ent$-fi(e interacti(e e)hibits em'hasi.ing both the 'rocesses and 'rinci'les of science are! the #agicam, a microsco'e that (isitors can use to (iew on a colour monitor and then 'hotogra'h an$ ob1ect at E; times magnification, the world+s onl$ 'ublic connection to the satellite-based 5ational 4ightning Detection 5etwork, a I ) ft walk-in camera, a fossil 'it seeded with local shale where (isitors hunt for fossils from &B; million $ears ago and kee' their finds, an eight-foot-long boa constrictor named -S'ot+, and a da..ling arra$ of other e)'eriments, com'uters and acti(ities. 4e(in and 4e(ine can still be found there, full-time (olunteers teaching the citi.ens and scientists of the future. The DeWitt WallaceAeader+s Digest <und su''orts and e)tends their dream of reaching kids who would ordinaril$ be denied their scientific birthright. Through the <und+s nationwide 6outh-"4ID> 'rogramme, Ithaca teenagers recei(e intensi(e mentoring to de(elo' their science, conflict resolution and em'lo$ment skills. 4e(in and 4e(ine thought science should belong to e(er$one. Their communit$ agreed and made a commitment to reali.e that dream. In the Sciencenter+s first $ear, 55,;;; 'eo'le came from all fift$ states and si)t$ countries. 5ot bad for a small town. It makes $ou wonder what else we could do if we worked together for a better future for our

kids.

The =ath to <reedomK

]K Written with "nn Dru$an.^

-1

We must not belie(e the man$, who sa$ that onl$ free 'eo'le ought to be educated, but we should rather belie(e the 'hiloso'hers who sa$ that onl$ the educated are free. >'ictetus, Aoman 'hiloso'her and former sla(e, Discourses

Frederick 3aile$ was a sla(e. "s a bo$ in #ar$land in the %BG;s, he

had no mother or father to look after him. 9-It is a common custom,+ he later wrote, -to 'art children from their mothers... before the child has reached its twelfth month.+: He was one of countless millions of sla(e children whose realistic 'ros'ects for a ho'eful life were nil. What 3aile$ witnessed and e)'erienced in his growing u' marked him fore(er! -I ha(e often been awakened at the dawn of the da$ b$ the most heart-rending shrieks of an own aunt of mine, whom Jthe o(erseerF used to tie u' to a 1oist, and whi' u'on her naked back till she was literall$ co(ered with blood... <rom the rising till the going down of the sun he was cursing, ra(ing, cutting, and slashing among the sla(es of the field... He seemed to take 'leasure in manifesting his fiendish barbarit$.+ The sla(es had drummed into them, from 'lantation and 'ul'it alike, from courthouse and statehouse, the notion that the$ were hereditar$ inferiors, that ?od intended them for their miser$. The Hol$ 3ible, as countless 'assages confirmed, condoned sla(er$. In these wa$s the -'eculiar institution+ maintained itself des'ite its monstrous nature - something e(en its 'ractitioners must ha(e glim'sed. There was a most re(ealing rule! sla(es were to remain illiterate. In the antebellum South, whites who taught a sla(e to read were se(erel$ 'unished. -JToF make a contented sla(e,+ 3aile$ later wrote, -it is necessar$ to make a thoughtless one. It is necessar$ to darken his moral and mental (ision, and, as far as 'ossible, to annihilate the 'ower of reason.+ This is wh$ the sla(eholders must control what sla(es hear and see and think. This is wh$ reading and critical thinking are dangerous, indeed sub(ersi(e, in an un1ust societ$. So now 'icture <rederick 3aile$ in %BGB - a %;-$ear-old "frican-

"merican child, ensla(ed, with no legal rights of an$ kind, long since torn from his mother+s arms, sold awa$ from the tattered remnants of his e)tended famil$ as if he were a calf or a 'on$, con(e$ed to an unknown household in the strange cit$ of 3altimore, and condemned to a life of drudger$ with no 'ros'ect of re'rie(e. 3aile$ was sent to work for Ca't Hugh "uld and his wife, So'hia, mo(ing from 'lantation to urban bustle, from field work to housework. In this new en(ironment, he came e(er$ da$ u'on letters, books and 'eo'le who could read. He disco(ered what he called -this m$ster$+ of reading! there was a connection between the letters on the 'age and the mo(ement of the reader+s li's, a nearl$ one-to-one correlation between the black s8uiggles and the sounds uttered. Surre'titiousl$, he studied from $oung Tomm$ "uld+s 'e+ster)s S1elling /ook! He memori.ed the letters of the al'habet. He tried to understand the sounds the$ stood for. >(entuall$, he asked So'hia "uld to hel' him learn. Im'ressed with the intelligence and dedication of the bo$, and 'erha's ignorant of the 'rohibitions, she com'lied. 3$ the time <rederick was s'elling words of three and four letters, Ca'tain "uld disco(ered what was going on. <urious, he ordered So'hia to sto'. In <rederick+s 'resence he e)'lained! " nigger should know nothing but to obe$ his master - to do as he is told to do. 4earning would s1oil the best nigger in the world. 5ow, if $ou teach that nigger how to read, there would be no kee'ing him. It would fore(er unfit him to be a sla(e. "uld chastised So'hia in this wa$ as if <rederick 3aile$ were not there in the room with them, or as if he were a block of wood. 3ut "uld had re(ealed to 3aile$ the great secret! -I now understood ... the white man+s 'ower to ensla(e the black man. <rom that moment, I understood the 'athwa$ from sla(er$ to freedom.+ Without further hel' from the now reticent and intimidated So'hia "uld, <rederick found wa$s to continue learning how to read, including buttonholing white schoolchildren on the streets. Then he began teaching his fellow sla(es! -Their minds had been star(ed... The$ had been shut u' in mental darkness. I taught them, because it was the delight of m$ soul.+ With his knowledge of reading 'la$ing a ke$ role in his esca'e, 3aile$ fled to 5ew >ngland, where sla(er$ was illegal and black 'eo'le were free. He changed his name to <rederick Douglass 9after a character in Walter Scott+s "he Lady of the Lake6, eluded the bount$ hunters who tracked down esca'ed sla(es, and became one of the greatest orators, writers and 'olitical leaders in "merican histor$. "ll his life, he understood that literac$ had been the wa$ out. <or 'er cent of the tenure of humans on earth, nobod$ could read or

write. The great in(ention had not $et been made. >)ce't for first-hand e)'erience, almost e(er$thing we knew was 'assed on b$ word of mouth. "s in the game of -Chinese Whis'ers+, o(er tens and hundreds of generations, information would slowl$ be distorted and lost. 3ooks changed all that. 3ooks, 'urchasable at low cost, 'ermit us to interrogate the 'ast with high accurac$, to ta' the wisdom of our s'ecies, to understand the 'oint of (iew of others, and not 1ust those in 'ower, to contem'late - with the best teachers - the insights, 'ainfull$ e)tracted from 5ature, of the greatest minds that e(er were, drawn from the entire 'lanet and from all of our histor$. The$ allow 'eo'le long dead to talk inside our heads. 3ooks can accom'an$ us e(er$where. 3ooks are 'atient where we are slow to understand, allow us to go o(er the hard 'arts as man$ times as we wish, and are ne(er critical of our la'ses. 3ooks are ke$ to understanding the world and 'artici'ating in a democratic societ$. 3$ some standards, "frican-"mericans ha(e made enormous strides in literac$ since >manci'ation. In %BI;, it is estimated, onl$ about fi(e 'er cent of "frican-"mericans could read and write. 3$ %B ;, & 'er cent were 1udged literate b$ the /S census, and b$ % I , I 'er cent. 3etween % E; and % G, the fraction of "frican-"mericans who had com'leted high school soared from se(en 'er cent to BG 'er cent. 3ut fair 8uestions can be asked about the 8ualit$ of that education, and the standards of literac$ tested. These 8uestions a''l$ to e(er$ ethnic grou'. " national sur(e$ done for the /S De'artment of >ducation 'aints a 'icture of a countr$ with more than E; million barel$ literate adults. 2ther estimates are much worse. The literac$ of $oung adults has sli''ed dramaticall$ in the last decade. 2nl$ three to four 'er cent of the 'o'ulation scores at the highest of fi(e reading le(els 9essentiall$ e(er$bod$ in this grou' has gone to college:. The (ast ma1orit$ ha(e no idea how bad their reading is. 2nl$ four 'er cent of those at the highest reading le(el are in 'o(ert$, but E& 'er cent of those at the lowest reading le(el are. "lthough it+s not the onl$ factor, of course, in general the better $ou read, the more $ou make - an a(erage of about O%G,;;; a $ear at the lowest of these reading le(els, and about O&E,;;; a $ear at the highest. It looks to be a necessar$ if not a sufficient condition for making mone$. "nd $ou+re much more likel$ to be in 'rison if $ou+re illiterate or barel$ literate. 9In e(aluating these facts, we must be careful not to im'ro'erl$ deduce causation from correlation.: "lso, marginall$ literate 'oorer 'eo'le tend not to understand ballot initiati(es that might hel' them and their children, and in stunningl$ dis'ro'ortionate numbers fail to (ote at all. This works to undermine democrac$ at its roots. If <rederick Douglass as an ensla(ed child could teach himself into literac$ and greatness, wh$ should an$one in our more enlightened

da$ and age remain unable to read7 Well, it+s not that sim'le, in 'art because few of us are as brilliant and courageous as <rederick Douglass, but for other im'ortant reasons as well. If $ou grow u' in a household where there are books, where $ou are read to, where 'arents, siblings, aunts, uncles and cousins read for their own 'leasure, naturall$ $ou learn to read. If no one close to $ou takes 1o$ in reading, where is the e(idence that it+s worth the effort7 If the 8ualit$ of education a(ailable to $ou is inade8uate, if $ou+re taught rote memori.ation rather than how to think, if the content of what $ou+re first gi(en to read comes from a nearl$ alien culture, literac$ can be a rock$ road. 6ou ha(e to internali.e, so the$+re second nature, do.ens of u''erand lower-case letters, s$mbols and 'unctuation marks, memori.e thousands of dumb s'ellings on a word-b$-word basis, and conform to a range of rigid and arbitrar$ rules of grammar. If $ou+re 'reoccu'ied b$ the absence of basic famil$ su''ort or dro''ed into a roiling sea of anger, neglect, e)'loitation, danger and self-hatred, $ou might well conclude that reading takes too much work and 1ust isn+t worth the trouble. If $ou+re re'eatedl$ gi(en the message that $ou+re too stu'id to learn 9or, the functional e8ui(alent, too cool to learn:, and if there+s no one there to contradict it, $ou might (er$ well bu$ this 'ernicious ad(ice. There are alwa$s some children - like <rederick 3aile$ -who beat the odds. Too man$ don+t. 3ut, be$ond all this, there+s a 'articularl$ insidious wa$ in which, if $ou+re 'oor, $ou ma$ ha(e another strike against $ou in $our effort to read - and e(en to think. "nn Dru$an and I come from families that knew grinding 'o(ert$. 3ut our 'arents were 'assionate readers. 2ne of our grandmothers learned to read because her father, a subsistence farmer, traded a sack of onions to an itinerant teacher. She read for the ne)t hundred $ears. 2ur 'arents had 'ersonal h$giene and the germ theor$ of disease drummed into them b$ the 5ew 6ork =ublic Schools. The$ followed 'rescri'tions on childhood nutrition recommended b$ the /S De'artment of "griculture as if the$ had been handed down from #ount Sinai. 2ur go(ernment book on children+s health had been re'eatedl$ ta'ed together as its 'ages fell out. The corners were tattered. @e$ ad(ice was underlined. It was consulted in e(er$ medical crisis. <or a while, m$ 'arents ga(e u' smoking - one of the few 'leasures a(ailable to them in the De'ression $ears - so that their infant could ha(e (itamin and mineral su''lements. "nn and I were (er$ luck$. Aecent research shows that man$ children without enough to eat wind u' with diminished ca'acit$ to understand and learn 9-cogniti(e im'airment+:. Children don+t ha(e to be star(ing for this to ha''en. >(en mild undernourishment, the kind most common among 'oor 'eo'le in "merica, can do it. This can ha''en before the bab$ is born

9if the mother isn+t eating enough:, in infanc$ or in childhood. When there isn+t enough food, the bod$ has to decide how to in(est the limited foodstuffs a(ailable. Sur(i(al comes first. ?rowth comes second. In this nutritional triage, the bod$ seems obliged to rank learning last. 3etter to be stu'id and ali(e, it 1udges, than smart and dead. Instead of showing an enthusiasm, a .est for learning as most health$ $oungsters do, the undernourished child becomes bored, a'athetic, unres'onsi(e. #ore se(ere malnutrition leads to lower birth weights and, in its most e)treme forms, smaller brains. Howe(er, e(en a child who looks 'erfectl$ health$ but has not enough iron, sa$, suffers an immediate decline in the abilit$ to concentrate. Irondeficienc$ anaemia ma$ affect as much as a 8uarter of all low-income children in "merica, it attacks the child+s attention s'an and memor$, and ma$ ha(e conse8uences reaching well into adulthood. What once was considered relati(el$ mild undernutrition is now understood to be 'otentiall$ associated with lifelong cogniti(e im'airment. Children who are undernourished e(en on a short-term basis ha(e a diminished ca'acit$ to learn. "nd millions of "merican children go hungr$ e(er$ week. 4ead 'oisoning, which is endemic in inner cities, also causes serious learning deficits. 3$ man$ criteria, the 're(alence of 'o(ert$ in "merica has been steadil$ increasing since the earl$ % B;s. "lmost a 8uarter of "merican children now li(e in 'o(ert$ - the highest rate of childhood 'o(ert$ in the industriali.ed world. "ccording to one estimate, between % B; and % B5 alone more "merican infants and children died of 're(entable disease, malnutrition and other conse8uences of dire 'o(ert$ than all "merican battle deaths during the Dietnam War. Some 'rogrammes wisel$ instituted on the <ederal or state le(el in "merica deal with malnutrition. The S'ecial Su''lemental <ood =rogram for Women, Infants and Children 9WIC:, school breakfast and lunch 'rogrammes, the Summer <ood Ser(ice =rogram - all ha(e been shown to work, although the$ do not get to all the 'eo'le who need them. So rich a countr$ is well able to 'ro(ide enough food for all its children. Some deleterious effects of undernutrition can be undone, ironre'letion thera'$, for e)am'le, can re'air some conse8uences of irondeficienc$ anaemia. 3ut not all of the damage is re(ersible. D$sle)ia (arious disorders that im'air reading skills -ma$ affect fifteen 'er cent of us or more, rich and 'oor alike. Its causes 9whether biological, 's$chological or en(ironmental: are often undetermined. 3ut methods now e)ist to hel' man$ with d$sle)ia to learn to read. 5o one should be unable to learn to read because education is una(ailable. 3ut there are man$ schools in "merica in which reading is taught as a tedious and reluctant e)cursion into the hierogl$'hics of an unknown ci(ili.ation, and man$ classrooms in which not a single book

can be found. Sadl$, the demand for adult literac$ classes far outweighs the su''l$. High-8ualit$ earl$ education 'rogrammes such as Head Start can be enormousl$ successful in 're'aring children for reading. 3ut Head Start reaches onl$ a third to a 8uarter of eligible 'reschoolers, man$ of its 'rogrammes ha(e been enfeebled b$ cuts in funding, and it and the nutrition 'rogrammes mentioned are under renewed Congressional attack as I write. Head Start is critici.ed in a % E book called "he /ell Curve b$ Aichard *. Herrnstein and Charles #urra$. Their argument has been characteri.ed b$ ?erald Coles of the /ni(ersit$ of Aochester! <irst, inade8uatel$ fund a 'rogram for 'oor children, then den$ whate(er success is achie(ed in the face of o(erwhelming obstacles, and finall$ conclude that the 'rogram must be eliminated because the children are intellectuall$ inferior. The book, which recei(ed sur'risingl$ res'ectful attention from the media, concludes that there is an irreducible hereditar$ ga' between blacks and whites - about %; or %5 'oints on IH tests. In a re(iew, the 's$chologist 4eon *. @amin concludes that -JtFhe authors re'eatedl$ fail to distinguish between correlation and causation+ - one of the fallacies of our balone$ detection kit. The 5ational Center for <amil$ 4iterac$, based in 4ouis(ille, @entuck$, has been im'lementing 'rogrammes aimed at low-income families to teach both children and their 'arents to read. It works like this! the child, & to E $ears old, attends school three da$s a week along with a 'arent, or 'ossibl$ a grand'arent or guardian. While the grownu' s'ends the morning learning basic academic skills, the child is in a 're-school class. =arent and child meet for lunch and then -learn how to learn together+ for the rest of the afternoon. " follow-u' stud$ of fourteen such 'rogrammes in three states re(ealed! 9%: although all of the children had been designated as being at risk for school failure as 're-schoolers, onl$ ten 'er cent were still rated at risk b$ their current elementar$ school teachers. 9G: #ore than ; 'er cent were considered b$ their current elementar$ school teachers as moti(ated to learn. 9&: .ot one of the children had to re'eat an$ grade in elementar$ school. The growth of the 'arents was no less dramatic. When asked to describe how their li(es had changed as a result of the famil$ literac$ 'rogramme, t$'ical res'onses described im'ro(ed self-confidence 9nearl$ e(er$ 'artici'ant: and self-control, 'assing high-school e8ui(alenc$ e)ams, admission to college, new 1obs, and much better relations with their children. The children are described as more attenti(e to 'arents, eager to learn and - in some cases for the first time - ho'eful about the future. Such 'rogrammes could also be used in later grades for teaching mathematics, science and much else.

T$rants and autocrats ha(e alwa$s understood that literac$, learning, books and news'a'ers are 'otentiall$ dangerous. The$ can 'ut inde'endent and e(en rebellious ideas in the heads of their sub1ects. The 3ritish Ao$al ?o(ernor of the Colon$ of Dirginia wrote in %IC%! I thank ?od there are no free schools nor 'rinting, and I ho'e we shall not ha(e JthemF these Jne)tF hundred $ears, for learning has brought disobedience, and heres$, and sects into the world, and 'rinting has di(ulged them and libels against the best go(ernment. ?od kee' us from both0 3ut the "merican colonists, understanding where libert$ lies, would ha(e none of this. In its earl$ $ears, the /nited States boasted one of the highest -'erha's the highest - literac$ rates in the world. 92f course, sla(es and women didn+t count in those da$s.: "s earl$ as %I&5, there had been 'ublic schools in #assachusetts, and b$ %IEC com'ulsor$ education in all townshi's there of more than fift$ -households+. 3$ the ne)t centur$ and a half, educational democrac$ had s'read all o(er the countr$. =olitical theorists came from other countries to witness this national wonder! (ast numbers of ordinar$ working 'eo'le who could read and write. The "merican de(otion to education for all 'ro'elled disco(er$ and in(ention, a (igorous democratic 'rocess, and an u'ward mobilit$ that 'um'ed the nation+s economic (italit$. Toda$, the /nited States is not the world leader in literac$. #an$ of those 1udged literate are unable to read and understand (er$ sim'le material - much less a si)th-grade te)tbook, an instruction manual, a bus schedule, a mortgage statement, or a ballot initiati(e. "nd the si)th-grade te)tbooks of toda$ are much less challenging than those of a few decades ago, while the literac$ re8uirements at the work'lace ha(e become more demanding than e(er before. The gears of 'o(ert$, ignorance, ho'elessness and low self-esteem mesh to create a kind of 'er'etual failure machine that grinds down dreams from generation to generation. We all bear the cost of kee'ing it running. Illiterac$ is its linch'in. >(en if we hardened our hearts to the shame and miser$ e)'erienced b$ the (ictims, the cost of illiterac$ to e(er$one else is se(ere - the cost in medical e)'enses and hos'itali.ation, the cost in crime and 'risons, the cost in s'ecial education, the cost in lost 'roducti(it$ and in 'otentiall$ brilliant minds who could hel' sol(e the dilemmas besetting us. <rederick Douglass taught that literac$ is the 'ath from sla(er$ to freedom. There are man$ kinds of sla(er$ and man$ kinds of freedom. 3ut reading is still the 'ath.

Frederick Douglass 0fter the Esca1e

When he was barel$ twent$, he ran awa$ to freedom. Settling in

5ew 3edford with his bride, "nna #urra$, he worked as a common labourer. <our $ears later Douglass was in(ited to address a meeting. 3$ that time, in the 5orth, it was not unusual to hear the great orators of the da$ - the white ones, that is - railing against sla(er$. 3ut e(en man$ of those o''osed to sla(er$ thought of the sla(es themsel(es as somehow less than human. 2n the night of %I "ugust %BE%, on the small island of 5antucket, the members of the mostl$ Huaker #assachusetts "nti-Sla(er$ Societ$ leaned forward in their chairs to hear something new! a (oice raised in o''osition to sla(er$ b$ someone who knew it from bitter 'ersonal e)'erience. His (er$ a''earance and demeanour destro$ed the then-'re(alent m$th of the -natural ser(ilit$+ of "frican-"mericans. 3$ all accounts his elo8uent anal$sis of the e(ils of sla(er$ was one of the most brilliant debuts in "merican oratorical histor$. William 4lo$d ?arrison, the leading abolitionist of the da$, sat in the front row. When Douglass finished his s'eech, ?arrison rose, turned to the stunned audience, and challenged them with a shouted 8uestion! -Ha(e we been listening to a thing, a chattel 'ersonal, or a man7+ -" man0 " man0+ the audience roared back as one (oice. -Shall such a man be held a sla(e in a Christian land7+ called out ?arrison. -5o0 5o0+ shouted the audience. "nd e(en louder, ?arrison asked! -Shall such a man e(er be sent back to bondage from the free soil of 2ld #assachusetts7+ "nd now the crowd was on its feet, cr$ing out -5o0 5o0 5o0+ He ne(er did return to sla(er$. Instead, as an author, editor and 'ublisher of 1ournals, as a s'eaker in "merica and abroad, and as the first "frican-"merican to occu'$ a high ad(isor$ 'osition in the /S go(ernment, he s'ent the rest of his life fighting for human rights. During the Ci(il War, he was a consultant to =resident 4incoln. Douglass successfull$ ad(ocated the arming of e)-sla(es to fight for the 5orth, <ederal retaliation against Confederate 'risoners-of-war for Confederate summar$ e)ecution of ca'tured "frican-"merican soldiers, and freedom for the sla(es as a 'rinci'al ob1ecti(e of the war. #an$ of his o'inions were scathing, and ill-designed to win him friends in high 'laces!

I assert most unhesitatingl$, that the religion of the South is a mere co(ering for the most horrid crimes - a 1ustifier of the most a''alling barbarit$, a sanctifier of the most hateful frauds, and a dark shelter under which the darkest, foulest, grossest, and most infernal deeds of sla(eholders find the strongest 'rotection. Were I to be again reduced to the chains of sla(er$, ne)t to that ensla(ement, I should regard being the sla(e of a religious master the greatest calamit$ that could befall me ... I ... hate the corru't, sla(ehold-ing, women-whi''ing, cradle-'lundering, 'artial and h$'ocritical Christianit$ of this land. Com'ared to some of the religiousl$ ins'ired racist rhetoric of that time and later, Douglass+s comments do not seem h$'erbolic. -Sla(er$ is of ?od+ the$ used to sa$ in antebellum times. "s one of man$ loathsome 1ost=Civil War e)am'les, Charles Carroll+s "he .egro a /east 9"merican 3ook and 3ible House: taught its 'ious readers that -the 3ible and Di(ine Ae(elation, as well as reason, all teach that the 5egro is not human+. In more modern times, some racists still re1ect the 'lain testimon$ written in the D5" that all the races are not onl$ human but nearl$ indistinguishable with a''eals to the 3ible as an -im'regnable bulwark+ against e(en e)amining the e(idence. It is worth noting, though, that much of the abolitionist ferment arose out of Christian, es'eciall$ Huaker, communities of the 5orth, that the traditional black Southern Christian churches 'la$ed a ke$ role in the historic "merican ci(il rights struggle of the % I;s, and that man$ of its leaders -most notabl$ #artin 4uther @ing, *r. - were ministers ordained in those churches. Douglass addressed the white communit$ in these words! JSla(er$F fetters $our 'rogress, it is the enem$ of im'ro(ement, the deadl$ foe of education, it fosters 'ride, it breeds indolence, it 'romotes (ice, it shelters crime, it is a curse of the earth that su''orts it, and $et $ou cling to it as if it were the sheet anchor of all $our ho'es. In %BE&, on a s'eaking tour of Ireland shortl$ before the 'otato famine, he was mo(ed b$ the dire 'o(ert$ there to write home to ?arrison! -I see much here to remind me of m$ former condition, and I confess I should be ashamed to lift m$ (oice against "merican sla(er$, but that I know the cause of humanit$ is one the world o(er.+ He was outs'oken in o''osition to the 'olic$ of e)termination of the 5ati(e "mericans. "nd in %BEB, at the Seneca <alls Con(ention, when >li.abeth Cad$ StantonK had the ner(e to call for an effort to secure the (ote for women, he was the onl$ man of an$ ethnic grou' to stand in su''ort. JK 6ears later, she wrote of the 3ible in words reminiscent of

Douglass+s! -I know of no other books that so full$ teach the sub1ection and degradation of women.+F 2n the night of G; <ebruar$ %B 5 - more than thirt$ $ears after >manci'ation - following an a''earance at a women+s rights rall$ with Susan 3. "nthon$, he colla'sed and died, a true "merican hero.

Significance *unkies
We also know how cruel the truth often is, and we wonder whether delusion is not more consoling. Henri =oincare 9%B5E-% %G:

--

I ho'e no one will consider me undul$ c$nical if I assert that a good

first-order model of how commercial and 'ublic tele(ision 'rogramming work is sim'l$ this! mone$ is e(er$thing. In 'rime time, a single rating 'oint difference is worth millions of dollars in ad(ertising. >s'eciall$ since the earl$ % B;s, tele(ision has become almost entirel$ 'rofit-moti(ated. 6ou can see this, sa$, in the decline of network news and news s'ecials, or in the 'athetic e(asions that the ma1or networks offered to circum(ent a <ederal Communications Commission mandate that the$ im'ro(e the le(el of children+s 'rogramming. 9<or e)am'le, educational (irtues were asserted for a cartoon series that s$stematicall$ misre'resents the technolog$ and lifest$les of our =leistocene ancestors, and that 'ortra$s dinosaurs as 'ets.: "s I write, 'ublic tele(ision in "merica is in real danger of losing go(ernment su''ort, and the content of commercial 'rogramming is in the course of a stee', long-term dumbing down. In this 'ers'ecti(e, fighting for more real science on tele(ision seems nai(e and forlorn. 3ut owners of networks and tele(ision 'roducers ha(e children and grandchildren about whose future the$ rightl$ worr$. The$ must feel some res'onsibilit$ for the future of their nation. There is e(idence that science 'rogramming can be successful, and that 'eo'le hunger for more of it. I remain ho'eful that sooner or later we+ll see real science skilfull$ and a''ealingl$ 'resented as regular fare on ma1or network tele(ision worldwide. 3aseball and soccer ha(e ".tec antecedents. <ootball is a thinl$ disguised reenactment of hunting, we 'la$ed it before we were human. 4acrosse is an ancient 5ati(e "merican game, and hocke$ is related to it. 3ut basketball is new. We+(e been making mo(ies longer than we+(e been 'la$ing basketball. "t first, the$ didn+t think to make a hole in the 'each basket so the ball could be retrie(ed without climbing a flight of stairs. 3ut in the

brief time since then, the game has e(ol(ed. In the hands mainl$ of "frican-"merican 'la$ers, basketball has become - at its best - the 'aramount s$nthesis in s'ort of intelligence, 'recision, courage, audacit$, antici'ation, artifice, teamwork, elegance and grace. <i(e-foot-three-inch #uggs$ 3ogues negotiates a forest of giants! #ichael *ordan sails in from some outer darkness be$ond the freethrow line, 4arr$ 3ird threads a 'recise, no-look 'ass, @areem "bdul*abbar unleashes a sk$hook. This is not fundamentall$ a contact s'ort like football. It+s a game of finesse. The full-court 'ress, 'asses out of the double-team, the 'ick-and-roll, cutting off the 'assing lanes, a ti'in from a high-fl$ing forward soaring from out of nowhere all constitute a coordination of intellect and athleticism, a harmon$ of mind and bod$. It+s not sur'rising that the game has caught fire in "merica. >(er since 5ational 3asketball "ssociation games became a tele(ision sta'le, it+s seemed to me that it could be used to teach science and mathematics. To a''reciate a free-throw a(erage of ;. GI, $ou must know something about con(erting fractions into decimals. " la$-u' is 5ewton+s first law of motion in action. >(er$ shot re'resents the launching of a basketball on a 'arabolic arc, a cur(e determined b$ the same gra(itational 'h$sics that s'ecifies the flight of a ballistic missile, or the >arth orbiting the Sun, or a s'acecraft on its rende.(ous with some distant world. The centre of mass of the 'la$er+s bod$ during a slam dunk is briefl$ in orbit about the centre of the >arth. To get the ball in the basket, $ou must loft it at e)actl$ the right s'eed, a one 'er cent error and gra(it$ will make $ou look bad. Three'oint shooters, whether the$ know it or not, com'ensate for aerod$namic drag. >ach successi(e bounce of a dro''ed basketball is nearer to the ground because of the Second 4aw of Thermod$namics. Dar$l Dawkins or Sha8uille 2+5eal shattering a backboard is an o''ortunit$ for teaching - among some other things - the 'ro'agation of shock wa(es. " s'in shot off the glass from under the backboard goes in because of the conser(ation of angular momentum. It+s an infraction of the rules to touch the basketball in -the c$linder+ abo(e the basket, we+re now talking about a ke$ mathematical idea! generating n-dimensional ob1ects b$ mo(ing 9n - l:-dimensional ob1ects. In the classroom, in news'a'ers and on tele(ision, wh$ aren+t we using s'orts to teach science7 When I was growing u', m$ father would bring home a dail$ 'a'er and consume 9often with great gusto: the baseball bo) scores. There the$ were, to me dr$ as dust, with obscure abbre(iations 9W, SS, @, W4, "3, A3I:, but the$ s'oke to him. 5ews'a'ers e(er$where 'rinted them. I figured ma$be the$ weren+t too hard for me. >(entuall$ I too got caught u' in the world of baseball statistics. 9I know it hel'ed me in learning decimals, and I still cringe a little when I hear, usuall$ at the (er$ beginning of the baseball season, that someone+s -batting a

thousand+. 3ut %.;;; is not %,;;;.. The luck$ 'la$er is batting one.: 2r take a look at the financial 'ages. "n$ introductor$ material7 >)'lanator$ footnotes7 Definitions of abbre(iations7 "lmost none. It+s sink or swim. 4ook at those acres of statistics0 6et 'eo'le (oluntaril$ read the stuff. It+s not be$ond their abilit$. It+s onl$ a matter of moti(ation. Wh$ can+t we do the same with maths, science and technolog$7 In e(er$ s'ort the 'la$ers seem to 'erform in streaks. In basketball it+s called the hot hand. 6ou can do no wrong. I remember a 'la$-off game in which #ichael *ordan, not ordinaril$ a su'erb long-range shooter, was effortlessl$ making so man$ consecuti(e three-'oint baskets from all o(er the floor that he shrugged his shoulders in ama.ement at himself. In contrast, there are times when $ou+re cold, when nothing goes in. When a 'la$er is in the groo(e he seems to be ta''ing into some m$sterious 'ower, and when ice-cold he+s under some kind of 1in) or s'ell. 3ut this is magical, not scientific thinking. Streakiness, far from being remarkable, is e)'ected, e(en for random e(ents. What would be ama.ing would be no streaks. If I fli' a 'enn$ ten times in a row, I might get this se8uence of heads and tails! H H H T H T H H H H. >ight heads out of ten, and four in a row0 Was I e)ercising some 's$chokinetic control o(er m$ 'enn$7 Was I in a heads groo(e7 It looks much too regular to be due to chance. 3ut then I remember that I was fli''ing before and after I got this run of heads, that it+s embedded in a much longer and less interesting se8uence! H T H T T H H H T H T H H H H T H T T H T H T T. If I+m 'ermitted to 'a$ attention to some results and ignore others, I+ll alwa$s be able to -'ro(e+ there+s something e)ce'tional about m$ streak. This is one of the fallacies in the balone$ detection kit, the enumeration of fa(ourable circumstances. We remember the hits and forget the misses. If $our ordinar$ field goal shooting 'ercentage is 5; 'er cent and $ou can+t im'ro(e $our statistics b$ an effort of will, $ou+re e)actl$ as likel$ to ha(e a hot hand in basketball as I am in coinfli''ing. "s often as I get eight out of ten heads, $ou+ll get eight out of ten baskets. 3asketball can teach something about 'robabilit$ and statistics, as well as critical thinking. "n in(estigation b$ m$ colleague Tom ?ilo(ich, 'rofessor of 's$cholog$ at Cornell, shows 'ersuasi(el$ that our ordinar$ understanding of the basketball streak is a mis'erce'tion. ?ilo(ich studied whether shots made b$ 53" 'la$ers tend to cluster more than $ou+d e)'ect b$ chance. "fter making one or two or three baskets, 'la$ers were no more likel$ to succeed than after a missed basket. This was true for the great and the near-great, not onl$ for field goals but for free throws - where there+s no hand in $our face. 92f course some attenuation of shooting streaks can be attributed to increased

attention b$ the defence to the 'la$er with the -hot hand+.: In baseball, there+s the related but contrar$ m$th that someone batting below his a(erage is -due+ to make a hit. This is no more true than that a few heads in a row makes the chance of fli''ing tails ne)t time an$thing other than 5; 'er cent. If there are streaks be$ond what $ou+d e)'ect statisticall$, the$+re hard to find. 3ut somehow this doesn+t satisf$. It doesn+t feel true. "sk the 'la$ers, or the coaches, or the fans. We seek meaning, e(en in random numbers. We+re significance 1unkies. When the celebrated coach Aed "uerbach heard of ?ilo(ich+s stud$, his res'onse was! -Who is this gu$7 So he makes a stud$. I couldn+t care less.+ "nd $ou know e)actl$ how he feels. 3ut if basketball streaks don+t show u' more often than se8uences of heads or tails, there+s nothing magical about them. Does this reduce 'la$ers to mere marionettes, mani'ulated b$ the laws of chance7 Certainl$ not. Their a(erage shooting 'ercentages are a true reflection of their 'ersonal skills. This is onl$ about the fre8uenc$ and duration of streaks. 2f course, it+s much more fun to think that the gods ha(e touched the 'la$er who+s on a streak and scorned the one with a cold hand. So what7 What+s the harm of a little m$stification7 It sure beats boring statistical anal$ses. In basketball, in s'orts, no harm. 3ut as a habitual wa$ of thinking, it gets us into trouble in some of the other games we like to 'la$. -Scientist, $es, mad, no+ giggles the mad scientist on -?illigan+s Island+ as he ad1usts the electronic de(ice that 'ermits him to control the minds of others for his own nefarious 'ur'ose. -I+m sorr$, Dr 5erdnik, the 'eo'le of >arth will not a''reciate being shrunk to three inches high, e(en if it will sa(e room and energ$...+ The cartoon su'erhero is 'atientl$ e)'laining an ethical dilemma to the t$'ical scientist 'ortra$ed on Saturda$-morning children+s tele(ision. #an$ of these so-called scientists - 1udging from the 'rogrammes I+(e seen 9and 'lausible inference about ones I ha(en+t, such as the $ad Scientist)s L"oon Clu+6 = are moral cri''les dri(en b$ a lust for 'ower or endowed with a s'ectacular insensiti(it$ to the feelings of others. The message con(e$ed to the mo''et audience is that science is dangerous and scientists worse than weird! the$+re cra.ed. The a''lications of science, of course, can be dangerous, and, as I+(e tried to stress, (irtuall$ e(er$ ma1or technological ad(ance in the histor$ of the human s'ecies - back to the in(ention of stone tools and the domestication of fire - has been ethicall$ ambiguous. These ad(ances can be used b$ ignorant or e(il 'eo'le for dangerous 'ur'oses or b$ wise and good 'eo'le for the benefit of the human s'ecies. 3ut onl$ one side of the ambiguit$ e(er seems to be 'resented in these offerings to our children. Where in these 'rogrammes are the 1o$s of science7 The delights in

disco(ering how the uni(erse is 'ut together7 The e)hilaration in knowing a dee' thing well7 What about the crucial contributions that science and technolog$ ha(e made to human welfare, or the billions of li(es sa(ed or made 'ossible b$ medical and agricultural technolog$7 9In fairness, though, I should mention that the =rofessor in -?illigan+s Island+ often used his knowledge of science to sol(e 'ractical 'roblems for the castawa$s.: We li(e in a com'le) age where man$ of the 'roblems we face can, whate(er their origins, onl$ ha(e solutions that in(ol(e a dee' understanding of science and technolog$. #odern societ$ des'eratel$ needs the finest minds a(ailable to de(ise solutions to these 'roblems. I do not think that man$ gifted $oungsters will be encouraged towards a career in science or engineering b$ watching Saturda$-morning tele(ision - or much of the rest of the a(ailable "merican (ideo menu. 2(er the $ears, a 'rofusion of credulous, uncritical TD series and -s'ecials+ - on >S=, channelling, the 3ermuda Triangle, /<2s, ancient astronauts, 3ig <oot, and the like - ha(e been s'awned. The st$lesetting series -In Search of...+ begins with a disclaimer disa(owing an$ res'onsibilit$ to 'resent a balanced (iew of the sub1ect. 6ou can see a thirst for wonder here untem'ered b$ e(en rudimentar$ scientific sce'ticism. =rett$ much whate(er an$one sa$s on camera is true. The idea that there might be alternati(e e)'lanations to be decided among b$ the weight of e(idence ne(er surfaces. The same is true of -Sightings+ and -/nsol(ed #$steries+ - in which, as the (er$ title suggests, 'rosaic solutions are unwelcome - and innumerable other clones. -In Search of...+ fre8uentl$ takes an intrinsicall$ interesting sub1ect and s$stematicall$ distorts the e(idence. If there is a mundane scientific e)'lanation and one which re8uires the most e)tra(agant 'aranormal or 's$chic e)'lanation, $ou can be sure which will be highlighted. "n almost random e)am'le! an author is 'resented who argues that a ma1or 'lanet lies be$ond =luto. His e(idence is c$linder seals from ancient Sumer, car(ed long before the in(ention of the telesco'e. His (iews are increasingl$ acce'ted b$ 'rofessional astronomers, he sa$s. 5ot a word is mentioned of the failure of astronomers - stud$ing the motions of 5e'tune, =luto and the four s'acecraft be$ond - to find a trace of the alleged 'lanet. The gra'hics are indiscriminate. When an offscreen narrator is talking about dinosaurs, we see a wooll$ mammoth. The narrator describes a ho(ercraft, the screen shows a shuttle liftoff. We hear about lakes and flood 'lains, but are shown mountains. It doesn+t matter. The (isuals are as indifferent to the facts as is the (oice-o(er. " series called -The R <iles+, which 'a$s li'-ser(ice to sce'tical e)amination of the 'aranormal, is skewed hea(il$ towards the realit$ of alien abductions, strange 'owers and go(ernment com'licit$ in co(ering u' 1ust about e(er$thing interesting. "lmost ne(er does the

'aranormal claim turn out to be a hoa) or a 's$chological aberration or a misunderstanding of the natural world. #uch closer to realit$, as well as a much greater 'ublic ser(ice, would be an adult series 9-Scoob$ Doo+ does it for children: in which 'aranormal claims are s$stematicall$ in(estigated and e(er$ case is found to be e)'licable in 'rosaic terms. The dramatic tension would be in unco(ering how misa''rehension and hoa) could generate a''arentl$ genuine 'aranormal 'henomena. =erha's one of the in(estigators would alwa$s be disa''ointed, ho'ing that next time an unambiguousl$ 'aranormal case will sur(i(e sce'tical scrutin$. 2ther shortcomings are e(ident in tele(ision science fiction 'rogramming. -Star Trek+, for e)am'le, des'ite its charm and strong international and inters'ecies 'ers'ecti(e, often ignores the most elementar$ scientific facts. The idea that #r S'ock could be a cross between a human being and a life form inde'endentl$ e(ol(ed on the 'lanet Dulcan is geneticall$ far less 'robable than a successful cross of a man and an artichoke. The idea does, howe(er, 'ro(ide a 'recedent in 'o'ular culture for the e)traterrestrialPhuman h$brids that later became so central a com'onent of the alien abduction stor$. There must be do.ens of alien s'ecies on the (arious -Star Trek+ TD series and mo(ies. "lmost all we s'end an$ time with are minor (ariants of humans. This is dri(en b$ economic necessit$, costing onl$ an actor and a late) mask, but it flies in the face of the stochastic nature of the e(olutionar$ 'rocess. If there are aliens, almost all of them I think will look de(astatingl$ less human than @lingons and Aomulans 9and be at widel$ different le(els of technolog$:. -Star Trek+ doesn+t come to gri's with e(olution. In man$ TD 'rogrammes and films, e(en the casual science -the throwawa$ lines that are not essential to a 'lot alread$ innocent of science - is done incom'etentl$. It costs (er$ little to hire a graduate student to read the scri't for scientific accurac$. 3ut, so far as I can tell, this is almost ne(er done. "s a result we ha(e such howlers as -'arsec+ mentioned as a unit of s'eed instead of distance in the - in man$ other wa$s e)em'lar$ - film Star 'ars! If such things were done with a modicum of care, the$ might e(en im'ro(e the 'lot, certainl$, the$ might hel' con(e$ a little science to a mass audience. There+s a great deal of 'seudoscience for the gullible on TD, a fair amount of medicine and technolog$, but hardl$ an$ science, es'eciall$ on the big commercial networks, whose e)ecuti(es tend to think that science 'rogramming means ratings declines and lost 'rofits, and nothing else matters. There are network em'lo$ees with the title -Science Corres'ondent+, and an occasional news feature said to be de(oted to science. 3ut we almost ne(er hear an$ science from them, 1ust medicine and technolog$. In all the networks, I doubt if there+s a single em'lo$ee whose 1ob it is to read each week+s issue of .ature or Science to see if an$thing newsworth$ has been disco(ered. When the

5obel =ri.es in science are announced each fall, there+s a su'erb news -hook+ for science! a chance to e)'lain what the 'ri.es were gi(en for. 3ut, almost alwa$s, all we hear is something like -... ma$ one da$ lead to a cure for cancer. Toda$ in 3elgrade...+ How much science is there on the radio or tele(ision talk shows, or on those drear$ Sunda$ morning 'rogrammes in which middle-aged white 'eo'le sit around agreeing with each other7 When is the last time $ou heard an intelligent comment on science b$ a =resident of the /nited States7 Wh$ in all "merica is there no TD drama that has as its hero someone de(oted to figuring out how the /ni(erse works7 When a highl$ 'ublici.ed murder trial has e(er$one casuall$ mentioning D5" testing, where are the 'rime-time network s'ecials de(oted to nucleic acids and heredit$7 I can+t e(en recall seeing an accurate and com'rehensible descri'tion on tele(ision of how television works. 3$ far the most effecti(e means of raising interest in science is tele(ision. 3ut this enormousl$ 'owerful medium is doing close to nothing to con(e$ the 1o$s and methods of science, while its -mad scientist+ engine continues to huff and 'uff awa$. In "merican 'olls in the earl$ % ;s, two-thirds of all adults had no idea what the -information su'erhighwa$+ was, EG 'er cent didn+t know where *a'an is, and &B 'er cent were ignorant of the term -holocaust+. 3ut the 'ro'ortion was in the high ;s who had heard of the #enende., 3obbit and 2.*. Sim'son criminal cases, 'er cent had heard that the singer #ichael *ackson had allegedl$ se)uall$ molested a bo$. The /nited States ma$ be the best-entertained nation on >arth, but a stee' 'rice is being 'aid. Sur(e$s in Canada and the /nited States in the same 'eriod show that tele(ision (iewers wish there were more science 'rogramming. In 5orth "merica, often there+s a good science 'rogramme in the -5o(a+ series of the =ublic 3roadcasting S$stem, and occasionall$ on the Disco(er$ or 4earning Channels, or the Canadian 3roadcasting Com'an$. 3ill 5$e+s -The Science ?u$+ 'rogrammes for $oung children on =3S are fast-'aced, feature arresting gra'hics, range o(er man$ realms of science, and sometimes e(en illuminate the 'rocess of disco(er$. 3ut the de'th of 'ublic interest in science engrossingl$ and accuratel$ 'resented - to sa$ nothing of the immense good that would result from better 'ublic understanding of science - is not $et reflected in network 'rogramming. How could we 'ut more science on tele(ision7 Here are some 'ossibilities! Q The wonders and methods of science routinel$ 'resented on news and talk 'rogrammes. There+s real human drama in the 'rocess of disco(er$. Q " series called -Sol(ed #$steries+, in which tremulous s'eculations

ha(e rational resolutions, including 'u..ling cases in forensic medicine and e'idemiolog$. Q -Aing #$ 3ells "gain+ - a series in which we reli(e the media and the 'ublic falling hook, line and sinker for a coordinated go(ernment lie. The first two e'isodes might be the 3a$ of Tonkin -incident+ and the s$stematic irradiation of unsus'ecting and un'rotected "merican ci(ilians and militar$ 'ersonnel in the alleged re8uirements of -national defence+ following % E5. Q " se'arate series on fundamental misunderstandings and mistakes made b$ famous scientists, national leaders and religious figures. Q Aegular e)'oses of 'ernicious 'seudoscience, and audience'artici'ation -how-to+ 'rogrammes! how to bend s'oons, read minds, a''ear to foretell the future, 'erform 's$chic surger$, do cold reads, and 'ress the TD (iewers+ 'ersonal buttons. How we+re bamboo.led! learn b$ doing. Q " state-of-the-art com'uter gra'hics facilit$ to 're'are in ad(ance scientific (isuals for a wide range of news contingencies. Q " set of ine)'ensi(e tele(ised debates, each 'erha's an hour long, with a com'uter gra'hics budget for each side 'ro(ided b$ the 'roducers, rigorous standards of e(idence re8uired b$ the moderator, and the widest range of to'ics broached. The$ could address issues where the scientific e(idence is o(erwhelming, as on the matter of the sha'e of the >arth, contro(ersial matters where the answer is less clear, such as the sur(i(al of one+s 'ersonalit$ after death, or abortion, or animal rights, or genetic engineering, or an$ of the 'resum'ti(e 'seudosciences mentioned in this book. There is a 'ressing national need for more 'ublic knowledge of science. Tele(ision cannot 'ro(ide it all b$ itself. 3ut if we want to make shortterm im'ro(ements in the understanding of science, tele(ision is the 'lace to start.

#a)well and The 5erds

Wh$ should we subsidi.e intellectual curiosit$7 Aonald Aeagan, cam'aign s'eech, % B; There is nothing which can better deser(e our 'atronage than the 'romotion of science and literature. @nowledge is in e(er$ countr$ the surest basis of 'ublic ha''iness. ?eorge Washington, address to Congress, B *anuar$ %C ;

-2

%tereot$'es abound. >thnic grou's are stereot$'ed, the citi.ens of

other nations and religions are stereot$'ed, the genders and se)ual 'references are stereot$'ed, 'eo'le born in (arious times of the $ear are stereot$'ed 9Sun-sign astrolog$:, and occu'ations are stereot$'ed. The most generous inter'retation ascribes it to a kind of intellectual la.iness! instead of 1udging 'eo'le on their indi(idual merits and deficits, we concentrate on one or two bits of information about them, and then 'lace them in a small number of 're(iousl$ constructed 'igeonholes. This sa(es the trouble of thinking, at the 'rice in man$ cases of committing a 'rofound in1ustice. It also shields the stereot$'er from contact with the enormous (ariet$ of 'eo'le, the multi'licit$ of wa$s of being human. >(en if stereot$'ing were (alid on a(erage, it is bound to fail in man$ indi(idual cases! human (ariation runs to bell-t$'e cur(es. There+s an a(erage (alue of an$ 8ualit$, and smaller numbers of 'eo'le running off in both e)tremes. Some stereot$'ing is the result of not controlling the (ariables, of forgetting what other factors might be in 'la$. <or e)am'le, it used to be that there were almost no women in science. #an$ male scientists were (ehement! this 'ro(ed that women lacked the abilit$ to do science. Tem'eramentall$, it didn+t fit them, it was too difficult, it re8uired a kind of intelligence that women don+t ha(e, the$+re too emotional to be ob1ecti(e, can $ou think of an$ great women theoretical 'h$sicists7... and so on. Since then the barriers ha(e come

tumbling down. Toda$ women 'o'ulate most of the subdisci'lines of science. In m$ own fields of astronom$ and 'lanetar$ studies, women ha(e recentl$ burst u'on the scene, making disco(er$ after disco(er$, and 'ro(iding a des'eratel$ needed breath of fresh air. So what data were the$ missing, all those famous male scientists of the % 5;s and % I;s and earlier who had 'ronounced so authoritati(el$ on the intellectual deficiencies of women7 =lainl$, societ$ was 're(enting women from entering science, and then critici.ing them for it, confusing cause and effect! 6ou want to be an astronomer, $oung woman7 Sorr$. Wh$ can+t $ou7 3ecause $ou+re unsuited. How do we know $ou+re unsuited7 3ecause women ha(e ne(er been astronomers. =ut so baldl$, the case sounds absurd. 3ut the contri(ances of bias can be subtle. The des'ised grou' is re1ected b$ s'urious arguments, sometimes done with such confidence and contem't that man$ of us, including some of the (ictims themsel(es, fail to recogni.e it as selfser(ing sleight of hand. Casual obser(ers of meetings of sce'tics, and those who glance at the list of CSIC2= <ellows, ha(e noted a great 're'onderance of men. 2thers claim dis'ro'ortionate numbers of women among belie(ers in astrolog$ 9horosco'es in most -women+s+ but few -men+s+ maga.ines:, cr$stals, >S= and the like. Some commentators suggest that there is something 'eculiarl$ male about sce'ticism. It+s hard-dri(ing, com'etiti(e, confrontational, tough-minded - whereas women, the$ sa$, are more acce'ting, consensus-building, and uninterested in challenging con(entional wisdom. 3ut in m$ e)'erience women scientists ha(e 1ust as finel$ honed sce'tical senses as their male counter'arts, that+s 1ust 'art of being a scientist. This criticism, if that+s what it is, is 'resented to the world in the usual ragged disguise! if $ou discourage women from being sce'tical and don+t train them in sce'ticism, then sure enough $ou ma$ find that man$ women aren+t sce'tical. 2'en the doors and let them in, and the$+re as sce'tical as an$bod$ else. 2ne of the stereot$'ed occu'ations is science. Scientists are nerds, sociall$ ine't, working on incom'rehensible sub1ects that no normal 'erson would find in an$ wa$ interesting - e(en if he were willing to in(est the time re8uired, which, again, no sensible 'erson would. -?et a life,+ $ou might want to tell them. I asked for a fleshed-out contem'orar$ characteri.ation of sciencenerds from an e)'ert on ele(en-$ear-olds of m$ ac8uaintance. I should stress that she is merel$ re'orting, not necessaril$ endorsing, the con(entional 're1udices! 5erds wear their belts 1ust under their rib cages. Their short-slee(e shirts are e8ui''ed with 'ocket 'rotectors in which is dis'la$ed a formidable arra$ of multicoloured 'ens and 'encils. " 'rogrammable

calculator is carried in a s'ecial belt holster. The$ all wear thick glasses with broken nose-'ieces that ha(e been re'aired with 3and-"ids. The$ are bereft of social skills, and obli(ious or indifferent to the lack. When the$ laugh, what comes out is a snort. The$ 1abber at each other in an incom'rehensible language. The$+ll 1um' at the o''ortunit$ to work for e)tra credit in all classes e)ce't g$m. The$ look down on normal 'eo'le, who in turn laugh at them. #ost nerds ha(e names like 5orman. 9The 5orman Con8uest in(ol(ed a horde of high-belted, 'ocket-'rotected, calculator-carr$ing nerds with broken glasses in(ading >ngland.: There are more bo$ nerds than girl nerds, but there are 'lent$ of both. 5erds don+t date. If $ou+re a nerd $ou can+t be cool. "lso (ice (ersa. This of course is a stereot$'e. There are scientists who dress elegantl$, who are de(astatingl$ cool, who man$ 'eo'le long to date, who do not carr$ concealed calculators to social e(ents. Some $ou+d ne(er guess were scientists if $ou in(ited them to $our home. 3ut other scientists do match the stereot$'e, more or less. The$+re 'rett$ sociall$ ine't. There ma$ be, 'ro'ortionatel$, man$ more nerds among scientists than among backhoe o'erators or fashion designers or traffic wardens. =erha's scientists are more nerdish than bartenders or surgeons or short-order cooks. Wh$ should this be7 #a$be 'eo'le untalented in getting along with others find a refuge in im'ersonal 'ursuits, 'articularl$ mathematics and the 'h$sical sciences. #a$be the serious stud$ of difficult sub1ects re8uires so much time and dedication that (er$ little is left o(er for learning more than the barest social niceties. #a$be it+s a combination of both. 4ike the mad-scientist image to which it+s closel$ related, the nerdscientist stereot$'e is 'er(asi(e in our societ$. What+s wrong with a little good-natured fun at the e)'ense of scientists7 If, for whate(er reason, 'eo'le dislike the stereot$'ical scientist, the$ are less likel$ to su''ort science. Wh$ subsidi.e geeks to 'ursue their absurd and incom'rehensible little 'ro1ects7 Well, we know the answer to that! science is su''orted because it 'ro(ides s'ectacular benefits at all le(els in societ$, as I ha(e argued earlier in this book. So those who find nerds distasteful, but at the same time cra(e the 'roducts of science, face a kind of dilemma. " tem'ting resolution is to direct the acti(ities of the scientists. Don+t gi(e them mone$ to go off in weird directions, instead tell them what we need - this in(ention, or that 'rocess. Subsidi.e not the curiosit$ of the nerds, but what will benefit societ$. It seems sim'le enough. The trouble is that ordering someone to go out and make a s'ecific in(ention, e(en if 'rice is no ob1ect, hardl$ guarantees that it gets done. There ma$ be an under'inning of knowledge that+s una(ailable, without which no one will e(er build the contri(ance $ou ha(e in mind. "nd the histor$ of science shows that often $ou can+t go after the under'innings in a directed wa$, either. The$ ma$ emerge out of the

idle musings of some lonel$ $oung 'erson off in the boondocks. The$+re ignored or re1ected e(en b$ other scientists, sometimes until a new generation of scientists comes along. /rging ma1or 'ractical in(entions while discouraging curiosit$-dri(en research would be s'ectacularl$ counter'roducti(e. Su''ose $ou are, b$ the ?race of ?od, Dictoria, Hueen of the /nited @ingdom of ?reat 3ritain and Ireland, and Defender of the <aith in the most 'ros'erous and trium'hant age of the 3ritish >m'ire. 6our dominions stretch across the 'lanet. #a's of the world are abundantl$ s'lashed with 3ritish 'ink. 6ou 'reside o(er the world+s leading technological 'ower. The steam engine is 'erfected in ?reat 3ritain, largel$ b$ Scottish engineers, who 'ro(ide technical e)'ertise on the railwa$s and steamshi's that bind u' the >m'ire. Su''ose in the $ear %BI; $ou ha(e a (isionar$ idea, so daring it would ha(e been re1ected b$ *ules Derne+s 'ublisher. 6ou want a machine that will carr$ $our (oice, as well as mo(ing 'ictures of the glor$ of the >m'ire, into e(er$ home in the kingdom. What+s more, the sounds and 'ictures must come not through conduits or wires, but somehow out of the air, so 'eo'le at work and in the field can recei(e instantaneous ins'irational offerings designed to insure lo$alt$ and the work ethic. The Word of ?od could also be con(e$ed b$ the same contri(ance. 2ther sociall$ desirable a''lications would doubtless be found. So with the =rime #inister+s su''ort, $ou con(ene the Cabinet, the Im'erial ?eneral Staff, and the leading scientists and engineers of the >m'ire. 6ou will allocate a million 'ounds, $ou tell them - big mone$ in %BI;. If the$ need more, 1ust ask. 6ou don+t care how the$ do it, 1ust get it done. 2h, $es, it+s to be called the Westminster =ro1ect. =robabl$ there would be some useful in(entions emerging out of such an endea(our - -s'in-off. There alwa$s are when $ou s'end huge amounts of mone$ on technolog$. 3ut the Westminster =ro1ect would almost certainl$ fail. Wh$7 3ecause the underl$ing science hadn+t been done. 3$ %BI; the telegra'h was in e)istence. 6ou could imagine at great e)'ense telegra'h$ sets in e(er$ home, with 'eo'le ditting and dahing messages out in #orse code. 3ut that+s not what the Hueen asked for. She had radio and tele(ision in mind but the$ were far out of reach. In the real world, the 'h$sics necessar$ to in(ent radio and tele(ision would come from a direction that no one could ha(e 'redicted. *ames Clerk #a)well was born in >dinburgh, Scotland, in %B&%. "t age two he found that he could use a tin 'late to bounce an image of the Sun off the furniture and make it dance against the walls. "s his 'arents came running he cried out, -It+s the Sun0 I got it with the tin 'late0+ In his bo$hood, he was fascinated b$ bugs, grubs, rocks,

flowers, lenses, machines. -It was humiliating,+ later recalled his "unt *ane, -to be asked so man$ 8uestions one couldn+t answer b$ a child like that.+ 5aturall$, b$ the time he got to school he was called -Daft$+ -not 8uite right in the head. He was an e)ce'tionall$ handsome $oung man, but he dressed carelessl$, for comfort rather than st$le, and his Scottish 'ro(incialisms in s'eech and conduct were a cause for derision, es'eciall$ b$ the time he reached college. "nd he had 'eculiar interests. #a)well was a nerd. He fared little better with his teachers than with his fellow students. Here+s a 'oignant cou'let he wrote at the time! 6e $ears roll on, and haste the e)'ected time When flogging bo$s shall be accounted crime. #an$ $ears later, in %BCG, in his inaugural lecture as 'rofessor of e)'erimental 'h$sics at Cambridge /ni(ersit$, he alluded to the nerdish stereot$'e! It is not so long ago since an$ man who de(oted himself to geometr$, or to an$ science re8uiring continued a''lication, was looked u'on as necessaril$ a misanthro'e, who must ha(e abandoned all human interests, and betaken himself to abstractions so far remo(ed from all the world of life and action that he has become insensible alike to the attractions of 'leasure and to the claims of dut$. I sus'ect that -not so long ago+ was #a)well+s wa$ of recalling the e)'eriences of his $outh. He then went on to sa$, In the 'resent da$, men of science are not looked u'on with the same awe or with the same sus'icion. The$ are su''osed to be in league with the material s'irit of the age, and to form a kind of ad(anced Aadical 'art$ among men of learning. We no longer li(e in a time of untrammelled o'timism about the benefits of science and technolog$. We understand that there is a downside. Circumstances toda$ are much closer to what #a)well remembered from his childhood. He made enormous contributions to astronom$ and 'h$sics -from the conclusi(e demonstration that the rings of Saturn are com'osed of small 'articles, to the elastic 'ro'erties of solids, to the disci'lines now called the kinetic theor$ of gases and statistical mechanics. It was he who first showed that an enormous number of tin$ molecules, mo(ing on their own and incessantl$ colliding with each other and bouncing

elasticall$, leads not to confusion, but to 'recise statistical laws. The 'ro'erties of such a gas can be 'redicted and understood. 9The bellsha'ed cur(e that describes the s'eeds of molecules in a gas is now called the #a)well-3olt.mann distribution.: He in(ented a m$thical being, now -#a)well+s demon+, whose actions generated a 'arado) that took modern information theor$ and 8uantum mechanics to resol(e. The nature of light had been a m$ster$ since anti8uit$. There were acrimonious learned debates on whether it was a 'article or a wa(e. =o'ular definitions ran to the st$le, -4ight is darkness - lit u'+. #a)well+s greatest contribution was his disco(er$ that electricit$ and magnetism, of all things, 1oin together to become light. The now con(entional understanding of the electromagnetic s'ectrum - running in wa(elength from gamma ra$s to R-ra$s to ultra(iolet light to (isible light to infrared light to radio wa(es - is due to #a)well. So is radio, tele(ision and radar. 3ut #a)well wasn+t after an$ of this. He was interested in how electricit$ makes magnetism and (ice (ersa. I want to describe what #a)well did, but his historic accom'lishment is highl$ mathematical. In a few 'ages, I can at best gi(e $ou onl$ a fla(our. If $ou do not full$ understand what I+m about to sa$, 'lease bear with me. There+s no wa$ we can get a feeling for what #a)well did without looking at a little mathematics. #esmer, the in(entor of -mesmerism+, belie(ed he had disco(ered a magnetic fluid, -almost the same thing as the electric fluid+, that 'ermeated all things. 2n this matter as well, he was mistaken. We now know that there is no s'ecial magnetic fluid, and that all magnetism including the 'ower that resides in a bar or horseshoe magnet - is due to mo(ing electricit$. The Danish 'h$sicist Hans Christian 2ersted had 'erformed a little e)'eriment in which electricit$ was made to flow down a wire and induce a nearb$ com'ass needle to wa(er and tremble. The wire and the com'ass were not in 'h$sical contact. The great >nglish 'h$sicist #ichael <arada$ had done the com'lementar$ e)'eriment! he made a magnetic force turn on and off and thereb$ generated a current of electricit$ in a nearb$ wire. Time-(ar$ing electricit$ had somehow reached out and generated magnetism, and time-(ar$ing magnetism had somehow reached out and generated electricit$. This was called -induction+ and was dee'l$ m$sterious, close to magic. <arada$ 'ro'osed that the magnet had an in(isible -field+ of force that e)tended into surrounding s'ace, stronger close to the magnet, weaker farther awa$. 6ou could track the form of the field b$ 'lacing tin$ iron filings on a 'iece of 'a'er and wa(ing a magnet underneath. 4ikewise, $our hair after a good combing on a low-humidit$ da$ generates an electric field which in(isibl$ e)tends out from $our head, and which can e(en make small 'ieces of 'a'er mo(e b$ themsel(es.

The electricit$ in a wire, we now know, is caused b$ submicrosco'ic electrical 'articles, called electrons, which res'ond to an electric field and mo(e. The wires are made of materials like co''er which ha(e lots of free electrons -electrons not bound within atoms, but able to mo(e. /nlike co''er, though, most materials, sa$, wood, are not good conductors, the$ are instead insulators or -dielectrics+. In them, com'arati(el$ few electrons are a(ailable to mo(e in res'onse to the im'ressed electric or magnetic field. 5ot much of a current is 'roduced. 2f course there+s some mo(ement or -dis'lacement+ of electrons, and the bigger the electric field, the more dis'lacement occurs. #a)well de(ised a wa$ of writing what was known about electricit$ and magnetism in his time, a method of summari.ing 'recisel$ all those e)'eriments with wires and currents and magnets. Here the$ are, the four #a)well e8uations for the beha(iour of electricit$ and magnetism in matter! Q E ` aPb; QB`; ) E ` -c ) B ` d;* \ d;b;e It takes a few $ears of uni(ersit$-le(el 'h$sics to understand these e8uations. The$ are written using a branch of mathematics called (ector calculus. " (ector, written in bold-face t$'e, is an$ 8uantit$ with both a magnitude and a direction. Si)t$ miles an hour isn+t a (ector, but si)t$ miles an hour due north on Highwa$ % is. E and B re'resent the electric and magnetic fields. The triangle, called a nabla 9because of its resemblance to a certain ancient #iddle >astern har':, e)'resses how the electric or magnetic fields (ar$ in three-dimensional s'ace. The -dot 'roduct+ and the -cross 'roduct+ after the nablas are statements of two different kinds of s'atial (ariation. e and c re'resent the time (ariation, the rate of change of the electric and magnetic fields, J stands for the electrical current. The lower-case ?reek letter a 9rho: re'resents the densit$ of electrical charges, while &' 9'ronounced -e'silon .ero+: and d; 9'ronounced -mu .ero+: are not (ariables, but 'ro'erties of the substance E and B are measured in, and determined b$ e)'eriment. In a (acuum, b; and d; are constants of nature. Considering how man$ different 8uantities are being brought together in these e8uations, it+s striking how sim'le the$ are. The$ could ha(e gone on for 'ages, but the$ don+t. The first of the four #a)well e8uations tells how an electric field due to electrical charges 9electrons, for e)am'le: (aries with distance 9it gets weaker the farther awa$ we go:. 3ut the greater the charge

densit$ 9the more electrons, sa$, in a gi(en s'ace:, the stronger the field. The second e8uation tells us that there+s no com'arable statement in magnetism, because #esmer+s magnetic -charges+ 9or magnetic -mono'oles+: do not e)ist! saw a magnet in half and $ou won+t be holding an isolated -north+ 'ole and an isolated -south+ 'ole, each 'iece now has its own -north+ and -south+ 'ole. The third e8uation tells us how a changing magnetic field induces an electric field. The fourth describes the con(erse - how a changing electric field 9or an electrical current: induces a magnetic field. The four e8uations are essentiall$ distillations of generations of laborator$ e)'eriments, mainl$ b$ <rench and 3ritish scientists. What I+(e described here (aguel$ and 8ualitati(el$, the e8uations describe e)actl$ and 8uantitati(el$. #a)well then asked himself a strange 8uestion! what would these e8uations look like in em't$ s'ace, in a (acuum, in a 'lace where there were no electrical charges and no electrical currents7 We might (er$ well antici'ate no electric and no magnetic fields in a (acuum. Instead, he suggested that the right form of the #a)well e8uations for the beha(iour of electricit$ and magnetism in em't$ s'ace is this! )E`; QB`; ) E ` -c ) B ` d;b;e He set a e8ual to .ero, indicating that there are no electrical charges. He also set ( e8ual to .ero, indicating that there are no electrical currents. 3ut he didn+t discard the last term in the fourth e8uation, d;b;e feeble dis'lacement current in insulators. Wh$ not7 "s $ou can see from the e8uations, #a)well+s intuition 'reser(ed the s$mmetr$ between the magnetic and electric fields. >(en in a (acuum, in the total absence of electricit$, or e(en matter, a changing magnetic field, he 'ro'osed, elicits an electric field and (ice (ersa. The e8uations were to re'resent 5ature, and 5ature is, #a)well belie(ed, beautiful and elegant. 9There was also another, more technical reason for 'reser(ing the dis'lacement current in a (acuum, which we 'ass o(er here.: This essentiall$ aesthetic 1udgement b$ a nerdish 'h$sicist, entirel$ unknown e)ce't to a few other academic scientists, has done more to sha'e our ci(ili.ation than an$ ten recent 'residents and 'rime ministers. 3riefl$, the four #a)well e8uations for a (acuum sa$ 9%: there are no electrical charges in a (acuum, 9G: there are no magnetic

mono'oles in a (acuum, 9&: a changing magnetic field generates an electrical field, and 9E: (ice (ersa. When the e8uations were written down like this, #a)well was readil$ able to show that E and B 'ro'agated through em't$ s'ace as if the$ were waves! What+s more, he could calculate the s'eed of the wa(e. It was 1ust % di(ided b$ the s8uare root of b; times d;. 3ut b; and d; had been measured in the laborator$. When $ou 'lugged in the numbers $ou found that the electric and magnetic fields in a (acuum ought to 'ro'agate, astonishingl$, at the same s'eed as had alread$ been measured for light. The agreement was too close to be accidental. Suddenl$, disconcertingl$, electricit$ and magnetism were dee'l$ im'licated in the nature of light. Since light now a''eared to beha(e as wa(es and to deri(e from electric and magnetic fields, #a)well called it electromagnetic. Those obscure e)'eriments with batteries and wires had something to do with the brightness of the Sun, with how we see, with what light is. Auminating on #a)well+s disco(er$ man$ $ears later, "lbert >instein wrote, To few men in the world has such an e)'erience been (ouchsafed.+ #a)well himself was baffled b$ the results. The (acuum seemed to act like a dielectric. He said that it can be -electricall$ 'olari.ed+. 4i(ing in a mechanical age, #a)well felt obliged to offer some kind of mechanical model for the 'ro'agation of an electromagnetic wa(e through a 'erfect (acuum. So he imagined s'ace filled with a m$sterious substance he called the aether, which su''orted and contained the time-(ar$ing electric and magnetic fields - something like a throbbing but in(isible *ell-2 'ermeating the /ni(erse. The 8ui(ering of the aether was the reason that light tra(elled through it 1ust as water wa(es 'ro'agate through water and sound wa(es through air. 3ut it had to be (er$ odd stuff, this ether, (er$ thin, ghostl$, almost incor'oreal. The Sun and the #oon, the 'lanets and the stars had to 'ass through it without being slowed down, without noticing. "nd $et it had to be stiff enough to su''ort all these wa(es 'ro'agating at 'rodigious s'eed. The word -aether+ is still, in a desultor$ fashion, in use - in >nglish mainl$ in the ad1ecti(e ethereal, residing in the aether. It has some of the same connotations as the more modern -s'ac$+ or -s'aced out+. When, in the earl$ da$s of radio, the$ would sa$ -2n the air+, the aether is what the$ had in mind. 9The Aussian 'hrase is 8uite literall$ -on the aether+, v efir!6 3ut of course radio readil$ tra(els through a (acuum, one of #a)well+s main results. It doesn+t need air to 'ro'agate. The 'resence of air is, if an$thing, an im'ediment. The whole idea of light and matter mo(ing through the aether was to lead in another fort$ $ears to >instein+s S'ecial Theor$ of Aelati(it$, > ` mcG, and a great deal else. Aelati(it$, and e)'eriments leading u'

to it, showed conclusi(el$ that there is no aether su''orting the 'ro'agation of electromagnetic wa(es, as >instein writes in the e)tract from his famous 'a'er that I re'roduced in Cha'ter G. The wa(e goes b$ itself. The changing electric field generates a magnetic field, the changing magnetic field generates an electric field. The$ hold each other u', b$ their bootstra's. #an$ 'h$sicists were dee'l$ troubled b$ the demise of the -luminiferous+ ether. The$ had needed some mechanical model to make the whole notion of the 'ro'agation of light in a (acuum reasonable, 'lausible, understandable. 3ut this is a crutch, a s$m'tom of our difficulties in reconnoitring realms in which common sense no longer ser(es. The 'h$sicist Aichard <e$nman described it this wa$! Toda$, we understand better that what counts are the e8uations themsel(es and not the model used to get them. We ma$ onl$ 8uestion whether the e8uations are true or false. This is answered b$ doing e)'eriments, and untold numbers of e)'eriments ha(e confirmed #a)well+s e8uations. If we take awa$ the scaffolding he used to build it, we find that #a)well+s beautiful edifice stands on its own. 3ut what are these time-(ar$ing electric and magnetic fields 'ermeating all of s'ace7 What do e and c mean7 We feel so much more comfortable with the idea of things touching and 1iggling, 'ushing and 'ulling, rather than -fields+ magicall$ mo(ing ob1ects at a distance, or mere mathematical abstractions. 3ut, as <e$nman 'ointed out, our sense that at least in e(er$da$ life we can rel$ on solid, sensible 'h$sical contact to e)'lain, sa$, wh$ the butter knife comes to $ou when $ou 'ick it u', is a misconce'tion. What does it mean to ha(e 'h$sical contact7 What e)actl$ is ha''ening when $ou 'ick u' a knife, or 'ush a swing, or make a wa(e in a waterbed b$ 'ressing down on it 'eriodicall$7 When we in(estigate dee'l$, we find that there is no 'h$sical contact. Instead, the electrical charges on $our hand are influencing the electrical charges on the knife or swing or waterbed, and (ice (ersa. Des'ite e(er$da$ e)'erience and common sense, e(en here, there is onl$ the interaction of electric fields. 5othing is touching an$thing. 5o 'h$sicist started out im'atient with common-sense notions, eager to re'lace them with some mathematical abstraction that could be understood onl$ b$ rarified theoretical 'h$sics. Instead, the$ began, as we all do, with comfortable, standard, common-sense notions. The trouble is that 5ature does not com'l$. If we no longer insist on our notions of how 5ature ought to beha(e, but instead stand before 5ature with an o'en and rece'ti(e mind, we find that common sense often doesn+t work. Wh$ not7 3ecause our notions, both hereditar$ and learned, of how 5ature works were forged in the millions of $ears our ancestors were hunters and gatherers. In this case common sense is a faithless guide because no hunter-gatherer+s life e(er de'ended on

understanding time-(ariable electric and magnetic fields. There were no e(olutionar$ 'enalties for ignorance of #a)well+s e8uations. In our time it+s different. #a)well+s e8uations show that a ra'idl$ (ar$ing electric field 9making e large: ought to generate electromagnetic wa(es. In %BBB the ?erman 'h$sicist Heinrich Hert. did the e)'eriment and found that he had generated a new kind of radiation, radio wa(es. Se(en $ears later, 3ritish scientists in Cambridge transmitted radio signals o(er a distance of a kilometre. 3$ % ;%, ?uglielmo #arconi of Ital$ was using radio wa(es to communicate across the "tlantic 2cean. The linking-u' of the modern world economicall$, culturall$ and 'oliticall$ b$ broadcast towers, microwa(e rela$s and communication satellites traces directl$ back to #a)well+s 1udgement to include the dis'lacement current in his (acuum e8uations. So does tele(ision, which im'erfectl$ instructs and entertains us, radar, which ma$ ha(e been the decisi(e element in the 3attle of 3ritain and in the 5a.i defeat in World War Two 9which I like to think of as -Daft$+, the bo$ who didn+t fit in, reaching into the future and sa(ing the descendants of his tormentors:, the control and na(igation of air'lanes, shi's and s'acecraft, radio astronom$ and the search for e)traterrestrial intelligence, and significant as'ects of the electrical 'ower and microelectronics industries. What+s more, <arada$+s and #a)well+s notion of fields has been enormousl$ influential in understanding the atomic nucleus, 8uantum mechanics, and the fine structure of matter. His unification of electricit$, magnetism and light into one coherent mathematical whole is the ins'iration for subse8uent attem'ts - some successful, some still in their rudimentar$ stages - to unif$ all as'ects of the 'h$sical world, including gra(it$ and nuclear forces, into one grand theor$. #a)well ma$ fairl$ be said to ha(e ushered in the age of modern 'h$sics. 2ur current (iew of the silent world of #a)well+s (ar$ing electric and magnetic (ectors is described b$ Aichard <e$nman in these words! Tr$ to imagine what the electric and magnetic fields look like at 'resent in the s'ace of this lecture room. <irst of all, there is a stead$ magnetic field, it comes from the currents in the interior of the earth - that is, the earth+s stead$ magnetic field. Then there are some irregular, nearl$ static electric fields 'roduced 'erha's b$ electric charges generated b$ friction as (arious 'eo'le mo(e about in their chairs and rub their coat slee(es against the chair arms. Then there are other magnetic fields 'roduced b$ oscillating currents in the electrical wiring - fields which (ar$ at a fre8uenc$ of I; c$cles 'er second, in s$nchronism with the generator at 3oulder Dam. 3ut more interesting are the electric and magnetic fields (ar$ing at much higher fre8uencies. <or instance, as light tra(els from window to floor and wall to wall, there are little wiggles of the electric and magnetic fields mo(ing along at %BI,;;;

miles 'er second. Then there are also infrared wa(es tra(elling from the warm foreheads to the cold blackboard. "nd we ha(e forgotten the ultra(iolet light, the R-ra$s, and the radiowa(es tra(elling through the room. <l$ing across the room are electromagnetic wa(es which carr$ music of a 1a.. band. There are wa(es modulated b$ a series of im'ulses re'resenting 'ictures of e(ents going on in other 'arts of the world, or of imaginar$ as'irins dissol(ing in imaginar$ stomachs. To demonstrate the realit$ of these wa(es it is onl$ necessar$ to turn on electronic e8ui'ment that con(erts these wa(es into 'ictures and sounds. If we go into further detail to anal$.e e(en the smallest wiggles, there are tin$ electromagnetic wa(es that ha(e come into the room from enormous distances. There are now tin$ oscillations of the electric field, whose crests are se'arated b$ a distance of one foot, that ha(e come from millions of miles awa$, transmitted to the earth from the #ariner JGF s'ace craft which has 1ust 'assed Denus. Its signals carr$ summaries of information it has 'icked u' about the 'lanets 9information obtained from electromagnetic wa(es that tra(elled from the 'lanet to the s'ace craft:. There are (er$ tin$ wiggles of the electric and magnetic fields that are wa(es which originated billions of light $ears awa$ - from gala)ies in the remotest corners of the uni(erse. That this is true has been found b$ -filling the room with wires+ - b$ building antennas as large as this room. Such radiowa(es ha(e been detected from 'laces in s'ace be$ond the range of the greatest o'tical telesco'es. >(en the$, the o'tical telesco'es, are sim'l$ gatherers of electromagnetic wa(es. What we call the stars are onl$ inferences, inferences drawn from the onl$ 'h$sical realit$ we ha(e $et gotten from them - from a careful stud$ of the unendingl$ com'le) undulations of the electric and magnetic fields reaching us on earth. There is, of course, more! the fields 'roduced b$ lightning miles awa$, the fields of the charged cosmic ra$ 'articles as the$ .i' through the room, and more, and more. What a com'licated thing is the electric field in the s'ace around $ou0 If Hueen Dictoria had e(er called an urgent meeting of her counsellors, and ordered them to in(ent the e8ui(alent of radio and tele(ision, it is unlikel$ that an$ of them would ha(e imagined the 'ath to lead through the e)'eriments of "m'ere, 3iot, 2ersted and <arada$, four e8uations of (ector calculus, and the 1udgement to 'reser(e the dis'lacement current in a (acuum. The$ would, I think, ha(e gotten nowhere. #eanwhile, on his own, dri(en onl$ b$ curiosit$, costing the go(ernment almost nothing, himself unaware that he was la$ing the ground for the Westminster =ro1ect, -Daft$+ was scribbling awa$. It+s doubtful whether the self-effacing, unsociable #r #a)well would e(en

ha(e been thought of to 'erform such a stud$. If he had, 'robabl$ the go(ernment would ha(e been telling him what to think about and what not, im'eding rather than inducing his great disco(er$. 4ate in life, #a)well did ha(e one inter(iew with Hueen Dictoria. He worried about it beforehand - essentiall$ about his abilit$ to communicate science to a non-e)'ert - but the Hueen was distracted and the inter(iew was short. 4ike the four other greatest 3ritish scientists of recent histor$, #ichael <arada$, Charles Darwin, =.".#. Dirac and <rancis Crick, #a)well was ne(er knighted 9although 4$ell, @el(in, *.*. Thomson, Autherford, >ddington and Ho$le in the ne)t tier were:. In #a)well+s case, there was not e(en the e)cuse that he might hold o'inions at (ariance with the Church of >ngland! he was an absolutel$ con(entional Christian for his time, more de(out than most. #a$be it was his nerdishness. The communications media - the instruments of education and entertainment that *ames Clerk #a)well made 'ossible - ha(e ne(er, so far as I know, offered e(en a mini-series on the life and thought of their benefactor and founder. 3$ contrast, think of how difficult it is to grow u' in "merica without tele(ision teaching $ou about, sa$, the life and times of Da($ Crockett or 3ill$ the @id or "l Ca'one. #a)well married $oung, but the bond seems to ha(e been 'assionless as well as childless. His e)citement was reser(ed for science. This founder of the modern age died in %BC at the age of EC. While he is almost forgotten in 'o'ular culture, radar astronomers who ma' other worlds ha(e remembered! the greatest mountain range on Denus, disco(ered b$ sending radio wa(es from >arth, bouncing them off Denus, and detecting the faint echoes, is named after him. 4ess than a centur$ after #a)well+s 'rediction of radio wa(es, the first 8uest was initiated for signals from 'ossible ci(ili.ations on 'lanets of other stars. Since then there ha(e been a number of searches, some of which I referred to earlier, for the time-(ar$ing electric and magnetic fields crossing the (ast interstellar distances from 'ossible other intelligences - biologicall$ (er$ different from us - who had also benefited sometime in their histories from the insights of local counter'arts of *ames Clerk #a)well. In 2ctober % G, in the #o1a(e Desert, and in a =uerto Aican karst (alle$, we initiated b$ far the most 'romising, 'owerful and com'rehensi(e search for e)traterrestrial intelligence 9S>TI:. <or the first time 5"S" would organi.e and o'erate the 'rogramme. The entire sk$ would be e)amined o(er a ten-$ear 'eriod with un'recedented sensiti(it$ and fre8uenc$ range. If, on a 'lanet of an$ of the E;; billion other stars that make u' the #ilk$ Wa$ gala)$, an$one had been sending us a radio message, we might ha(e had a 'rett$ fair chance of hearing them. *ust one $ear later, Congress 'ulled the 'lug. S>TI was not of

'ressing im'ortance, its interest was limited, it was too e)'ensi(e. 3ut e(er$ ci(ili.ation in human histor$ has de(oted some of its resources to in(estigating dee' 8uestions about the /ni(erse, and it+s hard to think of a dee'er one than whether we are alone. >(en if we ne(er decr$'ted the message contents, the recei't of such a signal would transform our (iew of the /ni(erse and oursel(es. "nd if we could understand the message from an ad(anced technical ci(ili.ation, the 'ractical benefits might be un'recedented. <ar from being narrowl$ based, the S>TI 'rogramme, strongl$ su''orted b$ the scientific communit$, is also embedded in 'o'ular culture. The fascination with this enter'rise is broad and enduring, and for (er$ good reason. "nd far from being too e)'ensi(e, the 'rogramme would ha(e cost about one attack helico'ter 'er $ear. I wonder wh$ those members of Congress concerned about 'rice tags don+t de(ote greater attention to the De'artment of Defense, which, with the So(iet /nion gone and the Cold War o(er, still s'ends, when all costs are tallied, well o(er O&;; billion a $ear. 9"nd elsewhere in go(ernment there are man$ 'rogrammes that amount to welfare for the well-to-do.: =erha's our descendants will look back on our time and mar(el at us, 'ossessed of the technolog$ to detect other beings, but closing our ears because we insisted on s'ending the national wealth to 'rotect us from an enem$ that no longer e)ists.K
JK The S>TI 'rogramme was briefl$ resurrected, using OC million in 'ri(ate contributions, in % 5 under the a''ro'riate name =ro1ect =hoeni).F

Da(id ?oodstein, a 'h$sicist at Cal Tech, notes that science has been growing nearl$ e)'onentiall$ for centuries and that it cannot continue such growth, because then e(er$bod$ on the 'lanet, would ha(e to be a scientist, and then the growth would ha(e to sto'. He s'eculates that for this reason, and not because of an$ fundamental disaffection from science, the growth in funding of science has slowed measurabl$ in the last few decades. 5e(ertheless, I+m worried about how research funds are distri+uted! I+m worried that cancelling go(ernment funds for S>TI is 'art of a trend. The go(ernment has been 'ressuring the 5ational Science <oundation to mo(e awa$ from basic scientific research and to su''ort technolog$, engineering, a''lications. Congress is suggesting doing awa$ with the /S ?eological Sur(e$, and slashing su''ort for stud$ of the >arth+s fragile en(ironment. 5"S" su''ort for research and anal$sis of data alread$ obtained is increasingl$ constrained. #an$ $oung scientists are not onl$ unable to find grants to su''ort their research, the$ are unable to find 1obs. Industrial research and de(elo'ment funded b$ "merican com'anies has slowed across the board in recent $ears. ?o(ernment funding for research and de(elo'ment has declined in the same 'eriod.

92nl$ militar$ research and de(elo'ment increased in the decade of the % B;s.: In annual e)'enditures, *a'an is now the world+s leading in(estor in ci(ilian research and de(elo'ment. In such fields as com'uters, telecommunications e8ui'ment, aeros'ace, machine tools, robotics, and scientific 'recision e8ui'ment, the /S share of global e)'orts has been declining, while the *a'anese share has been increasing. In that same 'eriod the /nited States lost its lead to *a'an in most semiconductor technologies. It e)'eriences se(ere declines in market share in colour TDs, DCAs, 'honogra'hs, tele'hone sets and machine tools. 3asic research is where scientists are free to 'ursue their curiosit$ and interrogate 5ature, not with an$ short-term 'ractical end in (iew, but to seek knowledge for its own sake. Scientists of course ha(e a (ested interest in basic research. It+s what the$ like to do, in man$ cases wh$ the$ became scientists in the first 'lace. 3ut it is in societ$+s interest to su''ort such research. This is how the ma1or disco(eries that benefit humanit$ are largel$ made. Whether a few grand and ambitious scientific 'ro1ects are a better in(estment than a larger number of small 'rogrammes is a worthwhile 8uestion. We are rarel$ smart enough to set about on 'ur'ose making the disco(eries that will dri(e our econom$ and safeguard our li(es. 2ften, we lack the fundamental research. Instead, we 'ursue a broad range of in(estigations of 5ature, and a''lications we ne(er dreamed of emerge. 5ot alwa$s, of course. 3ut often enough. ?i(ing mone$ to someone like #a)well might ha(e seemed the most absurd encouragement of mere -curiosit$-dri(en+ science, and an im'rudent 1udgement for 'ractical legislators. Wh$ grant mone$ now, so nerdish scientists talking incom'rehensible gibberish can indulge their hobbies, when there are urgent unmet national needs7 <rom this 'oint of (iew it+s eas$ to understand the contention that science is 1ust another lobb$, another 'ressure grou' an)ious to kee' the grant mone$ rolling in so the scientists don+t e(er ha(e to do a hard da$+s work or meet a 'a$roll. #a)well wasn+t thinking of radio, radar and tele(ision when he first scratched out the fundamental e8uations of electromagnet-ism, 5ewton wasn+t dreaming of s'ace flight or communications satellites when he first understood the motion of the #oon, Aoentgen wasn+t contem'lating medical diagnosis when he in(estigated a 'enetrating radiation so m$sterious he called it -R-ra$s+, Curie wasn+t thinking of cancer thera'$ when she 'ainstakingl$ e)tracted minute amounts of radium from tons of 'itchblende, <leming wasn+t 'lanning on sa(ing the li(es of millions with antibiotics when he noticed a circle free of bacteria around a growth of mould, Watson and Crick weren+t imagining the cure of genetic diseases when the$ 'u..led o(er the Rra$ diffractometr$ of D5", Aowland and #olina weren+t 'lanning to im'licate C<Cs in o.one de'letion when the$ began stud$ing the role

of halogens in stratos'heric 'hotochemistr$. #embers of Congress and other 'olitical leaders ha(e from time to time found it irresistible to 'oke fun at seemingl$ obscure scientific research 'ro'osals that the go(ernment is asked to fund. >(en as bright a senator as William =ro)mire, a Har(ard graduate, was gi(en to making e'isodic -?olden <leece+ awards, man$ commemorating ostensibl$ useless scientific 'ro1ects including S>TI. I imagine the same s'irit in 're(ious go(ernments - a #r <leming wishes to stud$ bugs in smell$ cheese, a =olish woman wishes to sift through tons of Central "frican ore to find minute 8uantities of a substance she sa$s will glow in the dark, a #r @e'ler wants to hear the songs the 'lanets sing. These disco(eries and a multitude of others that grace and characteri.e our time, to some of which our (er$ li(es are beholden, were made ultimatel$ b$ scientists gi(en the o''ortunit$ to e)'lore what in their o'inion, under the scrutin$ of their 'eers, were basic 8uestions in 5ature. Industrial a''lications, in which *a'an in the last two decades has done so well, are e)cellent. 3ut a''lications of what7 <undamental research, research into the heart of 5ature, is the means b$ which we ac8uire the new knowledge that gets a''lied. Scientists ha(e an obligation, es'eciall$ when asking for big mone$, to e)'lain with great clarit$ and honest$ what the$+re after. The Su'erconducting Su'ercollider 9SSC: would ha(e been the 'reeminent instrument on the 'lanet for 'robing the fine structure of matter and the nature of the earl$ /ni(erse. Its 'rice tag was O%; to O%5 billion. It was cancelled b$ Congress in % & after about OG billion had been s'ent - a worst of both worlds outcome. 3ut this debate was not, I think, mainl$ about declining interest in the su''ort of science. <ew in Congress understood what modem high energ$ accelerators are for. The$ are not for wea'ons. The$ ha(e no 'ractical a''lications. The$ are for something that is, worrisomel$ from the 'oint of (iew of man$, called -the theor$ of e(er$thing+. >)'lanations that in(ol(e entities called 8uarks, charm, fla(our, colour, etc. sound as if 'h$sicists are being cute. The whole thing has an aura, in the (iew of at least some Congress'eo'le I+(e talked to, of -nerds gone wild+ - which I su''ose is an uncharitable wa$ of describing curiosit$-based science. 5o one asked to 'a$ for this had the foggiest idea of what a Higgs boson is. I+(e read some of the material intended to 1ustif$ the SSC. "t the (er$ end, some of it wasn+t too bad, but there was nothing that reall$ addressed what the 'ro1ect was about on a le(el accessible to bright but sce'tical non-'h$sicists. If 'h$sicists are asking for O%; or O%5 billion to build a machine that has no 'ractical (alue, at the (er$ least the$ should make an e)tremel$ serious effort, with da..ling gra'hics, meta'hors and ca'able use of the >nglish language, to 1ustif$ their 'ro'osal. #ore than financial mismanagement, budgetar$ constraints and 'olitical incom'etence, I think this is the ke$ to the failure of the SSC.

There is a growing free-market (iew of human knowledge, according to which basic research should com'ete without go(ernment su''ort with all the other institutions and claimants in societ$. If the$ couldn+t ha(e relied on go(ernment su''ort, and had to com'ete in the freemarket econom$ of their da$, it+s unlikel$ that an$ of the scientists on m$ list would ha(e been able to do their groundbreaking research. "nd the cost of basic research is substantiall$ greater than it was in #a)well+s da$ -both theoretical and, es'eciall$, e)'erimental. 3ut that aside, would free-market forces be ade8uate to su''ort basic research7 2nl$ about ten 'er cent of meritorious research 'ro'osals in medicine are funded toda$. #ore mone$ is s'ent on 8uack medicine than on all of medical research. What would it be like if go(ernment o'ted out of medical research7 " necessar$ as'ect of basic research is that its a''lications lie in the future, sometimes decades or e(en centuries ahead. What+s more, no one knows which as'ects of basic research will ha(e 'ractical (alue and which will not. If scientists cannot make such 'redictions, is it likel$ that 'oliticians or industrialists can7 If free-market forces are focused onl$ towards short-term 'rofit - as the$ certainl$ mainl$ are in an "merica with stee' declines in cor'orate research - is not this solution tantamount to abandoning basic research7 Cutting off fundamental, curiosit$-dri(en science is like eating the seed corn. We ma$ ha(e a little more to eat ne)t winter, but what will we 'lant so we and our children will ha(e enough to get through the winters to come7 2f course there are man$ 'ressing 'roblems facing our nation and our s'ecies. 3ut reducing basic scientific research is not the wa$ to sol(e them. Scientists do not constitute a (oting bloc. The$ ha(e no effecti(e lobb$. Howe(er, much of their work is in e(er$bod$+s interest. 3acking off from fundamental research constitutes a failure of ner(e, of imagination and of that (ision thing that we still don+t seem to ha(e a handle on. It might strike one of those h$'othetical e)traterrestrials that we were 'lanning not to ha(e a future. 2f course we need literac$, education, 1obs, ade8uate medical care and defence, 'rotection of the en(ironment, securit$ in our old age, a balanced budget, and a host of other matters. 3ut we are a rich societ$. Can+t we also nurture the #a)wells of our time7 To take one s$mbolic e)am'le, is it reall$ true that we can+t afford one attack helico'ter+s worth of seed corn to listen to the stars7

Science and WitchcraftK

?+i du+ium i+i li+ertas* Where there is doubt, there is freedom. 4atin 'ro(erb
JK Written with "nn Dru$an. The following two cha'ters include more 'olitical content than elsewhere in this book. I do not wish to suggest that ad(ocac$ of science and sce'ticism necessaril$ leads to all the 'olitical or social conclusions I draw. "lthough sce'tical thinking is in(aluable in 'olitics, 'olitics is not a science.F

-7

The % &

5ew 6ork World+s <air - that so transfi)ed me as a small (isitor from darkest 3rookl$n - was about The World of Tomorrow+. #erel$ b$ ado'ting such a motif, it 'romised that there would +e a world of tomorrow, and the most casual glance affirmed that it would be better than the world of % & . "lthough the nuance wholl$ 'assed me b$, man$ 'eo'le longed for such a reassurance on the e(e of the most brutal and calamitous war in human histor$. I knew at least that I would be growing u' in the future. The sleek and clean -tomorrow+ 'ortra$ed b$ the <air was a''ealing and ho'eful. "nd something called science was 'lainl$ the means b$ which that future would be reali.ed. 3ut if things had gone a little differentl$, the <air could ha(e gi(en me enormousl$ more. " fierce struggle had gone on behind the scenes. The (ision that 're(ailed was that of the <air+s =resident and chief s'okesman, ?ro(er Whalen - a former cor'orate e)ecuti(e, 5ew 6ork Cit$ 'olice chief in a time of un'recedented 'olice brutalit$, and 'ublic relations inno(ator. It was he who had en(isioned the e)hibit buildings as chiefl$ commercial, industrial, oriented to consumer 'roducts, and he who had con(inced Stalin and #ussolini to build la(ish national 'a(ilions. 9He later com'lained about how often he had been obliged to gi(e the fascist salute.: The le(el of the e)hibits, as one designer described it, was 'itched to the mentalit$ of a twel(e-$ear-old. Howe(er, as recounted b$ the historian =eter @u.nick of "merican /ni(ersit$, a grou' of 'rominent scientists, including Harold /re$ and "lbert >instein, ad(ocated 'resenting science for its own sake, not 1ust as the route to gadgets for sale, concentrating on the wa$ of thinking

and not 1ust the 'roducts of science. The$ were con(inced that broad 'o'ular understanding of science was the antidote to su'erstition and bigotr$, that, as science 'o'ulari.er Watson Da(is 'ut it, -the scientific wa$ is the democratic wa$+. 2ne scientist e(en suggested that wides'read 'ublic a''reciation of the methods of science might work -a final con8uest of stu'idit$+ - a worth$, but 'robabl$ unreali.able, goal. "s e(ents trans'ired, almost no real science was tacked on to the <air+s e)hibits, des'ite the scientists+ 'rotests and their a''eals to high 'rinci'les. "nd $et, some of the little that was added trickled down to me and hel'ed to transform m$ childhood. The cor'orate and consumer focus remained central, though, and essentiall$ nothing a''eared about science as a wa$ of thinking, much less as a bulwark of a free societ$. >)actl$ half a centur$ later, in the closing $ears of the So(iet /nion, "nn Dru$an and I found oursel(es at a dinner in =eredelkino, a (illage outside #oscow where Communist =art$ officials, retired generals and a few fa(oured intellectuals had their summer homes. The air was electric with the 'ros'ect of new freedoms - es'eciall$ the right to s'eak $our mind e(en if the go(ernment doesn+t like what $ou+re sa$ing. The fabled re(olution of rising e)'ectations was in full flower. 3ut, des'ite glasnost, there were wides'read doubts. Would those in 'ower reall$ allow their own critics to be heard7 Would freedom of s'eech, of assembl$, of the 'ress, of religion, reall$ be 'ermitted7 Would 'eo'le ine)'erienced with freedom be able to bear its burdens7 Some of the So(iet citi.ens 'resent at the dinner had fought for decades and against long odds for the freedoms that most "mericans take for granted, indeed, the$ had been ins'ired b$ the "merican e)'eriment, a real-world demonstration that nations, e(en multicultural and multiethnic nations, could sur(i(e and 'ros'er with these freedoms reasonabl$ intact. The$ went so far as to raise the 'ossibilit$ that 'ros'erit$ was due to freedom -that, in an age of high technolog$ and swift change, the two rise or fall together, that the o'enness of science and democrac$, their willingness to be 1udged b$ e)'eriment, were closel$ allied wa$s of thinking. There were man$ toasts, as there alwa$s are at dinners in that 'art of the world. The most memorable was gi(en b$ a world-famous So(iet no(elist. He stood u', raised his glass, looked us in the e$e, and said, To the "mericans. The$ ha(e a little freedom.+ He 'aused a beat, and then added! -"nd the$ know how to kee' it.+ Do we7 The ink was barel$ dr$ on the 3ill of Aights before 'oliticians found a wa$ to sub(ert it, b$ cashing in on fear and 'atriotic h$steria. In %C B, the ruling <ederalist =art$ knew that the button to 'ush was ethnic and

cultural 're1udice. >)'loiting tensions between <rance and the /S, and a wides'read fear that <rench and Irish immigrants were somehow intrinsicall$ unfit to be "mericans, the <ederalists 'assed a set of laws that ha(e come to be known as the "lien and Sedition "cts. 2ne law u''ed the residenc$ re8uirement for citi.enshi' from fi(e to fourteen $ears. 9Citi.ens of <rench and Irish origin usuall$ (oted for the o''osition, Thomas *efferson+s Democratic-Ae'ublican =art$.: The "lien "ct ga(e =resident *ohn "dams the 'ower to de'ort an$ foreigner who aroused his sus'icions. #aking the =resident ner(ous, said a member of Congress, -is the new crime+. *efferson belie(ed the "lien "ct had been framed 'articularl$ to e)'el C.<. Dolne$,K the <rench historian and 'hiloso'her, =ierre Samuel du =ont de 5emours, 'atriarch of the famous chemical famil$, and the 3ritish scientist *ose'h =riestle$, the disco(erer of o)$gen and an intellectual antecedent of *ames Clerk #a)well. In *efferson+s (iew, these were 1ust the sort of 'eo'le "merica needed.
JK " t$'ical 'assage from Dolne$+s %C % book ,uins*
6ou dis'ute, $ou 8uarrel, $ou fight for that which is uncertain, that of which $ou doubt. 2 men0 Is this not foll$7... We must trace a line of distinction between those Jsub1ectsF that are ca'able of (erification, and those that are not, and se'arate b$ an in(iolable barrier the world of fantastical beings from the world of realities, that is to sa$, all ci(il effect must be taken awa$ from theological and religious o'inions.F

The Sedition "ct made it unlawful to 'ublish -false or malicious+ criticism of the go(ernment or to ins'ire o''osition to an$ of its acts. Some two do.en arrests were made, ten 'eo'le were con(icted, and man$ more were censored or intimidated into silence. The act attem'ted, *efferson said, -to crush all 'olitical o''osition b$ making criticism of <ederalist officials or 'olicies a crime+. "s soon as *efferson was elected, indeed in the first week of his =residenc$ in %B;%, he began 'ardoning e(er$ (ictim of the Sedition "ct because, he said, it was as contrar$ to the s'irit of "merican freedoms as if Congress had ordered us all to fall down and worshi' a golden calf. 3$ %B;G, none of the "lien and Sedition "cts remained on the books. <rom across two centuries, it+s hard to reca'ture the fren.ied mood that made the <rench and the -wild Irish+ seem so gra(e a threat that we were willing to surrender our most 'recious freedoms. ?i(ing credit for <rench and Irish cultural trium'hs, ad(ocating e8ual rights for them, was in effect decried in conser(ati(e circles as sentimental - unrealistic 'olitical correctness. 3ut that+s how it alwa$s works. It alwa$s seems an aberration later. 3ut b$ then we+re in the gri' of the ne)t h$steria. Those who seek 'ower at an$ 'rice detect a societal weakness, a

fear that the$ can ride into office. It could be ethnic differences, as it was then, 'erha's different amounts of melanin in the skin, different 'hiloso'hies or religions, or ma$be it+s drug use, (iolent crime, economic crisis, school 'ra$er, or -desecrating+ 9literall$, making unhol$: the flag. Whate(er the 'roblem, the 8uick fi) is to sha(e a little freedom off the 3ill of Aights. 6es, in % EG, *a'anese-"mericans were 'rotected b$ the 3ill of Aights, but we locked them u' an$wa$ -after all, there was a war on. 6es, there are Constitutional 'rohibitions against unreasonable search and sei.ure, but we ha(e a war on drugs and (iolent crime is racing out of control. 6es, there+s freedom of s'eech, but we don+t want foreign authors here, s'outing alien ideologies, do we7 The 'rete)ts change from $ear to $ear, but the result remains the same! concentrating more 'ower in fewer hands and su''ressing di(ersit$ of o'inion - e(en though e)'erience 'lainl$ shows the danger of such a course of action.

If we do not know what we+re ca'able of, we cannot a''reciate measures taken to 'rotect us from oursel(es. I discussed the >uro'ean witch mania in the alien abduction conte)t, I ho'e the reader will forgi(e me for returning to it in its 'olitical conte)t. It is an a'erture to human self-knowledge. If we focus on what was considered acce'table e(idence and a fair trial b$ the religious and secular authorities in the fifteenth- to se(enteenth-centur$ witch hunts, man$ of the no(el and 'eculiar features of the eighteenthcentur$ /S Constitution and 3ill of Aights become clear! including trial b$ 1ur$, 'rohibitions against self-incrimination and against cruel and unusual 'unishment, freedom of s'eech and the 'ress, due 'rocess, the balance of 'owers and the se'aration of Church and State. <riedrich (on S'ec 9'ronounced -Sh'a$+: was a *esuit 'riest who had the misfortune to hear the confessions of those accused of witchcraft in the ?erman cit$ of Wur.burg 9see Cha'ter C:. In %I&%, he 'ublished Cautio Criminalis :Precautions for Prosecutors6, which e)'osed the essence of this ChurchPState terrorism against the innocent. 3efore he was 'unished he died of the 'lague - as a 'arish 'riest ser(ing the afflicted. Here is an e)cer't from his whistleblowing book!
%. Incredibl$ among us ?ermans, and es'eciall$ 9I am ashamed to sa$: among Catholics, are 'o'ular su'erstitions, en($, calumnies, backbiting, insinuations, and the like, which, being neither 'unished nor refuted, stir u' sus'icion of witchcraft. 5o longer ?od or nature, but witches are res'onsible for e(er$thing.

G. Hence e(er$bod$ sets u' a clamour that the magistrates in(estigate the witches - whom onl$ 'o'ular gossi' has made so numerous. &. =rinces, therefore, bid their 1udges and counsellors bring 'roceedings against the witches. E. The 1udges hardl$ know where to start, since the$ ha(e no e(idence JindiciaM or 'roof. 5. #eanwhile, the 'eo'le call this dela$ sus'icious, and the 'rinces are 'ersuaded b$ some informer or another to this effect. I. In ?erman$, to offend these 'rinces is a serious offence, e(en clerg$men a''ro(e whate(er 'leases them, not caring b$ whom these 'rinces 9howe(er well-intentioned: ha(e been instigated. C. "t last, therefore, the 1udges $ield to their wishes and contri(e to begin the trials. B. 2ther 1udges who still dela$, afraid to get in(ol(ed in this ticklish matter, are sent a s'ecial in(estigator. In this field of in(estigation, whate(er ine)'erience or arrogance he brings to the 1ob is held .eal for 1ustice. His .eal for 1ustice is also whetted b$ ho'es of 'rofit, es'eciall$ with a 'oor and greed$ agent with a large famil$, when he recei(es as sti'end so man$ dollars 'er head for each witch burned, besides the incidental fees and 'er8uisites which in(estigating agents are allowed to e)tort at will from those the$ summon. . If a madman+s ra(ings or some malicious and idle rumour 9for no 'roof of the scandal is e(er needed: 'oints to some hel'less old woman, she is the first to suffer. %;. 6et to a(oid the a''earance that she is indicted solel$ on the basis of rumour, without other 'roofs, a certain 'resum'tion of guilt is obtained b$ 'osing the following dilemma! either she has led an e(il and im'ro'er life, or she has led a good and 'ro'er one. If an e(il one, then she should be guilt$. 2n the other hand, if she has led a good life, this is 1ust as damning, for witches dissemble and tr$ to a''ear es'eciall$ (irtuous. %%. Therefore the old woman is 'ut in 'rison. " new 'roof is found through a second dilemma! she is afraid or not afraid. If she is 9hearing of the horrible tortures used against witches:, this is sure 'roof, for her conscience accuses her. If she does not show fear 9trusting in her innocence:, this too is a 'roof, for witches characteristicall$ 'retend innocence and wear a bold front. %G. 4est these should be the onl$ 'roofs, the in(estigator has his snoo'ers, often de'ra(ed and infamous, ferret out all her 'ast life. This, of course, cannot be done without turning u' some sa$ing or doing of hers which men so dis'osed can easil$ twist or distort into e(idence of witchcraft. %&. "n$ who ha(e borne her ill now ha(e am'le o''ortunit$ to bring against her whate(er accusations the$ 'lease, and e(er$one sa$s that the e(idence is strong against her. %E. "nd so she is hurried to the torture, unless, as often ha''ens, she

was tortured on the (er$ da$ of her arrest. %5. In these trials nobod$ is allowed a law$er or an$ means of fair defence, for witchcraft is reckoned an e)ce'tional crime Jof such enormit$ that all rules of legal 'rocedure ma$ be sus'endedF, and whoe(er (entures to defend the 'risoner falls himself under sus'icion of witchcraft - as well as those who dare to utter a 'rotest in these cases and to urge the 1udges to e)ercise 'rudence, for the$ are forthwith labelled su''orters of witchcraft. Thus e(er$bod$ kee's 8uiet for fear. %I. So that it ma$ seem that the woman has an o''ortunit$ to defend herself, she is brought into court and the indications of her guilt are read and e)amined - if it can be called an e)amination. %C. >(en though she denies these charges and satisfactoril$ answers e(er$ accusation, no attention is 'aid and her re'lies are not e(en recorded, all the indictments retain their force and (alidit$, howe(er 'erfect her answers to them. She is ordered back into 'rison, there to consider more carefull$ whether she will 'ersist in obstinac$ - for, since she has alread$ denied her guilt, she is obstinate. %B. 5e)t da$ she is brought out again, and hears a decree of torture 1ust as if she had ne(er refuted the charges. % . 3efore torture, howe(er, she is searched for amulets! her entire bod$ is sha(ed, and e(en those 'ri($ 'arts indicating the female se) are wantonl$ e)amined. G;. What is so shocking about this7 =riests are treated the same wa$. G%. When the woman has been sha(ed and searched, she is tortured to make her confess the truth - that is, to declare what the$ want, for naturall$ an$thing else will not and cannot be the truth. GG. The$ start with the first degree, i.e., the less se(ere torture. "lthough e)ceedingl$ se(ere, it is light com'ared to those tortures which follow. Wherefore if she confesses, the$ sa$ the woman has confessed without torture0 G&. 5ow, what 'rince can doubt her guilt when he is told she has confessed (oluntaril$, without torture7 GE. She is therefore 'ut to death without scru'le. 3ut she would ha(e been e)ecuted e(en if she had not confessed, for when once the torture has begun, the die is alread$ cast, she cannot esca'e, she has 'erforce to die. G5. The result is the same whether she confesses or not. If she confesses, her guilt is clear! she is e)ecuted. "ll recantation is in (ain. If she does not confess, the torture is re'eated - twice, thrice, four times. In e)ce'tional crimes, the torture is not limited in duration, se(erit$, or fre8uenc$. GI. If, during the torture, the old woman contorts her features with 'ain, the$ sa$ she is laughing, if she loses consciousness, she is slee'ing or has bewitched herself into taciturnit$. "nd if she is taciturn, she deser(es to be burned ali(e, as latel$ has been done to some who,

though se(eral times tortured, would not sa$ what the in(estigators wanted. GC. "nd e(en confessors and clerg$men agree that she died obstinate and im'enitent, that she would not be con(erted or desert her incubus, but ke't faith with him. GB. If, howe(er, she dies under so much torture, the$ sa$ the de(il broke her neck. G . Wherefore the cor'se is buried underneath the gallows. &;. 2n the other hand, if she does not die under torture, and if some e)ce'tionall$ scru'ulous 1udge hesitates to torture her further without fresh 'roofs or to burn her without her confession, she is ke't in 'rison and more harshl$ chained, there to rot until she $ields, e(en if it take a whole $ear. &%. She can ne(er clear herself. The in(estigating committee would feel disgraced if it ac8uitted a woman, once arrested and in chains, she has to be guilt$, b$ fair means or foul. &G. #eanwhile, ignorant and headstrong 'riests harass the wretched creature so that, whether trul$ or not, she will confess herself guilt$, unless she does so, the$ sa$, she cannot be sa(ed or 'artake of the sacraments. &&. #ore understanding or learned 'riests cannot (isit her in 'rison lest the$ counsel her or inform the 'rinces what goes on. 5othing is more dreaded than that something be brought to light to 'ro(e the innocence of the accused. =ersons who tr$ to do so are labelled troublemakers. &E. While she is ke't in 'rison and tortured, the 1udges in(ent cle(er de(ices to build u' new 'roofs of guilt to con(ict her to her face, so that, when re(iewing the trial, some uni(ersit$ facult$ can confirm her burning ali(e. &5. Some 1udges, to a''ear ultrascru'ulous, ha(e the woman e)orci.ed, transferred elsewhere, and tortured all o(er again, to break her taciturnit$, if she maintains silence, then at last the$ can burn her. 5ow, in Hea(en+s name, I would like to know, since she who confesses and she who does not both 'erish alike, how can an$bod$, no matter how innocent, esca'e7 2 unha''$ woman, wh$ ha(e $ou rashl$ ho'ed7 Wh$ did $ou not, on first entering 'rison, admit whate(er the$ wanted7 Wh$, foolish and cra.$ woman, did $ou wish to die so man$ times when $ou might ha(e died but once7 <ollow m$ counsel, and, before undergoing all these 'ains, sa$ $ou are guilt$ and die. 6ou will not esca'e, for this were a catastro'hic disgrace to the .eal of ?erman$. &I. When, under stress of 'ain, the witch has confessed, her 'light is indescribable. 5ot onl$ cannot she esca'e herself, but she is also com'elled to accuse others whom she does not know, whose names are fre8uentl$ 'ut into her mouth b$ the in(estigators or suggested b$ the e)ecutioner, or of whom she has heard as sus'ected or accused.

These in turn are forced to accuse others, and these still others, so it goes on! who can hel' seeing that it must go on and on7 &C. The 1udges must either sus'end these trials 9and so im'ute their (alidit$: or else burn their own folk, themsel(es, and e(er$bod$ else, for all sooner or later are falsel$ accused and, if tortured, all are 'ro(ed guilt$. &B. Thus e(entuall$ those who at first clamoured most loudl$ to feed the flames are themsel(es in(ol(ed, for the$ rashl$ failed to see that their turn too would come. Thus Hea(en 1ustl$ 'unishes those who with their 'estilent tongues created so man$ witches and sent so man$ innocent to the stake... Don S'ec is not e)'licit about the sickening methods of torture em'lo$ed. Here is an e)cer't from an in(aluable com'ilation, "he Encyclo1edia of 'itchcraft and Demonology, b$ Aossell Ho'e Aobbins 9% 5 :! 2ne might glance at some of the s'ecial tortures at 3amberg, for e)am'le, such as the forcible feeding of the accused on herrings cooked in salt, followed b$ denial of water - a so'histicated method which went side b$ side with immersion of the accused in baths of scalding water to which lime had been added. 2ther wa$s with witches included the wooden horse, (arious kinds of racks, the heated iron chair, leg (ises JS'anish bootsF, and large boots of leather or metal into which 9with the feet in them, of course: was 'oured boiling water or molten lead. In the water torture, the Auestion de %)eau, water was 'oured down the throat of the accused, along with a soft cloth to cause choking. The cloth was 'ulled out 8uickl$ so that the entrails would be torn. The thumbscrews JgresillonsM were a (ise designed to com'ress the thumbs or the big toes to the root of the nails, so that the crushing of the digit would cause e)cruciating 'ain. In addition, and more routinel$ a''lied, were the stra''ado and s8uassation and still more ghastl$ tortures that I will a(oid describing. "fter torture, and with the instruments of torture in 'lain (iew, the (ictim was asked to sign a statement. This was then described as a -free confession+, (oluntaril$ admitted to. "t great 'ersonal risk, (on S'ec 'rotested the witch mania. So did a few others, mainl$ Catholic and =rotestant clerg$ who had witnessed these crimes at first hand - including ?ianfrancesco =on.inibio in Ital$, Cornelius 4oos in ?erman$ and Aeginald Scot in 3ritain in the si)teenth centur$, as well as *ohann #a$furth 9-4isten, $ou mone$-hungr$ 1udges and bloodthirst$ 'rosecutors, the a''aritions of the De(il are all lies+: in ?erman$ and "lon.o Sala.ar de <rias in S'ain in the se(enteenth centur$. "long with (on S'ec and the Huakers generall$, the$ are heroes of our s'ecies. Wh$ are the$ not better known7

In 0 Candle in the Dark 9%I5I:, Thomas "d$ addressed a ke$ 8uestion! Some again will ob1ect and sa$, If Witches cannot kill, and do man$ strange things b$ Witchcraft, wh$ ha(e man$ confessed that the$ ha(e done such #urthers, and other strange matters, whereof the$ ha(e been accused7 To this I answer, If "dam and >(e in their innocenc$ were so easil$ o(ercome, and tem'ted to sin, how much more ma$ 'oor Creatures now after the <all, b$ 'ersuasions, 'romises, and threatenings, b$ kee'ing from slee', and continual torture, be brought to confess that which is false and im'ossible, and contrar$ to the faith of a Christian to belie(e7 It was not until the eighteenth centur$ that the 'ossibilit$ of hallucination as a com'onent in the 'ersecution of witches was seriousl$ entertained, 3isho' <rancis Hutchinson, in his &istorical Essay Concerning 'itchcraft 9%C%B:, wrote #an$ a man hath (eril$ belie(ed he hath seen a s'irit e)ternall$ before him, when it hath been onl$ an internal image dancing in his own brain. 3ecause of the courage of these o''onents of the witch mania, its e)tension to the 'ri(ileged classes, the danger it 'osed to the growing institution of ca'italism, and es'eciall$ the s'read of the ideas of the >uro'ean >nlightenment, witch burnings e(entuall$ disa''eared. The last e)ecution for witchcraft in Holland, cradle of the >nlightenment, was in %I%;, in >ngland, %IBE, "merica, %I G, <rance, %CE5, ?erman$, %CC5, and =oland, %C &. In Ital$, the In8uisition was condemning 'eo'le to death until the end of the eighteenth centur$, and in8uisitorial torture was not abolished in the Catholic Church until %B%I. The last bastion of su''ort for the realit$ of witchcraft and the necessit$ of 'unishment has been the Christian churches. The witch mania is shameful. How could we do it7 How could we be so ignorant about oursel(es and our weaknesses7 How could it ha(e ha''ened in the most -ad(anced+, the most -ci(ili.ed+ nations then on >arth7 Wh$ was it resolutel$ su''orted b$ conser(ati(es, monarchists and religious fundamentalists7 Wh$ o''osed b$ liberals, Huakers and followers of the >nlightenment7 If we+re absolutel$ sure that our beliefs are right, and those of others wrong, that we are moti(ated b$ good, and others b$ e(il, that the @ing of the /ni(erse s'eaks to us, and not to adherents of (er$ different faiths, that it is wicked to challenge con(entional doctrines or to ask searching 8uestions, that our main 1ob is to belie(e and obe$ - then the witch mania will recur in its infinite (ariations down to the time of the last man. 5ote <riedrich (on S'ec+s

(er$ first 'oint, and the im'lication that im'ro(ed 'ublic understanding of su'erstition and sce'ticism might ha(e hel'ed to short-circuit the whole train of causalit$. If we fail to understand how it worked in the last round, we will not recogni.e it as it emerges in the ne)t. -It is the absolute right of the state to su'er(ise the formation of 'ublic o'inion,+ said *osef ?oebbels, the 5a.i 'ro'aganda minister. In ?eorge 2rwell+s no(el 13F7, the -3ig 3rother+ state em'lo$s an arm$ of bureaucrats whose onl$ 1ob is to alter the records of the 'ast so the$ conform to the interests of those currentl$ in 'ower. 13F7 was not 1ust an engaging 'olitical fantas$, it was based on the Stalinist So(iet /nion, where the re-writing of histor$ was institutionali.ed. Soon after Stalin took 'ower, 'ictures of his ri(al 4eon Trotsk$ - a monumental figure in the % ;5 and % %C re(olutions - began to disa''ear. Heroic and wholl$ anhistoric 'aintings of Stalin and 4enin together directing the 3olshe(ik Ae(olution took their 'lace, with Trotsk$, the founder of the Aed "rm$, nowhere in e(idence. These images became icons of the state. 6ou could see them in e(er$ office building, on outdoor ad(ertising signs sometimes ten store$s high, in museums, on 'ostage stam's. 5ew generations grew u' belie(ing that was their histor$. 2lder generations began to feel that the$ remembered something of the sort, a kind of 'olitical false-memor$ s$ndrome. Those who made the accommodation between their real memories and what the leadershi' wished them to belie(e e)ercised what 2rwell described as -doublethink+. Those who did not, those old 3olshe(iks who could recall the 'eri'heral role of Stalin in the Ae(olution and the central role of Trotsk$, were denounced as traitors or unreconstructed bourgeoisie or -Trotsk$ites+ or -Trotsk$-fascists+, and were im'risoned, tortured, made to confess their treason in 'ublic, and then e)ecuted. It is 'ossible gi(en absolute control o(er the media and the 'olice - to rewrite the memories of hundreds of millions of 'eo'le, if $ou ha(e a generation to accom'lish it in. "lmost alwa$s, this is done to im'ro(e the hold that the 'owerful ha(e on 'ower, or to ser(e the narcissism or megalomania or 'aranoia of national leaders. It throws a monke$wrench into the error-correcting machiner$. It works to erase 'ublic memor$ of 'rofound 'olitical mistakes, and thus to guarantee their e(entual re'etition. In our time, with total fabrication of realistic stills, motion 'ictures, and (ideota'es technologicall$ within reach, with tele(ision in e(er$ home, and with critical thinking in decline, restructuring societal memories e(en without much attention from the secret 'olice seems 'ossible. What I+m imagining here is not that each of us has a budget of memories im'lanted in s'ecial thera'eutic sessions b$ statea''ointed 's$chiatrists, but rather that small numbers of 'eo'le will ha(e so much control o(er new stories, histor$ books, and dee'l$

affecting images as to work ma1or changes in collecti(e attitudes. We saw a 'ale echo of what is now 'ossible in % ;- %, when Saddam Hussein, the autocrat of Ira8, made a sudden transition in the "merican consciousness from an obscure near-all$ - granted commodities, high technolog$, wea'onr$, and e(en satellite intelligence data - to a sla(ering monster menacing the world. I am not m$self an admirer of #r Hussein, but it was striking how 8uickl$ he could be brought from someone almost no "merican had heard of into the incarnation of e(il. These da$s the a''aratus for generating indignation is bus$ elsewhere. How confident are we that the 'ower to dri(e and determine 'ublic o'inion will alwa$s reside in res'onsible hands7 "nother contem'orar$ e)am'le is the -war+ on drugs where the go(ernment and munificentl$ funded ci(ic grou's s$stematicall$ distort and e(en in(ent scientific e(idence of ad(erse effects 9es'eciall$ of mari1uana:, and in which no 'ublic official is 'ermitted e(en to raise the to'ic for o'en discussion. 3ut it+s hard to kee' 'otent historical truths bottled u' fore(er. 5ew data re'ositories are unco(ered. 5ew, less ideological, generations of historians grow u'. In the late % B;s and before, "nn Dru$an and I would routinel$ smuggle co'ies of Trotsk$+s &istory of the ,ussian ,evolution into the /SSA, so our colleagues could know a little about their own 'olitical beginnings. 3$ the fiftieth anni(ersar$ of the murder of Trotsk$ 9Stalin+s assassin had cracked Trotsk$+s head o'en with a hammer:, %9vestia could e)tol Trotsk$ as -a great and irre'roachableK re(olutionar$+, and a ?erman Communist 'ublication went so far as to describe him as fightJingF for all of us who lo(e human ci(ili.ation, for whom this ci(ili.ation is our nationalit$. His murderer... tried, in killing him, to kill this ci(ili.ation... JThisF was a man who had in his head the most (aluable and best-organi.ed brain that was e(er crushed b$ a hammer. Trends working at least marginall$ towards the im'lantation of a (er$ narrow range of attitudes, memories and o'inions include control of ma1or tele(ision networks and news'a'ers b$ a small number of similarl$ moti(ated 'owerful cor'orations and indi(iduals, the disa''earance of com'etiti(e dail$ news'a'ers in man$ cities, the re'lacement of substanti(e debate b$ slea.e in 'olitical cam'aigns, and e'isodic erosion of the 'rinci'le of the se'aration of 'owers. It is estimated 9b$ the "merican media e)'ert 3en 3agditrian: that fewer than two do.en cor'orations control more than half of the global business in dail$ news'a'ers, maga.ines, tele(ision, books and mo(ies0 The 'roliferation of cable tele(ision channels, chea' longdistance tele'hone calls, fa) machines, com'uter bulletin boards and networks, ine)'ensi(e com'uter self-'ublishing and sur(i(ing

instances of the traditional liberal arts uni(ersit$ curriculum are trends that might work in the o''osite direction. It+s hard to tell how it+s going to turn out. The business of sce'ticism is to be dangerous. Sce'ticism challenges established institutions. If we teach e(er$bod$, including, sa$, high school students, habits of sce'tical thought, the$ will 'robabl$ not restrict their sce'ticism to /<2s, as'irin commercials and &5,;;;-$ear-old channellees. #a$be the$+ll start asking awkward 8uestions about economic, or social, or 'olitical, or religious .nsdtutions. =erha's the$+ll challenge the o'inions of those in 'ower. Then where would we be7 >thnocentrism, )eno'hobia and nationalism are these da$s rife in man$ 'arts of the world. ?o(ernment re'ression of un'o'ular (iews is still wides'read. <alse or misleading memories are inculcated. <or the defenders of such attitudes, science is disturbing. It claims access to truths that are largel$ inde'endent of ethnic or cultural biases. 3$ its (er$ nature, science transcends national boundaries. =ut scientists working in the same field of stud$ together in a room and e(en if the$ share no common s'oken language, the$ will find a wa$ to communicate. Science itself is a transnational language. Scientists are naturall$ cosmo'olitan in attitude and are more likel$ to see through efforts to di(ide the human famil$ into man$ small and warring factions. -There is no national science,+ said the Aussian 'la$wright "nton Chekho(, -1ust as there is no national multi'lication table.+ 94ikewise, for man$, there is no such thing as a national religion, although the religion of nationalism has millions of adherents.: In dis'ro'ortionate numbers, scientists are found in the ranks of social critics 9or, less charitabl$, -dissidents+:, challenging the 'olicies and m$ths of their own nations. The heroic names of the 'h$sicists "ndrei Sakharo(+ in the former /SSA, "lbert >instein and 4eo S.ilard in the /nited States, and <ang 4i-.hu in China s'ring readil$ enough to mind, the first and last risking their li(es. >s'eciall$ in the aftermath of the in(ention of nuclear wea'ons, scientists ha(e been 'ortra$ed as ethical cretins. This is an in1ustice, considering all those who, sometimes at considerable 'ersonal 'eril, ha(e s'oken out against their own countries+ misa''lications of science and technolog$.
JK "s a much-decorated -Hero+ of the So(iet /nion, and 'ri($ to its nuclear secrets, Sakharo( in the Cold War $ear % IB boldl$ wrote - in a book 'ublished in the West and widel$ distributed in sami9dal in the /SSA -<reedom of thought is the onl$ guarantee against an infection of 'eo'les b$ the mass m$ths, which, in the hands of treacherous h$'ocrites and demogogues, can be transformed into blood$ dictatorshi's.+ He was thinking of both >ast and West. I would add that free thought is a necessar$, but not a sufficient, condition for democrac$.F

<or e)am'le, the chemist 4inus =auling 9% ;%- E: was, more than an$ other 'erson, res'onsible for the 4imited Test 3an Treat$ of % I&, which halted abo(e-ground e)'losions of nuclear wea'ons b$ the /nited States, the So(iet /nion and the /nited @ingdom. He mounted a blistering cam'aign of moral outrage and scientific data, made more credible b$ the fact that he was a 5obel laureate. In the "merican 'ress, he was generall$ (ilified for his troubles, and in the % 5;s the State De'artment cancelled his 'ass'ort because he had been insufficientl$ anti-communist. His 5obel =ri.e was awarded for the a''lication of 8uantum mechanical insights - resonances, and what is called h$bridi.ation of orbitals - to e)'lain the nature of the chemical bond that 1oins atoms together into molecules. These ideas are now the bread and butter of modern chemistr$. 3ut in the So(iet /nion, =auling+s work on structural chemistr$ was denounced as incom'atible with dialectical materialism and declared off-limits to So(iet chemists. /ndaunted b$ this criticism >ast and West - indeed, not e(en slowed down - he went on to do monumental work on how anaesthetics work, identified the cause of sickle cell anaemia 9a single nucleotide substitution in D5":, and showed how the e(olutionar$ histor$ of life might be read b$ com'aring the D5"s of (arious organisms. He was hot on the trail of the structure of D5", Watson and Crick were consciousl$ rushing to get there before =auling. The (erdict on his assessment of Ditamin C is a''arentl$ still out. -That man is a real genius+ was "lbert >instein+s assessment. In all this time he continued to work for 'eace and amit$. When "nn and I once asked =auling about the roots of his dedication to social issues, he ga(e a memorable re'l$! -I did it to be worth$ of the res'ect of m$ wife,+ Helen "(a =auling. He won a second 5obel =ri.e, this one in 'eace, for his work on the nuclear test ban, becoming the onl$ 'erson in histor$ to win two unshared 5obel =ri.es. There were some who saw =auling as a troublemaker. Those unha''$ about social change ma$ be tem'ted to (iew science itself with sus'icion. Technolog$ is safe, the$ tend to think, readil$ guided and controlled b$ industr$ and go(ernment. 3ut 'ure science, science for its own sake, science as curiosit$, science that might lead an$where and challenge an$thing, that+s another stor$. Certain areas of 'ure science are the uni8ue 'athwa$ to future technologies - true enough but the attitudes of science, if a''lied broadl$, can be 'ercei(ed as dangerous. Through salaries, social 'ressures, and the distribution of 'restige and awards, societies tr$ to herd scientists into some reasonabl$ safe middle ground - between too little long-term technological 'rogress and too much short-term social criticism. /nlike =auling, man$ scientists consider their 1ob to be science, narrowl$ defined, and belie(e that engaging in 'olitics or social criticism is not 1ust a distraction from but antithetical to the scientific life. "s mentioned earlier, during the #anhattan =ro1ect, the successful

World War Two /S effort to build nuclear wea'ons before the 5a.is did, certain 'artici'ating scientists began to ha(e reser(ations, the more so when it became clear how immensel$ 'owerful these wea'ons were. Some, such as 4eo S.ilard, *ames <ranck, Harold /re$ and Aobert A. Wilson, tried to call the attention of 'olitical leaders and the 'ublic 9es'eciall$ after the 5a.is were defeated: to the dangers of the forthcoming arms race, which the$ foresaw (er$ well, with the So(iet /nion. 2thers argued that 'olic$ matters were outside their 1urisdiction. -I was 'ut on >arth to make certain disco(eries,+ said >nrico <ermi, -and what the 'olitical leaders do with them is not m$ business.+ 3ut e(en so, <ermi was so a''alled b$ the dangers of the thermonuclear wea'on >dward Teller was ad(ocating that he coauthored a famous document urging the /nited States not to build it, calling it -e(il+. *erem$ Stone, the 'resident of the <ederation of "merican Scientists, has described Teller - whose efforts to 1ustif$ thermonuclear wea'ons I described in a 're(ious cha'ter - in these words! >dward Teller... insisted, at first for 'ersonal intellectual reasons and later for geo'olitical reasons, that a h$drogen bomb be built. /sing tactics of e)aggeration and e(en smear, he successfull$ mani'ulated the 'olic$-making 'rocess for fi(e decades, denouncing all manner of arms control measures and 'romoting arms-race-escalating 'rograms of man$ kinds. The So(iet /nion, hearing of his H-bomb 'ro1ect, built its own Hbomb. "s a direct conse8uence of the unusual 'ersonalit$ of this 'articular indi(idual and of the 'ower of the H-bomb, the world ma$ ha(e risked a le(el of annihilation that might not otherwise ha(e trans'ired, or might ha(e come later and under better 'olitical controls. If so, no scientist has e(er had more influence on the risks that humanit$ has run than >dward Teller, and Teller+s general beha(ior throughout the arms race was re'rehensible... >dward Teller+s fi)ation on the H-bomb ma$ ha(e led him to do more to im'eril life on this 'lanet than an$ other indi(idual in our s'ecies... Com'ared to Teller, the leaders of Western atomic science were fre8uentl$ babes in the 'olitical woods - their leadershi' ha(ing been determined b$ their 'rofessional skills rather than b$, in this case, their 'olitical skills. #$ 'ur'ose here is not to castigate a scientist for succumbing to (er$ human 'assions, but to reiterate that new im'erati(e! the un'recedented 'owers that science now makes a(ailable must be accom'anied b$ un'recedented le(els of ethical focus and concern b$ the scientific communit$, as well as the most broadl$ based 'ublic

education into the im'ortance of science and democrac$.

Aeal =atriots "sk HuestionsK

JK Written with "nn Dru$an.F

-;

It is not the function of our go(ernment to kee' the citi.en from falling into error, it is the function of the citi.en to kee' the go(ernment from falling into error. /S Su'reme Court *ustice Aobert H. *ackson, % 5;

It is a fact of life on our beleaguered little 'lanet that wides'read

torture, famine and go(ernmental criminal irres'onsibilit$ are much more likel$ to be found in t$rannical than in democratic go(ernments. Wh$7 3ecause the rulers of the former are much less likel$ to be thrown out of office for their misdeeds than the rulers of the latter. This is error-correcting machiner$ in 'olitics. The methods of science, with all its im'erfections, can be used to im'ro(e social, 'olitical and economic s$stems, and this is, I think, true no matter what criterion of im'ro(ement is ado'ted. How is this 'ossible if science is based on e)'eriment7 Humans are not electrons or laborator$ rats. 3ut e(er$ act of Congress, e(er$ Su'reme Court decision, e(er$ =residential 5ational Securit$ Directi(e, e(er$ change in the =rime Aate is an e)'eriment. >(er$ shift in economic 'olic$, e(er$ increase or decrease in funding for Head Start, e(er$ toughening of criminal sentences is an e)'eriment. >)changing needles, making condoms freel$ a(ailable, or decriminali.ing mari1uana are all e)'eriments. Doing nothing to hel' "b$ssinia against Ital$, or to 're(ent 5a.i ?erman$ from in(ading the Ahineland was an e)'eriment. Communism in >astern >uro'e, the So(iet /nion and China was an e)'eriment. =ri(ati.ing mental health care or 'risons is an e)'eriment. *a'an and West ?erman$ in(esting a great deal in science and technolog$ and ne)t to nothing on defence and finding that their economies boomed - was an e)'eriment. Handguns are a(ailable for self-'rotection in Seattle, but not in nearb$ Dancou(er, Canada, handgun killings are fi(e times more common in Seattle and the handgun suicide rate is ten times greater in Seattle. ?uns make im'ulsi(e killing eas$. This is also an e)'eriment. In almost all of these cases, ade8uate control e)'eriments are not 'erformed, or (ariables are insufficientl$ se'arated. 5e(ertheless, to a certain and often useful degree, such ideas can be tested. The great waste would

be to ignore the results of social e)'eriments because the$ seem to be ideologicall$ un'alatable. There is no nation on >arth toda$ o'timi.ed for the middle of the twent$-first centur$. We face an abundance of subtle and com'le) 'roblems. We need therefore subtle and com'le) solutions. Since there is no deducti(e theor$ of social organi.ation, our onl$ recourse is scientific e)'eriment - tr$ing out sometimes on small scales 9communit$, cit$ and state le(el, sa$: a wide range of alternati(es. 2ne of the 'er8uisites of 'ower on becoming 'rime minister in China in the fifth centur$ 3C was that $ou got to construct a model state in $our home district or 'ro(ince. It was Confucius+ chief life failing, he lamented, that he ne(er got to tr$. >(en a casual scrutin$ of histor$ re(eals that we humans ha(e a sad tendenc$ to make the same mistakes again and again. We+re afraid of strangers or an$bod$ who+s a little different from us. When we get scared, we start 'ushing 'eo'le around. We ha(e readil$ accessible buttons that release 'owerful emotions when 'ressed. We can be mani'ulated into utter senselessness b$ cle(er 'oliticians. ?i(e us the right kind of leader and, like the most suggestible sub1ects of the h$'nothera'ists, we+ll gladl$ do 1ust about an$thing he wants - e(en things we know to be wrong. The framers of the Constitution were students of histor$. In recognition of the human condition, the$ sought to in(ent a means that would kee' us free in s'ite of oursel(es. Some of the o''onents of the /S Constitution insisted that it would ne(er work, that a re'ublican form of go(ernment s'anning a land with -such dissimilar climates, economies, morals, 'olitics, and 'eo'les,+ as ?o(ernor ?eorge Clinton of 5ew 6ork said, was im'ossible, that such a go(ernment and such a Constitution, as =atrick Henr$ of Dirginia declared, -contradicts all the e)'erience of the world+. The e)'eriment was tried an$wa$. Scientific findings and attitudes were common in those who in(ented the /nited States. The su'reme authorit$, outranking an$ 'ersonal o'inion, an$ book, an$ re(elation, was - as the Declaration of Inde'endence 'uts it - -the laws of nature and of nature+s ?2D+. Dr 3en1amin <ranklin was re(ered in >uro'e and "merica as the founder of the new field of electrical 'h$sics. "t the Constitutional Con(ention of %CB *ohn "dams re'eatedl$ a''ealed to the analog$ of mechanical balance in machines, others to William Har(e$+s disco(er$ of the circulation of the blood. 4ate in life "dams wrote, -"ll mankind are chemists from their cradles to their gra(es... The #aterial /ni(erse is a chemical e)'eriment.+ *ames #adison used chemical and biological meta'hors in "he Federalist Pa1ers! The "merican re(olutionaries were creatures of the >uro'ean >nlightenment which 'ro(ides an essential background for understanding the origins and 'ur'ose of the /nited States.

-Science and its 'hiloso'hical corollaries,+ wrote the "merican historian Clinton Aossiter were 'erha's the most im'ortant intellectual force sha'ing the destin$ of eighteenth-centur$ "merica... <ranklin was onl$ one of a number of forward-looking colonists who recogni.ed the kinshi' of scientific method and democratic 'rocedure. <ree in8uir$, free e)change of information, o'timism, self-criticism, 'ragmatism, ob1ecti(it$ - all these ingredients of the coming re'ublic were alread$ acti(e in the re'ublic of science that flourished in the eighteenth centur$. Thomas *efferson was a scientist. That+s how he described himself. When $ou (isit his home at #onticello, Dirginia, the moment $ou enter its 'ortals $ou find am'le e(idence of his scientific interests not 1ust in his immense and (aried librar$, but in co'$ing machines, automatic doors, telesco'es and other instruments, some at the cutting edge of earl$ nineteenth-centur$ technolog$. Some he in(ented, some he co'ied, some he 'urchased. He com'ared the 'lants and animals in "merica with >uro'e+s, unco(ered fossils, used the calculus in the design of a new 'lough. He mastered 5ewtonian 'h$sics. 5ature destined him, he said, to be a scientist, but there were no o''ortunities for scientists in 're-re(olutionar$ Dirginia. 2ther, more urgent, needs took 'recedence. He threw himself into the historic e(ents that were trans'iring around him. 2nce inde'endence was won, he said, later generations could de(ote themsel(es to science and scholarshi'. *efferson was an earl$ hero of mine, not because of his scientific interests 9although the$ (er$ much hel'ed to mould his 'olitical 'hiloso'h$:, but because he, almost more than an$one else, was res'onsible for the s'read of democrac$ throughout the world. The idea - breathtaking, radical and re(olutionar$ at the time 9in man$ 'laces in the world, it still is: is that not kings, not 'riests, not big cit$ bosses, not dictators, not a militar$ cabal, not a de facto cons'irac$ of the wealth$, but ordinar$ 'eo'le, working together, are to rule the nations. 5ot onl$ was *efferson a leading theoretician of this cause, he was also in(ol(ed in the most 'ractical wa$, hel'ing to bring about the great "merican 'olitical e)'eriment that has, all o(er the world, been admired and emulated since. He died at #onticello on E *ul$ %BGI, fift$ $ears to the da$ after the colonies issued that stirring document, written b$ *efferson, called the Declaration of Inde'endence. It was denounced b$ conser(ati(es worldwide. #onarch$, aristocrac$ and statesu''orted religion - that+s what conser(ati(es were defending then.

In a letter com'osed a few da$s before his death, he wrote that it was the -light of science+ that had demonstrated that -the mass of mankind has not been born with saddles on their backs+, nor were a fa(oured few born -booted and s'urred+. He had written in the Declaration of Inde'endence that we all must ha(e the same o''ortunities, the same -unalienable+ rights. "nd if the definition of -all+ was disgracefull$ incom'lete in %CCI, the s'irit of the Declaration was generous enough that toda$ -all+ is far more inclusi(e. *efferson was a student of histor$ - not 1ust the com'liant and safe histor$ that 'raises our own time or countr$ or ethnic grou', but the real histor$ of real humans, our weaknesses as well as our strengths. Histor$ taught him that the rich and 'owerful will steal and o''ress if gi(en half a chance. He described the go(ernments of >uro'e, which he saw at first hand as the "merican ambassador to <rance. /nder the 'retence of go(ernment, he said, the$ had di(ided their nations into two classes! wol(es and shee'. *efferson taught that e(er$ go(ernment degenerates when it is left to the rulers alone, because rulers - b$ the (er$ act of ruling -misuse the 'ublic trust. The 'eo'le themsel(es, he said, are the onl$ 'rudent re'ositor$ of 'ower. 3ut he worried that the 'eo'le - and the argument goes back to Thuc$dides and "ristotle - are easil$ misled. So he ad(ocated safeguards, insurance 'olicies. 2ne was the constitutional se'aration of 'owers, accordingl$, (arious grou's, some 'ursuing their own selfish interests, balance one another, 're(enting an$ one of them from running awa$ with the countr$! the >)ecuti(e, 4egislati(e and *udicial 3ranches, the House and the Senate, the States and the <ederal ?o(ernment. He also stressed, 'assionatel$ and re'eatedl$, that it was essential for the 'eo'le to understand the risks and benefits of go(ernment, to educate themsel(es, and to in(ol(e themsel(es in the 'olitical 'rocess. Without that, he said, the wol(es will take o(er. Here+s how he 'ut it in .otes on 4irginia, stressing how the 'owerful and unscru'ulous find .ones of (ulnerabilit$ the$ can e)'loit!
In e(er$ go(ernment on earth is some trace of human weakness, some germ of corru'tion and degenerac$, which cunning will disco(er and wickedness insensibl$ o'en, culti(ate and im'ro(e. >(er$ go(ernment degenerates when trusted to the rulers of the 'eo'le alone. The 'eo'le themsel(es therefore are its onl$ safe de'ositories. "nd to render e(en them safe, their minds must be im'ro(ed... *efferson had little to do with the actual writing of the /S Constitution, as it was being formulated, he was ser(ing as "merican minister to <rance. When he read its 'ro(isions, he was 'leased, but with two reser(ations. 2ne deficienc$! no limit was 'ro(ided on the number of

terms the =resident could ser(e. This, *efferson feared, was a wa$ for a =resident to become a king, in fact if not in law. The other ma1or deficienc$ was the absence of a bill of rights. The citi.en, the a(erage 'erson, was insufficientl$ 'rotected, *efferson thought, from the ine(itable abuses of those in 'ower. He ad(ocated freedom of s'eech, in 'art so that e(en wildl$ un'o'ular (iews could be e)'ressed, so that de(iations from the con(entional wisdom could be offered for consideration. =ersonall$ he was an e)tremel$ amiable man, reluctant to critici.e e(en his sworn enemies. He dis'la$ed a bust of his arch-ad(ersar$ "le)ander Hamilton in the (estibule at #onticello. 5e(ertheless, he belie(ed that the habit of sce'ticism is an essential 'rere8uisite for res'onsible citi.enshi'. He argued that the cost of education is tri(ial com'ared to the cost of ignorance, of lea(ing the go(ernment to the wol(es. He taught that the countr$ is safe onl$ when the 'eo'le rule. =art of the dut$ of citi.enshi' is not to be intimidated into conformit$. I wish that the oath of citi.enshi' taken b$ recent immigrants, and the 'ledge that students routinel$ recite, included something like -I 'romise to 8uestion e(er$thing m$ leaders tell me+. That would be reall$ to Thomas *efferson+s 'oint. -I 'romise to use m$ critical faculties. I 'romise to de(elo' m$ inde'endence of thought. I 'romise to educate m$self so I can make m$ own 1udgements.+ I also wish that the =ledge of "llegiance were directed at the Constitution and the 3ill of Aights, as it is when the =resident takes his oath of office, rather than to the flag and the nation. When we consider the founders of our nation - *efferson, Washington, Samuel and *ohn "dams, #adison and #onroe, 3en1amin <ranklin, Tom =aine and man$ others - we ha(e before us a list of at least ten and ma$be e(en do.ens of great 'olitical leaders. The$ were well educated. =roducts of the >uro'ean >nlightenment, the$ were students of histor$. The$ knew human fallibilit$ and weakness and corru'tibilit$. The$ were fluent in the >nglish language. The$ wrote their own s'eeches. The$ were realistic and 'ractical, and at the same time moti(ated b$ high 'rinci'les. The$ were not checking the 'ollsters on what to think this week. The$ knew what to think. The$ were comfortable with long-term thinking, 'lanning e(en further ahead than the ne)t election. The$ were self-sufficient, not re8uiring careers as 'oliticians or lobb$ists to make a li(ing. The$ were able to bring out the best in us. The$ were interested in and, at least two of them, fluent in science. The$ attem'ted to set a course for the /nited States into the far future - not so much b$ establishing laws as b$ setting limits on what kinds of laws could be 'assed. The Constitution and its 3ill of Aights ha(e done remarkabl$ well, constituting, des'ite human weaknesses, a machine able, more often than not, to correct its own tra1ector$. "t that time, there were onl$ about two and a half million citi.ens of

the /nited States. Toda$ there are about a hundred times more. So if there were ten 'eo'le of the calibre of Thomas *efferson then, there ought to be %; ) %;; ` %,;;; Thomas *effersons toda$. Where are the$7 2ne reason the Constitution is a daring and courageous document is that it allows for continuing change, e(en of the form of go(ernment itself, if the 'eo'le so wish. 3ecause no one is wise enough to foresee which ideas ma$ answer urgent societal needs -e(en if the$+re counterintuiti(e and ha(e been troubling in the 'ast - this document tries to guarantee the fullest and freest e)'ression of (iews. There is, of course, a 'rice. #ost of us are for freedom of e)'ression when there+s a danger that our own (iews will be su''ressed. We+re not all that u'set, though, when (iews we des'ise encounter a little censorshi' here and there. 3ut within certain narrowl$ circumscribed limits - *ustice 2li(er Wendell Holmes+s famous e)am'le was causing 'anic b$ falsel$ cr$ing -fire+ in a crowded theatre - great liberties are 'ermitted in "merica! Q ?un collectors are free to use 'ortraits of the Chief *ustice, the S'eaker of the House, or the Director of the <3I for target 'ractice, outraged ci(ic-minded citi.ens are free to burn in effig$ the =resident of the /nited States. Q >(en if the$ mock *udaeo-Christian-Islamic (alues, e(en if the$ ridicule e(er$thing most of us hold dear, de(il-worshi''ers 9if there are an$: are entitled to 'ractise their religion, so long as the$ break no constitutionall$ (alid law. Q " 'ur'orted scientific article or 'o'ular book asserting the -su'eriorit$+ of one race o(er another ma$ not be censored b$ the go(ernment, no matter how 'ernicious it is, the cure for a fallacious argument is a better argument, not the su''ression of ideas. Q Indi(iduals ma$, if the$ wish, 'raise the li(es and 'olitics of such undis'uted mass murderers as "dolf Hitler, *osef Stalin and #ao Nedong. >(en detestable o'inions ha(e a right to be heard. Q Indi(iduals or grou's are free to argue that a *ewish or #asonic cons'irac$ is taking o(er the world, or that the <ederal go(ernment is in league with the De(il. The s$stem founded b$ *efferson, #adison and their colleagues offers means of e)'ression to those who do not understand its origins and wish to re'lace it b$ something (er$ different. <or e)am'le, Tom Clark, "ttorne$ ?eneral and therefore chief law enforcement officer of the /nited States, in % EB offered this suggestion! -Those who do not belie(e in the ideolog$ of the /nited States shall not be allowed to sta$ in the /nited States.+ 3ut if there is one ke$ and characteristic /S ideolog$, it is that there are no mandator$ and no forbidden ideologies.

Some more recent % ;s cases! *ohn 3rockhoeft, in 1ail for bombing an abortion clinic in Cincinnati, wrote, in a -'ro-life+ newsletter! I+m a (er$ narrow-minded, intolerant, reactionar$, 3ible-thum'ing fundamentalist ... a .ealot and fanatic... The reason the /nited States was once a great nation, besides being blessed b$ ?od, is because she was founded on truth, 1ustice, and narrow-mindedness. Aandall Terr$, founder of -2'eration Aescue+, an organi.ation that blockades abortion clinics, told a congregation in "ugust % &! 4et a wa(e of intolerance wash o(er $ou... 6es, hate is good... 2ur goal is a Christian nation... We are called b$ ?od to con8uer this countr$... We don+t want 'luralism. The e)'ression of such (iews is 'rotected, and 'ro'erl$ so, under the 3ill of Aights, e(en if those 'rotected would abolish the 3ill of Aights if the$ got the chance. The 'rotection for the rest of us is to use that same 3ill of Aights to get across to e(er$ citi.en the indis'ensabilit$ of the 3ill of Aights. What means to 'rotect themsel(es against human fallibilit$, what error-'rotection machiner$ do these alternati(e doctrines and institutions offer7 "n infallible leader7 Aace7 5ationalism7 Wholesale disengagement from ci(ili.ation, e)ce't for e)'losi(es and automatic wea'ons7 How can the$ be sure = es'eciall$ in the darkness of the twentieth centur$7 Don+t the$ need candles7 In his celebrated little book, 5n Li+erty, the >nglish 'hiloso'her *ohn Stuart #ill argued that silencing an o'inion is -a 'eculiar e(il+. If the o'inion is right, we are robbed of the -o''ortunit$ of e)changing error for truth+, and if it+s wrong, we are de'ri(ed of a dee'er understanding of the truth in -its collision with error+. If we know onl$ our own side of the argument, we hardl$ know e(en that, it becomes stale, soon learned onl$ b$ rote, untested, a 'allid and lifeless truth. #ill also wrote, -If societ$ lets an$ considerable number of its members grow u' as mere children, inca'able of being acted on b$ rational consideration of distant moti(es, societ$ has itself to blame.+ *efferson made the same 'oint e(en more strongl$! -If a nation e)'ects to be both ignorant and free in a state of ci(ili.ation, it e)'ects what ne(er was and ne(er will be.+ In a letter to #adison, he continued the thought! -" societ$ that will trade a little libert$ for a little order will lose both, and deser(e neither.+ When 'ermitted to listen to alternati(e o'inions and engage in substanti(e debate, 'eo'le ha(e been known to change their minds. It can ha''en. <or e)am'le, Hugo 3lack, in his $outh, was a member of the @u @lu) @lan, he later became a Su'reme Court 1ustice and was one of the leaders in the historic Su'reme Court decisions, 'artl$

based on the %Eth "mendment to the Constitution, that affirmed the ci(il rights of all "mericans! it was said that when he was a $oung man, he dressed u' in white robes and scared black folks, when he got older, he dressed u' in black robes and scared white folks. In matters of criminal 1ustice, the 3ill of Aights recogni.es the tem'tation that ma$ be felt b$ 'blice, 'rosecutors and the 1udiciar$ to intimidate witnesses and e)'edite 'unishment. The criminal-1ustice s$stem is fallible! innocent 'eo'le might be 'unished for crimes the$ did not commit, go(ernments are 'erfectl$ ca'able of framing those who, for reasons unconnected with the 'ur'orted crime, the$ do not like. So the 3ill of Aights 'rotects defendants. " kind of cost-benefit anal$sis is made. The guilt$ ma$ on occasion be set free so that the innocent will not be 'unished. This is not onl$ a moral (irtue, it also inhibits the misuse of the criminal-1ustice s$stem to su''ress un'o'ular o'inions or des'ised minorities. It is 'art of the errorcorrection machiner$. 5ew ideas, in(ention and creati(it$ in general, alwa$s s'earhead a kind of freedom, a breaking out from hobbling constraints. <reedom is a 'rere8uisite for continuing the delicate e)'eriment of science which is one reason the So(iet /nion could not remain a totalitarian state and be technologicall$ com'etiti(e. "t the same time, science - or rather its delicate mi) of o'enness and sce'ticism, and its encouragement of di(ersit$ and debate - is a 'rere8uisite for continuing the delicate e)'eriment of freedom in an industrial and highl$ technological societ$. 2nce $ou 8uestioned the religious insistence on the 're(ailing (iew that the >arth was at the centre of the /ni(erse, wh$ should $ou acce't the re'eated and confident assertions b$ religious leaders that ?od sent kings to rule o(er us7 In the se(enteenth centur$, it was eas$ to whi' >nglish and Colonial 1uries into a fren.$ o(er this im'iet$ or that heres$. The$ were willing to torture 'eo'le to death for their beliefs. 3$ the late eighteenth centur$, the$ weren+t so sure. Aossiter again 9from Seedtime of the ,e1u+lic, % 5&:! /nder the 'ressure of the "merican en(ironment, Christianit$ grew more humanistic and tem'erate - more tolerant with the struggle of the sects, more liberal with the growth of o'timism and rationalism, more e)'erimental with the rise of science, more indi(idualistic with the ad(ent of democrac$. >8uall$ im'ortant, increasing numbers of colonists, as a legion of 'reachers loudl$ lamented, were turning secular in curiosit$ and ske'tical in attitude. The 3ill of Aights uncou'led religion from the state, in 'art because so man$ religions were stee'ed in an absolutist frame of mind, each con(inced that it alone had a mono'ol$ on the truth and therefore eager for the state to im'ose this truth on others. 2ften, the leaders

and 'ractitioners of absolutist religions were unable to 'ercei(e an$ middle ground or recogni.e that the truth might draw u'on and embrace a''arentl$ contradictor$ doctrines. The framers of the 3ill of Aights had before them the e)am'le of >ngland, where the ecclesiastical crime of heres$ and the secular crime of treason had become nearl$ indistinguishable. #an$ of the earl$ colonists had come to "merica fleeing religious 'ersecution, although some of them were 'erfectl$ ha''$ to 'ersecute other 'eo'le for their beliefs. The founders of our nation recogni.ed that a close relation between the go(ernment and an$ of the 8uarrelsome religions would be fatal to freedom -and in1urious to religion. *ustice 3lack 9in the Su'reme Court decision Engel v! 4itale, % IG: described the >stablishment Clause of the <irst "mendment this wa$! Its first and most immediate 'ur'ose rested on the belief that a union of go(ernment and religion tends to destro$ go(ernment and degrade religion. #oreo(er, here too the se'aration of 'owers works. >ach sect and cult, as Walter Sa(age 4andor once noted, is a moral check on the others! -Com'etition is as wholesome in religion as in commerce.+ 3ut the 'rice is high! This com'etition is an im'ediment to religious bodies acting in concert to address the common good. Aossiter concludes! the twin doctrines of se'aration of church and state and libert$ of indi(idual conscience are the marrow of our democrac$, if not indeed "merica+s most magnificent contribution to the freeing of Western man. 5ow it+s no good to ha(e such rights if the$+re not used - a right of free s'eech when no one contradicts the go(ernment, freedom of the 'ress when no one is willing to ask the tough 8uestions, a right of assembl$ when there are no 'rotests, uni(ersal suffrage when less than half the electorate (otes, se'aration of church arfd state when the wall of se'aration is not regularl$ re'aired. Through disuse the$ can become no more than (oti(e ob1ects, 'atriotic li'-ser(ice. Aights and freedoms! use -em or lose -em. Due to the foresight of the framers of the 3ill of Aights - and e(en more so to all those who, at considerable 'ersonal risk, insisted on e)ercising those rights - it+s hard now to bottle u' free s'eech. School librar$ committees, the immigration ser(ice, the 'olice, the <3I or the ambitious 'olitician looking to score chea' (otes, ma$ attem't it from time to time, but sooner or later the cork 'o's. The Constitution is, after all, the law of the land, 'ublic officials are sworn to u'hold it, and acti(ists and the courts e'isodicall$ hold their feet to the fire. Howe(er, through lowered educational standards, declining

intellectual com'etence, diminished .est for substanti(e debate, and social sanctions against sce'ticism, our liberties can be slowl$ eroded and our rights sub(erted. The founders understood this well! -The time for fi)ing e(er$ essential right on a legal basis is while our rulers are honest, and oursel(es united,+ said Thomas *efferson. <rom the conclusion of this JAe(olutionar$F war we shall be going downhill. It will not then be necessar$ to resort e(er$ moment to the 'eo'le for su''ort. The$ will be forgotten, therefore, and their rights disregarded. The$ will forget themsel(es but in the sole facult$ of making mone$, and will ne(er think of uniting to effect a due res'ect for their rights. The shackles, therefore, which shall not be knocked off at the conclusion of this war will remain on us long, will be made hea(ier and hea(ier, -til our rights shall re(i(e or e)'ire in a con(ulsion. >ducation on the (alue of free s'eech and the other freedoms reser(ed b$ the 3ill of Aights, about what ha''ens when $ou don+t ha(e them, and about how to e)ercise and 'rotect them, should be an essential 'rere8uisite for being an "merican citi.en -or the citi.en of an$ nation, the more so to the degree that such rights remain un'rotected. If we can+t think for oursel(es, if we+re unwilling to 8uestion authorit$, then we+re 1ust 'utt$ in the hands of those in 'ower. 3ut if the citi.ens are educated and form their own o'inions, then those in 'ower work for us! In e(er$ countr$, we should be teaching our children the scientific method and the reasons for a 3ill of Aights. With it comes a certain decenc$, humilit$ and communit$ s'irit. In the demon-haunted world that we inhabit b$ (irtue of being human, this ma$ be all that stands between us and the en(elo'ing darkness.

"cknowledgements

It has been m$ great 'leasure o(er man$ $ears to teach a Senior

Seminar on Critical Thinking at Cornell /ni(ersit$. I+(e been able to select students from all o(er the /ni(ersit$ on the basis both of abilit$, and of cultural and disci'linar$ di(ersit$. We stress written assignments and oral argumentation. Towards the end of the course, students select a range of wildl$ contro(ersial social issues in which the$ ha(e ma1or emotional in(estments. =aired two-b$-two the$ 're'are for a succession of end-of-semester oral debates. " few weeks before the debates, howe(er, the$ are informed that it is the task of each to 'resent the 'oint of (iew of the o''onent in a wa$ that+s satisfactor$ to the o''onent - so the o''onent will sa$, -6es, that+s a fair 'resentation of m$ (iews.+ In the 1oint written debate the$ e)'lore their

differences, but also how the debate 'rocess has hel'ed them better to understand the o''osing 'oint of (iew. Some of the to'ics in this book were first 'resented to these students, I ha(e learned much from their rece'tion and criticism of m$ ideas, and want to thank them here. I+m also grateful to Cornell+s De'artment of "stronom$, and its Chair, 6er(ant Ter.ian, for 'ermitting me to teach the course, which, although labelled "stronom$ E ;, 'resents onl$ a little astronom$. Some of this book has also been 'resented in Parade maga.ine, a su''lement to Sunda$ news'a'ers all o(er 5orth "merica, with some B& million readers each week. The (igorous feedback I+(e recei(ed from Parade readers has greatl$ enhanced m$ understanding of the issues described in this book and the (ariet$ of 'ublic attitudes. I ha(e in se(eral 'laces e)cer'ted some of m$ mail from Parade readers which, it seems to me, has 'ro(ided a kind of finger on the 'ulse of the citi.enr$ of the /nited States. The >ditor-in-Chief of Parade, Walter "nderson, and the Senior >ditor, Da(id Currier, as well as the editorial and research staff of this remarkable maga.ine ha(e in man$ cases greatl$ im'ro(ed m$ 'resentation. The$ also ha(e 'ermitted o'inions to be e)'ressed that might not ha(e made it into 'rint in mass-market 'ublications less dedicated to the <irst "mendment of the /S Constitution. Some 'ortions of the te)t first a''eared in "he 'ashington Post and "he .ew <ork "imes! The last cha'ter is based in 'art on an address I had the 'leasure of deli(ering on E *ul$ % G from the >ast =ortico at #onticello - the -back of the nickel+ - on the occasion of the induction to /S citi.enshi' of 'eo'le from thirt$-one other nations. #$ o'inions on democrac$, the method of science and 'ublic education ha(e been influenced b$ enormous numbers of 'eo'le o(er the $ears, man$ of whom I mention in the bod$ of the te)t. 3ut I would like to single out here the ins'iration I ha(e recei(ed from #artin ?ardner, Isaac "simo(, =hili' #orrison and Henr$ Steele Commager. There is not room to thank the man$ others who ha(e hel'ed 'ro(ide understanding and lucid e)am'les, or who ha(e corrected errors of omission or commission, but I want them all to know how dee'l$ grateful I am to them. I must howe(er e)'licitl$ thank the following friends and colleagues for criticall$ re(iewing earlier drafts of this book! 3ill "ldridge, Susan 3lackmore, William Cromer, <red <rankel, @endrick <ra.ier, #artin ?ardner, Ira ?lasser, <red ?olden, @urt ?ottfried, 4ester ?rins'oon, =hili' @lass, =aul @urt., >li.abeth 4oftus, Da(id #orrison, Aichard 2fshe, *a$ 2rear, "lbert =enn$backer, <rank =ress, Theodore Aos.ak, Dorion Sagan, Da(id Sa'erstein, Aobert Sei'le, Ste(en Soter, *erem$ Stone, =eter Sturrock and 6er(ant Ter.ian. I also am (er$ grateful to m$ literar$ agent, #orton *anklow, and members of his staff for wise counsel, Aoger Houghton, m$ editor at Headline 3ook =ublishing, William 3arnett for ushering the manuscri't through its final 'hases, "ndrea 3arnett, 4aurel

=arker, @arenn ?obrecht, Cindi Dita Dogel, ?inn$ A$an and Christo'her Auser for their assistance, and the Cornell 4ibrar$ s$stem, including the rare books collection on m$sticism and su'erstition originall$ com'iled b$ the /ni(ersit$+s first 'resident, "ndrew Dickson White. =arts of four of the cha'ters in this book were written with m$ wife and long-time collaborator, "nn Dru$an, who is also the elected Secretar$ of the <ederation of "merican Scientists - an organi.ation founded in % E5 b$ the original #anhattan =ro1ect scientists to monitor the ethical use of science and high technolog$. She has also 'ro(ided enormousl$ hel'ful guidance, suggestions and criticism on content and st$le throughout the book and at e(er$ stage of writing it o(er the course of nearl$ a decade. I ha(e learned from her more than I can sa$. I know how luck$ I am to find in the same 'erson someone whose ad(ice and 1udgement, sense of humour and courageous (ision I so much admire, who is also the lo(e of m$ life.