Topic 4: Genetics (Core)

4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.1.4

State that eukaryote chromosomes are made of DNA and proteins. Define gene, allele and genome. Define gene mutation. Explain the conse uence of a !ase su!stitution mutation in relation to the processes of transcription and translation, usin" the example of sickle#cell anemia. State that meiosis is a reduction di$ision of a diploid nucleus to form haploid nuclei. Define homologous chromosomes. %utline the process of meiosis, includin" pairin" of homolo"ous chromosomes and crossin" o$er, follo&ed !y t&o di$isions, &hich results in four haploid cells. Explain that non#dis'unction can lead to chan"es in chromosome num!er, illustrated !y reference to Do&n syndrome (trisomy 21). State that, in karyotypin", chromosomes are arran"ed in pairs accordin" to their si+e and structure. State that karyotypin" is performed usin" cells collected !y chorionic $illus samplin" or amniocentesis, for pre#natal dia"nosis of chromosome a!normalities. Analyse a human karyotype to determine "ender and &hether non#dis'unction has occurred. Define genotype, phenotype, dominant allele, recessive allele, codominant alleles, locus, homozygous, heterozygous, carrier and test cross. Determine the "enotypes and phenotypes of the offsprin" of a monohy!rid cross usin" a .unnett "rid. State that some "enes ha$e more than t&o alleles (multiple alleles). Descri!e A/% !lood "roups as an example of codominance and multiple alleles. Explain ho& the sex chromosomes control "ender !y referrin" to the inheritance of 0 and 1 chromosomes in humans.

4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3

4.2.4

4.2.*

4.2.,

4.2.-

4.3.1

4.3.2

4.3.3 4.3.4 4.3.*

4.3.,

State that some "enes are present on the 0 chromosome and a!sent from the shorter 1 chromosome in humans. Define sex linkage. Descri!e the inheritance of colour !lindness and hemophilia as examples of sex linka"e. State that a human female can !e homo+y"ous or hetero+y"ous &ith respect to sex#linked "enes. Explain that female carriers are hetero+y"ous for 0#linked recessi$e alleles. .redict the "enotypic and phenotypic ratios of offsprin" of monohy!rid crosses in$ol$in" any of the a!o$e patterns of inheritance. Deduce the "enotypes and phenotypes of indi$iduals in pedi"ree charts. %utline the use of polymerase chain reaction (.56) to copy and amplify minute uantities of DNA. State that, in "el electrophoresis, fra"ments of DNA mo$e in an electric field and are separated accordin" to their si+e. State that "el electrophoresis of DNA is used in DNA profilin". Descri!e the application of DNA profilin" to determine paternity and also in forensic in$esti"ations. Analyse DNA profiles to dra& conclusions a!out paternity or forensic in$esti"ations. %utline three outcomes of the se uencin" of the complete human "enome. State that, &hen "enes are transferred !et&een species, the amino acid se uence of polypeptides translated from them is unchan"ed !ecause the "enetic code is uni$ersal. %utline a !asic techni ue used for "ene transfer in$ol$in" plasmids, a host cell (!acterium, yeast or other cell), restriction en+ymes (endonucleases) and DNA li"ase. State t&o examples of the current uses of "enetically modified crops or animals. Discuss the potential !enefits and possi!le harmful effects of one example of "enetic modification. Define clone.

4.3.4.3.2 4.3.3

4.3.14 4.3.11

4.3.12 4.4.1

4.4.2

4.4.3 4.4.4

4.4.* 4.4., 4.4.-

4.4.2

4.4.3 4.4.14

4.4.11

4.4.12 4.4.13

%utline a techni ue for clonin" usin" differentiated animal cells. Discuss the ethical issues of therapeutic clonin" in humans.

Topic 10: HL Genetics

14.1.1 14.1.2 14.1.3

Descri!e the !eha$iour of the chromosomes in the phases of meiosis. %utline the formation of chiasmata in the process of crossin" o$er. Explain ho& meiosis results in an effecti$ely infinite "enetic $ariety in "ametes throu"h crossin" o$er in prophase 7 and random orientation in metaphase 7. State 8endel9s la& of independent assortment.

14.1.4

14.1.* 14.2.1

Explain the relationship !et&een 8endel9s la& of independent assortment and meiosis. 5alculate and predict the "enotypic and phenotypic ratio of offsprin" of dihy!rid crosses in$ol$in" unlinked autosomal "enes. Distin"uish !et&een autosomes and sex chromosomes. Explain ho& crossin" o$er !et&een non#sister chromatids of a homolo"ous pair in prophase 7 can result in an exchan"e of alleles. Define linkage group. Explain an example of a cross !et&een t&o linked "enes. 7dentify &hich of the offsprin" are recom!inants in a dihy!rid cross in$ol$in" linked "enes. Define polygenic inheritance. Explain that poly"enic inheritance can contri!ute to continuous $ariation usin" t&o examples, one of &hich must !e human skin colour.

14.2.2 14.2.3

14.2.4 14.2.* 14.2., 14.3.1 14.3.2

Topic 5: Ecology (Core)

*.1.1 *.1.2 *.1.3 *.1.4

Define species, habitat, population, community, ecosystem and ecology. Distin"uish !et&een autotroph and heterotroph. Distin"uish !et&een consumers, detritivores and saprotrophs. Descri!e &hat is meant !y a food chain, "i$in" three examples, each &ith at least three linka"es (four or"anisms). Descri!e &hat is meant !y a food &e!. Define trophic level. Deduce the trophic le$el of or"anisms in a food chain and a food &e!. 5onstruct a food &e! containin" up to 14 or"anisms, usin" appropriate information. State that li"ht is the initial ener"y source for almost all communities. Explain the ener"y flo& in a food chain. State that ener"y transformations are ne$er 144: efficient. Explain reasons for the shape of pyramids of ener"y. Explain that ener"y enters and lea$es ecosystems, !ut nutrients must !e recycled. State that saprotrophic !acteria and fun"i (decomposers) recycle nutrients. Dra& and la!el a dia"ram of the car!on cycle to sho& the processes in$ol$ed. Analyse the chan"es in concentration of atmospheric car!on dioxide usin" historical records. Explain the relationship !et&een rises in concentrations of atmospheric car!on dioxide, methane and oxides of nitro"en and the enhanced "reenhouse effect. %utline the precautionary principle. E$aluate the precautionary principle as a 'ustification for stron" action in response to the

*.1.* *.1., *.1.*.1.2 *.1.3 *.1.14 *.1.11 *.1.12 *.1.13 *.1.14 *.2.1 *.2.2

*.2.3

*.2.4 *.2.*

threats posed !y the enhanced "reenhouse effect. *.2., *.3.1 *.3.2 *.3.3 %utline the conse uences of a "lo!al temperature rise on arctic ecosystems. %utline ho& population si+e is affected !y natality, immi"ration, mortality and emi"ration. Dra& and la!el a "raph sho&in" a si"moid (S#shaped) population "ro&th cur$e. Explain the reasons for the exponential "ro&th phase, the plateau phase and the transitional phase !et&een these t&o phases. ;ist three factors that set limits to population increase.

*.3.4

Option G: Ecology and Conservation

<.1.1

%utline the factors that affect the distri!ution of plant species, includin" temperature, &ater, li"ht, soil p=, salinity and mineral nutrients. Explain the factors that affect the distri!ution of animal species, includin" temperature, &ater, !reedin" sites, food supply and territory. Descri!e one method of random samplin", !ased on uadrat methods, that is used to compare the population si+e of t&o plant or t&o animal species. %utline the use of a transect to correlate the distri!ution of plant or animal species &ith an a!iotic $aria!le. Explain &hat is meant !y the niche concept, includin" an or"anism9s spatial ha!itat, its feedin" acti$ities and its interactions &ith other species. %utline the follo&in" interactions !et&een species, "i$in" t&o examples of each> competition, her!i$ory, predation, parasitism and mutualism. Explain the principle of competiti$e exclusion.

<.1.2

<.1.3

<.1.4

<.1.*

<.1.,

<.1.-

<.1.2 <.1.3 <.1.14

Distin"uish !et&een fundamental and realized niches. Define biomass. Descri!e one method for the measurement of !iomass of different trophic le$els in an ecosystem. Define gross production, net production and biomass. 5alculate $alues for "ross production and net production usin" the e uation> "ross production ? respiration @ net production. Discuss the difficulties of classifyin" or"anisms into trophic le$els. Explain the small !iomass and lo& num!ers of or"anisms in hi"her trophic le$els. 5onstruct a pyramid of ener"y, "i$en appropriate information. Distin"uish !et&een primary and secondary succession, usin" an example of each. %utline the chan"es in species di$ersity and production durin" primary succession. Explain the effects of li$in" or"anisms on the a!iotic en$ironment, &ith reference to the chan"es occurrin" durin" primary succession. Distin"uish !et&een biome and biosphere. Explain ho& rainfall and temperature affect the distri!ution of !iomes. %utline the characteristics of six ma'or !iomes. 5alculate the Simpson di$ersity index for t&o local communities. Analyse the !iodi$ersity of the t&o local communities usin" the Simpson index. Discuss reasons for the conser$ation of !iodi$ersity usin" rainforests as an example. ;ist three examples of the introduction of alien species that ha$e had si"nificant impacts on ecosystems. Discuss the impacts of alien species on ecosystems.

<.2.1 <.2.2

<.2.3 <.2.4 <.2.* <.2., <.2.<.2.2

<.2.3 <.2.14 <.2.11 <.3.1 <.3.2 <.3.3 <.3.4

<.3.*

A<.3., <.3.<.3.2 <.3.3 <.3.14 <.3.11 <.4.1 <.4.2 <.4.3

%utline one example of !iolo"ical control of in$asi$e species. Define biomagnification. Explain the cause and conse uences of !ioma"nification, usin" a named example. %utline the effects of ultra$iolet (BC) radiation on li$in" tissues and !iolo"ical producti$ity. %utline the effect of chlorofluorocar!ons (5D5s) on the o+one layer. State that o+one in the stratosphere a!sor!s BC radiation. Explain the use of !iotic indices and indicator species in monitorin" en$ironmental chan"e. %utline the factors that contri!uted to the extinction of one named animal species. %utline the !io"eo"raphical features of nature reser$es that promote the conser$ation of di$ersity. Discuss the role of acti$e mana"ement techni ues in conser$ation. Discuss the ad$anta"es of in situ conser$ation of endan"ered species (terrestrial and a uatic nature reser$es). %utline the use of ex situ conser$ation measures, includin" capti$e !reedin" of animals, !otanic "ardens and seed !anks. Distin"uish !et&een r-strategies and K-strategies. Discuss the en$ironmental conditions that fa$our either r#strate"ies or E#strate"ies. Descri!e one techni ue used to estimate the population si+e of an animal species !ased on a capture?mark?release?recapture method. Descri!e the methods used to estimate the si+e of commercial fish stocks. %utline the concept of maximum sustaina!le yield in the conser$ation of fish stocks. Discuss international measures that &ould promote the conser$ation of fish.

<.4.4 <.4.*

<.4.,

<.*.1 <.*.2 <.*.3

<.*.4 <.*.* <.*.,

Evolution (Core)
Define evolution. *.4.1 *.4.2 *.4.3 *.4.4 *.4.* Explain ho& sexual reproduction promotes $ariation in a species. *.4., Explain ho& natural selection leads to e$olution. *.4.*.4.2 *.*.1 *.*.2 Explain t&o examples of e$olution in response to en$ironmental chan"eF one must !e anti!iotic resistance in !acteria. %utline the !inomial system of nomenclature. ;ist se$en le$els in the hierarchy of taxaGkin"dom, phylum, class, order, family, "enus and speciesGusin" an example from t&o different kin"doms for each le$el. Explain that the conse uence of the potential o$erproduction of offsprin" is a stru""le for sur$i$al. State that the mem!ers of a species sho& $ariation. %utline the e$idence for e$olution pro$ided !y the fossil record, selecti$e !reedin" of domesticated animals and homolo"ous structures. State that populations tend to produce more offsprin" than the en$ironment can support.

*.*.3

Distin"uish !et&een the follo&in" phyla of plants, usin" simple external reco"nition features> bryophyta, filicinophyta, coniferophyta and angiospermophyta. Distin"uish !et&een the follo&in" phyla of animals, usin" simple external reco"nition features> porifera, cnidaria, platyhelminthes, annelida, mollusca and arthropoda. Apply and desi"n a key for a "roup of up to ei"ht or"anisms.

*.*.4

*.*.*

Option D: Evol tion

D.1.1 D.1.2 D.1.3 D.1.4

Descri!e four processes needed for the spontaneous ori"in of life on Earth. %utline the experiments of 8iller and Brey into the ori"in of or"anic compounds. State that comets may ha$e deli$ered or"anic compounds to Earth. Discuss possi!le locations &here conditions &ould ha$e allo&ed the synthesis of or"anic compounds. %utline t&o properties of 6NA that &ould ha$e allo&ed it to play a role in the ori"in of life.

D.1.*

D.1.,

State that li$in" cells may ha$e !een preceded !y proto!ionts, &ith an internal chemical en$ironment different from their surroundin"s. %utline the contri!ution of prokaryotes to the creation of an oxy"en#rich atmosphere. Discuss the endosym!iotic theory for the ori"in of eukaryotes. Define allele frequency and gene pool. State that e$olution in$ol$es a chan"e in allele fre uency in a population9s "ene pool o$er a num!er of "enerations. Discuss the definition of the term species. Descri!e three examples of !arriers !et&een "ene pools. Explain ho& polyploidy can contri!ute to speciation. 5ompare allopatric and sympatric speciation. %utline the process of adapti$e radiation. 5ompare con$er"ent and di$er"ent e$olution. Discuss ideas on the pace of e$olution, includin" "radualism and punctuated e uili!rium. Descri!e one example of transient polymorphism. Descri!e sickle#cell anemia as an example of !alanced polymorphism. %utline the method for datin" rocks and fossils usin" radioisotopes, &ith reference to 145 and 44E. Define half-life. Deduce the approximate a"e of materials !ased on a simple decay cur$e for a radioisotope. Descri!e the ma'or anatomical features that define humans as primates. %utline the trends illustrated !y the fossils of Ardipithecus ramidus, Australopithecus includin" A. afarensis and A. africanus, and Homo includin" H. habilis, H. erectus, H. neanderthalensis and H. sapiens.

D.1.D.1.2 D.2.1 D.2.2

D.2.3 D.2.4 D.2.* D.2., D.2.D.2.2 D.2.3 D.2.14 D.2.11 D.3.1

D.3.2 D.3.3

D.3.4 D.3.*

D.3., D.3.-

State that, at $arious sta"es in hominid e$olution, se$eral species may ha$e coexisted. Discuss the incompleteness of the fossil record and the resultin" uncertainties a!out human e$olution. Discuss the correlation !et&een the chan"e in diet and increase in !rain si+e durin" hominid e$olution. Distin"uish !et&een genetic and cultural e$olution. Discuss the relati$e importance of "enetic and cultural e$olution in the recent e$olution of humans. Explain ho& the =ardy?Hein!er" e uation is deri$ed. 5alculate allele, "enotype and phenotype fre uencies for t&o alleles of a "ene, usin" the =ardy?Hein!er" e uation. State the assumptions made &hen the =ardy?Hein!er" e uation is used. %utline the $alue of classifyin" or"anisms. Explain the !iochemical e$idence pro$ided !y the uni$ersality of DNA and protein structures for the common ancestry of li$in" or"anisms. Explain ho& $ariations in specific molecules can indicate phylo"eny. Discuss ho& !iochemical $ariations can !e used as an e$olutionary clock. Define clade and cladistics. Distin"uish, &ith examples, !et&een analogous and homologous characteristics. %utline the methods used to construct clado"rams and the conclusions that can !e dra&n from them. 5onstruct a simple clado"ram. Analyse clado"rams in terms of phylo"enetic relationships. Discuss the relationship !et&een clado"rams and the classification of li$in" or"anisms.

D.3.2

D.3.3 D.3.14

D.4.1 D.4.2

D.4.3 D.*.1 D.*.2

D.*.3 D.*.4 D.*.* D.*., D.*.-

D.*.2 D.*.3 D.*.14

Topic !: H "an Healt# and $#ysiology (Core)

,.1.1 ,.1.2 ,.1.3

Explain &hy di"estion of lar"e food molecules is essential. Explain the need for en+ymes in di"estion. State the source, su!strate, products and optimum p= conditions for one amylase, one protease and one lipase. Dra& and la!el a dia"ram of the di"esti$e system. %utline the function of the stomach, small intestine and lar"e intestine. Distin"uish !et&een absorption and assimilation. Explain ho& the structure of the $illus is related to its role in a!sorption and transport of the products of di"estion. Dra& and la!el a dia"ram of the heart sho&in" the four cham!ers, associated !lood

,.1.4 ,.1.* ,.1., ,.1.-

,.2.1

$essels, $al$es and the route of !lood throu"h the heart. ,.2.2 ,.2.3 State that the coronary arteries supply heart muscle &ith oxy"en and nutrients. Explain the action of the heart in terms of collectin" !lood, pumpin" !lood, and openin" and closin" of $al$es. %utline the control of the heart!eat in terms of myo"enic muscle contraction, the role of the pacemaker, ner$es, the medulla of the !rain and epinephrine (adrenaline). Explain the relationship !et&een the structure and function of arteries, capillaries and $eins. State that !lood is composed of plasma, erythrocytes, leucocytes (pha"ocytes and lymphocytes) and platelets. State that the follo&in" are transported !y the !lood> nutrients, oxy"en, car!on dioxide, hormones, anti!odies, urea and heat. Define pathogen. Explain &hy anti!iotics are effecti$e a"ainst !acteria !ut not a"ainst $iruses. %utline the role of skin and mucous mem!ranes in defence a"ainst patho"ens. %utline ho& pha"ocytic leucocytes in"est patho"ens in the !lood and in !ody tissues. Distin"uish !et&een antigens and antibodies. Explain anti!ody production. %utline the effects of =7C on the immune system. Discuss the cause, transmission and social implications of A7DS. Distin"uish !et&een ventilation, gas exchange and cell respiration. Explain the need for a $entilation system. Descri!e the features of al$eoli that adapt them to "as exchan"e. Dra& and la!el a dia"ram of the $entilation system, includin" trachea, lun"s, !ronchi, !ronchioles and al$eoli.

,.2.4

,.2.*

,.2.,

,.2.-

,.3.1 ,.3.2 ,.3.3 ,.3.4 ,.3.* ,.3., ,.3.,.3.2 ,.4.1 ,.4.2 ,.4.3 ,.4.4

,.4.*

Explain the mechanism of $entilation of the lun"s in terms of $olume and pressure chan"es caused !y the internal and external intercostal muscles, the diaphra"m and a!dominal muscles. State that the ner$ous system consists of the central ner$ous system (5NS) and peripheral ner$es, and is composed of cells called neurons that can carry rapid electrical impulses. Dra& and la!el a dia"ram of the structure of a motor neuron. State that ner$e impulses are conducted from receptors to the 5NS !y sensory neurons, &ithin the 5NS !y relay neurons, and from the 5NS to effectors !y motor neurons. Define resting potential and action potential (depolari+ation and repolari+ation). Explain ho& a ner$e impulse passes alon" a non#myelinated neuron. Explain the principles of synaptic transmission. State that the endocrine system consists of "lands that release hormones that are transported in the !lood. State that homeostasis in$ol$es maintainin" the internal en$ironment !et&een limits, includin" !lood p=, car!on dioxide concentration, !lood "lucose concentration, !ody temperature and &ater !alance. Explain that homeostasis in$ol$es monitorin" le$els of $aria!les and correctin" chan"es in le$els !y ne"ati$e feed!ack mechanisms. Explain the control of !ody temperature, includin" the transfer of heat in !lood, and the roles of the hypothalamus, s&eat "lands, skin arterioles and shi$erin". Explain the control of !lood "lucose concentration, includin" the roles of "luca"on, insulin and I and J cells in the pancreatic islets. Distin"uish !et&een type and type dia!etes.

,.*.1

,.*.2 ,.*.3

,.*.4 ,.*.* ,.*., ,.*.-

,.*.2

,.*.3

,.*.14

,.*.11

,.*.12 ,.,.1 ,.,.2

Dra& and la!el dia"rams of the adult male and female reproducti$e systems. %utline the role of hormones in the menstrual cycle, includin" DS= (follicle stimulatin" hormone), ;= (luteini+in" hormone), estro"en and pro"esterone. Annotate a "raph sho&in" hormone le$els in the menstrual cycle, illustratin" the relationship !et&een chan"es in hormone le$els and o$ulation, menstruation and thickenin" of the endometrium.

,.,.3

,.,.4 ,.,.* ,.,.,

;ist three roles of testosterone in males. %utline the process of in vitro fertili+ation (7CD). Discuss the ethical issues associated &ith 7CD.

Topic 11: HL H "an Healt# and $#ysiology

11.1.1 11.1.2

Descri!e the process of !lood clottin". %utline the principle of challen"e and response, clonal selection and memory cells as the !asis of immunity. Define active and passive immunity. Explain anti!ody production. Descri!e the production of monoclonal anti!odies and their use in dia"nosis and in treatment. Explain the principle of $accination. Discuss the !enefits and dan"ers of $accination. State the roles of !ones, li"aments, muscles, tendons and ner$es in human mo$ement.

11.1.3 11.1.4 11.1.*

11.1., 11.1.11.2.1

11.2.2

;a!el a dia"ram of the human el!o& 'oint, includin" cartila"e, syno$ial fluid, 'oint capsule, named !ones and anta"onistic muscles (!iceps and triceps). %utline the functions of the structures in the human el!o& 'oint named in 11.2.2. 5ompare the mo$ements of the hip 'oint and the knee 'oint.

11.2.3 11.2.4 11.2.*

Descri!e the structure of striated muscle fi!res, includin" the myofi!rils &ith li"ht and dark !ands, mitochondria, the sarcoplasmic reticulum, nuclei and the sarcolemma. Dra& and la!el a dia"ram to sho& the structure of a sarcomere, includin" K lines, actin filaments, myosin filaments &ith heads, and the resultant li"ht and dark !ands. Explain ho& skeletal muscle contracts, includin" the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, the formation of cross#!rid"es, the slidin" of actin and myosin filaments, and the use of AL. to !reak cross#!rid"es and re#set myosin heads. Analyse electron micro"raphs to find the state of contraction of muscle fi!res.

11.2.,

11.2.-

11.2.2 Define excretion. 11.3.1 Dra& and la!el a dia"ram of the kidney. 11.3.2 11.3.3 11.3.4 Annotate a dia"ram of a "lomerulus and associated nephron to sho& the function of each part. Explain the process of ultrafiltration, includin" !lood pressure, fenestrated !lood capillaries and !asement mem!rane. Define osmoregulation. Explain the rea!sorption of "lucose, &ater and salts in the proximal con$oluted tu!ule, includin" the roles of micro$illi, osmosis and acti$e transport. Explain the roles of the loop of =enle, medulla, collectin" duct and AD= ($asopressin) in maintainin" the &ater !alance of the !lood. Explain the differences in the concentration of proteins, "lucose and urea !et&een !lood plasma, "lomerular filtrate and urine. Explain the presence of "lucose in the urine of untreated dia!etic patients. Annotate a li"ht micro"raph of testis tissue to sho& the location and function of interstitial cells (;eydi" cells), "erminal epithelium cells, de$elopin" spermato+oa and Sertoli cells.

11.3.* 11.3.,

11.3.-

11.3.2

11.3.3 11.4.1

11.4.2

%utline the processes in$ol$ed in spermato"enesis &ithin the testis, includin" mitosis, cell "ro&th, the t&o di$isions of meiosis and cell differentiation. State the role of ;=, testosterone and DS= in spermato"enesis. Annotate a dia"ram of the o$ary to sho& the location and function of "erminal epithelium, primary follicles, mature follicle and secondary oocyte. %utline the processes in$ol$ed in oo"enesis &ithin the o$ary, includin" mitosis, cell "ro&th, the t&o di$isions of meiosis, the une ual di$ision of cytoplasm and the de"eneration of polar !ody. Dra& and la!el a dia"ram of a mature sperm and e"". %utline the role of the epididymis, seminal $esicle and prostate "land in the production of semen. 5ompare the processes of spermato"enesis and oo"enesis, includin" the num!er of "ametes and the timin" of the formation and release of "ametes. Descri!e the process of fertili+ation, includin" the acrosome reaction, penetration of the e"" mem!rane !y a sperm and the cortical reaction. %utline the role of =5< in early pre"nancy. %utline early em!ryo de$elopment up to the implantation of the !lastocyst. Explain ho& the structure and functions of the placenta, includin" its hormonal role in secretion of estro"en and pro"esterone, maintain pre"nancy. State that the fetus is supported and protected !y the amniotic sac and amniotic fluid. State that materials are exchan"ed !et&een the maternal and fetal !lood in the placenta. %utline the process of !irth and its hormonal control, includin" the chan"es in pro"esterone and oxytocin le$els and positi$e feed!ack.

11.4.3 11.4.4

11.4.*

11.4., 11.4.-

11.4.2

11.4.3

11.4.14 11.4.11 11.4.12

11.4.13 11.4.14 11.4.1*