Calidad UNIDAD 1

INTRODUCTION Quality in business, engineering and manufacturing has a pragmatic interpretation as the noninferiority or superiority of something; it is also defined as fitness for purpose. Quality is a perceptual, conditional, and somewhat subjective attribute and may be understood differently by different people. Consumers may focus on the specification quality of a product/service, or how it compares to competitors in the marketplace. Producers might measure the conformance quality, or degree to which the product/service was produced correctly. Support personnel may measure quality in the degree that a product is reliable, maintainable, or sustainable. Simply put, a quality item (an item that has quality) has the ability to perform satisfactorily in service and is suitable for its intended purpose. There are five aspects of quality in a business context: 1. Producing - providing something. 2. Checking - confirming that something has been done correctly. 3. Quality Control - controlling a process to ensure that the outcomes are predictable. 4. Quality Management directing an organisation so that it optimises its performance through analysis and improvement. 5. Quality Assurance obtaining confidence that a product or service will be satisfactory. (Normally performed by a purchaser) Managing quality is fundamental to any activity and having a clear understanding of the five aspects, measuring performance and taking action to improve is essential to an organizations survival and growth. The common element of the business definitions is that the quality of a product or service refers to the perception of the degree to which the product or service meets the customer's expectations. Quality has no specific meaning unless related to a specific function and/or object. Quality is a perceptual, conditional and somewhat subjective attribute. DIMENSIONS The dimensions of quality refer to the attributes that quality achieves in operations management:[citation needed]

Quality supports dependability Dependability supports speed Speed supports flexibility Flexibility supports cost

DEFINITIONS The business meanings of quality have developed over time. Various interpretations are given below: 1. American Society for Quality: "A combination of quantitative and qualitative perspectives for which each person has his or her own definition; examples of which include, "Meeting the requirements and expectations in service or product that were committed to" and "Pursuit of optimal solutions contributing to confirmed successes, fulfilling accountabilities". In technical usage, quality can have two meanings: a. The characteristics of a product or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs; b. A product or service free of deficiencies."[1] 2. Subir Chowdhury: "Quality combines people power and process power."[2] 3. Philip B. Crosby: "Conformance to requirements."[1][3] The requirements may not fully represent customer expectations; Crosby treats this as a separate problem. 4. W. Edwards Deming: concentrating on "the efficient production of the quality that the market expects,"[4] and he linked quality and management: "Costs go down and productivity goes up as improvement of quality is accomplished by better management of design, engineering, testing and by improvement of processes."[5] 5. Peter Drucker: "Quality in a product or service is not what the supplier puts in. It is what the customer gets out and is willing to pay for."[6] 6. ISO 9000: "Degree to which a set of inherent characteristics fulfills requirements."[7] The standard defines requirement as need or expectation. 7. Joseph M. Juran: "Fitness for use."[1] Fitness is defined by the customer. 8. Noriaki Kano and others, present a two-dimensional model of quality: "must-be quality" and "attractive quality."[8] The former is near to "fitness for use" and the latter is what the customer would love, but has not yet thought about. Supporters characterize this model more succinctly as: "Products and services that meet or exceed customers' expectations." 9. Robert Pirsig: "The result of care."[9] 10. Six Sigma: "Number of defects per million opportunities."[10] 11. Genichi Taguchi, with two definitions: a. "Uniformity around a target value."[11] The idea is to lower the standard deviation in outcomes, and to keep the range of outcomes to a certain number of standard deviations, with rare exceptions.

b. "The loss a product imposes on society after it is shipped."[12] This definition of quality is based on a more comprehensive view of the production system. 12. Gerald M. Weinberg: "Value to some person".[13]

Quality Principles and Philosophies Dr. W.E. Deming Background: Main architect for introducing Total Quality into Japan Born 1900 Graduated in Electrical Engineering PhD in mathematical physics Became statistician for US govt. Sent by US govt. to Japan after WWII to advise on Japanese census

Philosophy: Quality is about people, not products Suggested quality concept for designing product Management needs to understand nature of variation and how to interpret statistical data Promoted importance of leadership 85% of production faults responsibility of management, not workers Enumerated a 14-point management philosophy

Product Development Cycle 1. Design the product. 2. Make it. 3. Try to sell it. 4. Do consumer research and test the products uses. 5. Redesign start the cycle all over again.

Achieving Quality Companies should direct efforts towards: Innovation of products

 Innovation of processes Improvement of existing products Improvement of existing processes Attributes of a Leader Coaches not judges Strives to understand variation and its causes Strives to remove obstacles within the organization Responds to all customer forces Adopts consistency of purpose Places and emphasis on improving processes Recognizes that people are not assets; they are jewels Strives to recognize those who need help and the gives help Creates and atmosphere of trust Knows the work he supervises Does not place an over-reliance on figures Encourages education and continuous improvement of each person

The 14 Points 1. Create a constant purpose toward improvement. Create constancy of purpose for improvement of systems, products and services, with the aim to become excellent, satisfy customers, and provide jobs. Reduced defects and cost of development.

2.

Adopt the new philosophy. Constantly and forever improve the system development processes, to improve quality and productivity, and thus constantly decrease the time and cost of systems. Improving quality is not a one time effort.

3.

Stop depending on inspections. Cease dependencies on mass inspection (especially testing) to achieve quality. Reduce the need for inspection on a mass basis by building quality into the system in the first place. Inspection is not the answer. It is too late and unreliable it does not produce quality.

4.

Use a single supplier for any one item. Move towards quality of product, reliability of delivery and willingness to cooperate and improve. Build partnerships. Minimize total cost. Move towards a single supplier for any one item or service, making them a partner in a long-term relationship of loyalty and trust.

5.

Improve constantly and forever. All functions in an organization need to become quality conscious to deliver a quality product.

6.

Use training on the job. Institute training on the job. Everyone must be trained, as knowledge is essential for improvement.

7.

Implement leadership. Institute leadership. It is a mangers job to help their people and their systems do a better job.

8.

Eliminate fear. Drive out fear, so that everyone may work effectively. Management should be held responsible for the faults of the organization and environment.

9.

Break down barriers between departments. Break down barriers between areas. People must work as a team. They must foresee and prevent problems during systems development and use.

10. Get rid of unclear slogans/targets. Set realistic targets. Do not place people under unnecessary pressure by asking them to do things which are not achievable. Eliminate slogans, exhortations, and targets that ask for zero defects, and new levels of productivity. Slogans do not build quality systems.

11. Eliminate management by objectives. Eliminate numerical quotas and goals. Substitute it with leadership. Quotas and goals (such as schedule) address numbers - not quality and methods.

Tip: There are situations in which approaches like Management By Objectives are appropriate, for example, in motivating sales-people. As Deming points out, however, there are many situations where a focus on objectives can lead people to cut corners with quality. You'll need to decide for yourself

whether or not to use these approaches. If you do, make sure that you think through the behaviors that your objectives will motivate. 12. Remove barriers to pride of workmanship. Remove barriers to pride of workmanship. The responsibility of project managers must change from schedules to quality. 13. Implement education and self-improvement. Institute and vigorous program of education and self-improvement for everyone. There must be a continuing commitment to training and educating software managers and professional staff.

14. Make "transformation" everyone's job. Publish top managements permanent commitment to continuous improvement of quality and productivity

JURAN

Jurans 10-point Program 1. Identify customers 2. Determine customer needs 3. Translate 4. Establishment units of measurement 5. Establish measurements 6. Develop product 7. Optimize product design 8. Develop process 9. Optimize process capability 10. Transfer

CROSBY Crosbys 14-step program 1. Management commitment 2. Quality improvement team 3. Quality measurement 4. Cost of quality evaluation 5. Quality awareness 6. Corrective action 7. Zero defect program 8. Supervisor training 9. Zero defects day 10. Goal setting 11. Error cause removal 12. Recognition 13. Quality councils 14. Do it over again Crosbys Maturity Grid Uncertainty (adhoc) Awakening (recognition begins but management unwilling to spend on quality) Enlightenment (management begins to support quality improvement program, culture of openness) Wisdom (management fully participates, defect prevention is now part of the culture) Certainty (the whole organization is involved in continuous improvement)

SHINGO Shingos Philosophy Poka Yoke (meaning mistake proofing) This involves identifying potential error sources in the process and monitoring these sources for errors. A variant to this approach is FMEA

ISHIKAWA Ishikawas Philosophy Quality Control Circles (QCC) A quality control circle consists of a small group of employees who do similar work and arrange to meet regularly to identify and analyze work-related problems, to brainstorm and to recommend and implement solutions. Quality Control Circles Select problem State and re-state problems Collect facts Brainstorm Build on each other ideas Choose course of action Presentation

GENICHI TAGUCHI Taguchis Philosophy Defines quality in terms of loss the loss a product causes to society after being shipped, other than losses caused by its intrinsic function He defines a loss function as a measure of the cost of quality He also developed a method for determining the optimum value of process variables which will minimize the variation in a process while keeping mean on target PETER DRUCKER Druckers Philosophy Success is threefold

1. Know your business

2. Know your competencies 3. Knowing how to keep focused on goals Effective management and employee participation Link between the bottom line and satisfying the customer Purpose of business lies outside itself that is in creating and satisfying a customer. The decision process is central, and structure has to follow strategy and management has to be management by objectives and self-control.

Druckers 5 Principles of Management 1. Setting objectives 2. Organizing 3. Motivating and communicating 4. Establishing measures of performance 5. Developing people

TOM PETERS Peters Philosophy Excellent firms believe in constant improvement and constant change Need to move from hierarchical management to horizontal, fast, cross-functional co-operative organization Peters Management Guidelines Actively create a quality revolution Put the customer first in everything you do Listen actively to all stakeholders Invest in people, training, education and recruitment Openly reward, recognize and support productivity innovation Openly support failures where people have tried to improve Involve everyone in everything at all times Setup simple and understandable measures Fight against bureaucracy and inflexibility Look through a different mirror: step outside the company and look at it from a different perspective Teamwork and trust: develop strong interpersonal and team skills Work on attitudes and attention to detail: get things done Be consistent and strive for improvements in all areas