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Acknowlcdgmcnts ix
|crc and ow
Patt I Clelal leas
2 Lis|uncturc and Li||crcncc in thc Clobal Cultural Lconomy 27
3 Clobal Lthnoscapcs. otcs and [ucrics |or a
Jransnational Anthropology 48
4 Consumption, Luration, and |istory 66
Patt MeJ:o Celer|:s
5 |laying with lodcrnity. Jhc Lccolonization o| lndian Crickct 89
6 umbcr in thc Colonial lmagination I I 4
Patt Pestrat|eral Lecat|ers
7 Li|c a|tcr |rimordial ism I 39
8 |atriotism and lts uturcs I 58
9 Jhc |roduction o| Locality I 78
otcs 20 l
bibliography 205
|ndcx 2 I 9
= vi i =
ACk0W6dgm6lS
Jhis book was writtcn ovcr a pcriod o| six ycars, and during that timc l
havc bcnchtcd |rom contact with many pcrsons and institutions. Jhc idca
|or thc book took shapc during I 98990, whcn l was a lacArthur lcllow
at thc lnstitutc |or Advanccd Study in |rinccton. |arts o| it wcrc writtcn
whilc l was at thc Onivcrsity o| |cnnsylvania, as codircctor o| thc Ccntcr
|or Jransnational Cultural Studics. lt was complctcd at thc Onivcrsity o|
Chicago, whcrc l havc cn]oycd a grcat rangc o| crossdisciplinary convcr-
sations at thc Chicago |umanitics lnstitutc, and whcrc l havc bcnchtcd
|rom thc cncrgics o| thc Clobalization |ro]cct. Also, in Chicago during
this pcriod, convcrsations and dcbatcs at thc Ccntcr |or Jranscultural
Studics ,prcviously thc Ccntcr |or |sycho-Social Studics) providcd na-
tional and intcrnational pcrspcctivcs that wcrc invaluablc.
Jhc |ollowing i ndivi duals havc givcn mc valuablc criticisms and sug-
gcstions in rcgard to various parts and vcrsions o| thc chaptcrs in this
book: Lila AbuLughod, Shahid Amin, Jalal Asad, lrcdrik barth, San|iv
baruah, Laurcn bcrlant, }ohn brcwcr, |artha Chattcr|cc, lcrnando Coronil,
Valcntinc Lanicl, licacla di Lconardo, icholas Lirks, Virginia
Lomingucz, Kichard lardon, lichacl lischcr, Kichard lox, Sandria lrci-
tag, Susan Cal, Cli ||ord Cccrtz, |ctcr Ccschicrc, lichacl Ccycr, Akhil
Cupta, lichacl |anchard, liriam |anscn, larilyn lvy, Crvar Lo|grcn,
i x
Lavid Luddcn, }ohn lacAloon, Achillc lbcmbc, Ashis andy, Cyancn-
dra |andcy, |ctcr |cls, Koy |ortcr, loishc |ostonc, |aul Kabinow, brucc
Kobbins, Kogcr Kousc, larshall Sahlns, Lcc Schlcsingcr, crry Smth,
Stanlcy }. Jambiah, Charlcs Jaylor, lichclKolph Jrouillot, Crcg Orban,
Ashutosh Varshncy, Joby Volkman, lyron Wcincr, and Cco||rcy Whitc.
Jo thosc l havc inadvcrtcntly ovcrlookcd, my sinccrc apologics.
A |cw pcrsons dcscrvc spccial mcntion |or thcir morc gcncral and gcn-
crous support ly tcachcr, |ricnd, and collcaguc bcrnard S. Cohn startcd
mc on a | ourncy involving anthropology and history in I 970 and has bccn
a stcad|ast sourcc o| idcas, |ricndship, and critical rcalism cvcr sincc.
ancy arriss kcpt mc always alcrt to thc challcngcs o| historical compar-
ison and to thc mcanings o| hdclity to thc archivc. Ol | |anncrz has bccn
my partncr in thc study o| things global sincc I 984, whcn wc spcnt a ycar
togcthcr at thc Ccntcr |or Advanccd Study in thc bchavioral Scicnccs
,|alo Alto) . |ctcr van dcr Vccr in both |hiladclphia and Amstcrdam, has
bccn a stcad|ast sourcc o| |ricndship, wit, and cngagcd dcbatc. }ohn and
}can Comaro||, through both thcir scholarship and thcir stimulating prcs-
cncc in thc dcpartmcnt o| anthropology at thc Onivcrsity o| Chicago,
contributcd i n many ways to thc shaping o| this book. Shcrry Crtncr cn-
couragcd thc pro|cct |rom thc start and providcd onc o| two carc|ul, sug-
gcstivc rcadings o| thc manuscrpt |or thc Onivcrsity o| linncsota |rcss. l
am gratc|ul to thc sccond, anonymous rcadcr as wcl l . Lilip Caonkar and
bcn|amin Lcc , cocditors o| thc scrics in which this book appcars) havc
bccn |ricnds, collcagucs, and intcrlocutors in morc ways that l can casily
dcscribc. |omi bhabha, }acqucl inc bhabha, Lipcsh Chakrabarty, Stcvcn
Collins, |rascn|it Luara, and Shcldon |ollock providcd a community o|
idcas which, cvcn as it |orms, has hclpcd mc complctc this book and imag-
inc many |uturcs
Lisa rccman, thc dircctor o| thc Onivcrsity o| li nncsota |rcss, and
}anaki bakhlc , prcviously at thc |rcss) staycd with mc, combining pa-
ticncc and prodding, critical suggcstions and cditorial wisdom.
lany studcnts, both at thc Onivcrsity o| |cnnsylvania and thc Onivcr-
sity o| Chicago, havc bccn a sourcc o| inspiration and cncrgy. l must makc
spccial mcntion o| thosc whosc work has cnrichcd thc idcas containcd i n
this book. brian Axcl, William bisscll, Carolinc Clcavcs, icholas Lc
Ccnova, Victoria armcr, Cautam Chosh, lanu Coswami, lark Licchty,
Annc Lorimcr, Caitrin Lynch, }acqui lcCibbon, Vy|ayanthi Kao, rank
Komagosa, |hilip Schcr, Awadcndhra Sharan, Sarah Strauss, Kachcl Jolcn,
Amy Jrubck, and liklos Voros. Lvc Larian-Smith, Kitty Lukosc, and
}ancllc Jaylor dcscrvc spccral mcntion |or both thcir i ntcllcctual contribu-
Ac n e + | : J : n !s
* @ P
tions to this book and |or thcir practical assistancc. Caitrin Lynch did a
splcndid |ob on thc indcx. Cthcrs who havc hclpcd in thc complcx
proccss o| producing this tcxt includc amita Cupta Wiggcrs and Lisa
lcair.
ly |amily has livcd with this book, always gcncrously and somctimcs
without knowing it. ly wi|c and collcaguc, Carol A. brcckcnridgc, is prc-
scnt in somc way on cvcry pagc this book is onc morc documcnt o| our
li|c advcnturc. ly son Alok, to whom thc book is dcdicatcd, has grown to
adulthood with it. |is talcnt |or lovc and his passion |or li|c havc bccn a
stcady rcmindcr that books arc not thc world thcy arc about it.
A: e +1xJ x | s
x =
H6f6 8d N0W
lodcrnity bclongs to that small |amily o| thcorics that both dcclarcs and
dcsircs univcrsal applicability |or itscl|. What is ncv about modcrnity (or
about thc idca that its ncvncss is a ncv kind o| ncvncss) |ollovs |rom this
duality. Whatcvcr clsc thc pro]cct o| thc Lnlightcnmcnt may havc crc-
atcd, it aspircd to crcatc pcrsons vho vould, a|tcr thc |act, havc vishcd
to havc bccomc modcrn. Jhis scl|-|ul hlling and scl|-]usti|ying idca has
provokcd many criticisms and much rcsistancc, i n both thcory and cvcry-
day l i |c.
l n my ovn carly l i |c i n bombay, thc cxpcricncc o| modcrnity vas no-
tably synacsthctic and largcly prcthcorctical. l sav and smcllcd modcrnity
rcading L} and Amcrican collcgc catalogs at thc Onitcd Statcs ln|orma-
tion Scricc library, sccing b-gradc hlms (and somc A-gradc oncs) |rom
lollyvood at thc Lros Jhcatrc, hvc hundrcd yards |rom my apartmcnt
building. l bcggcd my brothcr at Stan|ord (i n thc carly 60s) to bring mc
back bluc ]cans and smcllcd Amcrica i n hi s Kight Cuard vhcn hc rcturncd.
l gradually lost thc Lngland that l had carlicr imbibcd in my Victorian
schoolbooks, in rumors o| Khodcs scholars |rom my collcgc, and in billy
buntcr and bigglcs books dcvourcd indiscriminatcly vith books by Kich-
mal Crompton and Lnid blyton. ranny and Zoocy, loldcn Caulhcld, and
Kabbit Angstrom slovly crodcd that part o| mc that had bccn, until thcn,
|orcvcr Lngland. Such arc thc littlc dc|cats that cxplain hov Lngland lost
thc Lmpirc i n postcolonial bombay.
l did not knov thcn that l vas dri|ting |rom onc sort o| postcolonial
sub]cctivity |Anglophonc diction, |antasics o| dcbatcs i n thc Cx|ord
Oni on, borrovcd pccks at Lncountrr, a patrician intcrcst in thc humanitics)
to anothcr thc harshcr, scxicr, morc addictivc cv World o| |umphrcy
bogart rcruns, arold Kobbins, mr, and social scicncc, Amcrican-stylc.
by thc timc l launchcd myscl| into thc plcasurcs o| cosmopolitanism i n L|-
phinstonc Collcgc, l vas cquippcd vith thc Kight Stu||an Anglophonc
cducation, an uppcr-class bombay addrcss |although a mi ddlc-class |amily
incomc), social conncctions to thc big mcn and vomcn o| thc collcgc, a
|amous | nov dcccascd) brothcr as an alumnus, a sistcr vith bcauti|ul girl-
|ricnds alrcady i n thc collcgc. but thc Amcrican bug had bit mc l |ound
myscl| launchcd on thc ] ourncy that took mc to brandcis Onivcrsity |i n
I 967, vhcn studcnts vcrc an unscttl i ng cthnic catcgory i n thc Onitcd
Statcs) and thcn on to thc Onivcrsity o| Chicago. ln I 970, l vas still dri|t-
ing tovard a rcndczvous vith Amcrican social scicncc, arca studics, and
that triumphal |orm o| modcrnization thcory that vas still a sccurc articlc
o| Amcricanism in a bipolar vorld.
Jhc chaptcrs that |ollov can bc sccn as an c||ort to makc scnsc o| a
|ourncy that bcgan vith modcrnity as cmbodicd scnsation in thc movics
in bombay and cndcd |acc-to|acc vith modcrnity-as-thcory i n my social
scicncc classcs at thc Onivcrsity o| Chicago in thc carly I 970s. l n thcsc
chaptcrs, l havc sought to thcmatizc ccrtain cultural |acts and usc thcm
to opcn up thc rclationship bctvccn modcrnization as |act and as thc-
ory.' Jhis rcvcrsal o| thc proccss through vhich l cxpcricnccd thc mod-
crn mi ght account |or vhat might othcrvisc sccm l i kc an arbitrary disci-
pli nary privilcging o| thc cultural, a mcrc pro|cssional anthropological
bias.
!o: Clelal Nea
All ma]or social |orccs havc prccursors, prcccdcnts, analogs, and sourccs i n
thc past. lt is thcsc dccp and mulliplc gcncalogics |scc chap. 3) that havc
|rustratcd thc aspirations o| modcrni zcrs in vcry di||crcnt socictics to syn-
chronizc thcir historical vatchcs. Jhis book, too, argucs |or a gcncral rup-
turc in thc tcnor o| intcrsocictal rclations in thc past |cv dccadcs. Jhis
vicv o| changcindccd, o| rupturc~nccds to bc cxplicatcd and distin-
guishcd |rom somc carlicr thcorics o| radical trans|ormation.
Cnc o| thc most problcmatic lcgacics o| grand Wcstcrn social scicncc
H : r : a n J Ne +
|Augustc Comtc, Karl larx, lcrdnand Jocnnics, lax Wcbcr,
[
mlc
Lurkhcm) is that it has stcadly rcn|orccd thc scnsc o| somc singlc mo
mcntcall t thc modcrn momcntthat by its appcarancc crcatcs a dra-
matic and unprcccdcntcd brcak bctvccn past and prcscnt. Kcncarnatcd as
thc brcak bctvccn tradition and modcrnty and typologzcd as thc di||cr-
cncc bctvccn ostcnsibly traditional and modcrn socictics, this vicv has
bccn shovn rcpcatcdly to distort thc mcanings o| changc and thc politics
o| pastncss. Yct thc vorld in vhich vc nov livcin vhich modcrnity is
dccisivcly at largc, i rrcgularly scl|conscous, and uncvcnly cxpcricnccd~
surcly docs nvolvc a gcncral brcak vith all sorts o| pasts. What sort o|
brcak is this, | it is not thc onc dcnthcd by modcrnization thcory |and
criticizcd in chap. 7)
lmplicit in ths book is a thcory o| rupturc that takcs mcdia and migra-
tion as its tvo ma]or, and ntcrconncctcd, diacritcs and cxplorcs thcr
|oint c||cct on thc uor| oj tor imaination as a constitutvc |caturc o| modcrn
sub]cctivity. Jhc hrst stcp in this argumcnt is that clcctronic mcdia dcc-
sivcly changc thc vdcr hcld o| mass mcda and othcr tradtonal mcdia.
Jhis is not a monocausal |ctishization o| thc clcctronic. Such mcdia trans-
|orm thc hcld o| mass mcdiation bccausc thcy o||cr ncv rcsourccs and ncv
disciplincs |or thc constructon o| magncd sclvcs and imagincd vorlds.
Jhs is a rclational argumcnt. Llcctronc mcdia mark and rcconstitutc a
much vdcr hcld, in vhich print mcdiation and othcr |orms o| oral, vsual,
and auditory mcdiation might continuc to bc important. Jhrough such c|
|ccts as thc tclcscoping o| ncvs nto audio-vidco bytcs, through thc tcn
sion bctvccn thc public spaccs o| cincma and thc morc cxclusivc spaccs o|
vidco vatching, through thc mmcdiacy o| thcr absorption into public
discoursc, and through thcir tcndcncy to bc associatcd vith glamour, cos-
mopolitanism, and thc ncv, clcctronic mcdia |vhcthcr associatcd vith thc
ncvs, politics, |amily li|c, or spcctacular cntcrta nmcnt) tcnd to intcrro-
gatc, subvcrt, and trans|orm othcr contcxtual |tcraccs. ln thc chaptcrs
that |ollov, l track somc vays n vhich clcctronic mcdation trans|orms
prccxisting vorlds o| communicaton and conduct.
Llcctronic mcdia givc a ncv tvist to thc cnvironmcnt vithin vhich thc
modcrn and thc global o|tcn appcar as Hip sidcs o| thc samc coin. Alvays
carryng thc scnsc o| dstancc bctvccn vcvcr and cvcnt, thcsc mcdia ncvcr-
thclcss compcl thc trans|ormaton o| cvcryday discoursc. At thc samc
timc, thcy arc rcsourccs |or cxpcrimcnts vith scl|-makng n all sorts o| so-
cictcs, |or all sorts o| pcrsons. Jhcy allov scripts |or possiblc livcs to bc
imbricatcd vith thc glamour o| hlm stars and |antastic hlm plots and yct
also to bc tcd to thc plausiblity o| ncvs shovs, documcntarics, and othcr
H : r : o n J Ne +
black-and-vhtc |orms o| tclcmcdaton and prntcd tcxt. bccausc o| thc
shccr multplcty o| thc |orms n vhch thcy appcar ,cncma, tclcvson,
computcrs, and tclcphoncs) and bccausc o| thc rapd vay n vhch thcy
movc through daly l|c routncs, clcctronc mcda provdc rcsourccs |or
scl|-magnng as an cvcryday socal pro]cct.
As vth mcdaton, so vth moton. Jhc story o| mass mgratons |vol-
untary and |orccd) s hardly a ncv |caturc o| human hstory. but vhcn t s
]uxtaposcd vth thc rapd |lov o| mass-mcdatcd magcs, scrpts, and scn-
satons, vc havc a ncv ordcr o| nstabl ty n thc producton o| modcrn
sub]cctvtcs. As Jurksh gucst vorkcrs n Ccrmany vatch Jurksh hlms n
thcr Ccrman |lats, as Korcans n lhladclpha vatch thc I 988 Clympcs
n Scoul through satclltc |ccds |rom Korca, and as lakstan cabdrvcrs n
Chcago lstcn to casscttcs o| scrmons rccordcd n mosqucs n lakstan or
|ran, vc scc movng magcs mcct dctcrrtoralzcd vcvcrs. Jhcsc crcatc
dasporc publc sphcrcs, phcnomcna that con|ound thcorcs that dcpcnd
on thc contnucd salcncc o| thc naton-statc as thc kcy arbtcr o| mpor-
tant socal changcs.
Jhus, to put t summarly, clcctronc mcdaton and mass mgraton
mark thc vorld o| thc prcscnt not as tcchncally ncv |orccs but as oncs
that sccm to mpcl ,and somctmcs compcl) thc vork o| thc magnaton.
Jogcthcr, thcy crcatc spcchc rrcgulartcs bccausc both vcvcrs and m-
agcs arc n smultancous crculaton. cthcr magcs nor vcvcrs ht nto
crcuts or audcnccs that arc casly bound vthn local, natonal, or rc-
gonal spaccs. C| coursc, many vcvcrs may not thcmsclvcs mgratc. And
many mass-mcdatcd cvcnts arc hghly local n scopc, as vth cablc tclcv-
son n somc parts o| thc Ontcd Statcs. but |cv mportant hlms, ncvs
broadcasts, or tclcvson spcctaclcs arc cntrcly una||cctcd by othcr mcda
cvcnts that comc |rom |urthcr ahcld. And |cv pcrsons n thc vorld today
do not havc a |rcnd, rclatvc, or covorkcr vho s not on thc road to somc-
vhcrc clsc or alrcady comng back homc, bcarng storcs and possbltcs.
| n ths scnsc, both pcrsons and magcs o|tcn mcct unprcdctably, outsidc
thc ccrtantcs o| homc and thc cordon santarc o| local and natonal
mcda c||ccts. Jhs moblc and un|orcsccablc rclatonshp bctvccn mass-
mcdatcd cvcnts and m gratory audcnccs dchncs thc corc o| thc l nk bc-
tvccn globalzaton and thc modcrn. |n thc chaptcrs that |ollov, | shov
that thc vork o| thc magnaton, vcvcd n ths contcxt, s ncthcr purcly
cmancpatory nor cntrcly dscplncd but s a spacc o| contcstaton n
vhch ndvduals and groups scck to anncx thc global nto thcr ovn prac-
tccs o| thc modcrn.
H : r : a r J Ne +
T: wet| ej to: Iaq|rat|er
Lvcr sincc Lurkhcim, and thc vork o| thc Annrts ocioloiurs group, an-
thropologists havc lcarncd to rcgard collcctivc rcprcscntations as social
|acts~that is, to scc thcm as transccnding i ndividual volition, as vcightcd
vith thc |orcc o| social morality, and as ob]cctivc social rcalitics. What l
vish to suggcst is that thcrc has bccn a shi|t in rcccnt dccadcs, building on
tcchnological changcs ovcr thc past ccntury or so, i n vhich thc imagina-
tion has bccomc a collcctivc, social |act. Jhis dcvclopmcnt, i n turn, is thc
basis o| thc plurality o| imagincd vorlds.
Cn thc |acc o| it, it sccms absurd to suggcst that thcrc is anything ncv
about thc rolc o| thc imagination in thc contcmporary vorld. A|tcr all, vc
arc nov accustomcd to thinking about all socictics as having produccd
thcir vcrsions o| art, myth, and lcgcnd, cxprcssions that implicd thc po-
tcntial cvancsccncc o| ordinary social li|c. l n thcsc cxprcssions, all soci-
ctics shovcd that thcy could both transccnd and rc|ramc ordinary social
li|c by rccoursc to mythologics o| various kinds in vhich social li|c vas
imaginativcly dc|ormcd. ln drcams, hnally, individuals cvcn in thc most
simplc socictics havc |ound thc spacc to rchgurc thcir social livcs, livc out
proscribcd cmotional statcs and scnsations, and scc things that havc thcn
spillcd ovcr into thcir scnsc o| ordinary li|c. All thcsc cxprcssions, |urthcr,
havc bccn thc basis o| a complcx dialoguc bctvccn thc imagination and
ritual i n many human socictics, through vhich thc |orcc o| ordinary social
norms vas somchov dccpcncd, through invcrsion, irony, or thc pcr|orma-
tivc intcnsity and thc collaborativc vork dcmandcd by many kinds o| rit-
ual. All this is thc surcst sort o| knovlcdgc bcqucathcd to us by thc bcst o|
canonical anthropology ovcr thc past ccntury.
ln suggcsting that thc imagination in thc postclcctronic vorld plays a
ncvly signihcant rolc, rcst my casc on thrcc distinctions. irst, thc imagi-
nation has brokcn out o| thc spccial cxprcssivc spacc o| art, myth, and rit-
ual and has nov bccomc a part o| thc quotidian mcntal vork o| ordinary
pcoplc in many socictics. lt has cntcrcd thc logic o| ordinary li|c |rom
vhich it had largcly bccn succcss|ully scqucstcrcd. C| coursc, this has
prcccdcnts in thc grcat rcvolutions, cargo cults, and mcssianic movcmcnts
o| othcr timcs, in vhich |orcc|ul lcadcrs implantcd thcir visions into social
li|c, thus crcating povcr|ul movcmcnts |or social changc. ov, hovcvcr, it
is no longcr a mattcr o| spccially cndovcd ,charismatic) individuals, i n|cct-
ing thc imagination vhcrc it docs not bclong. Crdinary pcoplc havc bcgun
to dcploy thcir imaginations in thc practicc o| thcir cvcqday livcs. Jhis
|act is cxcmplihcd i n thc mutual contcxtualizing o| motion and mcdiation.
H t r t a r J No v
lorc pcoplc than cvcr bc|orc sccm to magnc routncly thc possiblity
that thcy or thcir chldrcn vill livc and vork n placcs othcr than vhcrc
thcy vcrc born. ths s thc vcllsprng o| thc ncrcascd ratcs o| mgraton at
cvcry lcvcl o| social, natonal, and global li|c Cthcrs arc draggcd into ncv
scttings, as thc rc|ugcc camps o| Jhaland, Lthopa, Jaml adu, and
lalcstinc rcmnd us. lor thcsc pcoplc, thcy movc and must drag thcr
magnation |or ncv vays o| lvng along vth thcm And thcn thcrc arc
thosc vho movc n scarch o| vork, vcalth, and opportunity o|tcn bccausc
thcr currcnt crcumstanccs arc ntolcrablc. Slghtly trans|ormng and cx-
tcnding Albcrt |irschmans mportant tcrms |ou|t and :xit, vc may spcak
o| dasporas o| hopc, diasporas o| tcrror, and diasporas o| dcspair. but n
cvcry casc, thcsc diasporas brng thc |orcc o| thc imagnation, as both
mcmory and dcsrc, into thc livcs o| many ordnary pcoplc, nto
mythographcs d||crcnt |rom thc dscplincs o| myth and rtual o| thc clas-
sic sort. Jhc kcy di||crcncc hcrc is that thcsc ncv mythographcs arc char-
tcrs |or ncv socal projccts, and not just a countcrpont to thc ccrtaintcs
o| daily l i |c. Jhcy movc thc glacial |orcc o| thc habitus nto thc quckcncd
bcat o| improvisaton |or largc groups o| pcoplc. |crc thc magcs, scrpts,
modcls, and narrativcs that comc through mass mcdation |n its rcalstc
and hctonaI modcs) makc thc di|lcrcncc bctvccn migraton today and n
thc past. Jhosc vho vsh to movc, thosc vho havc movcd, thosc vho
vsh to rcturn, and thosc vho choosc to stay rarcly |ormulatc thcir plans
outsdc thc sphcrc o| rado and tclcvision, casscttcs and vdcos, ncvsprnt
and tclcphonc. lor mgrants, both thc poltcs o| adaptaton to ncv cnvi-
ronmcnts and thc stimulus to movc or rcturn arc dccply a||cctcd by a
mass-mcdiatcd maginary that |rcqucntly transccnds natonal spacc.
Jhc sccond dstncton s bctvccn magnation and lantasy Jhcrc ls a
largc and rcspcctablc body o| vrting, notably by thc crtcs o| mass cul-
turc ol thc ranklurt School and antcipatcd in thc vork o| lax Wcbcr,
that vicvs thc modcrn vorld as grov ng nto an ron cagc and prcdcts
that thc magnation vill bc stuntcd by thc |orccs o| commoditization, i n-
dustrial capitalism, and thc gcncralzcd rcgmcntation and sccularzaton
o| thc vorld. Jhc modcrnzation thcorsts o| thc past thrcc dccadcs | |rom
Wcbcr by vay o| Jalcott larsons and Ldvard Shls to Lanicl Lcrncr, Alcx
lnkclcs, and many othcrs) largcly acccptcd thc vcv o| thc modcrn vorld
as a spacc o| shrinking rclgosity |and grcatcr scicntism) , lcss play | and n-
crcasngly rcgimcntcd lcisurc) , and nhbtcd spontancity at cvcry lcvcl.
Jhcrc arc many strands n ths vcv strands that lnk thcorists as d||crcnt
as orbcrt Llias and Kobcrt bcll, but thcrc is somcthng |undamcntally
vrong vth t. Jhc crror vorks on tvo lcvcls lrst, t s bascd on a prcma-
H : r : o n J No +
turc rcquicm |or thc dcath o| rcligion and thc victory o| scicncc. Jhcrc is
vast cvidcncc in ncv rcligiositics o| cvcry sort that rcligion is not only not
dcad but that i t may bc morc conscqucntial than cvcr in todays highly mo-
bilc and intcrconncctcd global politics. |n anothcr lcvcl, it i s vrong to as-
sumc that thc clcctronic mcdia arc thc opium o| thc masscs. Jhis vicv,
vhich is only bcginning to bc corrcctcd, is bascd on thc notion that thc
mcchanical arts o| rcproduction largcly rcprimcd ordinary pcoplc |or in-
dustrial vork. lt is |ar too simplc.
Jhcrc is groving cvidcncc that thc consumption o| thc mass mcdia
throughout thc vorld o|tcn provokcs rcsistancc, irony, sclcctivi ty, and, in
gcncral, e-cy Jcrrorists modcling thcmsclvcs on Kambo-likc hgurcs
(vho havc thcmsclvcs gcncratcd a host o| non-Wcstcrn countcrparts),
houscvivcs rcading romanccs and soap opcras as part o| thcir c||orts to
construct thcir ovn livcs, luslim |amily gathcrings l i stcning to spccchcs
by lslamic lcadcrs on casscttc tapcs, domcstic scrants in South |ndia tak-
ing packagcd tours to Kashmir: thcsc arc all cxamplcs o| thc activc vay i n
vhich mcdia arc appropriatcd by pcoplc throughout thc vorld. J- shirts,
billboards, and gra|hti as vcll as rap music, strcct dancing, and slum hous-
ing all shov that thc imagcs o| thc mcdia arc quickly movcd into local
rcpcrtoircs o| irony, angcr, humor, and rcsistancc.
Nor is this ]ust a mattcr o| Jhird World pcoplc rcacting to Amcrican
mcdia, but it is cqually truc o| pcoplc throughout thc vorld rcacting to
thcir ovn national, clcctronic mcdia. |n thcsc grounds alonc, thc thcory
o| mcdia as thc opium o| thc pcoplc nccds to bc lookcd at vith grcat skcp-
ticism. Jhis is not to suggcst that consumcrs arc agcnts, living happily
in a vorld o| sa|c malls, |rcc lunchcs, and quick hxcs. As l suggcst i n chap-
tcr 4, consumption in thc contcmporary vorld is o|tcn a |orm o| drudgcry,
part o| thc capitalist civilizing proccss. Ncvcrthclcss, vhcrc thcrc is con-
sumption thcrc is plcasurc, and vhcrc thcrc is plcasurc thcrc is agcncy.
rccdom, on thc othcr hand, is a rathcr morc clusivc commodity.
urthcr, thc i dca o| |antasy carrics vith it thc incscapablc connotation o|
thought divorccd |rom pro]ccts and actions, and it also has a privatc, cvcn
i ndividualistic sound about it. Jhc imagination, on thc othcr hand, has a
pro]cctivc scnsc about it, thc scnsc o| bcing a prcludc to somc sort o| cx-
prcssion, vhcthcr acsthctic or othcrvisc. antasy can dissipatc (bccausc its
logic is so o|tcn autotclic), but thc imagination, cspccially vhcn collcctivc,
can bccomc thc |ucl |or action. lt is thc imagination, in its collcctivc |orms,
that crcatcs idcas o| ncighborhood and nationhood, o| moral cconomics
and un]ust rulc, o| highcr vagcs and |orcign labor prospccts. Jhc imagina-
tion is today a staging ground |or action, and not only |or cscapc.
H:r : o J No v
Jhc third distinction is bctvccn thc individual and collcctivc scnscs o|
thc imagination. lt is important to strcss hcrc that l am spcaking o| thc
imagination nov as a propcrty o| collcctivcs, and not mcrcly as a |aculty o|
thc gi|tcd individual |its tacit scnsc sincc thc |lovcri ng o| Luropcan Ko-
manticism) . lart o| vhat thc mass mcdia makc possiblc, bccausc o| thc
conditions o| collcctivc rcading, criticism, and plcasurc, is vhat | havc
clscvhcrc callcd a community o| scntimcnt |Appadurai I 990), a group
that bcgins to imaginc and |ccl things togcthcr. As bcncdict Andcrson
| I 98 3 ) has shovn so vcll, print capitalism can bc onc important vay in
vhich groups vho havc ncvcr bccn i n |acc-to-|acc contact can bcgin to
think o| thcmsclvcs as lndoncsian or lndian or lalaysian. but othcr |orms
o| clcctronic capitalism can havc similar, and cvcn morc povcr|ul c||ccts,
|or thcy do not vork only at thc lcvcl o| thc nation-statc. Collcctivc cxpc-
ricnccs o| thc mass mcdia, cspccially hlm and vidco, can crcatc sodalitics
o| vorship and charisma, such as thosc that |ormcd rcgionally around thc
lndian |cmalc dcity Santoshi la i n thc scvcntics and cightics and transna-
tionally around Ayatollah Khomcini in roughly thc samc pcriod. Similar
sodalitics can |orm around sport and intcrnationalism, as thc transnational
c||ccts o| thc Clympics so clcarly shov. Jcncmcnts and buildings housc
vidco clubs i n placcs likc Kathmandu and bombay. lan clubs and political
|ollovings cmcrgc |rom small-tovn mcdia culturcs, as i n South |ndia.
Jhcsc sodalitics rcscmblc vhat Liana Cranc | I 972) has callcd invisi-
blc collcgcs i n rc|crcncc to thc vorld o| scicncc, but thcy arc morc
volatilc, lcss pro|cssionalizcd, lcss sub]cct to collcctivcly sharcd critcria o|
plcasurc, tastc, or mutual rclcvancc. Jhcy arc communitics in thcmsclvcs
but alvays potcntially communitics |or thcmsclvcs capablc, o| moving
|rom sharcd imagination to collcctivc action. lost important, as l vill
arguc i n thc conclusion to this chaptcr, thcsc sodalitics arc o|tcn trans-
national, cvcn postnational, and thcy |rcqucntly opcratc bcyond thc bound-
arics o| thc nation. Jhcsc mass-mcdiatcd sodalitics havc thc additional
complcxity that, i n thcm, divcrsc local cxpcricnccs o| tastc, plcasurc, and
politics can crisscross vith onc anothcr, thus crcati ng thc possibility o|
convcrgcnccs in translocal social action that vould othcrvisc bc hard to
imaginc.
o singlc cpisodc capturcs thcsc rcalitics bcttcr than thc nov mind-
numbing Salman Kushdic a||air, involving a banncd book, a rcligiously
mandatcd dcath scntcncc, and an author committcd to pcrsonal voicc and
acsthctic |rccdom. or outunic \rr:r: provokcd luslims |and othcrs) across
thc vorld to dcbatc thc politics o| rcading, thc cultural rclcvancc o| ccn-
sorship, thc dignity o| rcligion, and thc |rccdom o| somc groups to ]udgc
H : r : o J Na v
authors vthout ndcpcndcnt knovlcdgc o| thc tcxt. Jhc Kushdc a||ar s
about a tcxt-nmoton, vhosc commodtzcd tra|cctory brought t outsidc
thc sa|c havcn o| Wcstcrn norms about artstc |rccdom and acsthctc
rghts nto thc spacc o| rclgous ragc and thc authorty o| rclgous schol-
ars n thcr ovn transnatonal sphcrcs. |crc, thc transnatonal vorlds o|
li bcral acsthctics and radical lslam mct hcad-on, i n thc vcry di ||crcnt sct-
tngs o| brad|ord and Karach, cv York and cv Lclh. ln ths cpsodc,
vc can also scc hov global proccsscs nvolvng moblc tcxts and mgrant
audcnccs crcatc mplosvc cvcnts that |old global prcssurcs nto small, al-
rcady poltczcd arcnas |scc chap. 7), producng localty ,chap 9) n ncv,
globalzcd vays
Jhs thcory o| a brcakor rupturc~vth ts strong cmphass on clcc-
tronc mcdaton and mass mgraton, s ncccssarly a thcory o| thc rcccnt
past |or thc cxtcndcd prcscnt) bccausc t s only n thc past tvo dccadcs or
so that mcda and mgraton havc bccomc so massvcly globalzcd, that s
to say, actvc across largc and rrcgular transnatonal tcrrans Why do l
consdcr ths thcory to bc anythng morc than an updatc o| oldcr socal
thcorcs o| thc rupturcs o| modcrnzaton lrst, mnc s not a tclcologcal
thcory, vth a rccpc |or hov modcrnzaton vll unvcrsally ycld ratonal-
ty, punctual ty, dcmocracy, thc |rcc markct, and a hghcr gross natonal
product. Sccond, thc pvot o| my thcory s not any largc-scalc pro]cct o|
socal cngnccrng |vhcthcr organzcd by statcs, ntcrnatonal agcnccs, or
othcr tcchnocratc cltcs) but s thc cvcryday cultural practcc through
vhch thc vork o| thc magnaton s trans|ormcd Jhrd, my approach
lcavcs cntrcly opcn thc qucston o| vhcrc thc cxpcrmcnts vth modcr-
nty that clcctronc mcdaton cnablcs mght lcad n tcrms o| natonalsm,
volcncc, and socal ]ustcc. lut anothcr vay, l am morc dccply ambvalcnt
about prognoss than any varant o| classcal modcrnzaton thcory o|
vhch l am avarc. lourth, and most mportant, my approach to thc brcak
causcd by thc ]ont |orcc o| clcctronc mcdaton and mass mgraton s cx-
plctly transnatonal~cvcn postnatonal~as l suggcst n thc last part o|
ths book. As such, t movcs avay dramatcally |rom thc archtccturc o|
classcal modcrnzaton thcory, vhch onc mght call |undamcntally rcalst
nso|ar as t assumcs thc salcncc, both mcthodologcal and cthcal, o| thc
naton-statc.
Wc cannot smpl|y mattcrs by magnng that thc global s to spacc
vhat thc modcrn s to tmc. lor many socctcs, modcrnty s an clscvhcrc,
|ust as thc global s a tcmporal vavc that must bc cncountcrcd n forir prcs-
cnt. Clobalzaton has shrunk thc dstancc bctvccn cltcs, sh|tcd kcy rcla-
tons bctvccn produccrs and consumcrs, brokcn many lnks bctvccn labor
H : r : a n J Ne +
and |amly l|c, obscurcd thc lncs bctvccn tcmporary localcs and mag-
nary natonal attachmcnts. lodcrnty nov sccms morc practcal and lcss
pcdagogc, morc cxpcrcntal and lcss dscplnary than n thc h|tcs and
sixtcs, vhcn t vas mostly cxpcrcnccd |cspccally |or thosc outsdc thc
natonal cltc) through thc propaganda apparatuscs o| thc ncvly ndcpcn-
dcnt naton-statcs and thcr grcat lcadcrs, lkc }avaharlal chru, Camal
Abdcl asscr, Kvamc krumah, and Sukarno. Jhc mcgarhctorc o| dcvcl-
opmcntal modcrnzaton |cconomc grovth, hgh tcchnology, agrbus-
ncss, schoolng, mltarzaton) n many countrcs s stll vth us. but t s
o|tcn punctuatcd, ntcrrogatcd, and domcstcatcd by thc mcronarratvcs
o| hlm, tclcvson, musc, and othcr cxprcssvc |orms, vhch allov modcr-
nty to bc rcvrttcn morc as vcrnacular globalzaton and lcss as a conccs-
sion to largc-scalc natonal and ntcrnatonal polccs. As l suggcstcd car-
l cr, thcrc vas somcthng o| ths cxpcrcntal qualty |or thosc |such as
myscl|) born nto thc rulng classcs o| thc ncv natons n thc h|tcs and sx-
tcs, but |or many vorkng pcoplc and thc poor, ths cxpcrcntal cngagc-
mcnt vth modcrnty s a rclatvcly rcccnt |act.
Jhcsc subvcrsvc mcro narratvcs also |ucl oppostonal movcmcnts,
rangng |rom thc Shnng lath n lcru to |abtat |or |umanty, |rom
grccn movcmcnts n Luropc to Jaml natonalsm n Sr Lanka, |rom ls-
lamc groups n Lgypt to brcakavay natonalst gucrrllas n Chcchnya. l n
thcsc movcmcnts, somc o| vhch arc rcprcssvc and volcnt vhlc othcrs
arc dcmocratc and pcacc|ul, vc can scc that clcctronc mass mcdation
and transnatonal moblzaton havc brokcn thc monopoly o| autonomous
naton-statcs ovcr thc pro|cct o| modcrnzaton. Jhc trans|ormat on o|
cvcryday sub|cctvtcs through clcctronc mcdaton and thc vork o| thc
magnaton s not only a cultural |act. lt s dccply conncctcd to poltcs,
through thc ncv vays n vhch ndvdual attachmcnts, ntcrcsts, and as-
pratons ncrcasngly crosscut thosc o| thc naton-statc.
Jhc dasporc publc sphcrcs that such cncountcrs crcatc arc no longcr
small, margnal, or cxccptonal . Jhcy arc part o| thc cultural dynamc o|
urban l |c n most countrcs and contncnts, n vhch mgraton and mass
mcdation coconsttutc a ncv scnsc o| thc global as modcrn and thc mod-
crn as global. lra ars hlm Ni::i::ijji Na:a|a, |or cxamplc, s an cpc o|
daspora and racc rcdoublcd, cxplorng hov |ndans trans|ormcd and ds-
placcd by racc rclatons n Oganda dcal vth thc ntrcaccs o| racc n
thc Amcrcan South, all thc tmc rctanng thcr scnsc o| lndanncss-n-
moton. Jhc vcvng o| crckct matchcs bctvccn lnda and lakstan by
mgrants n thc Cul| statcs |rom thcsc countrics |scc chap 5) s about thc
pcculartcs o| dasporc natonalsm n an cmcrgcnt lndan Cccan pol-
H : r : a n J N e +
= l0 =
tics. Jhc intcnsc battlcs ovcr thc Lnglish languagc and about immigrant
rights nov hcating up (again) in thc Oni tcd Statcs arc not ]ust onc morc
variant on thc politics o| pluralism. thcy arc about thc capability o| Amcri-
can politics to contain thc diasporic politics o| lcxicans in Southcm Cali-
|ornia, laitians i n liami, Colombians in cv York, and Korcans i n Los
Angclcs. lndccd, as l vill proposc i n my concluding obscrations, it is thc
vidcsprcad appcarancc o| various kinds o| diasporic public sphcrcs that
constitutc onc spccial diacritic o| thc global modcrn.
So much |or thc global nov. Jhcrc is a hcrc to thcsc chaptcrs as vcll.
Jhcy arc vrittcn in part out o| an cncountcr bctvccn my postvar Anglo-
phonc upbringing and my cncountcr vith thc Amcrican social -scicncc
story o| modcrnization as thc thcory o| thc truc, thc good, and thc in-
cvitablc. Jhcy arc also vrittcn |rom a pro|cssional pcrspcctivc shapcd sub-
stantially by tvo Amcrican rcscarch |ormations vithin vhich l havc had
thc bulk o| my training and in vhich l havc spcnt much o| my li|c as an
acadcmic. thcsc arc anthropology and arca studics. Al though this is a book
about globalization, it is markcd and constraincd by thc contcsts o| thc
past tvo dccadcs vithin both thcsc Amcrican acadcmic |ormations. Jhus
its cpistcmological anxictics arc dccidcdly local, cvcn i| locality is no
longcr vhat it uscd to bc (chap. 9) .
o: L: ej Artotejeleq
Anthropology i s my archivc o| livcd actualitics, |ound i n all sorts o| cthno-
graphics about pcoplcs vho havc livcd vcry di||crcnt sorts o| livcs |rom my
ovn, today and i n thc past. Jhc archivc o| anthropology is a shadov prcs-
cncc in all thc chaptcrs that |ollov. Jhat is not bccausc it is inhcrcntly bct-
tcr than somc othcr disciplinary archivc. lndccd, critiqucs o| this archivc
havc bccn trcnchant and untiring in thc past h|tccn ycars. but it is thc onc
l bcst knov hov to rcad. As an archivc, it also has thc advantagc o| rc-
minding onc that cvcry similarity hidcs morc than onc di||crcncc, and that
similaritics and di ||crcnccs conccal onc anothcr indchnitcly, so that thc
last turtlc is alvays a mattcr o| mcthodological convcnicncc or stamina.
Jhis archivc, and thc scnsibility that it produccs in thc pro|cssional an-
thropologist, prcdisposcs mc strongly tovard thc i dca that globalization is
not thc story o| cultural homogcnization Jhis lattcr argumcnt is thc vcry
lcast that l vould vant thc rcadcr to takc avay |rom this book. but anthro-
pology brings vith it a pro|cssional tcndcncy to privil cgc thc cultural as
thc kcy diacritic in many practiccs (that to othcrs might appcar simply
human, or stupid, or calculating, or patriotic, or somcthing clsc). bccausc
H : +: a n J No v
= l l =
this book claims to bc about thc culturul dimcnsions o| globalization, lct mc
spcll out thc spccial |orcc that this ad|cctivc carrics i n my usagc.
l hnd myscl| |rcqucntly troublcd by thc vord culturr as a noun but ccn-
trally attachcd to thc ad]cctival |orm o| thc vord, that is, culturul. Whcn l
rcHcct on vhy this is so, l rcalizc that much o| thc problcm vith thc noun
|orm has to do vith its implication that culturc is somc kind o| ob]cct,
thing, or substancc, vhcthcr physical or mctaphysical. Jhis substantial-
ization sccms to bring culturc back into thc discursivc spacc o| racc, thc
vcry idca it vas originally dcsigncd to combat |mplying a mcntal sub-
stancc, thc noun culturr appcars to privilcgc thc sort o| sharing, agrccing,
and bounding that |ly i n thc |acc o| thc |acts o| uncqual knovlcdgc and
thc di||crcntial prcstigc o| li|cstylcs, and to discouragc attcntion to thc
vorl dvicvs and agcncy o| thosc vho arc marginalizcd or dominatcd.
Vicvcd as a physical substancc, culturc bcgins to smack o| any varicty o|
biologisms, including racc, vhich vc havc ccrtainly outgrovn as scicntihc
catcgorics. Al|rcd Krocbcrs tcrm uprrorunic niccly capturcs both sidcs
o| this substantial ism, somcthing vith vhich l am not in sympathy. Jhc
c||orts o| thc past |cv dccadcs, notably in Amcrican anthropology, to cs-
capc this trap by looking at culturc largcly as a l inguistic |orm |undcrstood
mainly in Saussurcan structuralist tcrms) only partly avoids thc dangcrs o|
such substantialism.
|| culturr as a noun sccms to carry associations vith somc sort o| sub-
stancc in vays that appcar to conccal morc than thcy rcvcal, culturul thc
ad]cctivc movcs onc into a rcalm o| di||crcnccs, contrasts, and compar-
isons that is morc hclp|ul. Jhis ad]cctival scnsc o| culturc, vhich builds on
thc contcxt-scnsitivc, contrastccntcrcd hcart o| Saussurcan li nguistics,
sccms to mc onc o| thc virtucs o| structural ism that vc havc tcndcd to |or-
gct in our hastc to attack it |or its ahistorical, |ormal, binary, mcntalist, and
tcxtual ist associations.
Jhc most valuablc |caturc o| thc conccpt o| culturc is thc conccpt o|
di||crcncc, a contrastivc rathcr than a substantivc propcrty o| ccrtain
things. Although thc tcrm d('jrrrncr has nov takcn on a vast sct o| associa-
tions |principally bccausc o| thc spccial usc o| thc tcrm by }acqucs Lcrrida
and his |ollovcrs), its main vi rtuc is that it is a usc|ul hcuristic that can
highlight points o| similarity and contrast bctvccn all sorts o| catcgorics
classcs, gcndcrs, rolcs, groups, and nations. Whcn vc thcrc|orc point to a
practicc, a distinction, a conccption, an ob]cct, or an i dcology as having a
cultural dimcnsion |noticc thc ad]cctival usc) , vc strcss thc idca o| situatcd
di||crcncc, that is, di||crcncc in rclation to somcthing local, cmbodicd, and
signihcant. Jhis point can bc summarizcd in thc |olloving |orm. culturc is
H : r : a n J Ne +
=
I3 =
not usc|ully rcgardcd as a substancc but s bcttcr rcgardcd as a dmcnsion
o| phcnomcna, a dmcnson that attcnds to stuatcd and cmbodicd d||cr-
cncc. Strcssng thc dmcnsonal ity o| culturc rathcr than its substantality
pcrmits our thinking o| culturc lcss as a propcrty o| ndviduals and groups
and morc as a hcurstc dcvcc that vc can usc to talk about di||crcncc.
but thcrc arc many knds o| di||crcnccs in thc vorld and only somc o|
thcsc arc cultural. And hcrc l brng n a sccond componcnt o| my proposal
about thc ad|cctval |orm o| thc vord cu|turr. | suggcst that vc rcgard as
cultural only thosc di||crcnccs that cthcr cxprcss, or sct thc groundvork
|or, thc moblzaton o| group dcntitcs. Jhis qualihcaton provdcs a
brutc prnciplc o| sclccton that |ocuscs us on a varicty o| d||crcnccs hav-
ing to do vith group idcntity, both vithn and outsdc any partcular socal
group. ln puttng thc mobilzaton o| group idcnttics at thc hcart o| thc
ad|cctvc cu|turn|, l havc n |act madc a movc that looks, at hrst glancc, rct-
rogrcssvc, as t appcars that l am bcgnnng to bring thc vord cu|turr un-
com|ortably closc to thc dca o| cthncty. And that gcts mc into somc ncv
problcms that nccd to bc unravclcd.
bc|orc l try to do thc unravcling, vhch vll allov mc to movc tovard
thc dca o| culturalsm, lct mc rcvcv vhcrc vc havc bccn. Kcsstng idcas
o| culturc that tcmpt us to thnk o| actual social groups as culturcs, | havc
also rcsistcd thc noun |orm cu|turr and suggcstcd an ad|cctival approach to
culturc, vhch strcsscs ts contcxtual, hcurstic, and comparatvc dmcn-
sons and oricnts us to thc dca o| culturc as di||crcncc, cspccially d||cr-
cncc n thc rcalm o| group dcntty. l havc thcrc|orc suggcstcd that culturc
is a pcrvasivc dmcnsion o| human dscoursc that cxplots di||crcncc to
gcncratc dvcrsc conccptons o| group dcntty.
|avng vccrcd so closc to thc dca o| cthnicty~thc dca o| naturalizcd
group idcntty~t is important to bc clcar about thc rclaton bctvccn cul-
turc and group dcntty that l scck to artculatc. Culturc, unmarkcd, can
continuc to bc uscd to rc|cr to thc plcthora o| d||crcnccs that charactcrizc
thc vorld today, di||crcnccs at varous lcvcls, vith various valcnccs, and
vth grcatcr and lcsscr dcgrccs o| socal conscqucncc. | proposc, hovcvcr,
that vc rcstrct thc tcrm cu|turr as a markcd tcrm to thc subsct o| thcsc di|-
|crcnccs that has bccn moblizcd to artculatc thc boundary o| d||crcncc.
As a boundary-mantcnancc qucstion, culturc thcn bccomcs a mattcr o|
group i dcntty as consttutcd by somc di||crcnccs among othcrs.
but is this not a vay o| simply cquating cthncity and culturc Ycs and
no. Ycs, bccausc n ths usagc cu|turr vould not strcss simply thc posscssion
o| ccrtan attributcs |matcrial, lnguistc, or tcrrtorial) but thc conscious-
ncss o| thcsc attributcs and thcr naturalizaton as csscntial to group dcn-
H : r : a n J Ne +
= I 3 =
tity ,scc chap. 7) . Jhat is, rathcr than |alling prcy to thc assumption, at
lcast as old as Wcbcr, that cthnicity rcsts on somc sort o| cxtcnsion o| thc
primordial idca o| kinship ,vhich is in turn biological and gcncalogical) ,
thc idca o| cthnicity l proposc takcs thc conscious and imaginativc con-
struction and mobilization o| di||crcnccs as its corc. Culturc constitut-
ing a virtually opcn- cndcd archivc o| di||crcnccs is consciously shapcd
into Culturc 2 that subsct o| thcsc di||crcnccs that constitutcs thc diacrit-
ics o| group idcntity.
but this proccss o| mobilizing ccrtain di||crcnccs and linking thcm to
group idcntity is also unlikc cthnicity, at lcast in an oldcr undcrstanding,
bccausc it docs not dcpcnd on thc cxtcnsion o| primordial scntimcnts to
l argcr and largcr units in somc sort o| unidircctional proccss, nor docs it
makc thc mistakc o| supposing that largcr social units simply drav on thc
scntimcnts o| |amily and kinship to givc cmotional |orcc to largc-scalc
group idcntitics. Jhus, i n chaptcr 5 l shov that |ar |rom draving on thc cx-
isting rcpcrtoirc o| cmotions and moving thcm into a largcr arcna, lndian
crickct is a largc-scalc |orm that comcs to bc inscribcd on thc body
through a varicty o| practiccs o| i ncrcasingly smallcr scalc. Jhis logic is ]ust
thc rcvcrsc o| thc old primordialist ,or cxtcnsionist) idca o| cthnic idcntity.
Jhc idca o| culturc as involving thc naturalizcd organization o| ccrtain
di ||crcnccs in thc intcrcsts o| group idcntity, through and in thc historical
proccss, and through and in thc tcnsions bctvccn agcnts and stmcturcs,
comcs closcr to vhat has bccn callcd thc instmmcntal conccption o| cth-
nicity, as opposcd to thc primordial onc. l havc tvo qualihcations about
this convcrgcncc, qualihcations that lcad to my discussion o| culturalism.
Cnc is that thc cnds to vhich instmmcntal conccptions o| cthnic idcntity
arc |ormcd may thcmsclvcs bc countcrstructural rcsponscs to cxisting
valorizations o| dl||crcncc thcy may thus bc valuc-rational rathcr than
instrumcntal rational, in Wcbcrs scnsc. Jhcy may havc a purcly idcntity-
oricntcd instrumcntality rathcr than an instrumcntality that, as is so o|tcn
implicd, is cxtracultural ,cconomic or politlcal or cmotional ) . lut anothcr
vay, thc mobilization o| markcrs o| group di||crcncc may itscl| bc part o|
a contcstation o| valucs ubout di||crcncc, as distinct |rom thc consc-
qucnccs o| di||crcncc |or vcalth, sccurity, or povcr. ly sccond qualihca-
tion about most l nstrumcntal accounts is that thcy do not cxplain thc
proccss by vhich ccrtain critcria o| di||crcncc, mobilizcd |or group idcn-
tity ,in turn instrumcntal to othcr goals) arc , rc)i nscribcd into bodily sub-
]ccts, thus to bc cxpcricnccd as both natural and pro|oundly i nccndlary at
thc samc timc.
Wc havc nov movcd onc stcp |urthcr, |rom culturc as substancc to cul-
H : r : a n J Ne v
= I 4 =
turc as thc dmcnson o| d||crcncc, to culturc as group dcntty bascd on
d||crcncc, to culturc as thc proccss o| naturalzng a subsct o| d||crcnccs
that havc bccn moblzcd to artculatc group dcntty. Wc arc at ths pont
n a poston to movc to thc qucston o| cultural sm.
Wc rarcly cncountcr thc vord cultumli:m by tscl|. t s usually htchcd as
a noun to ccrtan prchxcs Ikc bi, multi, and intrr to namc thc most prom-
ncnt. but t may bc usc|ul to bcgn to usc culturulism to dcsgnatc a |caturc o|
movcmcnts nvolvng dcnttcs conscously n thc makng. Jhcsc movc-
mcnts, vhcthcr n thc Ontcd Statcs or clscvhcrc, arc usually drcctcd at
modcrn naton-statcs, vhch dstrbutc varous cnttlcmcnts, somctmcs
ncludng l|c and dcath, n accordancc vth classhcatons and polccs rc-
gardng group dcntty. Jhroughout thc vorld, |accd vth thc actvtcs o|
statcs that arc conccrncd vth cncompassng thcr cthnc dvcrstcs nto
hxcd and closcd scts o| cultural catcgorcs to vhch ndvduals arc o|tcn
assgncd |orcbly, many groups arc conscously moblzng thcmsclvcs ac-
cordng to dcnttaran crtcra. Cultural sm, put smply, s dcntty poltcs
moblzcd at thc lcvcl o| thc naton-statc.
Jhs sort o| cultural sm s my prncpal |ocus n chaptcr 7, vhcrc l
mount a sustancd crtquc o| thc prmordalst vcv o| thc cthnc volcncc
o| thc past dccadc. What appcars to bc a vorldvdc rcbrth o| cthnc na-
tonalsms and scparatsms s not rcally vhat ]ournalsts and pundts all too
|rcqucntly rc|cr to as trbalsm, mplyng old hstorcs, local rvalrcs, and
dccp hatrcds. Kathcr, thc cthnc volcncc vc scc n many placcs s part o|
a vdcr trans|ormaton that s suggcstcd by thc tcrm cultumli:m. Cultural-
sm, as | havc alrcady suggcstcd, s thc conscous moblzaton o| cultural
di||crcnccs n thc scrvcc o| a largcr natonal or transnatonal poltcs. lt s
|rcqucntly assocatcd vth cxtratcrrtoral hstorcs and mcmorcs, somc-
tmcs vth rc|ugcc status and cxlc, and almost alvays vth strugglcs |or
strongcr rccognton |rom cxstng naton-statcs or |rom varous transna-
tonal bodcs.
Culturalst movcmcnts ||or thcy arc almost alvays c||orts to moblzc)
arc thc most gcncral |orm o| thc vork o| thc magnaton and drav |rc-
qucntly on thc |act or possblty o| mgraton or scccsson. lost mportant,
thcy arc scl|-conscous about dcntty, culturc, and hcrtagc, all o| vhch
tcnd to bc part o| thc dclbcratc vocabulary o| culturalst movcmcnts as
thcy strugglc vth statcs and othcr culturalst |ocuscs and groups. t s ths
dclbcratc, stratcgc, and populst moblzaton o| cultural matcral that
]usthcs callng such movcmcnts culturalst, though thcy may vary n many
vays Cultural st movcmcnts, vhcthcr thcy nvolvc A|rcanAmcrcans,
lakstans n brtan, Algcrans n lrancc, natvc |avaans, Skhs, or lrcnch
H : r : a n J Ne +
= ( 5 =
spcakcrs n Canada, tcnd to bc countcrnatonal and mctacultural . ln thc
broadcst scnsc, as l shall suggcst n thc last part o| ths book, cultural sm s
thc |orm that cultural d||crcnccs tcnd to takc n thc cra o| mass mcdaton,
mgraton, and globalzaton.
Haa A:as C:t StaJi:J
Jhc anthropologcal strcss on thc cultural, vhch s thc man n|lccton l
vsh to gvc to thc dcbatc on globalzaton, s n my casc |urthcr sustancd
by my tra nng and practcc as a scholar o| arca studcs, spcchcally o|
South Asan studcs n thc Ontcd Statcs Jhcrc has not yct bccn a sus-
tancd crtcal analyss o| thc lnk, n thc Ontcd Statcs, bctvccn thc cmcr-
gcncc o| thc dca o| culturc arcas n anthropology bctvccn thc World
Wars and thc |ul l - |lcdgcd |ormaton a|tcr World War |l o| arca studcs as
thc ma]or vay to look at thc stratcgcally sgnhcant parts o| thc dcvclop-
ng vorld. Yct thcrc s lttlc doubt that both pcrspcctvcs nclinc onc to a
partcular sort o| map n vhch groups and thcr vays o| l |c arc markcd
by d ||crcnccs o| culturc, and n thc arca-studcs |ormaton thcsc d||cr
cnccs sldc nto a topography o| natonal cultural d||crcnccs. Jhus gco-
graphcal dvsons, cultural d||crcnccs, and natonal boundarcs tcndcd
to bccomc somorphc, and thcrc grcv a slrong tcndcncy to rc|ract vorld
proccsscs through ths sort o| natonal-cultural map o| thc vorld. Arca
studcs adds to ths spatal magnary a strong, | somctmcs tact, scnsc o|
thc stratcgc mportancc o| n|ormaton gancd n ths pcrspcctvc. Jhs s
thc rcason |or thc o|tcn notcd lnks bctvccn thc Cold War, govcrnmcnt
|undng, and unvcrsty cxpanson n thc organzaton o| arca-studcs ccn-
tcrs a|tcr Worl d War l|. cvcrthclcss, arca studcs has provdcd thc ma]or
countcrpont to thc dclusons o| thc vcv |rom novhcrc that undcrvrtcs
much canoncal socal sccncc. |t s ths aspcct o| my tranng that com-
pcllcd mc to s tuatc my gcncalogy o| thc global prcscnt n thc arca l knov
bcst. |nda.
Jhcrc s a spccal anxcty that nov surrounds thc structurcs and dcolo-
gcs o| arca studcs n thc Ontcd Statcs. Kccognzng that arca studcs s
somchov dccply tcd up vth a stratcgzng vorld pcturc drvcn by O. S.
|orcgnpolcy nccds bctvccn I 945 and I 989, lcadng hgurcs n thc vorld
o| unvcrstcs, |oundatons, thnk tanks, and cvcn thc govcrnmcnt havc
madc t clcar that thc old vay o| dong arca studcs docs not makc scnsc n
thc vorld a|tcr I 989. Jhus lc|tvng crtcs o| arca studcs, much n|lu-
cnccd by thc mportant vork o| Ldvard Sad on orcntal sm, havc bccn
]oncd by |rcc markctccrs and advocatcs o| lbcralzaton, vho arc mpa-
H : t : a n J Ne +
= I 6 =
ticnt vith vhat thcy dcridc as thc narrovncss and histoiy |ctish o| arca
studics cxpcrts. Arca-studics schol ars arc vidcly criticizcd as obstaclcs to
thc study o| cvcrything |rom comparison and contcmporancity to civil so
cicty and |rcc markcts. C| coursc, no critiquc that is so svccping and so
suddcn could bc cntircly |air, and thc odd mix o| its critics suggcsts that
arca-studics scholarship might bc taking thc rap |or a vidcr |ailurc in thc
O. b. acadcmy to dclivcr a broadcr and morc prcscicnt picturc o| thc vorld
a|tcr I 989.
Jhc arca-studics tradition is a doublc-cdgcd svord. l n a socicty notori-
ously dcvotcd to cxccptional ism, and to cndlcss prcoccupation vith
Amcrica, this tradition has bccn a tiny rc|ugc |or thc scrious study o| |or
cign languagcs, altcrnativc vorldvicvs, and largcscalc pcrspcctivcs on so
ciocultural changc outsidc Luropc and thc Onitcd Statcs. bcdcvilcd by a
ccitain tcndcncy tovard phil ology |in thc narrov, lcxical scnsc) and a ccr
tain ovcri dcntihcation vith thc rcgions o| its spccialization, arca studics
has noncthclcss bccn onc o| thc |cv scrious countcrvcights to thc tirclcss
tcndcncy to marginalizc hugc parts o| thc vorld in thc Amcrican acadcmy
and in Amcrican socicty morc gcncrally Yct thc arca-studics tradition has
probably grovn too com|ortablc vith its ovn maps o| thc vorld, too sc-
curc in its ovn cxpcrt practiccs, and too inscnsitivc to transnational
proccsscs both today and in thc past. So criticism and rc|orm arc ccrtainly
in ordcr, but hov can arca studics hclp to improvc thc vay that vorld pic-
turcs arc gcncratcd in thc Onitcd Statcs
lrom thc pcrspcctivc advanccd hcrc and in thc rcst o| this book, arca
studics is a salutary rcmindcr that globalization is itscl| a dccply historical,
uncvcn, and cvcn lcculizin proccss. Clobalization docs not ncccssarily or
cvcn |rcqucntly imply homogcnization or Amcricanization, and to thc cx
tcnt that di||crcnt socictics appropriatc thc matcrials o| modcrnity di ||cr-
cntly, thcrc is still amplc room |or thc dccp study o| spccihc gcographics,
historics, and languagcs. What l discuss in chaptcrs 3 and 4 as thc rcla-
tionship bctvccn histoiy and gcncalogy is impossiblc to cngagc vithout a
strong scnsc o| thc actualitics o| lhc lcnur dunr, vhich alvays producc spc-
cihc gcographics, both rcal and imagincd l| thc gcncalogy o| cultural
|orms is about thcir circulation across rcgions, thc history o| thcsc |orms is
about thcir ongoing domcstication into local practicc. Jhc vcry intcrac
tion o| historical and gcncalogical |orms is uncvcn, divcrsc, and conti n
gcnt ln this scnsc, history, thc ruthlcss disciplinc o| contcxt | i n L.
Jhompsons color|ul phrasc), is cvcrything. but this rccognition is not a
varrant |or kncc-]crk localism o| thc sort somctimcs associatcd vith arca
studics. ln any casc, arca studics is a spccihc Wcstcrn tcchniquc o| rc
H : r : a n J Ne +
= I 7 =
scarch and can hardly prctcnd to bc a simplc mirror o| thc civilizational
|thcr. What docs nccd to bc rccognizcd, i | thc arca-studics tradi tion is to
bc rcvitalizcd, is that locality itscl| is a historical product and that thc his-
torics through vhich localitics cmcrgc arc cvcntually sub]cct to thc dy-
namics o| thc global . Jhis argumcnt, vhich culminatcs in a rcmindcr that
thcrc is nothing mcrc about thc local, is thc burdcn o| thc hnal chaptcr o|
this book.
Jhis mixcd rcvicv o| arca studics, a tradition in vhich l havc bccn i m-
mcrscd |or thc past tvcnty-hvc ycars, undcrlics thc prcscncc at thc ccntcr
o| this book o| tvo chaptcrs about lndia. Jhcsc chaptcrs, on thc ccnsus
and on crickct, arc a countcrpoint to thosc that might othcrvisc sccm,
vcll , too global. but l hastcn to plcad that lndia-in this book-is not to
bc rcad as a mcrc casc, cxamplc, or instancc o| somcthing largcr than itscl|.
lt is, rathcr a si |or thc cxamination o| hov locality cmcrgcs i n a globaliz-
ing vorld, o| hov colonial proccsscs undcrvritc contcmporary politics, o|
hov history and gcncalogy inHcct onc anothcr, and o| hov global |acts
takc local |orm. ' ln this scnsc thcsc chaptcrsand thc |rcqucnt invoca-
tions o| lndia throughout thc bookarc not about lndia ( takcn as a natural
|act) but about thc proccsscs through vhich contcmporary lndia has
cmcrgcd. l am avarc o| thc irony (cvcn thc contradiction) in having a
nation-statc bc thc anchoring rc|crcnt o| a book dcvotcd to globalization
and animatcd by a scnsc o| thc cnd o| thc cra o| thc nation-statc. but hcrc
my cxpcrtisc and my limitations arc tvo sidcs o| thc samc coin, and l urgc
thc rcadcr to scc lndia as an optic, and not as a rcihcd social |act or a crudc
nationalist rc|lcx.
l makc this dctour in rccognition o| thc |act that any book about glob-
alization is a mild cxcrcisc in mcgalomania, cspccially vhcn it is produccd
in thc rclativcly privilcgcd circumstanccs o| thc Amcrican rcscarch univcr-
sity. lt sccms important to idcnti|y thc knovlcdgc |orms through vhich
any such mcgalomania comcs to articulatc itscl|. l n my casc, thcsc |orms-
anthropology and arca studicsprcdisposc mc by habit to thc hxing o|
practiccs, spaccs, and countrics into a map o| static di||crcnccs. Jhis is,
countcrintui tivc|y, a dangcr cvcn i n a book such as this, vhich is con-
sciously shapcd by a conccrn vith diaspora, dctcrritorialization, and thc
irrcgularity o| thc tics bctvccn nations, idcologics, and social movcmcnts.
Sec|al Sc|:rc: ajt:t Patt|et|s
Jhc hnal part o| thc hcrc and nov is a |act about thc modcrn vorld that
has cxcrciscd somc o| thc bcst contcmporary thinkcrs in thc social and
H : r : a n J Ne +
= I 8 =
human scicnccs it is thc issuc o| thc nation-statc, its history, its currcnt cri-
sis, its prospccts. l did not bcgin to vritc this book vith thc crisis o| thc
nationstatc as my principal conccrn. but in thc six ycars ovcr vhich its
chaptcrs vcrc vrittcn, | havc comc to bc convinccd that thc nation-statc,
as a complcx modcrn political |orm, is on its last lcgs. Jhc cvidcncc is by
no mcans clcar, and thc rcturns arc hardly all i n. | am avarc that all nation-
statcs arc not thc samc in rcspcct to thc national imaginary, thc appara-
tuscs o| thc statc, or thc sturdincss o| thc hyphcn bctvccn thcm. Yct thcrc
is somc |ustihcation |or vhat might somctimcs sccm likc a rcihcd vicv o|
tor nation-statc in this book. ation-statcs, |or all thcir important di||cr-
cnccs ,and only a |ool vould con|latc Sri Lanka vith Crcat britain) , makc
scnsc only as parts o| a systcm Jhis systcm |cvcn vhcn sccn as a systcm o|
di||crcnccs) appcars poorly cquippcd to dcal vith thc intcrlinkcd diaspo-
ras o| pcoplc and imagcs that mark thc hcrc and nov. ation-statcs, as
units in a complcx i ntcractivc systcm, arc not vcry likcly to bc thc long-
tcrm arbitcrs o| thc rclationship bctvccn globality and modcrnity. Jhat is
vhy, i n my titlc, l imply that modcrnity is at largc.
Jhc idca that somc nation-statcs arc in crisis is a staplc o| thc hcld o|
comparativc politics and vas i n somc scnsc thc |ustihcation |or much o|
modcrnization thcory, cspccially in thc sixtics. Jhc idca that somc statcs
arc vcak, sick, corrupt, or so|t has bccn around |or scvcral dccadcs ,rc-
mcmbcr Cunnar lyrdahl) . lorc rcccntly, it has bccomc vidcly acccpt-
ablc to scc nationalism as a discasc, cspccially vhcn it is somcbody clscs
nationalism. Jhc idca that all nation-statcs arc to somc cxtcnt bcdcvilcd
by globalizcd movcmcnts o| arms, moncys, discascs, and idcologics is also
hardly ncvs in thc cra o| thc multinational corporation. but thc idca that
thc vcry systcm o| nation-statcs is in |copardy is hardly popular. ln this
book, my pcrsistcnt |ocus on thc hyphcn that links nation to statc is part o|
an cvolving argumcnt that thc vcry cpoch o| thc nation-statc is ncar its
cnd. Jhis vicv, vhich lics somcvhcrc bctvccn a diagnosis and a progno-
sis, bctvccn an intuition and an argumcnt, nccds to bc spcllcd out.
lirst, l nccd to distinguish bctvccn thc cthical and thc analytic compo-
ncnts o| my argumcnt. Cn thc cthical |ront, l am i ncrcasingly inclincd to
scc most modcrn govcrnmcntal apparatuscs as inclincd to scl|-pcrpctuation,
bloat, violcncc, and corruption. |crc, | am i n mixcd company, |rom thc
lc|t and |rom thc right. Jhc cthical qucstion l am o|tcn |accd vith is, i| thc
nationstatc disappcars, vhat mcchanism vill assurc thc protcction o| mi-
noritics, thc minimal distribution o| dcmocratic rights, and thc rcasonablc
possibility o| thc grovth o| civil socicty ly ansvcr is that l do not knov,
but this admission is hardly an cthical rccommcndation |or a systcm that
H : r : a n J Ne +
= I 9 =
sccms plagucd by cndcmic discasc. As to altcrnativc social |orms and
possibilitics, thcrc arc actually cxisting social |orms and arrangcmcnts that
might contain thc sccds o| morc dispcrscd and divcrsc |orms o| trans-
national allcgiancc and a|hliation. Jhis is part o| thc argumcnt o| chaptcr 8,
although | rcadily admit that thc road |rom various transnational movc-
mcnts to sustainablc |orms o| transnational govcrnancc i s hardly clcar. |
prc|cr, hovcvcr, thc cxcrcisc o| looking |ori ndccd, imaginingthcsc al-
tcrnativc possibilitics to thc stratcgy o| dchning somc nation-statcs as
hcalthicr than othcrs and thcn suggcsting various mcchanisms o| idcology
trans|cr. Jhis lattcr stratcgy rcplays modcrnization-cum-dcvclopmcnt pol-
icy all ovcr again, vith thc samc triumphalist undcrpi nnings and thc samc
unhcalthy prospccts.
|| thc cthical |ront o| my argumcnt is ncccssarily |uzzy, thc analytic
|ront is somcvhat sharpcr. Lvcn a cursory inspcction o| thc rclationships
vithin and among thc morc than I 50 nationstatcs that arc nov mcmbcrs
o| thc Onitcd ations shovs that bordcr vars, culturc vars, runavay in|la-
tion, massivc immigrant populations, or scrious |lights o| capital thrcatcn
sovcrcignty in many o| thcm. Lvcn vhcrc statc sovcrcignty is apparcntly
intact, statc lcgitimacy is |rcqucntly insccurc. Lvcn in nation-statcs as ap-
parcntly sccurc as thc Onitcd Statcs, )apan, and Ccrmany, dcbatcs about
racc and rights, mcmbcrship and loyalty, citizcnship and authority arc no
longcr culturally pcriphcral. Whilc onc argumcnt |or thc longcvity o| thc
nation-statc |orm is bascd on thcsc apparcntly sccurc and lcgitimatc in-
stanccs, thc othcr argumcnt is an i nvcrsc onc and bascs itscl| on thc ncv
cthnonationalisms o| thc vorld, notably thosc o| Lastcrn Luropc. bosnia-
|crzcgovina is almost alvays pointcd to in thc Onitcd Statcs as for princi-
pal symptom o| thc |act that nationalism is alivc and sick, vhilc thc rich
dcmocracics arc simultancously invokcd to shov that thc nation-statc is
alivc and vcll.
Civcn thc |rcqucncy vith vhich Lastcrn Luropc is uscd to shov that
tribalism is dccply human, that othcr pcoplcs nationalism is tribalism vrit
largc, and that tcrritorial sovcrcignty is still thc ma]or goal o| many largc
cthnic groups, lct mc proposc an altcrnativc intcrprctation. |n my ]udg-
mcnt, Lastcrn Luropc has bccn singularly distortcd in popular argumcnts
about nationalism in thc prcss and in thc acadcmy in thc Onitcd Statcs.
Kathcr than bcing thc modal instancc o| thc complcxitics o| all contcmpo-
rary cthnonationalisms, Lastcrn Luropc, and its Scrbian |acc in particular,
has bccn uscd as a dcmonstration o| thc continucd vigor o| nationalisms in
vhich land, languagc, rcligion, history, and blood arc congrucnt, a tcxt-
book casc o| vhat nationalism is all about. C| coursc, vhat is |ascinating
H : r : a n J Ne +
= 30 =
about Lastcrn Luropc is that somc o| its ovn right-ving idcologucs havc
convinccd thc libcral Wcstcrn prcss that nationalism is a politics o| pri-
mordia, vhcrcas thc rcal qucstion is hov it has bccn madc to upprur that
vay. Jhis ccrtainly makcs Lastcrn Luropc a |ascinating and urgcnt casc
|rom many points o| vicv, including thc |act that vc nccd to bc skcptical
vhcn cxpcrts claim to havc cncountcrcd idcal typcs in actual cascs.
|n most cascs o| countcrnationalism, scccssion, supranationalism, or cth-
nic rcvival on a largc scalc, thc common thrcad is scl|- dctcrmination rathcr
than tcrritorial sovcrcignty as such. Lvcn in thosc cascs vhcrc tcrritory
sccms to bc a |undamcntal issuc, such as in lalcstinc, it could bc argucd that
dcbatcs about land and tcrritory arc in |act |unctional spin- o||s o| argu-
mcnts that arc substantially about povcr, ]usticc, and scl|-dctcrmination.
l n a vorld o| pcoplc on thc movc, o| global commoditization and statcs i n-
capablc o| dclivcring basic rights cvcn to thcir ma|ority cthnic populations
,scc chap. 2),tcrritorial sovcrcignty is an incrcasingly di|hcult ]ustihcation
|or thosc nation-statcs that arc incrcasingly dcpcndcnt on |orcign labor,
cxpcrtisc, arms, or soldicrs. lor countcrnationalist movcmcnts, tcrritorial
sovcrcignty is a plausiblc idiom |or thcir aspirations, but it should not bc
mistakcn |or thcir |ounding logic or thcir ultimatc conccrn Jo do so is to
commit vhat l vould call thc bosnia lallacy, an crror that involvcs ,a) mis-
undcrstanding Lastcrn Luropcan cthnic battlcs as tribalist and primordial,
an crror i n vhich thc Nru Yor| mrs is thc lcadcr, and ,b) compounding thc
mistakc by taking thc Lastcrn Luropcan casc to bc thc modal casc o| all
cmcrgcnt nationalisms. Jo movc avay |rom thc bosnia lallacy rcquircs
tvo di|hcult conccssions. hrst, that thc political systcms o| thc vcalthy
northcrn nations may thcmsclvcs bc in crisis, and sccond, that thc cmcr-
gcnt nationalisms o| many parts o| thc vorld may bc |oundcd on patrio-
tisms that arc not cithcr cxclusivcly or |undamcntally tcrritorial Argu-
mcnts |or making thcsc conccssions animatc many o| thc chaptcrs in this
book. l n making thcm, l havc not alvays |ound it casy to maintain thc dis-
tinction bctvccn thc analytic and thc cthical pcrspcctivcs on thc |uturc o|
thc nation-statc, although l havc tricd to do so.
As thc nation-statc cntcrs a tcrminal crisis ,i| my prognostications
provc to bc corrcct) , vc can ccrtainly cxpcct that thc matcrials |or a post-
national imaginary must bc around us alrcady. |crc, l think vc nccd to
pay spccial attcntion to thc rclation bctvccn mass mcdiation and migra-
tion, thc tvo |acts that undcrpin my scnsc o| thc cultural politics o| thc
global modcrn. ln particular, vc nccd to look closcly at thc varicty o| vhat
havc cmcrgcd as diusporic public sporrrs. bcncdict Andcrson did us a scrvicc
in idcnti|ying thc vay in vhich ccrtain |orms o| mass mcdiation, notably
H : r : a n J No +
= 2 I =
thosc involving ncvspapcrs, novcls, and othcr print mcdia, playcd a kcy
rolc in imagining thc nation and in |acilitating thc sprcad o| this |orm to
thc colonial vorld in Asia and clscvhcrc. ly gcncral argumcnt is that
thcrc is a similar link to bc |ound bctvccn thc vork o| thc imagination and
thc cmcrgcncc o| a postnational political vorl d. Without thc bcncht o|
hindsight ,vhich vc do havc vith rcspcct to thc global ]ourncy o| thc idca
o| thc nation), it is hard to makc a clcar casc |or thc rolc o| thc imagination
i n a postnational ordcr. but as mass mcdiation bccomcs incrcasingly dom-
inatcd by clcctronic mcdia ,and thus dcl inkcd |rom thc capacity to rcad
and vritc), and as such mcdia incrcasingly link produccrs and audicnccs
across national boundarics, and as thcsc audicnccs thcmsclvcs start ncv
convcrsations bctvccn thosc vho movc and thosc vho stay, vc hnd a
groving numbcr o| diasporic public sphcrcs.
Jhcsc diasporic sphcrcs arc |rcqucntly ticd up vith studcnts and othcr
intcllcctuals cngaging i n long-distancc nationalism ,as vith activists |rom
thc lcoplcs Kcpublic o| China). Jhc cstablishmcnt o| black ma]ority rulc
in South A|rica opcns up ncv kinds o| discoursc o| racial dcmocracy i n
A|rica as vcll as in thc Onitcd Statcs and thc Caribbcan. Jhc lslamic vorld
is thc most |amiliar cxamplc o| a vholc rangc o| dcbatcs and pro|ccts that
havc littlc to do vith national boundarics Kcligions that vcrc in thc past
rcsolutcly national nov pursuc global missions and diasporic clicntclcs
vith vigor. thc global |i nduism o| thc past dccadc is thc singlc bcst cx-
amplc o| this proccss. Activist movcmcnts involvcd vith thc cnvironmcnt,
vomcns issucs, and human rights gcncrally havc crcatcd a sphcrc o|
transnational discoursc, |rcqucntly rcsting on thc moral authority o|
rc|ugccs, cxilcs, and othcr displaccd pcrsons. la|or transnational scpa
ratist movcmcnts likc thc Sikhs, thc Kurds, and thc Sri Lankan Jamils con-
duct thcir scl|-imagining in sitcs throughout thc vorld, vhcrc thcy havc
cnough mcmbcrs to allov |or thc cmcrgcncc o| multiplc nodcs in a largcr
diasporic public sphcrc.
Jhc vavc o| dcbatcs about multiculturalism that has sprcad through
thc Onitcd Statcs and Luropc is surcly tcstimony to thc incapacity o|
statcs to prcvcnt thcir minority populations |rom l i nking thcmsclvcs to
vidcr constitucncics o| rcligious or cthnic a|hliati on. Jhcsc cxamplcs,
and othcrs, suggcst that thc cra in vhich vc could assumc that viablc
public sphcrcs vcrc typically, cxclusivcly, or ncccssarily national could bc
at an cnd.
Liasporic public sphcrcs, divcrsc among thcmsclvcs, arc thc cruciblcs
o| a postnational political ordcr Jhc cngincs o| thcir discoursc arc mass
mcdia ,both intcractivc and cxprcssivc) and thc movcmcnt o| rc|ugccs, ac-
H : r : a n J Ne +
= 22 =
Iivists, studcnts, and laborcrs. |t may vcll bc that thc cmcrgcnt postna
tional ordcr provcs not to bc a systcm o| homogcncous units ,as vith thc
currcnt systcm o| nationstatcs) but a systcm bascd on rclations bctvccn
hctcrogcncous units ,somc social movcmcnts, somc i ntcrcst groups, somc
pro|cssional bodics, somc nongovcrnmcntal organizations, somc armcd
constabularics, somc |udicial bodics) . Jhc challcngc |or this cmcrgcnt
ordcr vill bc vhcthcr such hctcrogcncity is consstcnt vith somc minimal
convcntions o| norm and valuc, vhich do not rcquirc a strict adhcrcncc to
thc libcral social contract o| thc modcrn Wcst. Jhis |atc|ul qucstion vill bc
ansvcrcd not by acadcmic hat but by thc ncgotiations ,both civil and vio-
lcnt) bctvccn thc vorlds imagincd by thcsc di||crcnt intcrcsts and movc-
mcnts. |n thc short run, as vc can scc alrcady, it is likcly to bc a vorld o|
i ncrcascd incivility and violcncc. |n thc longcr run, |rcc o| thc constraints
o| thc nation |orm, vc may hnd that cultural lrccdom and sustainablc |us-
ticc i n thc vorld do not prcsupposc thc uni|orm and gcncral cxistcncc o|
thc nation-statc. Jhis unscttling possibil ity could bc thc most cxciting div-
idcnd o| living in modcrnity at largc.
H : t : a n J Ne +
= 23 =
A K
| | . | a |
| | . U 5
2
| S[uClu|6 8d |H6|6C6 | lh6
L| 008 Lu| lu|8| bC00my
|t takcs only thc mcrcst acquaintancc vith thc |acts o| thc modcrn vorld
to notc that it is nov an i ntcractivc systcm in a scnsc that is strikingly ncv.
|istorians and sociologists, cspccially thosc conccrncd vith translocal
proccsscs , |odgson I 974) and thc vorld systcms associatcd vith capital-
ism ,Abu-Lughod I 989, braudcl I 9 8 I 84, Curtin I 984, Wallcrstcin I 974,
Wol| I 982) , havc long bccn avarc that thc vorld has bccn a congcrics o|
largc-scalc i ntcractions |or many ccnturi cs. Yct todays vorld involvcs in-
tcractions o| a ncv ordcr and intcnsity. Cultural transactions bctvccn so-
cial groups in thc past havc gcncrally bccn rcstrictcd, somctimcs by thc
|acts o| gcography and ccology, and at othcr timcs by activc rcsistancc to
intcractions vith thc Cthcr ,as in China |or much o| its history and in
)apan bc|orc thc lci]i Kcstoration) Whcrc thcrc havc bccn sustaincd cul-
tural transactions across largc parts o| thc globc, thcy havc usually in-
volvcd thc long-distancc |ourncy o| commoditics ,and o| thc mcrchants
most conccrncd vith thcm) and o| travclcrs and cxplorcrs o| cvcry typc
,|clms I 988, Scha|cr I 963) . Jhc tvo main |orccs |or sustaincd cultural
intcraction bc|orc this ccntury havc bccn var|arc ,and thc largc-scalc po-
litical systcms somctimcs gcncratcd by it) and rcligions o| convcrsion,
vhich havc somctimcs, as i n thc casc o| |slam, takcn var|arc as onc o| thc
lcgitimatc instrumcnts o| thcir cxpansion. Jhus, bctvccn travclcrs and
= ] 7 =
mcrchants, pilgrims and conqucrors, thc vorld has sccn much long-distancc
,and long-tcrm) cultural tra|hc. Jhis much sccms scl|-cvidcnt.
but |cv vill dcny that givcn thc problcms o| timc, distancc, and lim-
itcd tcchnologics |or thc command o| rcsourccs across vast spaccs, cul-
tural dcalings bctvccn socially and spatially scparatcd groups havc, until
thc past |cv ccnturics, bccn bridgcd at grcat cost and sustaincd ovcr timc
only vith gicat c||ort Jhc lorccs o| cultural gravity sccmcd alvays to pull
avay |rom thc |ormation ol largcscalc ccumcncs, vhcthcr rcligious,
commcrcial, or political, tovard smallcrscalc accrctions o| intimacy and
intcrcst.
Somctimc i n thc past |cv ccnturics, thc naturc o| this gravitational hcld
sccms to havc changcd. lartly bccausc o| thc spirit o| thc cxpansion o|
Wcstcrn maritimc intcrcsts a|tcr I 500, and partly bccausc o| thc rclativcly
autonomous dcvclopmcnts o| largc and aggrcssivc social |ormations in thc
Amcricas ,such as thc Aztccs and thc |ncas) , in Lurasia ,such as thc lon-
gols and thcir dcsccndants, thc lughals and Cttomans), i n island South-
cast Asia ,such as thc bugincsc), and i n thc kingdoms o| prccolonial A|rica
,such as Lahomcy), an ovcrlapping sct o| ccumcncs bcgan to cmcrgc, i n
vhich congcrics o| moncy, commcrcc, conqucst, and migration bcgan to
crcatc durablc cross-socictal bonds. Jhis proccss vas accclcratcd by thc
tcchnology translcrs and innovations o| thc latc cightccnth and ninc-
tccnth ccnturics ,c. g. , bayly I 989), vhich crcatcd complcx colonial ordcrs
ccntcrcd on Luropcan capitals and sprcad throughout thc non-Luropcan
vorld. Jhis intricatc and ovcrlapping sct o| Lurocolonial vorlds , hrst
Spanish and lortugucsc, latcr principally Lnglish, lrcnch, and Lutch) sct
thc basis |or a pcrmancnt tra|hc in idcas ol pcoplc hood and scl|hood,
vhich crcatcd thc imagincd communitics ,Andcrson I 983) o| rcccnt na-
tionalisms throughout thc vorld.
With vhat bcncdict Andcrson has callcd print capitalism, a ncv
povcr vas unlcashcd in thc vorld, thc povcr o| mass litcracy and its at
tcndant largcscalc production o| pro|ccts ol cthnic a|hnity that vcrc rc-
markably lrcc ol thc nccd |or |acc-to|acc communication or cvcn o| indi-
rcct communication bctvccn pcrsons and groups Jhc act o| rcading
things togcthcr sct thc stagc |or movcmcnts bascd on a paradoxthc
paradox o| constructcd primordialism. Jhcrc is, o| coursc, a grcat dcal clsc
that is involvcd in thc story o| colonialism and its dialcctically gcncratcd
nationalisms , Chattcr|cc I 986), but thc issuc o| constructcd cthnicitics is
surcly a crucial strand in this talc.
but thc rcvolution o| print capitalism and thc cultural a|hnitics and dia-
logucs unlcashcd by i t vcrc only modcst prccursors to thc vorld vc livc in
D | s , a c t a t : a n J D | )): t : n c :
2 8 =
nov. lor in thc past ccntury, thcrc has bccn a tcchnological cxplosion,
largcly i n thc domain o| transportation and in|ormation, that makcs thc in-
tcractions o| a printdominatcd vorld sccm as hard-von and as casily
crascd as thc print rcvolution madc carlicr |orms o| cultural tra|hc appcar.
lor vith thc advcnt o| thc stcamship, thc automobilc, thc airplanc, thc
camcra, thc computcr, and thc tclcphonc, vc havc cntcrcd into an alto
gcthcr ncv condition o| ncighborl incss, cvcn vith thosc most distant |rom
oursclvcs. larshall lcLuhan, among othcrs, sought to thcorizc about this
vorld as a global villagc, but thcorics such as lcLuhans appcar to havc
ovcrcstimatcd thc communitarian implications o| thc ncv mcdia ordcr
,lcLuhan and lovcrs I 989) . Wc arc nov avarc that vith mcdia, cach
timc vc arc tcmptcd to spcak o| thc global villagc, vc must bc rcmindcd
that mcdia crcatc communitics vith no scnsc o| placc ,lcyrovitz I 985) .
Jhc vorld vc livc in nov sccms rhizomic ,Lclcuzc and Cuattari I 987),
cvcn schizophrcnic, calling |or thcorics o| rootlcssncss, alicnation, and
psychological distancc bctvccn individuals and groups on thc onc hand,
and |antasics ,or nightmarcs) o| clcctronic propinquity on thc othcr. |crc,
vc arc closc to thc ccntral problcmatic o| cultural proccsscs in todays
voild.
Jhus, thc curiosity that rcccntly drovc |ico lycr to Asia , I 988) is in
somc vays thc product o| a con|usion bctvccn somc inc||ablc lc
Lonaldization o| thc vorld and thc much subtlcr play o| indigcnous tra-
]cctorics o| dcsirc and |car vith global |lovs o| pcoplc and things lndccd,
lycrs ovn imprcssions arc tcstimony to thc |act that, i| u global cultural
systcm is cmcrging, it is hllcd vith ironics and rcsistanccs, somctimcs cam-
ou||agcd as passivity and a bottomlcss appctitc i n thc Asian vorld |or
things Wcstcrn.
|ycrs ovn account o| thc uncanny lhilippinc a|hnity |or Amcrican
popular music is rich tcstimony to thc global culturc o| thc hypcrrcal, |or
somchov lhilippinc rcnditions o| Amcrican popular songs arc both morc
vidcsprcad in thc lhilippincs, and morc disturbingly |aith|ul to thcir orig-
inals, than thcy arc in thc Onitcd Statcs today. An cntirc nation sccms to
havc lcarncd to mimic Kcnny Kogcrs and thc Lcnnon sistcrs, likc a vast
Asian lotovn chorus. but Amrricunizuticn is ccrtainly a pallid tcrm to apply
to such a situation, |or not only arc thcrc morc lilipinos singing pcr|cct
rcnditions o| somc Amcrican songs ,o|tcn |rom thc Amcrican past) than
thcrc arc Amcricans doing so, thcrc is also, o| coursc, thc |act that thc rcst
o| thcir livcs is not in complctc synchrony vith thc rc|crcntial vorld that
hrst gavc birth to thcsc songs.
ln a |urthcr globalizing tvist on vhat lrcdric }amcson has rcccntly
D : s , a n c t a r : o n J D | )) : r : n c :
29
callcd nostalgia |or thc prcscnt , I 989), thcsc lilipinos look back to a
vorld thcy havc ncvcr lost. Jhis is onc o| thc ccntral ironics o| thc politics
o| global cultural |lovs, cspccially i n thc arcna o| cntcrtainmcnt and
lcisurc. |t plays havoc vith thc hcgcmony o| Lurochronology. Amcrican
nostalgia |ccds on lilipino dcsirc rcprcscntcd as a hypcrcompctcnt rcpro-
duction. |crc, vc havc nostalgia vithout mcmory. Jhc paradox, o|
coursc, has its cxplanations, and thcy arc historical, unpackcd, thcy lay
barc thc story o| thc Amcrican missionization and political rapc o| thc
lhilippincs, onc rcsult o| vhich has bccn thc crcation o| a nation o| makc-
bclicvc Amcricans, vho tolcratcd |or so long a lcading lady vho playcd
thc piano vhilc thc slums o| lanila cxpandcd and dccaycd. lcrhaps thc
most radical postmodcrnists vould arguc that this is hardly surprising bc-
causc i n thc pcculiar chronicitics o| latc capitalism, pastichc and nostalgia
arc ccntral modcs o| imagc production and rcccption. Amcricans thcm-
sclvcs arc hardly in thc prcscnt anymorc as thcy stumblc into thc mcga-
tcchnologics o| thc tvcnty-hrst ccntury garbcd i n thc hlm-noir sccnarios
o| sixtics chills, h|tics dincrs, |ortics clothing, thirtics houscs, tvcntics
danccs, and so on ad i nhnitum.
As |ar as thc Onitcd Statcs is conccrncd, onc might suggcst that thc
issuc is no longcr onc o| nostalgia but o| a social imainairr built largcly
around rcruns. )amcson vas bold to link thc politics o| nostalgia to thc
postmodcrn commodity scnsibility, and surcly hc vas right , I 983) . Jhc
drug vars in Colombia rccapitulatc thc tropical svcat o| Victnam, vith
Cllic orth and his succcssion o| masks~)immy Stcvart conccaling )ohn
Waync conccaling Spiro Agncv and all o| thcm transmogri|ying into
Sylvcstcr Stallonc, vho vins in A|ghanistanthus simultancously |ulhll-
lng thc sccrct Amcrican cnvy o| Sovict impcrialism and thc rcrun ,this
timc vith a happy cnding) o| thc Victnam War. Jhc Kolling Stoncs, ap-
proaching thcir h|tics, gyratc bc|orc cightccn-ycar-olds vho do not ap-
pcar to nccd thc machincry o| nostalgia to bc sold on thcir parcnts hcrocs.
laul lcCartncy is sclling thc bcatlcs to a ncv audicncc by hitching his
obliquc nostalgia to thcir dcsirc |or thc ncv that smacks o| thc old. Omnrf
is back in ninctics drag, and so is Adam- : 2, not to spcak o| batman and Nis-
sicn mpcssib|r, all drcsscd up tcchnologically but rcmarkably |aith|ul to thc
atmosphcrics o| thcir originals.
Jhc past is nov not a land to rcturn to in a simplc politics o| mcmory.
t has bccomc a synchronic varchousc o| cultural sccnarios, a kind o| tcm-
poral ccntral casting, to vhich rccoursc can bc takcn as appropriatc, dc-
pcnding on thc movic to bc madc, thc sccnc to bc cnactcd, thc hostagcs to
bc rcscucd. All this is par |or thc coursc, i| you |ollov )can baudriIIard or
D i s a r c t a r : o r J D i ]] : r :r c :
^
3
@ =
)can-lranois Lyotard into a vorld o| signs vholly unmoorcd |rom thcir
social signi hcrs ,all thc vorl ds a Lisncyland) . but | vould likc to suggcst
that thc apparcnt incrcasing substitutability o| vholc pcriods and posturcs
|or onc anothcr, in thc cultural stylcs o| advanccd capitalism, is ticd to
largcr global |orccs, vhich havc donc much to shov Amcricans that thc
past is usually anothcr country. || your prcscnt is thcir |uturc ,as in much
modcrnization thcory and in many scl|satishcd tourist |antasics), and
thcir |uturc is your past ,as i n thc casc o| thc lilipino virtuosos o| Amcrican
popular music), thcn your ovn past can bc madc to appcar as simply a nor-
malizcd modality o| your prcscnt. Jhus, although somc anthropologists
may continuc to rclcgatc thcir Cthcrs to tcmporal spaccs that thcy do not
thcmsclvcs occupy ,labian I 983 ) , postindustrial cultural productions havc
cntcrcd a postnostalgic phasc
Jhc crucial point, hovcvcr, is that thc Onitcd Statcs is no longcr thc
puppctccr o| a vorld systcm o| imagcs but is only onc nodc o| a complcx
transnational construction o| imaginary landscapcs. Jhc vorld vc livc in
today is charactcrizcd by a ncv rolc |or thc imagination i n social l i |c. Jo
grasp this ncv rolc, vc nccd to bring togcthcr thc old idca o| imagcs, cs-
pccially mcchanically produccd imagcs ,i n thc lrank|urt School scnsc),
thc idca o| thc imagincd community ,in Andcrsons scnsc), and thc lrcnch
idca o| thc imaginary (imuinuir:) as a constructcd landscapc o| collcctivc
aspirations, vhich is no morc and no lcss rcal than thc collcctivc rcprcscn-
tations o|
[
milc Lurkhcim, nov mcdiatcd through thc complcx prism o|
modcrn mcdia.
Jhc imagc, thc imagincd, thc imaginarythcsc arc all tcrms that di -
rcct us to somcthing critical and ncv in global cultural proccsscs. to: imu-
inution us u sociu| pructic: o longcr mcrc |antasy ,opium |or thc masscs
vhosc rcal vork is clscvhcrc), no longcr simplc cscapc , |rom a vorld dc
hncd principally by morc concrctc purposcs and structurcs), no longcr
clitc pastimc ,thus not rclcvant to thc livcs o| ordinary pcoplc), and no
longcr mcrc contcmplation ,irrclcvant |or ncv |orms o| dcsirc and sub|cc
tivity), thc imagination has bccomc an organizcd hcld o| social practiccs,
a |orm o| vork ,in thc scnsc o| both labor and culturally organizcd prac
ticc), and a |orm o| ncgotiation bctvccn sitcs o| agcncy ,individuals) and
globally dchncd hclds o| possiblity Jhis unlcashing o| thc imagination
links thc play o| pastichc ,in somc scttings) to thc tcrror and cocrcion o|
statcs and thcir compctitors. Jhc imagination is nov ccntral to all |orms
o| agcncy, is itscl| a social |ac|, and is thc kcy componcnt o| thc ncv
global ordcr. but to makc this claim mcaning|ul, vc must addrcss somc
othcr issucs.
D | s ) a n c t a r : a n J D | )) : r : n c :
3 I
=
Heeq:r|zat|er arJ H:t:teq:r|zat|er
Jhc ccntral problcm o| todays global intcractions is thc tcnsion bctvccn
cultural homogcnization and cultural hctcrogcnization. A vast array o|
cmpirical |acts could bc brought to bcar on thc sidc o| thc homogcniza-
tion argumcnt, and much o| it has comc |rom thc lc|t cnd o| thc spcctrum
o| mcdia studics , |amclink I 983 , lattclart I 983, Schillcr I 976) , and
somc |rom othcr pcrspcctivcs ,Lans I 985, ycr I 988) . lost o|tcn, thc ho-
mogcnization argumcnt subspcciatcs into cithcr an argumcnt about Amcr-
icanization or an argumcnt about commoditization, and vcry o|tcn thc
tvo argumcnts arc closcly linkcd. What thcsc argumcnts |ail to considcr is
that at lcast as rapidly as |orccs |rom various mctropoliscs arc brought into
ncv socictics thcy tcnd to bccomc i ndigcnizcd in onc or anothcr vay. this
is truc o| music and housing stylcs as much as it is truc o| scicncc and tcr-
rorism, spcctaclcs and constitutions. Jhc dynamics o| such indigcnization
havc ]ust bcgun to bc cxplorcd systcmically , barbcr I 9 87, lcld I 988, |an-
ncrz I 987, I 989, |vy I 988, icoll I 989, Yoshimoto I 989), and much morc
nccds to bc donc. but it is vorth noticing that |or thc pcoplc o| lrian )aya,
ndoncsianization may bc morc vorrisomc than Amcricanization, as
)apanization may bc |or Korcans, ndianization |or Sri Lankans, Vict-
namization |or thc Cambodians, and Kussianization |or thc pcoplc o| So-
vict Armcnia and thc baltic rcpublics. Such a list o| altcrnativc |cars to
Amcricanization could bc grcatly cxpandcd, but it is not a shapclcss in-
vcntory. |or politics o| smallcr scalc, thcrc is alvays a |car o| cultural ab-
sorption by politics o| largcr scalc, cspccially thosc that arc ncarby. Cnc
mans imagincd community i s anothcr mans political prison.
Jhis scalar dynamic, vhich has vidcsprcad global mani|cstations, i s
also ticd to thc rclationship bctvccn nations and statcs, to vhich l shall rc-
turn latcr. lor thc momcnt lct us notc that thc simplihcation o| thcsc many
|orccs ,and |cars) o| homogcnization can also bc cxploitcd by nation-
statcs in rclation to thcir ovn minoritics, by posing global commoditiza-
tion ,or capitalism, or somc othcr such cxtcrnal cncmy) as morc rcal than
thc thrcat o| its ovn hcgcmonic stratcgics.
Jhc ncv global cultural cconomy has to bc sccn as a complcx, ovcrlap-
ping, dis|unctivc ordcr that cannot any longcr bc undcrstood in tcrms o|
cxisting ccntcr-pcriphcry modcls ,cvcn thosc that mi ght account |or mul-
tiplc ccntcrs and pcriphcrics) . or is it susccptiblc to simplc modcls o|
push and pull , i n tcrms o| migration thcory), or o| surpluscs and dchcits ,as
i n traditional modcls o| balancc o| tradc) , or o| consumcrs and produccrs
,as in most nco- larxist thcorics o| dcvclopmcnt). Lvcn thc most complcx
D | s ) a r c t a r t a r J D | ]] t r t r c t
F 3 2
and |lcxiblc thcorics o| global dcvclopmcnt that havc comc out o| thc
larxist tradition ,Amin I 980, landcl I 978, Wallcrstcin I 974, Wol |
I 982) arc inadcquatcly quirky and havc |ailcd to comc to tcrms vith vhat
Scott Lash and )ohn Orry havc callcd disorganizcd capitalism , I 987). Jhc
complcxity o| thc currcnt global cconomy has to do vith ccrtain |unda-
mcntal dis]uncturcs bctvccn cconomy, culturc, and politics that vc havc
only bcgun to thcorizc '
l proposc that an clcmcntary |ramcvork |or cxploring such dis]uncturcs
is to look at thc rclationship among hvc dimcnsions o| global cultural |lovs
that can bc tcrmcd ,a) rtonoscaprs, ,b) mrdiascaprs, ,c) trconoscaprs, , d) }-
nancrscaprs, and ,c) idroscaprs Jhc su|hx -scapr allovs us to point to thc
|luid, irrcgular shapcs o| thcsc landscapcs, shapcs that charactcrizc intcr-
national capital as dccply as thcy do intcrnational clothing stylcs. Jhcsc
tcrms vith thc common su|hx scapr also i ndicatc that thcsc arc not ob]cc-
tivcly givcn rclations that look thc samc |rom cvcry anglc o| vision but,
rathcr, that thcy arc dccply pcrspcctival constructs, inHcctcd by thc his-
torical, linguistic, and political situatcdncss o| di||crcnt sorts o| actors. na-
tion-statcs, multinationals, diasporic communitics, as vcll as subnational
groupings and movcmcnts ,vhcthcr rcligious, political, or cconomic) , and
cvcn intimatc |acc-to- |acc groups, such as villagcs, ncighborhoods, and
|amilics. lndccd, thc individual actor is thc last locus o| this pcrspcctival
sct o| landscapcs, |or thcsc landscapcs arc cvcntually navigatcd by agcnts
vho both cxpcricncc and constitutc largcr |ormations, in part |rom thcir
ovn scnsc o| vhat thcsc landscapcs o||cr.
Jhcsc landscapcs thus arc thc building blocks o| vhat ,cxtcnding
bcncdict Andcrson) l vould likc to call imainrd uorlds, that is, thc multiplc
vorlds that arc constitutcd by thc historically situatcd imaginations o| pcr-
sons and groups sprcad around thc globc ,chap. I ). An important |act o|
thc vorld vc livc in today is that many pcrsons on thc globc livc in such
imagincd vorlds ,and not ]ust in imagincd communitics) and thus arc ablc
to contcst and somctimcs cvcn subvcrt thc imagincd vorlds o| thc o|hcial
mind and o| thc cntrcprcncurial mcntality that surround thcm.
by rfonoscapr, l mcan thc landscapc o| pcrsons vho constitutc thc shi|ting
vorld in vhich vc livc. tourists, immigrants, n|ugccs, cxilcs, gucst vorkcrs,
and othcr moving groups and individuals constitutc an csscntial |catum o|
thc vorld and appcar to a||cct thc politics o| ,and bctvccn) nations to a
hithcrto unprcccdcntcd dcgrcc. Jhis is not to say that thcrc arc no rcla-
tivcly stablc communitics and nctvorks o| kinship, |ricndship, vork, and
lcisurc, as vcll as o| birth, rcsidcncc, and othcr hlial |orms. but it is to say
that thc varp o| thcsc stabilitics is cvc:\vhcrc shot through vith thc voo|
D | s ) a r c t a r t a r J D | ||t r t r c t
= 3 3 =
o| human motion, as morc pcrsons and groups dcal vith thc rcalitics o| hav-
ing to movc or thc |antasics o| vanting to movc. What is morc, both thcsc
rcalitics and |antasics nov lunction on largcr scalcs, as mcn and vomcn
|rom villagcs in |ndia think not ]ust o| moving to loona or ladras but o|
moving to Lubai and |ouston, and rc|ugccs |rom Sri Lanka hnd thcmsclvcs
in South |ndia as vcll as in Svitzcrland, ]ust as thc |mong an drivcn to
London as vcll as to lhiladclphia And as intcmational capital shi|ts its
nccds, as production and tcchnology gcncratc di ||crcnt nccds, as nation-
statcs shi|t thcir policics on rc|ugcc populations, thcsc moving groups can
ncvcr a||ord to lct thcir imaginations rcst too long, cvcn i| thcy vish to.
by trconcscapr, | mcan thc global conhguration, also cvcr |luid, o| tcchnol-
ogy and thc |act that tcchnology, both high and lov, both mcchanical and
in|ormational, nov movcs at high spccds across various kinds o| prcviously
impcrvious boundarics. lany countrics nov arc thc roots o| multinational
cntcrprisc. a hugc stccl complcx in Libya may involvc intcrcsts |rom |ndia,
China, Kussia, and )apan, providing di||crcnt componcnts o| ncv tcchno-
logical conhgurations Jhc odd distribution o| tcchnologics, and thus thc
pcculiaritics o| thcsc tcchnoscapcs, arc incrcasingly drivcn not by any obvi-
ous cconomics o| scalc, o| political control, or o| markct rationality but by
incrcasingly complcx rclationships among moncy |lovs, political possibili-
tics, and thc availability o| both un- and highly skillcd labor So, vhilc |ndia
cxports vaitcrs and chau||curs to Lubai and Shar|ah, it also cxpor|s so|t-
varc cnginccrs to thc Onitcd Statcsindcnturcd br|c|ly to Jataburroughs
or thc World bank, thcn laundcrcd through thc Statc Lcpartmcnt to bc
comc vcalthy rcsidcnt alicns, vho arc in tum ob]ccts o| scductivc mcssagcs
to invcst thcir moncy and knov-hov in |cdcral and statc pro|ccts in |ndia.
Jhc global cconomy can still bc dcscribcd in tcrms o| traditional indi-
cators ,as thc World bank continucs to do) and studicd i n tcrms o| tradi-
tional comparisons ,as i n lro|cct Link at thc Onivcrsity o| lcnnsylvania),
but thc complicatcd tcchnoscapcs ,and thc shi|ting cthnoscapcs) that un-
dcrlic thcsc i ndicators and comparisons arc lurthcr out o| thc rcach o| thc
quccn o| social scicnccs than cvcr bc|orc. |ov is onc to makc a mcaning-
|ul comparison o| vagcs in }apan and thc Onitcd Statcs or o| rcalcstatc
costs in cv York and Jokyo, vithout taking sophisticatcd account o| thc
vcry complcx hscal and invcstmcnt llovs that link thc tvo cconomics
through a global grid o| currcncy spcculation and capital trans|cr
Jhus it is usc|ul to spcak as vcll o| |nancrscaprs, as thc disposition o|
global capital is nov a moic mystcrious, rapid, and di|hcult landscapc to
|ollov than cvcr bc|orc, as currcncy markcts, national stock cxchangcs,
and commodity spcculations movc mcgamonics rhrough natrona turn-
D s , a n c t a r : a n J D )) : r : n c :
3 4 =
stilcs at blinding spccd, vith vast, absolutc implications |or sma|l di||cr-
cnccs in pcrccntagc points and timc units. but thc critical point is that thc
global rclationship among cthnoscapcs, tcchnoscapcs, and hnanccscapcs
i s dccply dis|unctivc and pro|oundly unprcdictablc bccausc cach o| thcsc
landscapcs is sub|cct to its ovn constraints and inccntivcs ,somc political,
somc in|ormational, and somc tcchnocnvironmcntal ) , at thc samc timc as
cach acts as a constraint and a paramctcr |or movcmcnts in thc othcrs.
Jhus, cvcn an clcmcntary modcl o| global political cconomy must takc
into account thc dccply dis|unctivc rclationships among human movc-
mcnt, tcchnological |lov, and hnancial trans|crs
lurthcr rc|racting thcsc dis|uncturcs ,vhich hardly |orm a simplc, mc-
chanical global in|rastructurc in any casc) arc vhat | call m:diuscuprs and
idrcscuprs, vhich arc closcly rclatcd landscapcs o| imagcs. Nrdiuscuprs rc|cr
both to thc distribution o| thc clcctronic capabilitics to producc and dis-
scminatc in|ormation ,ncvspapcrs, magazincs, tclcvision stations, and
hlm-production studios) , vhich arc nov availablc to a groving numbcr o|
privatc and public intcrcsts throughout thc vorld, and to thc imagcs o| thc
vorld crcatcd by thcsc mcdia. Jhcsc imagcs involvc many complicatcd in-
|lcctions, dcpcnding on thcir modc ,documcntary or cntcrtainmcnt), thcir
hardvarc ,clcctronic or prcclcctronic), thcir audicnccs ,local, national, or
transnational ) , and thc intcrcsts o| thosc vho ovn and control thcm
What i s most important about thcsc mcdiascapcs is that thcy providc ,cs
pccialIy i n thcir tclcvision, hlm, and casscttc |orms) largc and complcx
rcpcrtoircs o| imagcs, narrativcs, and cthnoscapcs to vicvcrs throughout
thc vorld, in vhich thc vorld o| commoditics and thc vorld o| ncvs and
politics arc pro|oundly mixcd. What this mcans is that many audicnccs
around thc vorld cxpcricncc thc mcdia thcmsclvcs as a complicatcd and
i ntcrconncctcd rcpcrtoirc o| print, cclIuloid, clcctronic scrccns, and bi|l-
boards. Jhc lincs bctvccn thc rcalistic and thc hctional landscapcs thcy
scc arc blurrcd, so that thc |arthcr avay thcsc audicnccs arc |rom thc dircct
cxpcricnccs o| mctropolitan li|c, thc morc likcly thcy arc to construct
imagincd vorlds that arc chimcrical, acsthctic, cvcn |antastic ob|ccts, par
ticularly i| asscsscd by thc critciia o| somc othcr pcrspcctivc, somc othcr
imagincd vorld
lcdiascapcs, vhcthcr produccd by privatc or statc intcrcsts, tcnd to bc
imagc-ccntcrcd, narrativcbascd accounts o| strips o| rcality, and vhat
thcy o||cr to thosc vho cxpcricncc and trans|orm thcm is a scrics o| clc
mcnts ,such as charactcrs, plots, and tcxtual |orms) out o| vhich scripts
can bc |ormcd o| imagincd livcs, thcir ovn as vclI as thosc o| othcrs living
in othcr placcs. Jhcsc scripts can and do gct disaggrcgatcd into complcx
D s ) a n c t a r : a n J D | )) : r : n c :
3 5 =
scts o| mctaphors by vhich pcoplc livc , Lako|| and )ohnson I 980) as thcy
hclp to constitutc narrativcs o| thc Cthcr and proto narrativcs o| possiblc
livcs, |antasics that could bccomc prolcgomcna to thc dcsirc |or acquisi-
tion and movcmcnt.
dro:capr: arc also concatcnations o| imagcs, but thcy arc o|tcn dircctly
political and |rcqucntly havc to do vith thc idcologics o| statcs and thc
countcridcologics o| movcmcnts cxplicitly oricntcd to capturing statc
povcr or a piccc o| it. Jhcsc idcoscapcs arc composcd o| clcmcnts o| thc
Lnlightcnmcnt vorldvicv, vhich consists o| a chain o| idcas, tcrms, and
imagcs, including jrrrdom, urgarr, riof:, :ovrrrinf}, rrprr:rnfafion, and thc mas-
tcr tcrm drmocrac. Jhc mastcr narrativc o| thc Lnlightcnmcnt ,and its
many variants in britain, rancc, and thc Onitcd Statcs) vas constructcd
vith a ccrtain intcrnal logic and prcsupposcd a ccrtain rclationship bc-
tvccn rcading, rcprcscntation, and thc public sphcrc. ,or thc dynamics o|
this proccss i n thc carly history o| thc Onitcd Statcs, scc Warncr I 990. )
but thc diaspora o| thcsc tcrms and imagcs across thc vorld, cspccially
sincc thc ninctccnth ccntury, has looscncd thc intcrnal cohcrcncc that
hcld thcm togcthcr in a Luro-Amcrican mastcr narrativc and providcd in-
stcad a looscly structurcd synopticon o| politics, i n vhich di||crcnt nation-
statcs, as part o| thcir cvolution, havc organizcd thcir political culturcs
around di||crcnt kcyvords ,c. g. , Williams I 976).
As a rcsult o| thc di||crcntial diaspora o| thcsc kcyvords, thc political
narrativcs that govcrn communication bctvccn clitcs and |ollovcrs in di|-
|crcnt parts o| thc vorld involvc problcms o| both a scmantic and prag-
matic naturc. scmantic to thc cxtcnt that vords ,and thcir lcxical cquiva-
lcnts) rcquirc carc|ul translation |rom contcxt to contcxt in thcir global
movcmcnts, and pragmatic to thc cxtcnt that thc usc o| thcsc vords by
political actors and thcir audicnccs may bc sub]cct to vcry di||crcnt scts o|
contcxtual convcntions that mcdiatc thcir translation into public politics.
Such convcntions arc not only mattcrs o| thc naturc o| political rhctoric.
|or cxamplc, vhat docs thc aging Chincsc lcadcrship mcan vhcn it rc|crs to
thc dangcrs o| hooliganism What docs thc South Korcan lcadcrship mcan
vhcn it spcaks o| disciplinc as thc kcy to dcmocratic i ndustrial grovth
Jhcsc convcntions also involvc thc |ar morc subtlc qucstion o| vhat
scts o| communicativc gcnrcs arc valucd in vhat vay ,ncvspapcrs vcrsus
cincma, |or cxamplc) and vhat sorts o| pragmatic gcnrc convcntions gov-
crn thc collcctivc rcadings o| di||crcnt kinds o| tcxt. So, vhilc an ndian
audicncc may bc attcntivc to thc rcsonanccs o| a political spccch in tcrms
o| somc kcyvords and phrascs rcminisccnt o| |indi cincma, a Korcan au-
dicncc may rcspond to thc subtlc codings o| buddhist or nco-Con|ucian
D i s ) r c t r t a r J D | ]]t r t r c t
= 3 p =
rhctoric cncodcd in a political documcnt. Jhc vcry rclationship o| rcading
to hcaring and sccing may vary i n important vays that dctcrminc thc mor-
phology o| thcsc di||crcnt i dcoscapcs as thcy shapc thcmsclvcs in di||crcnt
national and transnational contcxts. Jhis globally variablc synacsthcsia
has hardly cvcn bccn notcd, but it dcmands urgcnt analysis. Jhus drmocmc
has clcarly bccomc a mastcr tcrm, vith povcr|ul cchocs |rom |aiti and
loland to thc |ormcr Sovict Onion and China, but it sits at thc ccntcr o| a
varicty o| idcoscapcs, composcd o| distinctivc pragmatic conhgurations o|
rough translations o| othcr ccntral tcrms |rom thc vocabulary o| thc Ln-
lightcnmcnt. Jhis crcatcs cvcr ncv tcrminological kalcidoscopcs, as statcs
,and thc groups that scck to capturc thcm) scck to paci|y populations
vhosc ovn cthnoscapcs arc in motion and vhosc mcdiascapcs may crcatc
scvcrc problcms |or thc i dcoscapcs vith vhich thcy arc prcscntcd. Jhc
|luidity o| i dcoscapcs is complicatcd in particular by thc groving diasporas
,both voluntary and involuntary) o| intcllcctuals vho continuously in]cct
ncv mcaning-strcams into thc discoursc o| dcmocracy in di||crcnt parts o|
thc vorld.
Jhis cxtcndcd tcrminological discussion o| thc hvc tcrms l havc coincd
scts thc basis |or a tcntativc |ormulation about thc conditions undcr vhich
currcnt global |lovs occur. thcy occur in and through thc groving dis-
]uncturcs among cthnoscapcs, tcchnoscapcs, hnanccscapcs, mcdiascapcs,
and idcoscapcs. Jhis |ormulation, thc corc o| my modcl o| global cultural
|lov, nccds somc cxplanation. lirst, pcoplc, machinc;, moncy, imagcs,
and idcas nov |ollov incrcasingly non isomorphic paths, o| coursc, at all
pcriods in human history, thcrc havc bccn somc dis]uncturcs i n thc |lovs
o| thcsc things, but thc shccr spccd, scalc, and volumc o| cach o| thcsc
|lovs arc nov so grcat that thc dis]uncturcs havc bccomc ccntral to thc
politics o| global culturc. Jhc )apancsc arc notoriously hospitablc to idcas
and arc stcrcotypcd as inclincd to cxport ,all) and import ,somc) goods,
but thcy arc also notoriously closcd to immigration, likc thc Sviss, thc
Svcdcs, and thc Saudis. Yct thc Sviss and thc Saudis acccpt populations o|
gucst vorkcrs, thus crcating labor diasporas o| Jurks, ltalians, and othcr
circum-lcditcrrancan groups. Somc such gucst-vorkcr groups maintain
continuous contact vith thcir homc nations, likc thc Jurks, but othcrs, likc
high- lcvcl South Asian migrants, tcnd to dcsirc livcs in thcir ncv homcs,
raising ancv thc problcm o| rcproduction in a dctcrritorializcd contcxt.
Lctcrritorialization, i n gcncral, is onc o| thc ccntral |orccs o| thc mod-
crn vorld bccausc it brings laboring populations into thc lovcr-class scc-
tors and spaccs o| rclativcly vcalthy socictics, vhilc somctimcs crcating
cxaggcratcd and intcnsihcd scnscs o| criticism or attachmcnt to politics in
D i s ; r c t r t a r J D i ]] t r t r c t
37 =
thc homc statc. Lctcrritorialization, vhcthcr o| |indus, Sikhs, lalcstini -
ans, or Okrainians, is nov at thc corc o| a varicty o| global |undamcn-
talisms, including |slamic and |indu |undamcntalism | n thc |indu casc,
|or cxamplc, it is clcar that thc ovcrscas movcmcnt o| |ndians has bccn cx-
ploitcd by a varicty o| intcrcsts both vthin and outsidc | ndia to crcatc a
complicatcd nctvork o| hnanccs and rcligious idcntihcations, by vhich
thc problcm o| cultural rcproduction |or |i ndus abroad has bccomc ticd
to thc politics o| |indu |undamcntalism at homc.
At thc samc timc, dctcrritorialization crcatcs ncv markcts |or hlm com-
panics, art imprcsarios, and travcl agcncics, vhich thrivc on thc nccd o|
thc dctcrritorializcd population |oi contact vith its homcland. aturally,
thcsc invcntcd homclands, vhich consti tutc thc mcdiascapcs o| dctcrrito
rializcd groups, can o|tcn bccomc su|hcicntly |antastic and oncsidcd that
thcy providc thc matcrial |or ncv idcoscapcs in vhich cthnic con|licts can
bcgin to crupt. Jhc crcation o| Khalistan, an invcntcd homcland o| thc dc-
tcrritorializcd Sikh population o| Lngland, Canada, and thc Onitcd Statcs,
is onc cxamplc o| thc bloody potcntial in such mcdiascapcs as thcy intcr-
act vith thc intcrnal colonialisms o| thc nationstatc ,c. g. , |cchtcr I 975).
Jhc Wcst bank, amibia, and Lritrca arc othcr thcatcrs |or thc cnactmcnt
o| thc bloody ncgotiation bctvccn cxisting nation-statcs and various dc-
tcrritorializcd groupings.
| t is in thc |crtilc ground o| dctcrritorialization, i n vhich moncy, com-
moditics, and pcrsons arc involvcd in ccasclcssly chasing cach othcr
around thc vorld, that thc mcdiascapcs and i dcoscapcs o| thc modcrn
vorld hnd thcir |racturcd and |ragmcntcd countcrpart lor thc i dcas and
imagcs produccd by mass mcdia o|tcn arc only partial guidcs to thc goods
and cxpcricnccs that dctcrritorializcd populations trans|cr to onc anothcr.
|n lira airs brilliant hlm ndiu Cuburrt, vc scc thc multiplc loops o| this
|racturcd dctcrritorialization as young vomcn, barcly compctcnt in bom
bays mctropoltan glitz, comc to scck thcir |ortuncs as cabarct danccrs and
prostitutcs i n bombay, cntcrtaining mcn in clubs vith dancc |ormats dc-
rivcd vholly |rom thc pruricnt dancc scqucnccs o| |indi hlms. Jhcsc
sccncs in turn catcr to idcas about Wcstcrn and |orcign vomcn and thcir
looscncss, vhilc thcy providc tavdry carccr alibis |or thcsc vomcn. Somc
o| thcsc vomcn comc |rom Kcrala, vhcrc cabarct clubs and thc porno-
graphic hlm industry havc blossomcd, partly in rcsponsc to thc purscs and
tastcs o| Kcralitcs rcturncd |rom thc liddlc Last, vhcrc thcir diasporic
livcs avay |rom vomcn distort thcir vcry scnsc o| vhat thc rclations bc-
tvccn mcn and vomcn might bc. Jhcsc tragcdics o| displaccmcnt could
ccrtainly bc rcplaycd in a morc dctailcd analysis o| thc rclations bctvccn
D | s ) a n c t a t : o n J D | )) : t : n c :
3 8 =
thc )apancsc and Ccrman scx tours to Jhaland and thc tragcdcs o| thc
scx tradc n bangkok, and n othcr smlar loops that tc togcthcr |antascs
about thc Cthcr, thc convcncnccs and scductons o| travcl, thc cconom-
cs o| global tradc, and thc brutal moblty |antascs that domnatc gcndcr
poltcs n many parts o| Asa and thc vorld at largc.
Whilc |ar morc could bc sad about thc cul tural poltcs o| dcIcrr toral-
zaton and thc largcr socology o| dsplaccmcnt that t cxprcsscs, t s ap-
propratc at ths |uncturc to brng n thc rolc o| thc natonstatc n thc ds
]unctvc global cconomy o| culturc today Jhc rclatonshp bctvccn statcs
and natons s cvcryvhcrc an cmbattlcd onc. |t s possblc to say that n
many socctcs thc naton and thc statc havc bccomc onc anothcrs pro-
]ccts. Jhat s, vhlc natons ,or morc propcrly groups vth dcas about
natonhood) scck to capturc or co-opt statcs and statc povcr, statcs smul-
tancously scck to capturc and monopolzc dcas about natonhood , baruah
I 986, Chattcr]cc I 986, andy I 989a). |n gcncral , scparatst transnatonal
movcmcnts, ncludng thosc that havc ncludcd tcrror n thcr mcthods,
cxcmpl|y natons n scarch o| statcs. Skhs, Jaml Sr Lankans, basqucs,
loros, [ucbccos~cach o| thcsc rcprcscnts magncd communtcs that
scck to crcatc statcs o| thcr ovn or carvc pcccs out o| cxstng statcs.
Statcs, on thc othcr hand, arc cvcryvhcrc scckng to monopolzc thc
moral rcsourccs o| communty, cthcr by |latly clamng pcr|cct cocvalty
bctvccn naton and statc, or by systcmatcally muscumzng and rcprc-
scntng all thc groups vthn thcm n a varcty o| hcrtagc poltcs that
sccms rcmarkably un |orm throughout thc vorld ,|andlcr I 988, |crz|cld
I 982, lc[uccn I 988) .
|crc, natonal and ntcrnatonal mcdascapcs arc cxplotcd by naton-
statcs to pac|y scparatsts or cvcn thc potcntal hssparous ncss o| all dcas
o| d||crcncc. Jypcally, contcmporary naton-statcs do ths by cxcrcsng
taxonomc control ovcr d||crcncc, by crcatng varous knds o| ntcrna-
tonal spcctaclc to domcstcatc d||crcncc, and by scducng small groups
vth thc |antasy o| scl| dsplay on somc sort o| global or cosmopoltan
stagc. Cnc mportant ncv |caturc o| global cultural poltcs, tcd to thc
ds|unctvc rclatonshps among thc varous landscapcs dscusscd carlcr, s
that statc and naton arc at cach othcrs throats, and thc hyphcn that lnks
thcm s nov lcss an con o| con|uncturc than an ndcx o| ds|uncturc. Jhs
ds|unctvc rclatonshp bctvccn naton and statc has tvo lcvcls. at thc
lcvcl o| any gvcn natonstatc, t mcans that thcrc s a battlc o| thc mag-
naton, vth statc and naton scckng to cannbalzc onc anothcr. |crc s
thc sccdbcd o| brutal scparatsmsma|ortaransms that sccm to havc ap-
pcarcd |rom novhcrc and mcrodcnttcs that havc bccomc poltcal pro
D s ) n c t t : o n J D : r : n c :
3
]ccts vithn thc nation-statc. At anothcr lcvcl, ths dis|unctivc rclationship
s dccply cntanglcd vith thc global ds|uncturcs dscusscd throughout this
chaptcr. idcas o| natonhood appcar to bc stcadly incrcasng n scalc and
rcgularly crossing cxsting statc boundarcs, somctmcs, as vth thc Kurds,
bccausc prcvous idcnttcs strctchcd across vast natonal spaccs or, as vith
thc Jamls in Sr Lanka, thc dormant thrcads o| a transnatonal daspora
havc bccn actvatcd to ignitc thc mcropoltics o| a naton-statc.
ln dscussing thc cultural politics that havc subvcrtcd thc hyphcn that
lnks thc naton to thc statc, t s cspccally mportant not to |orgct thc
mooring o| such poltcs n thc irrcgulartcs that nov charactcrizc disorga-
nzcd captal , Kothari I 989c, Lash and Orry I 987). bccausc labor, hnancc,
and tcchnology arc nov so vidcly scparatcd, thc volatltcs that undcrlic
movcmcnts |or natonhood ,as largc as transnatonal lslam on thc onc hand,
or as small as thc movcmcnt o| thc Curkhas |or a scparatc statc in orthcast
lnda) grind against thc vulncrablitcs that charactcrzc thc rclatonshps
bctvccn statcs. Statcs hnd thcmsclvcs prcsscd to stay opcn by thc |orccs o|
mcdia, tcchnology, and travcl that havc |uclcd consumcrsm throughout
thc vorld and havc incrcascd thc crav ng, cvcn n thc nonWcstcrn vorld,
|or ncv commodtics and spcctaclcs. Cn thc othcr hand, thcsc vcry crav-
ngs can bccomc caught up in ncv cthnoscapcs, mcdiascapcs, and, cvcntu-
ally, idcoscapcs, such as dcmocracy n China, that thc statc cannot tolcratc
as thrcats to ts ovn control ovci dcas o| natonhood and pcoplchood.
Statcs throughout thc vorld arc undcr scgc, cspccially vhcrc contcsts ovcr
thc dcoscapcs o| dcmocracy arc hcrcc and lundamcntal, and vhcrc thcrc
arc radcal dis]uncturcs bctvccn dcoscapcs and tcchnoscapcs ,as n thc
casc o| vcry small countrcs that lack contcmporary tcchnologcs o| pro-
duction and in|ormation) , or bctvccn dcoscapcs and hnanccscapcs ,as in
countrcs such as lcxco or brazil, vhcrc ntcrnatonal lcndng inllucnccs
natonal poltcs to a vcry largc dcgrcc) , or bctvccn dcoscapcs and
cthnoscapcs ,as n bcrut, vhcrc diasporc, local, and translocal hlations arc
sucdally at battlc), or bctvccn dcoscapcs and mcdascapcs ,as n many
countrics n thc liddlc Last and Asa) vhcrc thc l|cstylcs rcprcscntcd on
both national and ntcrnatonal JV and cncma complctcly ovcrvhclm and
undcrminc thc rhctoric o| natonal politcs. ln thc lndan casc, thc myth o|
thc lav-brcak ng hcro has cmcrgcd to mcdiatc this nakcd strugglc bctvccn
thc pctcs and rcalitcs o| lndan politcs, vhch has grovn ncrcasngly
brutalizcd and corrupt ,Vachani I 989).
Jhc transnational movcmcnt o| thc martal arts, partcularly through
Asa, as mcdiatcd by thc |ollyvood and |ong Kong hlm ndustrics
,Zarll I 995) s a rch illustraton o| thc vays in vhich long-standng mar-
D | s ) u r c t u r t a r J D | |) t t t r c t
= 4@ =
tial arts traditions, rc|ormulatcd to mcct thc |antasics o| contcmporary
,somctimcs lumpcn) youth populations, crcatc ncv culturcs o| mascul inity
and violcncc, vhich arc in turn thc |ucl |or incrcascd vio|cncc in nationa|
and intcrnational politics. Such violcncc is in turn thc spur to an incrcas-
ingly rapid and amoral arms tradc that pcnctratcs thc cntirc vorld. Jhc
vorldvidc sprcad o| thc AK-47 and thc Ozi, in hlms, in corporatc and
statc sccurity, in tcrror, and in policc and military activity, i s a rcmindcr
that apparcntly simplc tcchnical uni |ormitics o|tcn conccal an incrcasingly
complcx sct o| loops, linking imagcs o| violcncc to aspirations |or commu-
nity in somc imagincd vorld.
Kcturning thcn to thc cthnoscapcs vith vhich l bcgan, thc ccntral
paradox o| cthnic politics in todays vorld is that primordia ,vhcthcr o|
languagc or skin color or ncighborhood or kinship) havc bccomc global-
izcd. Jhat is, scntimcnts, vhosc grcatcst |orcc is in thcir ability to ignitc
intimacy into a political statc and turn locality into a staging ground |or
idcntity, havc bccomc sprcad ovcr vast and irrcgular spaccs as groups
movc yct stay linkcd to onc anothcr through sophisticatcd mcdia capabil-
itics. Jhis is not to dcny that such primordia arc o|tcn thc product o| in-
vcntcd traditions , |obsbavm and Kangcr I 983) or rctrospcctivc a|hlia-
tions, but to cmphasizc that bccausc o| thc dis]unctivc and unstablc
i ntcrplay o| commcrcc, mcdia, national policics, and consumcr |antasics,
cthnicity, oncc a gcnic containcd in thc bottlc o| somc sort o| locality
, hovcvcr largc) , has nov bccomc a global |orcc, |orcvcr slipping in and
through thc cracks bctvccn statcs and bordcrs.
but thc rclationship bctvccn thc cultural and cconomic lcvcls o| this
ncv sct o| global dis]uncturcs is not a simplc onc-vay strcct in vhich thc
tcrms o| global cultural politics arc sct vholly by, or conhncd vholly
vithin, thc vicissitudcs o| intcrnational |lovs o| tcchnology, labor, and h-
nancc, dcmanding only a modcst modihcation o| cxisting nco-larxist
modcls o| uncvcn dcvclopmcnt and statc |ormation. Jhcrc is a dccpcr
changc, itscl| drivcn by thc dis]uncturcs among all thc landscapcs l havc
discusscd and constitutcd by thcir continuously |luid and unccrtain intcr-
play, that conccrns thc rclationship bctvccn production and consumption
in todays global cconomy. |crc, l bcgin vith larxs |amous ,and o|tcn
mincd) vicv o| thc |ctishism o| thc commodity and suggcst that this
|ctishism has bccn rcplaccd in thc vorld at largc ,nov sccing thc vorld as
onc largc, intcractivc systcm, composcd o| many complcx subsystcms) by
tvo mutually supportivc dcsccndants, thc hrst o| vhich l call production
|ctishism and thc sccond, thc |ctishism o| thc consumcr.
by production [rf|:o|:m l mcan an illusion crcatcd by contcmporary trans-
D | s ) a r c t a r t a r J D | ||t r t r c t
= 4 I =
national producton loci that masks translocal capital, transnational carn-
ing Hovs, global managcmcnt, and o|tcn |aravay vorkcrs ,cngagcd n var-
ous kinds o| high- tcch putting-out opcrations) in thc idiom and spcctaclc
o| local ,somctimcs cvcn vorkcr) control, national productvity, and tcrr-
torial sovcrcgnty Jo thc cxtcnt that varous kinds o| |rcc-tradc zoncs
havc bccomc thc modcls |or production at largc, cspccially o| hightcch
commodtcs, producton has tscl| bccomc a |ctsh, obscuring not socal
rclations as such but thc rclations o| production, vhich arc ncrcasngly
transnational. Jhc localty ,both n thc scnsc o| thc local |actory or sitc o|
production and n thc cxtcndcd scnsc o| thc nationstatc) bccomcs a |ctsh
that disguiscs thc globally dspcrscd |orccs that aclually drvc thc produc-
ton proccss. Jhis gcncratcs alcnaton ,in larxs scnsc) tvcc ntcnsihcd,
|or its social scnsc s nov compoundcd by a complcatcd spatial dynamic
that is incrcasingly global.
As |or thc jrfisoism cj tor ccnsumrr, | mcan to indicatc hcrc that thc con-
sumcr has bccn trans|ormcd through commodty |lovs ,and thc mcda-
scapcs, cspccally o| advcrtisng, that accompany thcm) into a sgn, both
n baudrllards scnsc o| a smulacrum that only asymptotcally approachcs
thc |orm o| a rcal socal agcnt, and in thc scnsc o| a mask |or thc rcal scat
o| agcncy, vhich s not thc consumcr but thc produccr and thc many
|orccs that constitutc producti on. Clobal advcrtsng is thc kcy tcchnol
ogy |or thc vorldvdc disscminaton o| a plcthora o| crcativc and cultur-
ally vcll-choscn idcas o| consumcr agcncy. Jhcsc imagcs o| agcncy arc n-
crcasingly dstortions o| a vorld o| mcrchandising so subtlc that thc
consumcr s consstcnlly hclpcd to bcl i cvc that hc or shc s an actor, vhcrc
n |act hc or shc s at bcst a chooscr
Jhc globalzaton o| culturc is not thc samc as ts homogcnzaton, but
globalzaton involvcs thc usc o| a varcty o| instrumcnts o| homogcnizaton
,armamcnts, advcrtisng tcchniqucs, languagc hcgcmonics, and clothing
stylcs) that arc absorbcd nto local poltical and cultural cconomcs, only to
bc rcpatriatcd as hctcrogcncous dalogucs o| natonal sovcrcgnty, |rcc cn-
tcrprisc, and |undamcntalism in vhch thc statc plays an i ncrcasngly dcli-
catc rolc. too much opcnncss to global |lovs, and thc nation-statc is thrcat
cncd by rcvolt, as n thc China syndromc, too littlc, and thc statc cxits thc
intcrnational stagc, as burma, Albania, and orth Korca i n various vays
havc donc. ln gcncral, thc statc has bccomc thc arbtragcur o| this rrpatriaticn
cj d('jrrrncr ,in thc |orm o| goods, signs, slogans, and stylcs) . but this rcpatri-
aton or cxport o| thc dcsgns and commodtcs o| di||crcncc contnuously
cxaccrbatcs thc ntcrnal politics o| ma|oritarianism and homogcnization,
vhch is most |rcqucntly playcd out n dcbatcs ovcr hcritagc.
D | s ) n c t t : o n J D i : t : n c :
42
=
Jhus thc ccntral |caturc o| global culturc today is thc politics o| thc
mutual c||ort o| samcncss and di ||crcncc to cannibalizc onc anothcr and
thcrcby proclaim thcir succcss|ul hi]acking o| thc tvin Lnlightcnmcnt
idcas o| thc triumphantly univcrsal and thc rcsilicntly particular. Jhis
mutual cannibalization shovs its ugly |acc i n riots, rc|ugcc |lovs, statc-
sponsorcd torturc, and cthnocidc ,vith or vithout statc support). lts
brightcr sidc is i n thc cxpansion o| many individual horizons o| hopc and
|antasy, i n thc global sprcad o| oral rchydration thcrapy and othcr lov-
tcch instrumcnts o| vcll-bcing, i n thc susccptibility cvcn o| South A|rica
to thc |orcc o| global opinion, in thc inability o| thc lolish statc to rcprcss
its ovn vorking classcs, and in thc grovth o| a vidc rangc o| progrcssivc,
transnational allianccs. Lxamplcs o| both sorts could bc multiplicd. Jhc
critical point is that both sidcs o| thc coin o| global cultural proccss today
arc products o| thc inhnitcly varicd mutual contcst o| samcncss and di||cr-
cncc on a stagc charactcrizcd by radical dis|uncturcs bctvccn di||crcnt
sorts o| global |lovs and thc unccrtain landscapcs crcatcd in and through
thcsc dis]uncturcs.
!o: wet| e] R:jteJactier ir ar Aq: e] M:coarical Att
l havc i nvcrtcd thc kcy tcrms o| thc titlc o| Waltcr bcn]amins |amous cssay
, I 969) to rcturn this rathcr high- ||ying discussion to a morc managcablc
lcvcl. Jhcrc is a classic human problcm that vill not disappcar hovcvcr
much global cultural proccsscs might changc thcir dynamics, and this is
thc problcm today typically discusscd undcr thc rubric o| rcproduction
,and traditionally rc|crrcd to in tcrms o| thc transmission o| culturc) . ln ci-
thcr casc, thc qucstion is, hov do small groups, cspccially |amilics, thc
classical loci o| socialization, dcal vith thcsc ncv global rcalitics as thcy
scck to rcproducc thcmsc|vcs and, in so doing, by accidcnt rcproducc cul-
tural |orms thcmsclvcs | n traditional anthropological tcrms, this could bc
phrascd as thc problcm o| cnculturation i n a pcriod o| rapid culturc
changc. So thc problcm is hardly novcl. but it docs takc on somc novcl di-
mcnsions undcr thc global conditions discusscd so |ar in this chaptcr.
lirst, thc sort o| transgcncrational stability o| knovlcdgc that vas prc-
supposcd in most thcorics o| cnculturation ,or, in slightly broadcr tcrms,
o| socialization) can no longcr bc assumcd. As |amilics movc to ncv loca-
tions, or as childrcn movc bc|orc oldcr gcncrations, or as grovn sons and
daughtcrs rcturn |rom timc spcnt in strangc parts o| thc vorld, |amily rcla-
tionships can bccomc volatilc, ncv commodity pattcrns arc ncgotiatcd,
dcbts and obligations arc rccalibratcd, and rumors and |antasics about thc
D | s ) a r c t a t a r J D | ]] t r t r c t
>
4 3
>
ncv scttng arc mancuvcrcd nto cxstng rcpcrtorcs o| knovlcdgc and
practcc. C|tcn, global labor dasporas nvolvc mmcnsc strans on mar-
ragcs n gcncral and on vomcn n partcular, as marragcs bccomc thc
mcctng ponts o| hstorcal pattcrns o| socalzaton and ncv dcas o|
propcr bchavor. Ccncratons casly dvdc, as dcas about propcrty, pro
prcty, and collcctvc oblgaton vthcr undcr thc scgc o| dstancc and
tmc. lost mportant, thc vork o| cultural rcproducton n ncv scttngs s
pro|oundly complcatcd by thc poltcs o| rcprcscntng a |amly as normal
, partcularly |oi thc young) to ncghbors and pccrs n thc ncv localc All
ths s, o| coursc, not ncv to thc cultural study o| mmgraton.
What s ncv s that ths s a vorld n vhch both ponts o| dcparturc
and ponts o| arrval arc n cul tural |lux, and thus thc scarch |or stcady
ponts o| rc|crcncc, as crtcal l |c choccs arc madc, can bc vcry d|hcult. | t
i s n ths atmosphcrc that thc nvcnton o| tradton , and o| cthncty, kn-
shp, and othcr dcntty markcrs) can bccomc slppcry, as thc scarch |or
ccrtantcs s rcgularly |rustratcd by thc |lu dtcs o| transnational commu
ncaton. As group pasts bccomc ncrcasngly parts o| muscums, cxhbts,
and collcctons, both n natonal and transnatonal spcctaclcs, culturc bc
comcs lcss vhat lcrrc bourdcu vould havc callcd a habtus , a tact rcalm
o| rcproducblc practccs and dspostons) and morc an arcna |or con-
scous chocc, |usthcaton, and rcprcscntaton, thc lattcr o|tcn to multplc
and spatally dslocatcd audcnccs.
Jhc task o| cultural rcproducton, cvcn n ts most ntmatc arcnas, such
as husbandv|c and parcntchld rclatons, bccomcs both poltczcd and
cxposcd to thc traumas o| dctcrrtoralzaton as |amly mcmbcrs pool and
ncgotatc thcr mutual undcrstandngs and aspratons n somctmcs |rac-
turcd spatal arrangcmcnts. At largcr lcvcls, such as communty, ncghbor
hood, and tcrrtory, ths politczaton s o|tcn thc cmotonal |ucl |or morc
cxplctly volcnt poltcs o| dcntty, |ust as thcsc largcr poltcs somctmcs
pcnctratc and gntc domcstc poltcs. Whcn, |or cxamplc, tvo o||sprng
n a houschold splt vth thcr |athcr on a kcy mattcr o| poltcal dcnth-
caton n a transnatonal scttng, prccxstng localzcd norms carry lttlc
|orcc Jhus a son vho has |oncd thc |czbollah group n Lcbanon may no
longcr gct along vth parcnts or sblngs vho arc a|hlatcd vth Amal or
somc othcr branch o| Sh cthnc poltcal dcntty n Lcbanon. Womcn n
partcular bcar thc brunt o| ths sort o| |rcton, |or thcy bccomc pavns n
thc hcrtagc poltcs o| thc houschold and arc o|tcn sub|cct to thc abusc
and volcncc o| mcn vho arc thcmsclvcs torn about thc rclaton bctvccn
hcrtagc and opportunty n sh|tng spatal and poltcal |ormatons.
Jhc pans o| cultural rcproducton n a ds|unctvc global vorld arc, o|
D | s ) n c t r : o n J D i )]: r : n c :
44 =
coursc, not cascd by thc c||ccts o| mcchancal art ,or mass mcda), |or
thcsc mcda a||ord povcr|ul rcsourccs |or countcrnodcs o| dcntity that
youth can pro|cct against parcntal vishcs or dcsircs. At largcr lcvcls o| or
ganization, thcrc can bc many |orms o| cultural poltics vithn dsplaccd
populatons ,vhcthcr o| rc|ugccs or o| voluntary immigrants) , all o| vhch
arc in|lcctcd n important vays by mcdia ,and thc mcdiascapcs and
dcoscapcs thcy o||cr) . A ccntral link bctvccn thc |ragiltics o| cultural rc-
producton and thc rolc o| thc mass mcdia in todays vorld is thc politics
o| gcndcr and volcncc. As |antasics o| gcndcrcd volcncc domnatc thc b
gradc hlm industrcs that blankct thc vorld, thcy both rc|lcct and rchnc
gcndcrcd violcncc at homc and n thc strccts, as young mcn ,n particular)
arc svaycd by thc macho poltics o| scl| asscrton n contcxts vhcrc thcy
arc |rcqucntly dcnicd rcal agcncy, and vomcn arc |orccd to cntcr thc labor
|orcc in ncv vays on thc onc hand, and continuc thc mantcnancc o| |a
milal hcrtagc on thc othcr Jhus thc honor o| vomcn bccomcs not ]ust
an armaturc o| stablc ,i| nhuman) systcms o| cultural rcproduction but a
ncv arcna |or thc |ormation o| scxual idcntty and |amly poltcs, as mcn
and vomcn |acc ncv prcssurcs at vork and ncv |antasics o| lcisurc.
bccausc both vork and lc|surc havc lost nonc o| thcir gcndcrcd qual-
tics n ths ncv global ordcr but havc acqurcd cvcr subtlcr |ctishzcd rcp-
rcscntations, thc honor o| vomcn bccomcs ncrcasingly a surrogatc |or thc
dcntity o| cmbattlcd communtcs o| malcs, vhlc thcr vomcn n rcality
havc to ncgotiatc ncrcasngly harsh condtons o| vork at homc and n
thc nondomcstc vorkplacc. |n short, dctcrrtorializcd communtcs and
dsplaccd populatons, hovcvcr much thcy may cn|oy thc |ruts o| ncv
knds o| carning and ncv dispostons o| captal and tcchnology, havc to
play out thc dcsircs and |antascs o| thcsc ncv cthnoscapcs, vhilc striving
to rcproducc thc |amily-asmicrocosm o| culturc. As thc shapcs o| culturcs
grov lcss boundcd and tacit, morc llud and politiczcd, thc vork o| cul
tural rcproducton bccomcs a daly hazard. |ar morc could, and should, bc
said about thc vork o| rcproduction n an agc o| mcchanical art. thc prc-
ccdng discussion is mcant to ndcatc thc contours o| thc problcms that a
ncv, globally in|ormcd thcory o| cultural rcproduction vill havc to |acc.
Soaj: arJ Pac:ss ir Clalal Caltaal aatiars
Jhc dclbcratons o| thc argumcnts that l havc madc so |ar constitutc thc
barc boncs o| an approach to a gcncral thcory o| global cultural proccsscs.
|ocusing on dis|uncturcs, l havc cmploycd a sct o| tcrms rtoncscupr, |-
nuncrscupr, trconcscupr, mrdius cupr, and idrcscupr) to strcss d||crcnt strcams or
D s ) n c t r : o J D ) : r : n c :
45 =
llovs along vhch cultural matcral may bc sccn to bc movng across na-
tional boundarcs l havc also sought to cxcmpl|y thc vays n vhch thcsc
varous |lovs ,or landscapcs, |rom thc stablzng pcrspcctvcs o| any gvcn
magncd vorld) arc n |undamcntal ds|uncturc vth rcspcct to onc an-
othcr What |urthcr stcps can vc takc tovard a gcncral thcory o| global
cultural proccsscs bascd on thcsc proposals
Jhc hrst s to notc that our vcry modcls o| cultural shapc vll havc to
altcr, as conhguratons o| pcoplc, placc, and hcrtagc losc all scmblancc o|
somorphsm. Kcccnt vork n anthropology has donc much to |rcc us o|
thc shacklcs o| hghly localzcd, boundary-orcntcd, holstc, prmordalst
magcs o| cultural |orm and substancc , |anncrz I 989, larcus and lschcr
I 986, Jhornton I 988) . but not vcry much has bccn put n thcr placc, cx-
ccpt somcvhat largcr | lcss mcchancal vcrsons o| thcsc magcs, as n Lrc
Wol|s vork on thc rclatonshp o| Luropc to thc rcst o| thc vorld , I 982) .
What | vould lkc to proposc s that vc bcgn to thnk o| thc conhguraton
o| cultural |orms n todays vorld as |undamcntally |ractal, that s, as pos-
scssng no Lucldcan boundarcs, structurcs, or rcgulartcs. Sccond, l
vould suggcst that thcsc cultural |orms, vhch vc should strvc to rcprc-
scnt as |ully |ractal, arc also ovcrlappng n vays that havc bccn dscusscd
only n purc mathcmatcs ,n sct thcory, |or cxamplc) and n bology ,n
thc languagc o| polythctc class hcatons). Jhus vc nccd to combnc a
|ractal mctaphor |or thc shapc o| culturcs , n thc plural) vth a poly thc tc
account o| thcr ovcrlaps and rcscmblanccs. Wthout ths lattcr stcp, vc
shall rcman mrcd n comparatvc vork that rclcs on thc clcar scparaton
o| thc cnttcs to bc comparcd bc|orc scrous comparson can bcgn. |ov
arc vc to comparc |ractally shapcd cultural |orms that arc also polythct-
cally ovcrlappng n thcr covcragc o| tcrrcstral spacc
lnally, n ordcr |or thc thcory o| global cultural ntcractons prcdcatcd
on ds]unctvc llovs to havc any |orcc grcatcr than that o| a mcchancal
mctaphor, t vll havc to movc nto somcthng lkc a human vcrson o| thc
thcory that somc sccntsts arc callng chaos thcory. Jhat s, vc vll nccd
to ask not hov thcsc complcx, ovcrl appng, |ractal shapcs consttutc a sm-
plc, stablc ,cvcn | largc-scalc) systcm, but to ask vhat ts dynamcs arc.
Why do cthnc rots occur vhcn and vhcrc thcy do Why do statcs vthcr
at grcatcr ratcs n somc placcs and tmcs than n othcrs Why do somc
countrcs llout convcntons o| ntcrnatonal dcbt rcpaymcnt vth so much
lcss apparcnt vorry than othcrs |ov arc ntcrnatonal arms Novs drvng
cthnc battlcs and gcnocdcs Why arc somc statcs cxtng thc global stagc
vhlc othcrs arc clamorng to gct n Why do kcy cvcnts occur at a ccrtan
pont n a ccrtan placc rathcr than n othcrs Jhcsc arc, o| coursc, thc
D | s ) a r c t a r t a r J D | )) : r t r c t
^ 46 =
grcat tradtonal qucstons o| causalty, contngcncy, and prcdcton n thc
human sccnccs, but n a vorld o| ds|unctvc global |lovs, t s pcrhaps m-
portant to start askng thcm n a vay that rclcs on magcs o| |lov and un-
ccrtanty, hcncc coac:, rathcr than on oldcr magcs o| ordcr, stablty, and
systcmatcncss. Cthcrvsc, vc vll havc gonc |ar tovard a thcory o| global
cultural systcms but throvn out proccss n thc bargan. And that vould
makc thcsc notcs part o| a |ourncy tovard thc knd o| lluson o| ordcr that
vc can no longcr a||ord to mposc on a vorld that s so transparcntly
volatlc.
Whatcvcr thc drcctons n vhch vc can push thcsc macromctaphors
, |ractals, polythctc classhcatons, and chaos) , vc nccd to ask onc othcr
old-|ashoncd qucston out o| thc larxst paradgm. s thcrc somc prc-
gvcn ordcr to thc rclatvc dctc.rmnng |orcc o| thcsc global |lovs bc-
causc l havc postulatcd thc dynamcs o| global cultural systcms as drvcn
by thc rclatonshps among Novs o| pcrsons, tcchnologcs, hnancc, n|or-
maton, and dcology, can vc spcak o| somc structural - causal ordcr lnkng
thcsc |lovs by analogy to thc rolc o| thc cconomc ordcr n onc vcrson o|
thc larxst paradgm Can vc spcak o| somc o| thcsc Novs as bcng, |or a
pror structural or hstorcal rcasons, alvays pror to and |ormatvc o|
othcr |lovs ly ovn hypothcss, vhch can only bc tcntatvc at ths pont,
s that thc rclatonshp o| thcsc varous |lovs to onc anothcr as thcy con-
stcllatc nto partcular cvcnts and socal |orms vll bc radcally contcxt-
dcpcndcnt. Jhus, vhlc labor |lovs and thcr loops vth hnancal |lovs
bctvccn Kcrala and thc lddlc Last may account |or thc shapc o| mcda
|lovs and dcoscapcs n Kcrala, thc rcvcrsc may bc truc o| Slcon Vallcy n
Cal |orna, vhcrc ntcnsc spccalzaton n a snglc tcchnologcal scctor
,computcrs) and partcular |lovs o| captal may vcll pro|oundly dctcrmnc
thc shapc that cthnoscapcs, dcoscapcs, and mcdascapcs may takc.
Jhs docs not mcan that thc causal -hstorcal rclatonshp among thcsc
varous |lovs s random or mcannglcssly contngcnt but that our currcnt
thcorcs o| cultural chaos arc nsu|hccntly dcvclopcd to bc cvcn parsmo-
nous modcls at ths pont, much lcss to bc prcdctvc thcorcs, thc goldcn
Nccccs o| onc knd o| socal sccncc. What l havc sought to provdc n ths
chaptcr s a rcasonably cconom

al tcchncal vocabulary and a rudmcn-

tary modcl o| ds]unctvc Novs, |rom vhch somcthng lkc a dcccnt global
analyss mght cmcrgc. Wthout somc such analyss, t vll bc d|hcult to
construct vhat }ohn |nkson calls a socal thcory o| postmodcrnty that
s adcquatcly global , I 990, 84) .
D | s ) a n c t a t : a n J D | ]] t t t n c t
= 47 =
3
L008 blh0SC86S. N0l6S 8d wu6||6S 0f 8
1|8S8l|08 Alh|000gy
l n chaptcr 2, l usc thc tcrm rtoncscapr. Jhs ncologsm has ccrtain ambigu-
tcs dclibcratcly bult nto it lt rc|crs, hrst, to thc dlcmmas o| pcrspcctvc
and rcprcscntaton that all cthnographcrs must con|ront, and t admts that
,as vith landscapcs in vsual art) traditions o| pcrccpton and pcrspcctvc,
as vcll as variatons n thc stuation o| thc obscrvcr, may a||cct thc proccss
and product o| rcprcscntaton. but l also intcnd this tcrm to ndicatc that
thcrc arc somc brutc |acts about thc vorld o| thc tvcntcth ccntury that
any cthnography must con|ront. Ccntral among thcsc |acts s thc chang-
ng social, tcrrtoral, and cultural rcproducton o| group dcntity. As
groups mgratc, rcgroup n ncv locatons, rcconstruct thcr historics, and
rcconhgurc thcr cthnic pro|ccts, thc rtbnc n cthnography takcs on a slip-
pcry, nonlocalzcd qualty, to vhich thc dcscriptivc practiccs o| anthro-
pology vill havc to rcspond. Jhc landscapcs o| group dcntitythc
cthnoscapcsaround thc vorld arc no longcr |amilar anthropological
ob|ccts, nso|ar as groups arc no longcr tghtly tcrritoralizcd, spatally
boundcd, hstorcally unscl|conscous, or culturally homogcncous. Wc
havc |cvcr culturcs in thc vorld and morc ntcrnal cultural dcbatcs , larkin
I 978) ' ln this chaptcr, through a scrcs o| notcs, qucrics, and vgncttcs, l
scck to rcposton somc o| our dscpli nary convcntions, vhilc tryng to
shov that thc cthnoscapcs o| todays vorld arc pro|oundly i ntcractivc.
48 =
Alt:trat|o: MeJ:tr|t|:s arJ Ltoreqtajo|c Cesejel|tar|s
A ccntral challcngc |or currcnt anthropology s to study thc cosmopoltan
,Kabnov I 986) cultural |orms o| thc contcmporary vorld vthout log-
cally or chronologcally prcsupposng cthcr thc authorty o| thc Wcstcrn
cxpcrcncc or thc modcls dcrvcd |rom that cxpcrcncc. lt sccms mposs-
blc to study thcsc ncv cosmopoltan sms |rut|ully vthout analyzng thc
transnatonal cultural |lovs vthn vhch thcy thrvc, compctc, and |ccd
o|| onc anothcr n vays that dc|cat and con|ound many vcrtcs o| thc
human sccnccs today. Cnc such truth conccrns thc lnk bctvccn spacc,
stablty, and cultural rcproducton. Jhcrc s an urgcnt nccd to |ocus on
thc cultural dynamcs o| vhat s nov callcd dctcrrtoralzaton. Jhs tcrm
applcs not only to obvous cxamplcs such as transnatonal corporatons
and moncy markcts but also to cthnc groups, scctaran movcmcnts, and
poltcal |ormatons, vhch ncrcasngly opcratc n vays that transccnd
spcchc tcrrtoral boundarcs and dcnttcs. Lctcrrtoralzaton ,o| vhch
l o||cr somc cthnographc prohlcs n chap 2) a||ccts thc loyaltcs o|
groups ,cspccally n thc contcxt o| complcx dasporas), thcr transna-
tonal manpulaton o| currcnccs and othcr |orms o| vcalth and nvcst-
mcnt, and thc stratcgcs o| statcs. Jhc looscnng o| thc holds bctvccn
pcoplc, vcalth, and tcrrtorcs lundamcntally altcrs thc bass o| cultural
rcproducton.
At thc samc tmc, dctcrrtoralzaton crcatcs ncv markcts |or hlm com-
pancs, mprcsaros, and travcl agcnccs, vhch thrvc on thc nccd o| thc
rclocatcd populaton |or contact vth ts homcland. but thc homcland s
partly nvcntcd, cxstng only n thc magnaton o| thc dctcrrtoralzcd
groups, and t can somctmcs bccomc so |antastc and onc-sdcd that t
provdcs thc |ucl |or ncv cthnc con|lcts.
Jhc dca o| dctcrrtoralzaton may also bc applcd to moncy and h-
nancc, as moncy managcrs scck thc bcst markcts |or thcr nvcstmcnts, n-
dcpcndcnt o| natonal boundarcs. l n turn, thcsc movcmcnts o| moncys arc
thc bass |or ncv knds o| conNct, as Los Angclcnos vorry about thc
)apancsc buyng up thcr cty, and pcoplc n bombay vorry about thc rch
Arabs |rom thc Cul| statcs, vho havc not only trans|ormcd thc prcc o|
mangocs n bombay but havc also substantally altcrcd thc prohlc o| ho-
tcls, rcstaurants, and othcr scrccs n thc cycs o| thc local populaton-
|ust as thcy havc n London Yct most rcsdcnts o| bombay arc ambvalcnt
about thc Arabs thcrc, |or thc llp sdc o| thcr prcscncc s thc abscnt
|rcnds and kns|olk carnng bg moncy n thc lddlc Last and brngng
back both moncy and luxury commodtcs to bombay and othcr ctcs n
C l o I a l F t o r o s c a j t s
49 =
lnda. Such commodlcs lrans|orm consumcr laslc n lhcsc clcs. Jhcy
o|lcn cnd up smugglcd lhrough ar- and scaporls and pcddlcd n lhc gray
markcls o| bombays slrccls. ln lhcsc gray markcls ,a conagc lhal allovs
mc lo caplurc lhc quaslcgal characlcrslc o| such scllngs), somc mcm-
bcrs o| bombays m ddlc classcs and ls lumpcn prolclaral can buy goods,
rangng |rom carlons o| larlboro cgarcllcs lo Cld Spcc shavng crcam
and lapcs o| ladonna. Smlar gray roulcs, o|lcn subsdzcd by moon-
lghlng salors, dplomals, and arlnc slcvardcsscs, vho gcl lo movc n
and oul o| lhc counlry rcgularly, kccp lhc gray markcls o| bombay,
ladras, and Calculla hllcd vlh goods nol only |rom lhc Wcsl, bul also
|rom lhc lddlc Lasl, |ong Kong, and Sngaporc. ll s also such pro|cs-
sonal lranscnls vho arc ncrcasngly mplcalcd n lhc lransnalonal
sprcad o| dscasc, nol lhc lcasl o| vhch s AIIb.
Jhc vson o| lransnalonal cullural sludcs suggcslcd by lhc dscusson
so |ar appcars al hrsl sghl lo nvolvc only modcsl ad]uslmcnls o| anlhro-
pologsls lradlonal approachcs lo cullurc. ln my vcv, hovcvcr, a gcn-
uncly cosmopollan clhnographc praclcc rcqurcs an nlcrprclalon o|
lhc lcrran o| cullural sludcs n lhc Onlcd Slalcs loday and o| lhc slalus
o| anlhropology vlhn such a lcrran '
Caltaal StaJi:s ir a Clalal !:air
As lhs volumc conccrns anlhropologcs o| lhc prcscnl, l may bc mpor-
lanl lo ask aboul lhc slalus o| anlhropology n lhc prcscnl and n parlcu
lar aboul ls nov cmballlcd monopoly ovcr lhc sludy o| cullurc , |rom
nov on, vthoul quolalon marks) . Jhc |ollovng dscusson scls lhc slagc
|or lhc crlquc o| clhnography conlancd n subscqucnl scclons.
As a lopc, cullurc has many hslorcs, somc dscplnary, somc lhal
|unclon oulsdc lhc acadcmy. Wlhn lhc acadcmy, lhcrc arc ccrlan d|
|crcnccs bclvccn dscplncs n lhc dcgrcc lo vhch cullurc has bccn an
cxplcl lopc o| nvcslgalon and lhc dcgrcc lo vhch l has bccn undcr-
slood taclly l n lhc socal sccnccs, anlhropology ,cspccally n lhc Onlcd
Slalcs bul lcss so n Lngland) has madc cullurc ls ccnlral conccpl, dchnng
l as somc sorl o| human subslancccvcn lhough dcas aboul lhs sub-
slancc havc sh|lcd, ovcr lhc coursc o| a ccnlury, roughly |rom L. b. Jylors
dcas aboul cuslom lo Cl ||ord Cccrlzs dcas aboul mcanng. Somc an-
lhropologsls havc vorrcd lhal lhc mcanngs gvcn lo cu|turr havc bccn |ar
loo dvcrsc |or a lcchncal lcrm, olhcrs havc madc a vrluc o| lhal dvcrsly.
Al lhc samc lmc, lhc olhcr socal sccnccs havc nol bccn unconccrncd
vlh cullurc. n socology, lax Wcbcrs scnsc o| u:rt:orn and Ccorgc Sm-
C | e | o | F t l n c s c o j : s
^
50
=
mcls varous dcas havc mcdatcd bctvccn thc Ccrman nco-Kantan dcas
o| thc latc n nctccnth ccntury and socology as a socal sccncc dscplnc.
As n many othcr cascs, culturc s nov a subhcld vthn socology, and thc
Amcrcan Socologcal Assocaton has lcgtmzcd ths scgrcgaton by
crcatng a subunt n thc socology o| culturc, vhcrc pcrsons conccrncd
vth thc producton and dstrbuton o| culturc, cspccally n Wcstcrn sct-
tngs, may |rccly assocatc vth onc anothcr
At thc cpccntcr o| currcnt dcbatcs n and about culturc, many dvcrsc
strcams |lov nto a snglc, rathcr turbulcnt rvcr o| many poststructural sms
,largcly lrcnch) o| )acqucs Lacan, )acqucs Lcrrda, lchcl loucault,
lcrrc bourdcu, and thcr many subschools. Somc o| thcsc strcams arc
scl|-conscous about languagc as thcr mcans and thcr modcl, vhlc othcrs
arc lcss so Jhc currcnt multplcty o| uscs that surrounds thc thrcc vords
mranin, di:coursr, and trxt should bc su|hccnt to ndcatc that vc arc not
only n an cra o| blurrcd gcnrcs ,as Cccrtz I 980} sad prcsccntly morc
than a dccadc ago) , but vc arc n a pccular statc that l vould lkc to call
"postblurrng, n vhch ccumcnsm has~happly, n my opnon~gvcn
vay to sharp dcbatcs about thc vord, thc vorld, and thc rclatonshp bc-
tvccn thcm.
l n ths postblur blur, t s crucal to notc that thc hgh ground has bccn
sczcd by Lnglsh l tcraturc ,as a dscplnc) n partcular and by ltcrary
studcs n gcncral . Jhs s thc ncxus vhcrc thc vord toro, a rathcr prosac
tcrm n many hclds |or many ccnturcs, suddcnly took on thc scxy rng o|
a trcnd. lor an anthropologst n thc Ontcd Statcs today, vhat s most
strkng about thc past dccadc n thc acadcmy s thc h|ack o| culturc by
l tcrary studcs~although vc no longcr havc a oncsdcd Arnoldan gazc,
but a many-sdcd h|ack ,vhcrc a hundrcd blooms |lovcr) vth many n-
tcrnal dcbatcs about tcxts and ant tcxts, rc|crcncc and structurc, thcory
and practcc. Socal sccntsts look on vth bcvldcrmcnt as thcr col-
lcagucs n Lnglsh and comparatvc ltcraturc talk ,and hght) about mattcrs
that, untl as rcccntly as h|tccn ycars ago, vould havc sccmcd about as rcl-
cvant to Lnglsh dcpartmcnts as, say, quantum mcchancs.
Jhc sub|cct mattcr o| cultural studcs could roughly bc takcn as thc rc
latonshp bctvccn thc vord and thc vorld. l undcrstand thcsc tvo tcrms
n thcr vdcst scnsc, so that uord can cncompass all |orms o| tcxtual zcd
cxprcsson and uor|d can mcan anythng |rom thc mcans o| producton and
thc organzaton o| l|c-vorlds to thc global zcd rclatons o| cultural rc
producton dscusscd hcrc.
Cultural studcs conccvcd ths vay could bc thc bass |or a cosmopol-
tan ,global macro translocal) cthnography. Jo translatc thc tcnson bc-
C | c | o | | l n e s c o j : s
= 5 ( =
tvccn thc vord and thc vorld into a productvc cthnographc stratcgy rc-
qurcs a ncv undcrstandng o| thc dctcrrtoralzcd vorld that many pcrsons
nhabt and thc possblc l vcs that many pcrsons arc today ablc to cnvson.
Jhc tcrms o| thc ncgotaton bctvccn magncd lvcs and dctcrrtoralzcd
vorlds arc complcx, and thcy surcly cannot bc capturcd by thc localzng
stratcgcs o| tradtonal cthnography alonc. What a ncv stylc o| cthnogra-
phy can do s to capturc thc mpact o| dctcrrtoralzaton on thc magna-
tvc rcsourccs o| lvcd, local cxpcrcnccs lut anothcr vay, thc task o|
cthnography nov bccomcs thc unravclng o| a conundrum. vhat s thc na-
turc o| localty as a lvcd cxpcrcncc n a globalzcd, dc tcrrtoralzcd vorld
As l vll suggcst n thc ncxt sccton, thc bcgnnngs o| an ansvcr to ths
puzzlc lc n a |rcsh approach to thc rolc o| thc magnaton n socal li|c.
Jhc mastcr narratvcs that currcntly gudc much cthnography all havc
Lnl ghtcnmcnt roots, and all havc bccn callcd nto scrous qucston lou-
caults scarng crtquc o| Wcstcrn humansm and its hddcn cpstcmolo-
gcs has madc t d|hcult to rctan much |ath n thc dca o| progrcss n ts
many old and ncv man|cstatons. Jhc mastcr narratvc o| cvoluton, ccn-
tral to anthropology n thc Ontcd Statcs, su||crs |rom a pro|ound gap bc
tvccn ts short-run, culturally orcntcd vcrsons ,as n thc vork o| larvn
|arrs) and ts long-run, morc appcalng, but lcss anthropologcal vcrsons
as n thc bogcologcal |ablcs o| Stcphcn )ay Could. Jhc cmcrgcncc o| thc
ndvdual as a mastcr narratvc su||crs not only |rom thc countcrcxamplcs
o| our ma]or tvcntcth-ccntury totaltaran cxpcrcnccs but also |rom thc
many dcconstructons o| thc dca o| scl|, pcrson, and agcncy n phloso-
phy, socology, and anthropology ,larht I 986, Cddcns I 979, Carrthcrs,
Collns, and Lukcs I 985) . lastcr narratvcs o| thc ron cagc and thc march
o| burcaucratc ratonalty arc constantly rc|utcd by thc rratonaltcs,
contradctons, and shccr brutalty that arc ncrcasngly traccablc to thc
pathologcs o| thc modcrn naton-statc ,andy I 987) . lnally, most vcr-
sons o| thc larxst mastcr narratvc hnd thcmsclvcs cmbattlcd as contcm-
porary captalsm takcs on a morc and morc dsorganzcd and dctcrrtor-
alzcd look , Lash and Orry I 987) and as cultural cxprcssons rc|usc to
bcnd to thc rcqurcmcnts o| cvcn thc lcast parochal larxst approachcs.
,lor cxamplc, scc thc dcbatc bctvccn lrcdcrc )amcson and A]az Ahmad
n ociul rx| _ }amcson I 986, Ahmad I 987| )
Cosmopoltan cthnography, or vhat mght bc callcd macrocthnogra-
phy, takcs on a spccal urgcncy gvcn thc almcnts o| thcsc many post-
Lnlghtcnmcnt mastcr narratvcs. lt s d|hcult to bc anythng but cxplora-
tory about vhat such a macrocthnography ,and ts cthnoscapcs) mght look
|kc, but thc |ollovng sccton sccks by llustrat on to pont to ts contours.
C | c | o | t b o s c o j : s
= 52 =
!aqirat|er arJ Ltoreqajo
Wc livc in a vorld o| many kinds o| rcalism, somc magical, somc socialist,
somc capitalist, and somc that arc yct to bc namcd. Jhcsc gcncric rcalisms
havc thcir provinccs o| origi n. magical rcalism i n Latin Amcrican hction in
thc past tvo dccadcs, socialist rcalism in thc Sovict Onion o| thc I 930s,
and capitalist rcalism, a tcrm coincd by lichacl Schudson , I 984), in thc
visual and vcrbal rhctoric o| contcmporary Amcrican advcrtising. ln much
acsthctic cxprcssion today, thc boundarics bctvccn thcsc various rcalisms
havc bccn blurrcd. Jhc controvcrsics ovcr Salman Kushdics r utunic
\rr:r:, ovcr thc Kobcrt lapplcthorpc photographic cxhibition in Cincin-
nati, and ovcr many othcr vorks o| art i n othcr parts o| thc vorld rcmind
us that artists arc incrcasingly villing to placc high stakcs on thcir scnsc o|
thc boundarics bctvccn thcir art and thc poltics o| public opinion.
lorc conscqucntial to our purposcs is thc |act that thc imagination has
nov acquircd a singular ncv povcr in social l i |c. Jhc imagination~cx-
prcsscd in drcams, songs, |antasics, myths, and storics~has alvays bccn
part o| thc rcpcrtoirc o| cvcry socicty, in somc culturally organizcd vay.
but thcrc is a pcculiar ncv |orcc to thc imagination in social li|c today.
lorc pcrsons in morc parts o| thc vorld considcr a vidcr sct o| possiblc
livcs than thcy cvcr did bc|orc. Cnc important sourcc o| this changc is thc
mass mcdia, vhich prcscnt a rich, cvcr-changing storc o| possiblc livcs,
somc o| vhich cntcr thc livcd imaginations o| ordinary pcoplc morc suc-
ccss|ully than othcrs. l mportant also arc contacts vith, ncvs o|, and ru-
mors about othcrs i n oncs social ncighborhood vho havc bccomc inhabi-
tants o| thcsc |aravay vorlds. Jhc importancc o| mcdia is not so much as
dircct sourccs o| ncv magcs and sccnarios |or li|c possibilitics but as scmi-
otic diacritics o| grcat povcr, vhich also in|lcct social contact vith thc
mctropolitan vorld |acilitatcd by othcr channcls.
Cnc o| thc principal shi|ts in thc global cultural ordcr, crcatcd by
cincma, tclcvision, and vidco tcchnology ,and thc vays in vhich thcy
|ramc and cncrgizc othcr, oldcr mcdia), has to do vith thc rolc o| thc
imagination in social li|c. Ontil rcccntly, vhatcvcr thc |orcc o| social
changc, a casc could bc madc that social li|c vas largcly incrtial, that tra-
ditlons providcd a rclativcly hnitc sct o| possiblc livcs, and that |antasy
and imagination vcrc rcsidual practiccs, conhncd to spccial pcrsons or do-
mains, rcstrictcd to spccial momcnts or placcs. l n gcncral, imagination and
|antasy vcrc antidotcs to thc hnitudc o| social cxpcricncc. ln thc past
tvo dccadcs, as thc dctcrritorialization o| pcrsons, imagcs, and idcas has
takcn on ncv |orcc, ths vcight has impcrccptibly shi|tcd. lorc pcrsons
C | e l a | F t | n e s c a j : s
= 5 3 =
throughout thc vorld scc thcir lvcs through thc prisms o| thc possblc
livcs o||crcd by mass mcdia n all thcr |orms Jhat s, |antasy s nov a so-
cial practicc, i t cntcrs, n a host o| vays, nto thc |abrcation o| socal lvcs
|or many pcoplc i n many socctics
l should bc quck to notc that ths s not a chccr|ul obscrvation, n-
tcndcd to mply that thc vorld s nov a happcr placc vth morc choccs
,n thc utiltarian scnsc) |or morc pcoplc, and vth morc moblty and
morc happy cndings. | nstcad, vhat s mplcd s that cvcn thc mcancst and
most hopclcss o| lvcs, thc most brutal and dchumanzing o| crcum-
stanccs, thc harshcst o| lvcd ncqualtcs arc nov opcn to thc play o| thc
imagnaton lrisoncrs o| consccncc, chld laborcrs, vomcn vho tol n
thc hclds and |actorcs o| thc vorld, and othcrs vhosc lot s harsh no
longcr scc thcir lvcs as mcrc outcomcs o| thc gvcn ncss o| thngs, but
o|tcn as thc ronc compromsc bctvccn vhat thcy could magnc and
vhat socal l i |c vll pcrmit. Jhus, thc bographics o| ordinary pcoplc arc
constructions ,or |abrcatons) n vhch thc magnaton plays an mpor-
tant rolc. or s ths rolc a simplc mattcr o| cscapc ,holdng stcady thc
convcntions that govcrn thc rcst o| socal l|c), |or n thc grinding o| gcars
bctvccn un|oldng lvcs and thcir magincd countcrparts a varcty o| imag
ncd communitics ,Andcrson I 983) s |ormcd, communtics that gcncratc
ncv kinds o| poltcs, ncv knds o| collcctivc cxprcssion, and ncv nccds
|or socal dsciplnc and survcillancc on thc part o| clitcs
All ths has many contcxts and mpl icatons that cannot bc pursucd
hcrc. but vhat docs it mply |or cthnography lt mplcs that cthnogra-
phcrs can no longcr smply bc contcnt vth thc thckncss thcy brng to thc
local and thc partcular, nor can thcy assumc that as thcy approach thc
local, thcy approach somcthng morc clcmcntary, morc contingcnt, and
thus morc rcal than l|c sccn n largcrscalc pcrspcctvcs lor vhat s rcal
about ordnary lvcs s nov rcal n many vays that rangc |rom thc shccr
contngcncy o| indivdual lvcs and thc vagarcs o| compctcncc and talcnt
that dstnguish pcrsons n all socictcs to thc rcalisms that ndviduals arc
cxposcd to and drav on n thcir daily lvcs.
Jhcsc complcx, partly magncd lvcs must nov |orm thc bcdrock o|
cthnography, at lcast o| thc sort o| cthnography that vshcs to rctain a
spccal voicc n a transnatonal, dctcrrtorialzcd vorld lor thc ncv povcr
o| thc magnaton n thc |abrcaton o| socal lvcs is ncscapably tcd up
vith magcs, dcas, and opportunitcs that comc |rom clscvhcrc, o|tcn
movcd around by thc vchclcs o| mass mcdia. Jhus, standard cultural rc-
production , lkc standard Lnglsh) s nov an cndangcrcd actvty that suc-
cccds only by conscous dcsgn and politcal vill, vhcrc i t succccds at all .
C | c l o | F t | e s c o j t s
5 4 =
lndccd, vhcrc insulation |rom thc largcr vorld sccms to havc bccn suc-
ccss|ul and vhcrc thc rolc o| thc global imagination is vithhcld |rom ordi-
nary pcoplc ,in placcs likc Albania, orth Korca, and burma), vhat sccms
to appcar instcad is a bizarrc statc-sponsorcd rcalism, vhich alvays con-
tains vithin it thc possibility o| thc gcnocidal and totalizing lunacics o| a
lol lot or o| long-rcprcsscd dcsircs |or critiquc or cxit, as arc cmcrging i n
Albania and lyanmar ,burma) .
Jhc issuc, thcrc|orc, is not hov cthnographic vriting can drav on a
vidcr rangc o| litcrary modcls, modcls that too o|tcn clidc thc distinction
bctvccn thc li|c o| hction and thc hctionalization o| livcs, but hov thc rolc
o| thc imagination in social li|c can bc dcscribcd in a ncv sort o| cthnog-
raphy that is not so rcsolutcly localizing. Jhcrc is, o| coursc, much to bc
said |or thc local, thc particular, and thc contingcnt, vhich havc alvays
bccn thc |ortc o| cthnographic vriting at its bcst. but vhcrc livcs arc bcing
imagincd partly in and through rcalisms that must bc i n onc vay or an-
othcr o|hcial or largc-scalc in thcir inspiration, thcn thc cthnographcr
nccds to hnd ncv vays to rcprcscnt thc links bctvccn thc imagination and
social li|c. Jhis problcm o| rcprcscntation is not quitc thc samc as thc |a-
miliar problcm o| micro and macro, small and largc scalc, although it has
important conncctions to it. Jhc conncction bctvccn thc problcm o|
cthnographically rcprcscnting imagincd livcs and thc di|hculty o| making
thc movc |rom local rcalitics to largc-scalc structurcs is implicit in Shcrry
Crtncrs articlc Kcading Amcrica , I 99 I ) . Jakcn togcthcr, Crtncrs argu-
mcnt and minc point to thc importancc o| cmbcdding largc-scalc rcalitics
in concrctc li|cvorlds, but thcy also opcn up thc possibility o| divcrgcnt
intcrprctations o| vhat loculit implics.
Jhc link bctvccn thc imagination and social li|c, l vould suggcst, is in-
crcasingly a global and dctcrritorializcd onc. Jhus, thosc vho rcprcscnt
rcal or ordinary livcs must rcsist making claims to cpistcmic privilcgc in rc-
gard to thc livcd particularitics o| social li|c. Kathcr, cthnography must
rcdchnc itscl| as that practicc o| rcprcscntation that illuminatcs thc povcr
o| largc-scalc, imagincd li|c possibilitics ovcr spccihc li|c tra]cctorics. Jhis
is thickncss vith a di||crcncc, and thc di||crcncc lics in a ncv alcrtncss to
thc |act that ordinary livcs today arc morc o|tcn povcrcd not by thc
givcnncss o| things but by thc possibilitics that thc mcdia ,cithcr dircctly
or indircctly) suggcst arc availablc. lut anothcr vay, somc o| thc |orcc o|
bourdicus idca o| thc habitus can bc rctaincd , I 977), but thc strcss must bc
put on his idca o| improvisation, |or improvisation no longcr occurs vithin
a rclativcly boundcd sct o| thinkablc posturcs but is alvays skidding and
taking o||, povcrcd by thc imagincd vistas o| mass-mcdiatcd mastcr narra-
C | o I a | t b r o s c a j t s
= 55 =
tivcs. Jhcrc has bccn a gcncral changc in thc global conditions o| li|c-
vorlds put simply, vhcrc oncc improvisation vas snatchcd out o| thc
glacial undcrtov o| habitus, habitus nov has to bc painstakingly rcin-
|orccd in thc |acc o| li|c-vorlds that arc |rcqucntly in hux.
Jhrcc cxamplcs vill suggcst somcthing o| vhat l havc in mind. ln )an
uary I 988, my vi|c ,vho is a vhitc Amcrican |cmalc historian o| l ndia)
and l ,a Jamil brahman malc, brought up in bombay and turncd into oomo
ucudrmicu: in thc Onitcd Statcs), along vith our son, thrcc mcmbcrs o| my
cldcst brothcrs |amily, and an cntouragc o| his collcagucs and cmployccs,
dccidcd to visit thc lccnaksi Jcmplc in ladurai, onc o| thc grcat pi l
grimagc ccntcrs o| South lndi a ly vi|c has donc rcscaich thcrc o|| and
on |or thc past tvo dccadcs.
Cur purposcs in going vcrc various ly brothcr and his vilc vcrc vor-
ricd about thc marriagc o| thcir cldcst daughtcr and vcrc conccrncd to
havc thc good vishcs o| as many povcr|ul dcitics as possiblc i n thcir
scarch |or a good alliancc lor my brothcr, ladurai vas a spccial placc bc-
causc hc spcnt most o| his hrst tvcnty ycars thcrc vith my mothcrs cx-
tcndcd |amily. |c thus had old |ricnds and mcmorics i n all thc strccts
around thc tcmplc. ov hc had comc to ladurai as a scnior railvay o|h-
cial , vith busincss to conduct vith scvcral privatc busincssmcn vho
vishcd to pcrsuadc him o| thc quality o| thcir bids lndccd, onc o| thcsc
potcntial clicnts had arrangcd |or us to bc accommodatcd i n a garishly
modcrn hotcl i n ladurai, a stoncs throv |rom thc tcmplc, and drovc him
around i n a lcrccdcs, vhilc thc rcst o| us took i n our ovn ladurai.
Cur clcvcn-ycar old son, |rcsh |rom lhiladclphia, kncv that hc vas i n
thc prcscncc o| thc practiccs o| hcritagc and dovc to thc ground man|ully,
in thc |indu practicc o| prostration bc|orc cldcrs and dcitics, vhcncvcr hc
vas askcd. |c put up graciously vith thc incrcdiblc noisc, crovding, and
scnsory rush that a ma|or |indu tcmplc involvcs. lor myscl|, l vas thcrc to
cmbcllish my brothcrs cntouragc, to add somc vaguc moral |orcc to thcir
vishcs |or a happy marriagc |or thcir daughtcr, to rcabsorb thc city in
vhich my mothcr grcv up ,l had bccn thcrc scvcral timcs bc|orc) , to sharc
in my vi |cs cxcitcmcnt about rcturning to a cityand a tcmplc that arc pos-
sibly thc most important parts o| hcr imagination, and to hsh |or cos-
mopolitanism i n thc rav.
So vc cntcrcd thc |ourtccn-acrc tcmplc compound as an important cn-
touragc, although onc among many, and vcrc soon approachcd by onc o|
thc scvcral pricsts vho o|hciatc thcrc. Jhis onc rccognizcd my vi|c, vho
askcd him vhcrc Jhangam bhattar vas. Jhangam bhattar vas thc pricst
vith vhom shc had vorkcd most closcly. Jhc ansvcr vas hangam bhat-
C | c | o | t l n e s c o j : s
^ 56 ~
tar is in |ouston. Jhis punch linc took us all a vhilc to absorb, and thcn
it all camc togcthcr in a |lash. Jhc lndian community in |ouston, likc
many communitics o| Asian lndians in thc Onitcd Statcs, had built a
|indu tcmplc, this onc dcvotcd to lccnaksi, thc ruling dcity in ladurai.
Jhangam bhattar had bccn pcrsuadcd to go thcrc, lcaving his |amily bc-
hind. |c lcads a loncly li|c in |ouston, assisting in thc complcx cultural
politics o| rcproduction in an ovcrscas lndian community, prcsumably
carning a modcst incomc, vhilc his vi|c and childrcn stay on in thcir small
homc ncar thc tcmplc. Jhc ncxt morning my vi|c and niccc visitcd
Jhangam bhattars homc, vhcrc thcy vcrc told o| his travails in |ouston,
and thcy told thc |amily vhat had gonc on vith us i n thc intcrvcning
ycars Jhcrc is a transnational irony hcrc, o| coursc. Carol brcckcnridgc,
Amcrican historian, arrivcs in ladurai vaiting vith batcd brcath to scc
hcr closcst in|ormant and |ricnd, a pricst, and discovcrs that hc is in |ar-
avay |ouston, vhich is |ar avay cvcn |rom |aravay lhiladclphia
but this transnational irony has many thrcads that unvind backvard
and |orvard in timc to largc and lluid structurcs o| mcaning and communi-
cation. Among thcsc thrcads arc my brothcrs hopcs |or his daughtcr, vho
subscqucntly marricd a lh1. candidatc in physical chcmistry in an up
statc cv York univcrsity and rcccntly camc to Syracusc hcrscl|, my vi|cs
rccontcxtual izing o| hcr ladurai cxpcricnccs in a vorld that, at lcast |or
somc o| its ccntral actors, nov includcs |ouston, and my ovn rcalization
that ladurais historical cosmopolitanism has acquircd a ncv global di -
mcnsion and that somc kcy livcs that constitutc thc hcart o| thc tcmplcs
ritual practiccs nov havc |ouston in thcir imagincd biographics. Lach o|
thcsc thrcads could and should bc unvound Jhcy lcad to an undcrstand-
ing o| thc globalization o| |i nduism, thc trans|ormation o| nativcs into
cosmopolitcs o| thcir ovn sort, and thc |act that thc tcmplc nov not only
attracts pcrsons |rom all ovcr thc vorld but also itscl| rcachcs out. Jhc
goddcss lccnaksi has a living prcscncc in |ouston.
lcanvhilc, our son nov has in his rcpcrtoirc o| cxpcricnccs a ] ourncy
o| thc ccts varicty. |c may rcmcmbcr this as hc |abricatcs his ovn li|c as
an Amcrican o| partly lndian dcsccnt. but hc may rcmcmbcr morc vividly
his suddcn nccd to go to thc bathroom vhilc vc vcrc going |rom sanctum
to sanctum in a visit to anothcr ma]or tcmplc in )anuary I 989 and thc
bathroom at thc gucsthousc o| a charitablc |oundation in vhich hc |ound
bl iss|ul rclcasc. but hcrc, too, is an unhnishcd story, vhich involvcs thc dy-
namics o| |amily, mcmory, and tourism, |or an clcvcn-ycar old hyphcnatcd
Amcrican vho has to go pcriodically to lndia, vhcthcr hc likcs it or not,
and cncountcr thc many vcbs o| shi |ting biography that hc hnds thcrc
C l e l a l t l n e s c a j : s
5 7 ~
Jhis account, likc thc oncs that |ollov, nccds not only to bc thickcncd but
to bc stirrcd, but it must scrvc |or nov as onc glimpsc o| an cthnography
that |ocuscs on thc unyoking o| imagination |rom placc.
ly sccond vigncttc comcs |rom a collcction o| picccs o| onc kind o|
magical rcalism, a book by )ulio Cortazar callcd A Crrtu|n ucus , I 984) . bc-
causc thcrc has bccn much borroving o| litcrary modcls and mctaphors i n
rcccnt anthropology but rclativcly littlc anthropology o| l itcraturc, a vord
about this choicc o| cxamplc sccms appropriatc. iction, l i kc myth, is part
o| thc conccptual rcpcrtoirc o| contcmporary socictics. Kcadcrs o| novcls
and pocms can bc movcd to intcnsc action |as vith or utunic \rrsrs o|
Salman Kushdic), and thcir authors o|tcn contributc to thc construction o|
social and moral maps |or thcir rcadcrs. Lvcn morc rclcvant to my pur-
poscs, prosc hction is thc cxcmp|ary provincc o| thc post-Kcnaissancc
imagination, and i n this rcgard it is ccntral to a morc gcncral cthnography
o| thc imagination. Lvcn small |ragmcnts o| |antasy, such as Cortazar con-
structs i n this bric| story, shov thc contcmporary imagination at vork.
lagical rcalism is intcrcsting not only as a litcrary gcnrc but also as a
rcprcscntation o| hov thc vorld appcars to somc pcoplc vho livc in it.
,or an intcrcsting commcntary on onc aspcct o| this approach to litcrary
narrativc, scc clman I 989. ) Cortazar is doubtlcss a uniquc pcrson, and
not cvcryonc imagincs thc vorld his vay, but his vision is surcly part o| thc
cvidcncc that thc globc has bcgun to spin i n ncv vays. Likc thc myths o|
small-scalc socicty as rcndcrcd in thc anthropological classics o| thc past,
contcmporary litcrary |antasics tcll us somcthing about displaccmcnt, dis-
oricntation, and agcncy in thc contcmporary vorld. ,or an cxccllcnt rc-
ccnt cxamplc o| this approach i n thc contcxt o| cultural studics, scc Kos-
aldo I 989, chap. 7. )
bccausc vc havc nov lcarncd a grcat dcal about thc vriting o| cthnog-
raphy , Cl i||ord and larcus I 986, larcus and ischcr I 986, Cccrtz
I 988) , vc arc in a strong position to movc to an anthropology o| rcprc-
scntation that vould proht immcnscly |rom our rcccnt discovcrics about
thc politics and poctics o| vriting culturc. |n this vicv, vc can rcstorc to
thc rcccnt critiqucs o| cthnographic practicc thc lcssons o| carlicr cri-
tiqucs o| anthropology as a hcl d o| practiccs opcrating vithin a largcr
vorld o| institutional policics and povcr | |ymcs I 969). Jhc Cortazar
story in qucstion, vhich is both morc light-handcd and morc hcavy-
hitting than somc othcr, largcr chunks o| magical rcalism, is callcd Svim-
ming in a lool o| Cray Crits. lt conccrns lro|cssor )osc liguclctcss
I 964 discovcry o| a svimming pool containing gray grits instcad o| vatcr.
Jhis discovcry is quickly noticcd by thc vorld o| sports, and at thc Lco-
C | e | a | F | l n e s c a j : s
^ 5 8 =
logical Camcs in baghdad thc )apancsc champion, Akiro Jashuma, brcaks
thc vorld rccord by svimming hvc mctcrs in onc mi nutc and |our scc-
onds ,Cortazar I 984, 80) . Cortazars piccc gocs on to spcak o| hov
Jashuma solvcd thc tcchnical problcm o| brcathing in this scmisolid
mcdium. Jhc prcss thcn cntcrs thc picturc, in Cortazars ovn irrcducibly
sparc vords
PsKCO bCut !hC rCsCns Why mny tntCrn!tCn th\CtCs shCW n CVCr
grCWtng prCCtVt!y Cr sWtmmtng tn grtts, shum WCuO Cny nsWCr tht
tCr sCVCr mtCnnt t! hs hny bCCn prCVCn tht !hCrC ts CCrttn mC
nCtCny tn thC C! C |umptng tntC thC WtCr nO CCmtng Cut WCt WtthCu!
nythtng hVtng ChngCO VCry muCh tn !hC spCr!. C C! t t bC unOCrstCCO
tht thC tmgtnttCn ts sCWy CCmtng tntC pCWCr nO th! tts ttmC nCW tC
ppy rCVCuttCnry Crms tC CO spCrts WhCsC Cny tnCCnttVC ts tC CWCr
rCCCrOs by rCttCns C sCCCnO, WhCn tht Cn bC OCnC, WhtCh ts quttC rrC.
C mCOCsty OCCrCO htmsC unbC tC suggCst CqutVCnt OtsCCVCrtCs Cr
sCCCCr nO !Cnnts, but hC OtO mKC n CbtquC rCCrCnCC !C nCW OCVCCp
mCnt t n spCr!s, mCnttCntng gss b tht my hVC bCCn usCO t n bsKC!
b gmC tn Pg, nO WhCsC CCtOCnt but Wys pCsstbC brCKgC
brCught Cn thC Ct C hr-Ktrt by thC WhCC tCm WhCsC ut t! Ws. LVCry
thtng Cn bC CXpCCtCO C tppCnCsC CuturC, CspCCty t t! sC!s Cut tC tmt
!tC !hC wCXtCn. but !C tmtt CursCVCs tC thC `Cs! nO tC grtts, !hts st
t!Cm hs bCgun tC OCmnO htghCr prtCCs, tC thC prttCur OClght C CCun
trtCs th! prCOuCC tt, C thCm t n thC htrO `CrO. hC OCth by sphyX
tttCn C sCVCn Puslrtn ChtOrCn WhC !rtCO !C prCltCC nCy OtVCs tn !hC
nCW pCC tn \nbCrr OCmCnstrtCs, hCWCVCr, thC tmttttCns C thts tn!Cr
Csttng prCOuCt, !hC usC C WhtCh shCuO nC! bC CrrtCO tCC r WhCn m
tCurs rC tnVCVCO. | d2-dJ)
ov thi s is a vcry |unny parablc, and it could bc rcad at many lcvcls,
|rom many points o| vicv or my purposcs, l notc hrst that i t is vrittcn by
an Argcntinc, born in brusscls, vho livcd in laris |rom I 952 until his dcath
in I 984. Jhc link bctvccn magical rcalism and thc scl|-imposcd cxilc in
laris o| many o| its hncst voiccs dcscrvcs |urthcr cxploration, but vhat clsc
docs this vigncttc havc to o||cr |or thc study o| thc ncv cthnoscapcs o| thc
contcmporary vorld Jhc story is partly about a crazy invcntion that cap-
turcs thc |aravay imagination o| Jashuma, a pcrson vho bclicvcs that thc
imagination is slovly coming into povcr. lt is also about thc transnational
]ourncy o| idcas that may bcgin as play|ul mcditations and cnd up as
bizarrc tcchnical rcalitics that can rcsult i n dcath. |crc, onc is |orccd to
think about thc tra|cctory o| or utunic \rrsrs, vhich bcgan as a satiric
C l o I o | F t o r o s c o p t s
= 59 =
mcditation on good, cvil, and lslam, and cndcd up a vcapon in group vio-
lcncc in many parts o| thc vorld.
Jhc vigncttc is also about thc intcrnationalization o| sport and thc spir-
itual cxhaustion that comcs |rom tcchnical obscssion vith small di||cr-
cnccs in pcr|ormancc. Li ||crcnt actors can bring thcir imaginations to bcar
on thc problcm o| sport in various vays Jhc Clympic Camcs o| thc past
arc |ull o| incidcnts that rcvcal complcx vays in vhich individuals situatcd
vithin spccihc national and cultural tra|cctorics imposcd thcir imagina-
tions on global audicnccs. | n Scoul in I 988, |or instancc, thc dc|catcd Ko-
rcan boxcr vho sat i n thc ring |or scvcral hours to publicly proclaim his
shamc as a Korcan and thc Korcan o|hcials vho svarmcd into thc ring to
assault a cv Zcaland rc|crcc |or vhat thcy thought vas a biascd dccision
vcrc bringing thcir imagincd livcs to bcar on thc o|hcial Clympic narra
tivcs o| |air play, good sportsmanship, and clcan compctition Jhc vholc
qucstion o| stcroids, including thc casc o| Canadian runncr bcn )ohnson
,scc lacAloon I 990), is also not |ar |rom thc tcchnical absurditics o|
Cortazars story, in vhich thc body is manipulatcd to yicld ncv rcsults in a
vorld o| compctitivc and commoditizcd spcctaclc. Jhc vision o| scvcn
Australian childrcns diving into a pool o| grits and dying also dcscrvcs to
bc dravn out into thc many storics o| i ndividual abncgation and physical
abusc that somctimcs povcr thc spcctaclcs o| global sport.
Cortazar is also mcditating on thc problcms o| imitation and cultural
trans|cr, suggcsting that thcy can lcad to violcnt and culturally pcculiar in
novations. Jhc ad]cctivc cu|turu| appcars gratuitous hcrc and nccds somc
|ustihcation. Jhat Jokyo and Canbcrra, baghdad and lcxico City arc all
involvcd in thc story docs not mcan that thcy havc bccomc |ungiblc picccs
o| an arbitrarily shi|ting, dclocalizcd vorld. Lach o| thcsc placcs docs havc
complcx local rcalitics, such that dcath in a svimming pool has onc kind o|
mcaning i n Canbcrra, as do hosting largc spcctaclcs in lraq and making
bizarrc tcchnical innovations in )apan. Whatcvcr Cortazars idca about
thcsc di||crcnccs, thcy rcmain cultural , but no longcr in thc incrtial modc
that thc vord prcviously implicd. Culturc docs imply di||crcncc, but thc
di||crcnccs nov arc no longcr taxonomic, thcy arc intcractivc and rc|rac
tivc, so that compcting |or a svimming championship takcs on thc pccu-
liar povcr that it docs in Canbcrra partly bccausc o| thc vay somc transna
tional |orccs havc comc to bc conhgurcd in thc imagination o| its
rcsidcnts. Culturc thus shi |ts |rom bcing somc sort o| incrt, local substancc
to bcing a rathcr morc volatilc |orm ol di||crcncc. Jhis is an important part
o| thc rcason |or vriting against culturc, as Lila Abu-Lughod | I 99 I ) has
suggcstcd.
C l e | o l t l n e s c o j : s
= 60 =
Jhcrc arc surcly othcr macronarrativcs that spin out o| this small piccc
o| magical rcalism, but all ol thcm rcmind us that livcs today arc as much
acts o| pro|cction and imagination as thcy arc cnactmcnts o| knovn scripts
or prcdictablc outcomcs. |n this scnsc, all livcs havc somcthing i n common
vith intcrnational athlctic spcctaclc, as gucst vorkcrs strivc to mcct stan
dards o| c|hcicncy in ncv national scttings, and bridcs vho marry into
houscholds at largc distanccs |rom homc strivc to mcct thc critcria o|
hypcrcompctcncc that thcsc ncv contcxts o|tcn dcmand. Jhc dctcrritori
alizcd vorld i n vhich many pcoplc nov livcsomc moving i n it activcly,
othcrs living vith thcir abscnccs or suddcn rcturnsis, likc Cortazars
pool o| grits, cvcr thirsty |or ncv tcchnical compctcnccs and o|tcn harsh
vith thc unprcparcd. Cortazars vigncttc is itscl| a comprcsscd cthno
graphic parablc, and in tcasing out thc possiblc historics o| its protagonists
and thcir possiblc |uturcs, our ovn cthnographics o| litcraturc can bccomc
cxcrciscs in thc intcrprctation o| thc ncv rolc o| thc imagination in social
l i |c. Jhcrc is in such c||orts a built-in rc|lcxivc vcrtigo as vc contcmplatc
Cortazars invcnting o| Jashuma, but such rc|lcxivity lcads not only into
rc|lcctions on our ovn rcprcscnlational practiccs as vritcrs but also into
thc complcx ncsting o| imaginativc appropriations that arc involvcd i n thc
construction o| agcncy i n a dctcrritorializcd vorld.
but not all dctcrritorialization is global i n its scopc, and not all imag-
incd livcs span vast intcrnational panoramas. Jhc vorld on thc movc a|-
|ccts cvcn small gcographical and cultural spaccs. | n scvcral di||crcnt vays,
contcmporary cincma rcprcscnts thcsc small vorlds o| displaccmcnt. lira
airs hlms capturc thc tcxturc o| thcsc small displaccmcnts, vhosc rcvcr-
bcrations can ncvcrthclcss bc largc. Cnc o| hcr hlms, lndiu Cuburrt, is vhat
| havc callcd an cthnodrama. ` ladc i n I 984, it tclls about a small group o|
vomcn vho havc lc|t tovns and villagcs, gcncrally i n thc southcrn part o|
|ndia, to comc to bombay and vork as cabarct danccrs i n a sccdy suburban
bar and nightclub callcd thc lcghra| . Jhc hlm contains |i n thc stylc o| thc
carly )can-Luc Codard) cxtcndcd convcrsations bctvccn thc hlmmakcr
and a |cv o| thcsc vomcn, vho arc prcscntcd |acing thc camcra as i | thcy
arc talking to thc vicvcr o| thc hlm Jhcsc intcrvicv scgmcnts, vhich arc
richly narrativc, arc intcrcut vith dancc scqucnccs |rom thc cabarct and
cxtcndcd trcatmcnts o| thc slcazy paradoxcs o| thc livcs o| somc o| thc
mcn vho arc rcgulars thcrc. Jhc hlm also |ollovs onc o| thc vomcn back
to hcr natal villagc, vhcrc vc arc shovn thc pain o| hcr ostracism, as hcr
occupation i n bombay is knovn to cvcryonc. |t is rumorcd that this sccnc
vas stagcd |or thc bcncht o| thc hlmmakcr, but i| anything this rcplaying
adds to thc avkvardncss and pain o| thc scqucncc. Jhc hlm is not about
C | e | o | | l n e s c o j : s
6 ( =
happy cndlngs, and lt lcavcs us vith possibllitics o| varlous sorts in thc
livcs o| thcsc vomcn, all o| vhom arc simultancously proud and ashamcd,
dignihcd and dchant dc |acto prostitutcs vho havc |abricatcd ldcntitics as
artists.
lor our purposcs, vhat is most lmportant about this hlm ls thc vay in
vhlch it shovs that thc cabarct club is not simply a markctplacc |or dcsirc
but also a placc vhcrc imaglncd livcs arc ncgotiatcd. thc danccrs act out
thclr prccarious scnsc o| thcmsclvcs as danccrs, thc sccond- ratc band trics
to vork up its muslcal passlons, vhich arc |cd by thc aspirations o| thc
Catholic community in Coa ,vcstcrn |ndla) to play Luropcan and Amcri -
can i nstrumcntal muslc vcll Jhc mcn vho comc as customcrs clcarly scc
thcmsclvcs as participants in somcthlng largcr than l l |c, and thcy bchavc
cxactly likc thc customcrs in cabarct sccncs in many |indi commcrcial
hlms. |n |act, thc sccnario that providcs thc mccting ground |or all thcsc
charactcrs is providcd by thc cabarct scqucnccs |rom |indl commcrclal
clncma.
| n many such stock sccncs, a tavdry nightclub quartct plays an opprcs-
sivcly scnsuous mclody combining Wcstcrn and |ndian i nstrumcnts and
tonalitics, vhllc thc villain and hl s cronics consumc obvlously nasty alco-
hollc drinks and vatch a pain|ully cxplicit dancc routinc by a vamp star.
Jhc hcro ls usually insinuatcd into thc action in somc vay that simultanc-
ously cmphasizcs his vlrll ity and his moral supcriority ovcr thc tavdry cn-
vlronmcnt. Jhcsc sccncs arc usually hllcd vith cxtras |rom thc hlm studio,
vho strugglc to maintaln thc sophistlcatcd visagc o| pcrsons habituatcd to
thc high li|c. Jhcsc sccncs arc stcrcotyplcally vicarious i n thcir approach
to drlnk, dancc, and sound and arc somchov dcprcssing. Jhc cllcnts, thc
danccrs, and thc band at thc lcghra| sccm to play out a slightly out-o|-
stcp, somnambulistic vcrsion o| such classlc |indl hlm scqucnccs.
Ll|c ln thc lcghra| is surcly drivcn by commcrcial cincmatic lmagcs,
but thcir |orcc ls inadcquatc to covcr thc anxictics, thc scl|-abascmcnt, and
thc agonlzcd drama o| lclsurc i n vhlch thc charactcrs arc al| cngagcd. Yct
thc charactcrs in this cthnodrama havc lmagcs and idcas o| thcmsclvcs
that arc not simply contingcnt outcomcs o| thclr ordinary llvcs ,or slmplc
cscapcs |rom thcm) but arc |abrications bascd on a subtlc complicity vith
thc dlscurslvc and rcprcscntational convcntions o| |l ndi cincma. Jhus, al -
though thls hlm is a documcntary ln convcntlonal tcrms, it ls also an cthno-
drama, ln thc scnsc that lt shovs us thc dramatic structurc and thc char-
actcrs that animatc a partlcular strand o| bombays vays o| l i |c. Jhcsc
actors arc also charactcrs, not so much bccausc thcy havc obvious idlosyn-
crasics attachcd to thcm but bccausc thcy arc |abrlcatlons ncgotiatcd in
C l e | o | t l n e s c o j : s
= 62 =
thc cncountcr bctvccn thc c||orts o| cincma to rcprcscnt cabarct and o|
rcal cabarcts to capturc thc cxcitcmcnt o| cincma. lt is this ncgotiation,
not only thc ncgotiation o| bodics, that is thc rcal ordcr o| busincss at thc
lcghra| . Jhc vomcn vho vork in thc cabarct arc dctcrritorializcd and
mobilc. thcy arc gucst vorkcrs in bombay. lt is hard to scc in thcm thc dis-
coursc o| rcsistancc , though thcy arc cynical about mcn, as prostitutcs
cvcryvhcrc arc), although thcir vcry bodily posturcs, thcir l inguistic ag-
grcssivcncss, thcir bavdy, quasi -lcsbian play vith cach othcr imply a kind
o| raunchy and scl|-conscious countcrculturc. What vc havc is a scnsc that
thcy arc putting livcs togcthcr, |abricating thcir ovn charactcrs, using thc
cincmatic and social matcrials at thcir disposal.
Jhcrc arc individuals hcrc, to bc surc, and agcncy as vcll, but vhat
drivcs thcsc individuals and thcir agcncy arc thc complcx rcalisms that
animatc thcm. a crudc rcalism about mcn and thcir motivcs, a sort o| capi-
talist rcalism that inspircs thcir discoursc about vcalth and moncy, a curi-
ous socialist rcalism that undcrlics thcir ovn catcgorizations o| thcmsclvcs
as dignihcd vorkcrs in thc |lcsh tradc ,not vcry di||crcnt |rom thc housc-
vivcs o| bombay) . Jhcy constitutc a striking cthnographic cxamplc |or
this chaptcr bccausc thc vcry displaccmcnt that is thc root o| thcir prob-
lcms ,although thcir original dcparturcs turn out usually to bc rcsponscs to
cvcn vorsc domcstic horrors) is also thc cnginc o| thcir drcams o| vcalth,
rcspcctabil ity, and autonomy.
Jhus, pasts in thcsc constructcd livcs arc as important as |uturcs, and
thc morc vc unravcl thcsc pasts thc closcr vc approach vorlds that arc
lcss and lcss cosmopolitan, morc and morc local. 1ct cvcn thc most local-
izcd o| thcsc vorlds, at lcast in socictics likc lndia, has bccomc in|lcctcd-
cvcn a||lictcdby cosmopolitan scripts that drivc thc politics o| |amilics,
thc |rustrations o| laborcrs, thc drcams o| local hcadmcn. Cncc again, vc
nccd to bc carc|ul not to supposc that as vc vork backvard in thcsc imag-
incd livcs vc vill hit somc local, cultural bcdrock, madc up o| a closcd sct
o| rcproductivc practiccs and untouchcd by rumors o| thc vorld at largc.
,or a di||crcnt but complcmcntary anglc on thcsc |acts, scc |anncrz
I 989. ) lira airs nJiu Cuburrt is a striking modcl o| hov cthnography in a
dctcrritorializcd vorld might handlc thc problcms o| charactcr and actor,
|or it shovs hov scl|-|abrication actually procccds in a vorld o| typcs and
typi hcation. lt rctains thc tcnsion bctvccn global and local that drivcs cul-
tural rcproduction today.
Jhc vigncttcs l havc uscd hcrc havc tvo purposcs. Cnc is to suggcst
thc sorts o| situations in vhich thc vorkings o| thc imagination in a dctcr-
ritorializcd vorld can bc dctcctcd. Jhc sccond is to suggcst that many
C l o I a l F t o n o s c a j t s
= 6 3 =
livcs arc nov incxtricably l i nkcd vith rcprcscntations, and thus vc nccd to
incorporatc thc complcxitics o| cxprcssivc rcprcscntation | hlm, novcls,
travcl accounts) into our cthnographics, not only as tcchnical ad|uncts
but as primary matcrial vith vhich to construct and intcrrogatc our ovn
rcprcscntations.
Carclas|ar !ro|tat|ars arJ Lxlatat|ars
Although thc cmcrgcnt cosmopolitanisms o| thc vorld havc complcx local
historics, and thcir translocal dialoguc has a complcx history as vcll |ls-
lamic pilgrimagc is |ust onc cxamplc), it sccms advisablc to trcat thc prc-
scnt as a historical momcnt and usc our undcrstanding o| it to illuminatc
and guidc thc |ormulation o| historical problcms. Jhis is not pcrvcrsc
Whiggishncss, it is, rathcr, a rcsponsc to a practical problcm in many
cascs it is simply not clcar hov or vhcrc onc vould locatc a chronological
basclinc |or thc phcnomcna vc vish to study. Jhc stratcgy o| bcginning at
thc bcgi nning bccomcs cvcn morc scl|-dc|cating vhcn onc vishcs to illu-
minatc thc l|vcd rclationships bctvccn imagincd livcs and thc vcbs o| cos-
mopolitanism vithin vhich thcy un|old. Jhus, not to put too hnc a point
on it, vc nccd an cthnography that is scnsitivc to thc historical naturc o|
vhat vc scc today |vhich also involvcs carc|ul comparison, as cvcry good
historian knovs) , but l suggcst that vc cut into thc problcm through thc
historical prcscnt
Whilc much has bccn vrittcn about thc rclationship bctvccn history
and anthropology |by practitioncrs o| both disciplincs) in thc past dccadc,
|cv havc givcn carc|ul thought to vhat it mcans to construct gcncalogics
o| thc prcscnt Lspccially in rcgard to thc many altcrnativc cosmopoli-
tanisms that charactcrizc thc vorld today, and thc complcx, transnational
cultural |lovs that link thcm, thcrc is no casy vay to bcgin at thc bcgin
ning. Jodays cosmopolitan isms combinc cxpcricnccs o| various mcdia
vith various |orms o| cxpcricncccincma, vidco, rcstaurants, spcctator
sports, and tourism, to namc |ust a |cvthat havc di||crcnt national and
transnational gcncalogics. Somc o| thcsc |orms may start out as cxtrcmcly
global and cnd up as vcry localradio vould bc an cxamplcvhilc oth-
crs, such as cincma, might havc thc obvcrsc tra|cctory. l n any particular
cthnoscapc |a tcrm vc might vish to substitutc |or carlicr vholcs such as
villagcs, communitics, and localitics), thc gcncalogics o| cosmopolitanism
arc not likcly to bc thc samc as its historics. vhilc thc gcncalogics rcvcal
thc cul tural spaccs vithin vhich ncv |orms can bccomc indigcnizcd ,|or
cxamplc, as tourism comcs to inhabit thc spacc o| pilgrimagc in lndia) , thc
C | c | c | r l n e s c o j : s
^ 64 =
hlstorlcs o| thcsc |orms may lcad outvard to transnatlonal sourccs and
structurcs. Jhus, thc most approprlatc cthnoscapcs |or todays vorld, vith
lts altcrnativc, i ntcractlvc modcrnltics, should cnablc gcncalogy and his
tory to con|ront cach othcr, thus lcaving thc tcrrai n opcn |or l ntcrprcta-
tions o| thc vays in vhich local historlcal tra]cctorlcs Hov into compll
catcd transnational structurcs. || coursc, this dial oguc o| hlstorlcs and
gcncaloglcs itscl| has a history, but |or this lattcr history vc surcly do not
yct posscss a mastcr narrativc. lor thosc o| us vho ml ght vlsh to movc to-
vard thls ncv mastcr narrativc, vhatcvcr its |orm, ncv global cthnoscapcs
must bc thc critical building blocks. llchclKolph Jrouillot , I 99I ) sug-
gcsts that thc historical rolc o| anthropology vas to hll thc savagc slot in
an intcrnal Wcstcrn dlaloguc about utopla. A rccupcratcd anthropology
must rccognlzc that thc gcnic ls nov out o| thc bottlc and that spccula-
tions about utopla arc cvcryoncs prcrogativc. Anthropology can surcly
contributc lts spcclal purchasc on livcd cxpcricncc to a vidcr, transdlscl
pll nary study o| global cultural proccsscs. but to do thls, anthropology
must hrst comc l n |rom thc cold and |acc thc challcngc o| maklng a contri-
bution to cultural studics vlthout thc bcncht o| lts prcvlous prlnclpal
sourcc o| lcvcragcslghtlngs o| thc savagc.
C | e | o i F t l n e s c o j : s
~ 6 5 ~
+
L0Suml|0, u|8l|0, 8d H|Sl0|y
Consumption as a topic has alvays comc cquippcd vith an optical illu-
sion. Jhis illusion, cspccially |ostcrcd by thc ncoclassical cconomics o| thc
past ccntury or so, is that consumption is thc cnd o| thc road |or goods and
scrviccs, a tcrminus |or thcir social li|c, a conclusion to somc sort o| matc-
rial cyclc. ly main conccrn i n this chaptcr is to shov that this vicv is i n-
dccd an illusion, and that in ordcr to gct ri d o| it vc nccd to rcsituatc con-
sumption in timctimc conccivcd multiplyas history, pcriodicity, and
proccss. rom this vicv |ollovs a scrics o| mcthodological suggcstions and
a prcliminary proposal about a vay to conccptualizc vhat is ncv about
consumcrism a|tcr thc advcnt o| clcctronic mcdia.
R:j:tit|ar arJ R:qalatiar
Likc brcathing, consumption is a scl|-c||acing habit that bccomcs noticc-
ablc only vhcn contcxtually ostcntatious. but it is only in ostcntation that
vc o|tcn takc noticc o| consumption, and this is thc hrst o| thc mcthod-
ological traps vc nccd to avoid, a trap that pcrtains to many othcr topics as
vcll . Jhat is, vc nccd to rcsist thc tcmptation to construct a gcncral thc-
ory o| consumption around vhat cil lcKcndrick and collcagucs callcd
thc Vcblcn c||cct ,lcKcndrick, brcvcr, and llumb I 982, Vcblcn I 9 I 2) ,
66 =
namcly, thc tcndcncy o| mobl ity pattcrns to bc organzcd around thc im
taton o| social supcriors. Jhc |act that consumption may somctmcs bc
conspicuous and imitativc should not tcmpt us to rcgard t as alvays bcing
so, not lcast bccausc various |orms o| abstincncc can bc cqually conspicu-
ous and socally conscqucntial |Appadura I 986).
As a gcncral |caturc o| thc cultural cconomy, consumpton must and
docs |all into thc modc o| rcpctIion, o| habtuaton. |n ths rcgard, thc ob-
scivation by rcdrc }amcson | I 990), building on }can baudrllard, Sig-
mund rcud, Sorcn Kicrkcgaard, and othcrs, that rcpctiton charactcrizcs
thc commodity culturc o| consumcr captalism, can bc situatcd n a vdcr
anthropology o| thc rclatonshp bctvccn consumption and icpctton
Lvcn n thc most |ashionri ddcn o| contcxts, as | shall suggcst n thc ncxt
scction o| ths chaptcr, consumption lcans tovard habtuation through
rcpctton. Jhc prncpal rcason |or this s that consumpton, in all social
contcxts, is ccntcrcd around vhat larccl lauss callcd thc tcchniqucs o|
thc body ,lauss I 973) , and thc body calls |or dscplncs that arc rcpcti
tous, or at lcast pcriodc his s not bccausc thc body s cvcryvhcrc thc
samc biologcal |act and thus dcmands thc samc disc plncs. Cn thc con-
trary, bccausc thc body s an ntimatc arcna |or thc practiccs o| rcproduc-
tion, t is an idcal stc |or thc inscrption o| social disciplncs, dscplncs
that can bc vdcly varicd. llayng on onc o| thc ctymologcal roots o| thc
vord L3HHt, it s vorth noting that catngunlikc, say, tattoongalls
|or habituation, cvcn in thc most upscalc cnvironmcnts vhcrc |ood has bc-
comc largcly domnatcd by idcas o| bodly bcauty and comportmcnt
rathcr than by dcas o| cncrgy and su|hccncy |bourdicu I 984).
but cvcn vhcrc hcdonistic and antinoman consumpton practccs havc
takcn dccp hold, thcrc rcmans a tcndcncy |or thosc practiccs o| consump
tion that arc closcst to thc body to acquirc un|ormty through habitua
tion. |ood, drcss, harstylng. l strcss thc |orcc o| habtuaton, as it has |rc-
qucntly bccn lost sight o| in |avor o| thc |orccs o| imtation or opposton.
Jhcsc lattcr |orccs can o|tcn bc vciy important, but thcy alvays cncountcr
thc socal incrta o| bodily tcchniqucs Jhus, cvcn among monks, vcgctar
ans, |ood |addists, and countcrconsumcrs o| cvcry sort, it is cxtrcmcly di|
hcult to maintain an anarchic consumption rcgmc. Jhc tcchniqucs o| thc
body, hovcvcr pccular, nnovativc, and antisocal, nccd to bccomc social
dsciplincs |Asad I 987), parts o| somc habitus, |rcc o| arthcc or cxtcrnal
cocrcon, in ordcr to takc on thcr |ull povcr. Jhc corc o| consumpton
practiccs bcing thc body, thc habituation that rcquircs bodly dsciplincs
to bc succcss|ul cntals consumption pattcrns that vll alvays tcnd to rcp-
ctiton, at lcast n somc rcgards. Jhs is thc nncr paradox o| hcdonsm cs
C o a s a j t | e a . D a r o t | o a . o a J H | s t o r y
~ 67 =
pccia||y in its anarchic dimcnsions. cvcn hcdonistic consumption rcquircs
its bodi|y discip|incs, and thcsc discip|incs cncouragc rcpctition and dis-
couragc invcntivcncss by thcir naturc ,Campbc|| I 987) . Lvcn an unkcmpt
bcard must bc maintaincd
latura||y, not all consumption nccd bc rcpctitivc or habitual, but any
consumption systcm that strivcs |or |rccdom |rom habit is pushcd tovard
an acsthctic o| thc cphcmcra|, as l vill suggcst in thc coursc o| this chap-
tcr. Jhis accounts |or somc important |caturcs o| thc rclation among con-
sumption, |ashion, and p|casurc, discusscd in my conc|usion. A|| consump-
tion practiccs that cndurc at a|| must pay somc tributc to bodi|y incrtia,
cvcn i| this incrtia a||ccts vcry di ||crcnt arcas and is anchorcd i n dramati-
ca||y di||crcnt idco|ogics across timc and spacc. Cn this incrtial basc can
bc bui|t a varicty o| di||crcnt pcriodicitics and tcmpora| rhythms, includ-
ing somc drivcn by Jhorstcin Vcb|cns typc o| conspicuous consumption.
ln any socia||y rcgu|atcd sct o| consumption practiccs, thosc that ccn-
tcr around thc body, and cspccia|ly around thc |ccding o| thc body, takc
on thc |unction o| structuring tcmpora| rhythm, o| sctting thc minimum
tcmpora| mcasurc ,by ana|ogy to musical activity) on vhich much morc
comp|cx and chaotic pattcrns can bc bui|t. lushing thc ana|ogy a stcp |ur-
thcr, thc sma|| habits o| consumption, typica|ly dai|y |ood habits, can pcr-
|orm a pcrcussivc rolc in organizing |argc-sca|c consumption pattcrns,
vhich may bc madc up o| much morc comp|cx ordcrs o| rcpctition and
improvisation. Jhc mcthodo|ogica| mora| hcrc may bc put as |o||ovs.
vhcrc imitation sccms to dominatc, rcpctition might bc |urking.
Jhc incrtial |ogic o| rcpctition is a rcsourcc around vhich socictics and
thcir ru|ing c|asscs build | argcr rcgimcs o| pcriodicity, typica||y around
somc |orm o| scasonality. Cur cxpcricncc o| thc Christmas gi|ting |rcnzy
in thc Onitcd Statcs cxcmp|ihcs this sort o| rcgimc vcry vcl|. ln many so-
cictics, important ritcs o| passagc havc consumption markcrs, o|tcn cohcr-
ing around obligatory or ncar-obligatory pattcrns o| gi|t giving, typica|ly
bctvccn prcdcsignatcd catcgorics o| socia||y | i nkcd pcrsons, o|tcn kins-
|olk. but this docs not imp|y a mcchanica| marriagc o| Arno|d van Ccnncp
and larcc| lauss ,van Ccnncp I 965, lauss I 976) . ln |act, thc scasonal i -
tics that organizc consumption arc morc comp|icatcd and |css mcchanica|
than is at hrst apparcnt.
Jhc acts o| consumption that surround routinc ritcs o| passagc arc
o|tcn |css mcchanica||y prcscriptivc than thcy might appcar licrrc bour-
dicu has shovn this vcry vc|| in his discussion o| thc gi|ts bctvccn a|hncs
in Kaby|c marriagc al|ianccs in A|gcria , I 977) . What bourdicu is ab|c to
shov, as an instancc o| vhat hc calls thc rcgu|atcd improvisations o| thc
C e n s a j t i e n , D a r a | i e n , a n J H i s | e r y
= 6 8 =
habitus, is that vhat appcars to bc a hxcd sct o| prcscriptions that govcrn
gi|t transactions bctvccn a|hncs is govcrncd by an cxtrcmcly complcx sct
ol stratcgc intcractons, vhosc scqucncc, bccausc rmprovisatory, is unprc-
dictablc, although its gcncral social morphology is knovn to thc actors at
thc vcry outsct. A crucial sourcc o| unccrtainty, vhich can bc trcatcd as a
stratcgic rcsourcc by thc kcy actors, is thc |ups: oj tim: bctvccn various acts
o| gi|ting. bronislav lalinovski had carlicr notcd this kcy rolc o| timing
in gi|t giving | I 922) , and so had lauss, vhilc larshall Sahlins gavc it
grcatcr typological |orcc |lauss I 976, Sahlins I 972). or our purposcs, it
suggcsts that thc rhythms o| accumulation and divcstiturc that gcncratc
particular statcs o| matcrial vcalth in many socictics arc products not o|
mcchanical distributions o| goods or o| prcdictablc pattcrns o| gi|ting but
o| complcx calculativc scqucnccs, built, likc othcr agonistic |orms, on
sharcd undcrstandings o| stylc but considcrablc latitudc in stratcgy.
Jhis calculativc dimcnsion o| gi|t giving o||crs a morc complcx pcr-
spcctivc on thc rclationship bctvccn consumption and ritcs o| passagc.
Acts o| gi|t cxchangc, vith thcir attcndant implications |or consumption
and production, arc o|tcn sccn i n thc contcxt o| ritcs o| passagc as highly
convcntionalizcd markcrs |in Charlcs licrccs tcrm, as icons) o| thcsc ritcs.
but it may bc morc usc|ul to scc thcsc consumption stratcgics as ind:xicu||
rclatcd to ritcs o| passagc, that is, as crcating thc mcaning o| thcsc ritcs by
thc vay in vhich thcy point to thcir mcaning. Lct mc claboratc. Jhc basic
packagc o| ritcs dcscribcd by van Ccnncp | I 965), thosc having to do vith
birth, initiation, marriagc, and dcath, arc usually rcgardcd as cultural rcgu-
laritics vith a rcmarkablc dcgrcc o| univcrsality oving, in van Ccnncps ar-
gumcnt, to thc physiological and cosmological uni|ormitics on vhich thcy
arc built. Osing lausss i dcas about thc tcchniqucs o| thc body | I 973) to
turn van Ccnncp on his hcad, | suggcst that consumption pcriodicitics,
mcdiatcd by stratcgics o| accumulation and divcstiturc, o|tcn constitutc
thc principal signihcancc o| thcsc natural cvcnts rathcr than simply
marking thcm in somc loosc, symbolic manncr. Jhis is vcry clcar in initi-
ation and marriagc, vhcrc issucs o| timc and timing arc obviously salicnt,
givcn thc dcgrcc o| play availablc to kcy actors in dctcrmining vhcn and
vho thcsc cvcnts shall a||cct. With birth and dcath, thc biological clock
sccms primary, and yct cvcn hcrc vc knov that thc ritual marking o| thcsc
cvcnts, vhich can bc lcngthy, dcbatcd, and highly idiosyncratic, dchncs
thcir social salicncc | Cccrtz I 973) . What a||ccts social salicncc is thc na-
turc, timing, scalc, and social visibility o| thc matcrial transactions that
constitutc thc ritual proccss o| thcsc ritcs. Jhc argumcnt vould bc simplcr
still in thc casc o| thc othcr ritcs o| passagc that van Ccnncp discusscd,
C e n s a j | i o n , D a r o | i o n , o n J H i s t o r y
= 69 =
ritcs involving transitions in spacc, tcrritoiy, group mcmbcrship, agricul-
turc, and thc likc. ln a vord, thc socially organizcd pcriodicitics o| con-
sumption, and thc calculativc stratcgics that givc thcm agcncy and ampl i -
tudc, arc constitutivc o| thc social mcani ngs o| ritcs o| passagc, and not
simply symbolic markcrs o| thcsc mcanings. Jhus, on thc largcr scasonal
scalcs o| scasons, biographics, and group historics discusscd by van Ccn
ncp and othcrs, consumption rcgulatcs thc morc tight pcriodicitics o| tcm-
poral iitcs o| passagc ln this scnsc, consumption crcatcs timc and docs not
simply rcspond to it.
Jo makc this maxim clcarcr, l rcturn to Christmas. | n thc Onitcd
Statcs, as thc rangc o| commoditics grovs, as |amilics hnd thcmsclvcs
vith largcr lists o| goods and scrviccs that might |ulhll thc dcsircs o| |am-
ily mcmbcrs, and as |ashions, particularly |or youth, shi|t mcrcurially,
thosc vho play thc ciucial Santa rolc hnd thcmsclvcs shopping carlicr |or
Christmas. Jming is a dclicatc problcm, as cvciyonc vants to gct his or
hcr shopping donc bc|orc thc Christmas rush, and thc idcal thing vould
bc to do your Christmas shopping vhilc you arc svcltcring in }unc or
)uly. Absurd as this alrcady sccms, it is madc doubly di|hcult by thc |act
that it is not until Scptcmbcr or Cctobcr that thc |ashion cyclc, cspccially
|or such itcms as childrcns toys, starts issuing clcar signals. So, you havc
to knov hov long to vait bc|orc dcciding that this ycars |avoritcs havc
bccn cstablishcd, but not so long that thc storcs havc run out o| thcm. At
thc othcr cnd o| thc proccss, all largc storcs run a|tcr-Christmas salcs, but
|rcqucntly, bccausc o| lov shoppcr turnout in somc parts o| thc country,
thcrc arc prc-Christmas salcs, |urthcr distorting thc pcriodicity o| priccs
and scntimcnts that havc to bc |ugglcd by Amcrican |amilics. Jhc shrcvd
shoppcr has alvays knovn that thc bcst timc to shop |or Christmas gi|ts
,cspccially il you arc not vorricd about goods sub|cct to short |ashion
cyclcs) is in thc immcdiatc post Christmas potlatchcs at thc big storcs.
So Christmas is obviously not a simplc scasonal |act. lrom onc point o|
vicv, it may bc sccn as a ycarlong cclcbration, vith morc and lcss |rcnzicd
pcriods o| conscious activity l n this casc, it is a lot morc likc Jrobriand
yam gardcning than likc birth by ccsarcan scction. Jhc di ||crcncc lics in
thc largcr social logics o| acquisition and divcstiturc that arc coordinatcd
|or thc particular ritc o| passagc to bc succcss|ul Jhc mcthodological
maxim hcrc somcvhat complicatcs thc prcvious onc. vhcrc rcpctition in
consumption sccms to bc dctcrmincd by natural or univcrsal scasonalitics
o| passagc, alvays considcr thc rcvcrsc causal chain, i n vhich consump
tion scasonalitics might dctcrminc thc stylc and signi hcancc o| natural
passagcs.
C e n s j t i e , D a r o t i e . o J H i s t e r y
^
70 =
P:iaJiciti:s arJ Histai:s
but thc scasonalltlcs o| consumptlon thcmsclvcs arc carvcd out o| morc
opcn-cndcd, morc circumstantial, morc contingcnt tcmporal proccsscs,
and vc gcncrally choosc to call thcsc historical . |istory, ln all soclctics, lr
rcspcctlvc o| vhcthcr thcy arc hot or cool, litcratc or not, is by dchnltlon
thc story o| thc |onu: durr:, vhcthcr or not vc knov cnough about all thc
hlstorics vc cncountcr. ln rcgard to consumptlon thc structurcs o| thc long
run havc not bccn as claboratcly studicd in tcrms o| thc vorld outsidc thc
Wcst as thcy havc bccn |or Luropc and thc vorld that Luropc cncountcrcd
a|tcr I 500. Yct vc knov cnough about at lcast somc o| thc historlcs o| thc
rcst o| thc vorld ovcr long spans o| timc , Curtln I 984, |odgson I 974,
lcrl i n I 983, Scha|cr I 963, Woll I 982) to knov that rathcr than clcar unlts
o| spatlotcmporal proccss, thc vorld has |or a vcry long tlmc bccn consti-
tutcd by ovcrlapping congcrlcs o| cultural ccumcncs. Ccntral to thc cul
tural cconomy o| distancc has bccn thc driving |orcc o| mcrchants, tradc,
and commodltlcs, cspcclally o| thc luxury varicty ,Curtln I 984, |clms
I 988, lintz I 985, Scha|cr I 963) . cvcrthclcss, not all structurcs o| thc
long run arc charactcrizcd by thc samc turns, or contlngcncics, that in rct
rospcct takc on thc appcarancc o| ncccsslty. Litcracy dld not appcar cvcry-
vhcrc and ncithcr dld bubonic plaguc or thc ldca o| dcmocratlc rights. So
pattcrns ln thc |onu: durr: must bc consl dcrcd, in thc hrst l nstancc, locally,
that is, vithln |alrly vcll-obscrvcd and documcntcd sphcrcs o| lntcractlon.
Wlth rcgard to consumptlon, long tcrm changc is not cvcryvhcrc cqually
rapid, although it sccms l ncrcaslngly |oolish to contrast static vith chang-
lng soclctics. Jhc qucstion sccms to bc thc pacc and intcnsity o| changc,
as vcll as thc alacrity vlth vhlch it is invitcd.
What vc knov o| Luropc allovs us to vatch a soclcty o| sumptuary
lav slovly changlng into a socicty o| |ashion. ln gcncral, all socially orga
nizcd |orms o| consumption sccm to rcvolvc around somc combinatlon o|
thc |olloving thrcc pattcrns. intcrdlction, sumptuary lav, and |ashion.
Jhc hrst pattcrn, typlcal o| small-scalc, lov-tcch, rltually oricntcd socl -
ctics, organizcs consumptlon through a |airly largc list o| dos and donts,
many o| thcm combinlng cosmology and ctiqucttc in a spcc|al vay l n
thcsc socictics, vhat uscd to bc callcd taboos l n an oldcr anthropology
|rcqucntly rcgulatc consumption |or ccrtaln soclal catcgorlcs, |or ccrtain
tcmporal contcxts, |or ccrtain goods ,Louglas and lshcrvood I 98 I ) . Jhc
social l i |c o| things in small scalc socictlcs appcars to havc bccn drivcn
largcly by thc |orcc o| intcrdictlon. Yct as vc lcarn morc |rom thc archac-
ological rccord, small soclctics in placcs llkc lclancsla sccm to havc long
C o n s a j | i o n , D a r o | i o n , o n J H i s t o r y
= 7 I =
bccn charactcrizcd by long-distancc |lovs, both maritimc and land-bascd,
o| at lcast somc kinds o| goods. In such socictics, intcrdiction structurcs o|
various sorts appcar to havc succcss|ully accommodatcd ncv commoditics
into cxisting structurcs o| cxchangc and polity, partly bccausc thc quanti-
tativc cxplosion associatcd vith thc commodity vorld had not yct ap-
pcarcd. Lvcn i n such lov-tcch socictics, particular con]uncturcs o| com-
modity |lov and tradc can crcatc un prcdictcd changcs in valuc structurcs
,Sahlins I 98 I ) .
At this point it is tcmpting to posc Colin Campbclls vcrsion o| thc
Wcbcrian qucstion rcgardi ng thc historical conditions |or thc risc o| capi -
talism, that is, to ask it i n a vay that highlights thc consumption sidc o|
things. Jhcrc sccms to bc vidcsprcad agrccmcnt among historians and
sociologists vorking in Luropc and thc Onitcd Statcs that a ma]or trans-
|ormation on thc dcmand sidc appcars to havc takcn placc i n Luropc
somctimc a|tcr thc h|tccnth ccntury ,Campbcll I 987, lukcr]i I 983,
lcKcndrick ct al . I 982, lcCrackcn I 988, Williams I 982) . Jhcrc is, hov-
cvcr, no unanimity on thc naturc o| thc conditions that cnablcd thc con-
sumcr rcvolution, cxccpt a broad scnsc that i t vas associatcd vith thc rcla-
tionships bctvccn traditional aristocracics and asccndant bourgcoisics in
thc carly modcrn pcriod. but is thcrc a morc sharply articulatcd vay to ask
thc qucstion, vhcn and undcr vhat sorts o| conditions do consumcr rcvo-
lutions occur
l vill cvcntually suggcst that thc idca o| consumcr rcvolution is itscl| i n
somc vays inadcquatc to thc clcctronic prcscnt Yct it might bc o| somc
prcliminary valuc to dchnc ccnsumrr rrrc|uticn in a su|hcicntly narrov vay so
as to makc comparison appcaling and i n a su|hcicntly broad vay so as to
avoid thc tautologous qucstion, vhy did thc history o| Luropc ,or Lng-
land) happcn only i n Luropc ,or Lngland) l suggcst that vc dchnc ccnsumrr
rrvc|uticn as a clustcr o| cvcnts vhosc kcy |caturc is a rnrru|izrd shi |t |rom
thc rcign o| sumptuary lav to thc rcign o| |ashion. Jhis dctachcs consumcr
rcvolutions |rom any particular tcmporal scqucncc involving a mobilc so-
cicty, sophisticatcd markcting on thc )osiah Wcdgvood modcl, rising
vagcs, mass mcrchandising, and class conllict. l t also dctachcs consumcr
rcvolutions |rom spccihc historical scqucnccs and con]uncturcs involving
l itcracy, numcracy, cxpcrt knovlcdgc, thc book tradc, and othcr |orms o|
commoditizcd in|ormation o| thc sort rclcvant to Lngland, rancc, and thc
Onitcd Statcs in thc past thrcc ccnturics. lnstcad, this dchnition opcns up
thc possibility that largc-scalc changcs in consumption may bc associatcd
vith various scqucnccs and con]uncturcs o| thcsc |actors. Jhus, in lndia
dcpartmcnt storcs arc a vcry latc dcvclopmcnt, coming a|tcr advcrtislng
C o r s a j t | o r , D a r a t | o r , a r J H | s t o r
= 72 =
had bccn |or at lcast |orty ycars a vcll-cstablishcd commcrcial practicc, in
contrast to rancc, vhcrc dcpartmcnt storcs |lillcr I 98 I , Williams I 982)
sccm to havc prcccdcd thc modcrn |orm o| thc advcrtising industry, i n
con|unction vith national cxpositions and othcr phcnomcna o| lcisurc and
spcctaclc. Jhc rclationship o| con|uncturc and scqucncc bctvccn thc Lng
lish and rcnch consumcr rcvolutions sccms itscl| to bc complcx and con
tcstablc. | n )apan a|tcr World War ||, thcrc is good cvidcncc that mass
consumption cmcrgcd substantially as a rcsult o| tclcvision vicving ,o|tcn
o| situation comcdics |rom thc Onitcd Statcs), and that advcitising |ol-
lovcd as a postmodcrnist commcntatorial modc on such consumption
rathcr than as a primary causal |actor , |vy I 989). Such di||crcnccs arc, o|
coursc, in part a product o| thc complcxitics o| cultural |lov a|tcr I 800,
vhcrcby many countrics havc cvolvcd sophisticatcd tcchnologics o| mar-
kcting bc|orc bccoming massivcly industrial cconomics Jhus, i| you com-
parc Llizabcthan Lngland vith |ndia, thc right comparison vould havc to
bc vith |ndia in thc latc cightccnth ccntury, vhcn thc sumptuary rcach o|
thc lughal sovcrcign vas both imitatcd and contcstcd by all soits o| com
mcrcial and political groups in orth |ndia ,bayly I 986). Likcvisc, thc
rolc o| class con|licts and sumptuary battlcs bctvccn old and ncv aristoc-
racics can havc vcry di||crcnt vcight, i| you comparc )apan and |ndia,
vhcrc thc dissolution o| monarchical idcas and thc risc o| industrial capi-
talism havc vcry di||crcnt intcrnal causal and tcmporal rclati onships. Such
cxamplcs could bc multiplicd.
Jhc gcncral mcthodological point is clcar ]ust as vc havc lcarncd,
partly through thc protoindustrialization dcbatc, not to prc|udgc thc links
bctvccn Luropcan commcrcial |orms and thc risc o| capitalist modcs o|
production and cxchangc, likcvisc vith consumption vhat vc nccd to
avoid is thc scarch |or prccstablishcd scqucnccs o| institutional changc,
axiomatically dchncd as constitutivc o| tor consumcr rcvolution. What this
might cncouragc is a multiplication o| sccnarios conccrning thc appcar-
ancc o| consumcr socicty, in vhich thc rcst o| thc vorld vill not simply bc
sccn as rcpcating, or imitating, thc con|unctural prcccdcnts o| Lngland or
rancc. |aving cxplorcd such con|unctural variations in thc links bctvccn
class, production, markcting, and politics ovcr long strctchcs o| any par-
ticular histoiy, vc might bc in a bcttcr position to construct modcls o|
global intcraction in thc rcalm o| consumption, both bc|orc and a|tcr thc
grcat maritimc cxpansion o| Luropc in thc sixtccnth ccntury.
|n comparing consumcr rcvolutions in this manncr, vc can maintain
thc tcnsion bctvccn thc |onur durrr o| localitics and thc variablc duration
o| various vorld proccsscs by making a distinction that has provcd usc|ul
C e n s a j t e n , D a r o t | e n . o n J H | s t e r y
~ 73 ~
in anothcr contcxt ,chap. 3) , thc distinction bctvccn history and gcncal
ogy Whilc cach o| thcsc vords has a host o| mcanings ,dcpcnding on
your ]argon o| choicc), my ovn usagc is as |ollovs. history lcads you out-
vard, to link pattcrns o| changcs to incrcasingly largcr univcrscs o| intcr-
action, gcncalogy lcads you invard, tovard cultural dispositions and stylcs
that might bc stubbornly cmbcddcd both in local institutions and in thc
history o| thc local habitus. Jhus, thc history o| lahatma Candhis asccti-
cal rclationship to thc vorld o| goods might lcad outvard to )ohn Kuskin,
|cnry Lavid Jhorcau, and othcrs in thc Wcst vho articulatcd a pastoral,
anti -industrial vision. but thc gcncalogy o| Candhis hostility to goods
and posscssivc individualism gcncrally piobably lcads invard, to a long-
standing lndic discom|ort vith attachmcnt to scnsory cxpcricncc at largc.
lurthcrmorc, history and gcncalogy may, in rcgard to particular practiccs
or institutions, rcin|orcc cach othcr, to thc point vhcrc onc may disguisc
thc othcr or contradict onc anothcr, as in thc |olloving cxamplc, also |rom
lndia. Whcn lndians bcgan to cntcr thc british vorld o| clothing in thc
ni nctccnth ccntury, ccrtain dcsirablc itcms o| clothing acquircd a history
that indigcnous clitcs |ound appcaling but a gcncalogy that vas morc trou-
bling lor brahman clitcs, |or cxamplc, thc history o| hat vcaring linkcd
thcm to a narrativc o| thcir ovn cosmopolitan, colonial past, but its gc-
ncalogy vas probably lcss com|orting, |or it ]uxtaposcd vcry di||crcnt
idcas about hair and hcadgcar, also crucial to thc brahman habitus. ln gcn-
cral, in any givcn social and tcmporal location, thc study o| thc lonur durtr
vith rcspcct to consumption should i nvolvc thc simultancous cxploration
o| thc historics and gcncalogics o| particular practiccs. Jhis doublc his-
toricizing is likcly to rcvcal multiplc proccssual |lovs that undcrvritc any
givcn con|uncturc and simultancously makc it possiblc to comparc vith-
out sacrihcng contrast, i n rcgard to thc study o| consumcr rcvolutions.
Kcturning thcn to thc rclationship bctvccn thc small cyclcs, anchorcd
in thc tcchniqucs o| thc body, vhich constitutc thc corc o| all durablc con-
sumption practiccs, and in thc morc opcn-cndcd historical scqucnccs in
vhich thcy arc cmbcddcd, i t is important to scc that thc tcmpo o| thcsc
small-scalc pcriodicitics may bc sct in morc than onc lonur durtr, vith thc
proccsscs implicd by history and gcncalogy crcating multiplc tcmporali -
tics |or any givcn practicc , |albvachs I 980). l t |urthcr |ollovs that i n
studying thc consumption practiccs o| distinct socictics, vc must bc prc-
parcd to cncountcr a host o| di||crcnt historics and gcncalogics prcscnt at
thc samc momcnt Jhus, in lrancc thc consumption o| pcr|umc i n I 880
,Corbin 1 986) may bc undcrpinncd by onc ki nd o| history o| bodily dis-
ciplinc and acsthctics, vhilc thc consumption o| mcat may rcspond to
C e n s j | e n , D r o | | e n , a n J H | s | e r y
= 74 =
vholly othcr hstorcs and gcncalogcs. Jhc morc dvcrsc a soccty and thc
morc complcx thc story o| ts ntcractons vth othcr socctcs, thc morc
|ragmcntcd thc hstory o| ts consumption practiccs s lkcIy to bc, cvcn |
broad stylcs, trcnds, and pattcrns arc dsccrnblc Jhc movc |rom small to
largc tcmporal consumpton rhythms s a movc |rom morc to lcss pat-
tcrncd pcrodctcs Wrtng thc hstory o| dstncton n thc scnsc o|
bourdcu | I 984) vll cntal opcnncss to such multplcty. l n thc |ollovng
scctons, l conhnc myscl| to thosc socctcs n vhch |ashon, at lcast |or
somc classcs, has bccomc thc domnant mcchansm drvng consumpton
and n vhch commodhcaton s a crtcal |caturc o| socal l |c.
aso|ar arJ Nastalqia
Whlc much has bccn sad about |ashon ,lcCrackcn I 988, lllcr I 987,
Smmcl I 957), t s stll not |ully undcrstood as a |caturc o| thc tcmporal
rhythms o| ndustral and postndustral socctcs. Although t has bccn
vdcly notcd that |ashon s thc crucal lnk bctvccn producton, mcr-
chandsng, and consumpton n captalst socctcs, thc rclatonshp o|
|ashon to vhat has rcccntly bccn callcd patna by Crant lcCrackcn has
not bccn |ully cxplorcd. Jhc problcm o| patna, vhch lcCrackcn pro-
poscs as a gcncral tcrm to dcal vth that propcrty o| goods by vhch thcr
agc bccomcs a kcy ndcx o| thcr hgh status, dsguscs a dccpcr dlcmma,
thc dlcmma o| dstngushng vcar |rom tcar. Jhat s, vhlc n many cascs
vcar s a sgn o| thc rght sort o| duraton n thc socal l|c o| thngs, shccr
dsrcpar or dccrcptudc s not. Wcar, as a propcrty o| matcral ob|ccts, s
thus tscl| a vcry complcatcd propcrty that rcqurcs consdcrablc mantc-
nancc. Jhc polshng o| old slvcr, thc dustng o| old |urnturc, thc patch-
ing o| old clothcs, thc varnshng o| old sur|accsthcsc arc all part o| thc
cmbodcd practcc o| thc uppcr classcs n many socctcs, or, morc cxactly,
o| thcr scrvants. Wc mght say, paraphrasng thc vcll-knovn aphorsm,
as |or patna, our scrvants vll provdc t |or us. but poorly mantancd
patna can bccomc tscl| a sgn cthcr o| poor brccdng, outrght socal
countcr|ctng ,Co||man I 95 I ) , or, vorsc stll, complctc pcnury l n short,
patna s a slppcry propcrty o| matcral l |c, cvcr opcn to |akng as vcll as
to crudc handlng. Jhc patna o| ob|ccts takcs on ts |ull mcanng only n a
propcr contcxt, o| both othcr ob]ccts and spaccs |or thcsc asscmblcs o|
ob|ccts and pcrsons vho knov hov to ndcatc, through thcr bodly prac
tccs, thcr rclatonshps to thcsc ob]ccts, thc Lnglsh country housc comcs
to mnd as a good cxamplc o| ths complcx sct o| rclatonshps. Whcn all
thcsc condtons arc |clctous, thcn thc transposton o| tcmporal ty, thc
C e n s a j t | e n , D r a t i e n , a n J H | s | e r y
= 75 =
subtlc shl|t o| patlna |rom thc ob|cct to lts ovncr or nclghbor, ls succcss-
|ul, and thc pcrson ,or |amlly or soclal group) hlmscl| or hcrscl| takcs on
thc lnvlslblc patlna o| rcproductlon vcll managcd, o| tcmporal contlnulty
undlsturbcd but patlna, thc gloss o| agc, cannot by ltscl| gcncratc thc
rlght tcmporal assoclatlons |or human bclngs. |crc, as ln so many othcr
mattcrs lnvolvlng matcrlal ll|c, contcxt ls cvcrythlng. Jhc dlstlnctlon bc
tvccn an hclrloom and |unk ls not patlna as such, but also thc succcss|ul
scmlotlc managcmcnt o| thc soclal contcxt. hcrc ls, too, a dcllcatc tcm-
poral rhythm to bc managcd, partlcularly vhcrc mcmbcrshlp ln clltcs ls
partly constructcd through patlna. bccausc all thlngs havc a cultural blog-
raphy , Kopyto|| I 986) , cvcn thosc ob|ccts that havc thc most unchangc-
ablc patlna havc posslblc hlstorlcs, somc o| vhlch lncludc thc|t, salc, or
othcr lmpropcr modcs o| acqulsltl on. As thc nouvcaux rlchcs knov, thc
lmportant thlng ls to rcgulatc thc pacc at vhlch an cnscmblc o| ob|ccts
vlth patlna ls asscmblcd. l| you arc too slov, only your dcsccndants vlll
knov thc plcasurcs o| thc rlght gloss, but l| you arc too qulck, Lcorgc bab
bltts |atc avalts you, surroundcd as you mlght bc vlth thc rlght thlngs.
Jhus, thc managcmcnt o| tcmporal rhythms ls crltlcal to thc cxploltatlon
o| patlna.
As a kcy to thc matcrlal ll|c o| arlstocraclcs ,and vould bc arlstocrats) ,
patlna |ccds a dccpcr strcam ln thc soclal ll|c o| thlngs, and that l s thc ca-
pablllty o| ccrtaln thlngs to cvokc nostalgla, a syndromc larccl lroust lm-
mortallzcd Cb|ccts vlth patlna arc pcrpctual rcmlndcrs o| thc passagc o|
tlmc as a doublc-cdgcd svord, vhlch crcdcntlals thc rlght pcoplc, |ust as
lt thrcatcns thc vay thcy llvcd Whcncvcr arlstocratlc ll|cstylcs arc thrcat-
cncd, patlna acqulrcs a doublc mcanlng, lndcxlng both thc spcclal status o|
lts ovncr and thc ovncrs spcclal rclatlonshlp to a vay o| ll|c that ls no
l ongcr avallablc. Jhc lattcr ls vhat makcs patlna a truly scarcc rcsourcc,
|or lt alvays lndlcatcs thc |act that a vay o| llvlng ls nov gonc |orcvcr. Yct
thls vcry |act ls a guarantcc agalnst thc ncvly arrlvcd, |or thcy can acqulrc
ob|ccts vlth patlna, but ncvcr thc subtly cmbodlcd angulsh o| thosc vho
can lcgltlmatcly bcmoan thc loss o| a vay o| ll|c. aturally, good lmpos-
tors may scck to mlmlc thls nostalglc posturc as vcll, but hcrc both pcr
|ormanccs and rcvlcvs arc a morc tlghtly rcgulatcd a||alr. lt ls hardcr to
prctcnd to havc lost somcthlng than lt is to actually do so or to clalm to
havc |ound lt. lcrc, matcrlal vcar cannot dlsgulsc soclal rupturc.
Jhc c||ort to lnculcatc nostalgla ls a ccntral |caturc o| modcrn mcr-
chandlslng and ls bcst sccn ln thc graphlcs and tcxts o| gl|t-ordcr catalogs
in thc Onltcd Statcs. Jhcsc catalogs usc a var|cty o| rhctorlcal dcvlccs, but
cspcclally vhcn lt comcs to clothlng, |urnlturc, and dcslgn, thcy play vlth
C e n s j t | e n , D t o t i e n , a n J H | s t e t y
= 76 =
many kinds o| nostalgia. nostalgia |or bygonc li|cstylcs, matcrial asscm-
blagcs, li|c stagcs ,such as childhood), landscapcs ,o| thc Curricr and |vcs
varicty), sccncs ,o| thc orman Kockvcll smalltovn varicty), and so on
luch has bccn vrittcn about thcsc mattcrs, and vc nov havc somc cxccl-
lcnt vork on thc rclationship o| nostalgia and authcnticity to collcctions,
toys, and spcctaclcs ,brcckcnridgc I 989, Stcvart I 984). but vhat has not
bccn cxplorcd is thc |act that such nostalgia, as |ar as mass mcrchandising
is conccrncd, docs not principally involvc thc cvocation o| a scntimcnt to
vhich consumcrs vho rcally havc lost somcthing can rcspond Kathcr,
thcsc |orms o| mass advcrtising tcach consumcrs to miss things thcy havc
ncvcr lost ,|albvachs I 980). Jhat is, thcy crcatc cxpcricnccs o| duration,
passagc, and loss that rcvritc thc livcd historics o| individuals, |amilics,
cthnic groups, and classcs. ln thus crcating cxpcricnccs o| losscs that ncvcr
took placc, thcsc advcrtiscmcnts crcatc vhat might bc callcd imagincd
nostalgia, nostalgia |or things that ncvcr vcrc Jhis imagincd nostalgia
thus invcrts thc tcmporal logic o| |antasy ,vhich tutors thc sub|cct to
imaginc vhat could or might happcn) and crcatcs much dccpcr vants than
simplc cnvy, imitation, or grccd could by thcmsclvcs invitc.
Jhc hnal tvist i n thc pcculiar logic o| nostalgia in thc politics o| mass
consumption involvcs vhat rcdric }amcson has callcd nostalgia |or thc
prcscnt, a tcrm hc uscs to discuss ccrtain rcccnt hlms that pro|cct a |uturc
|rom vhosc pcrspcctivc thc prcscnt is not only historicizcd but also mis-
rccognizcd as somcthing thc vicvcr has alrcady lost , I 989). }amcsons
idca, illuminating in rcgard to ccrtain strands in popular cincma and litcra
turc today, can bc cxtcndcd morc vidcly to thc vorld o| mass mcrchandis
ing. ostalgia |or thc prcscnt, thc stylizcd prcscntation o| thc prcscnt as i|
it has alrcady slippcd avay, charactcrizcs a vcry largc numbcr o| tclcvision
advcrtiscmcnts, cspccially thosc dircctcd at thc youth markct. A vholc
ncv vidco acsthctic has cmcrgcd, most notably in thc campaigns |or lcpsi,
Lcvi |cans, and Kalph Laurcn outhts, in vhich contcmporary sccncs arc lit,
chorcographcd, and shot in a way that crcatcs a sort o| back- to-thc-|uturc
cthos. sparc, surrcal, scicncchctionish in ccrtain rcgards, unmistakably
cvocativc o| thc sixtics ,or h|tics) in othcr rcgards Wc may vish to labcl
much o| this acsthctic as bascd on a kind o| histoirc noirc brackcting thc
prcscnt in this pcculiar vay, and thus making it alrcady thc ob|cct o| a his-
torical scnsibility, thcsc imagcs put thc consumcr in an alrcady pcriodizcd
prcscnt, thus cvcn rcadicr prcy to thc vclocity o| |ashion buy nov, not bc-
causc you vill othcrvisc bc out o| datc but bccausc your pcriod vill soon
bc out o| datc.
Jhus, nostalgia and |ashion crccp up unknovingly on onc anothcr, not
C c n s a j t i c n , D a r o | i c n , o n J H i s t c r y
= 77 =
]ust bccausc nostalgia is a clcvcr i nstrumcnt o| thc mcrchandiscrs toolbox,
but bccausc thc continuous changc o| small |caturcs ,that is at thc hcart o|
|ashion) nov has acquircd a rccycling dimcnsion, cspccially i n thc Onitcd
Statcs, that is rcmarkablc. Kummaging through history has bccomc a stan-
dard tcchniquc o| advcrtising, cspccially o| visual and clcctronic ads, as a
vay to drav on thc gcnuinc nostalgia o| agc groups |or pasts thcy actually
knov through othcr cxpcricnccs, but also as a vay to undcrl inc thc inhcr-
cnt cphcmcrality o| thc prcscnt. Catalogs that cxploit thc colonial cxpcri-
cncc |or mcrchandising purposcs arc an cxccllcnt cxamplc o| this tcch-
niquc ,Smith I 988) . Jhis inculcatcd scntimcnt, calculatcd to intcnsi|y thc
tcmpo o| purchasing by toying vith thc mcrchandiscrs vcrsion o| thc cnd
o| history, is thc latcst tvist in thc compact bctvccn nostalgia and |antasy
in modcrn mcrchandising. Kathcr than cxpccting thc consumcr to supply
mcmorics vhilc thc mcrchandiscr supplics thc lubricant o| nostalgia, nov
thc vicvcr nccd only bring thc |aculty o| nostalgia to an imagc that vill
supply thc mcmory o| a loss hc or shc has ncvcr su||crcd. Jhis rclationship
might bc callcd armchair nostalgia, nostalgia vithout livcd cxpcricncc or
collcctivc historical mcmory. Cnc mcthodological issuc hcrc is intcrprc-
tivc. vhcn vc considcr thosc imagcs to vhich modcrn consumcrs rcspond,
vc nccd to distinguish di||crcnt tcxturcs o| tcmporality |rom onc anothcr.
Wc nccd to discriminatc bctvccn thc |orcc o| nostalgia in its primary |orm
and thc crsatz nostalgia on vhich mass mcrchandising i ncrcasingly dravs
and to attcnd to hov thcsc tvo might rclatc in thc consumption pattcrns
o| di||crcnt groups. Jhc othcr mcthodological issuc is simply a mattcr o|
paying attcntion to thc paradoxical rcgularity vith vhich patina and |ash-
ion i n socictics o| mass consumption |ccd and rcin|orcc onc othcr. lass-
mcrchandising tcchniqucs not only construct timc, as vas suggcstcd car-
licr, but also inhucncc pcriodization as a mass cxpcricncc in contcmporary
socictics.
Lct us rcturn briclly to thc issuc o| rcpctition in rclation to consump-
tion, touchcd on i n thc prcvious discussion. |ov can vc conncct thc
problcm o| rcpctition to thc issucs o| |antasy, nostalgia, and consumption
in contcmporary consumcr socictics lnso|ar as consumption is incrcas-
ingly drivcn by rummaging through imagincd historics, rcpctition is not
simply bascd on thc |unctioning o| simulacra - timc, but also on thc |orcc
o| thc simulacra a timc. Jhat is, consumption not only crcatcs timc,
through its pcriodicitics, but thc vorkings o| crsatz nostalgia crcatc thc
simulacra o| pcriods that constitutc thc |lov o| timc, conccivcd as lost,
abscnt, or distant. Jhus, thc |orvard-looking habituation to prcdictablc
stylcs, |orms, and gcnrcs, vhich drivcs commodity consumption onvard
C o r s a p t | o r , D a r a t i o r , a r J H i s t o r
= 78 =
as a multlpllcatlvc and opcncndcd actlvlty, ls povcrcd by an lmploslvc,
rctrospcctlvc constructlon o| tlmc, l n vhlch rcpctltlon ls ltscl| an artl|act
o| crsatz nostalgla and lmaglncd prccursory momcnts.
!o: CaaJ(jcatiar a]1i:
Consumptlon not only crcatcs tlmc, but consumcr rcvo|utlons arc also rc-
sponslblc |or thc commodlhcatlon o| tlmc l n a varlcty o| vays. Jhc gcn-
cral lcad ln thls arca ls, o| coursc, ovcd to L. | Jhompson, vho, bulldlng
on Karl larx, shovcd hov thc dlsclpllncs o| thc l ndustrlal vorkplacc crc-
atc nccds |or thc rcglmcntatlon o| labor by thc prlor rcstructurlng o| tlmc
ltscl|. Lxtcndlng thc trans|ormatlon o| labor lnto a commodlty, labor tlmc
bccomcs an abstract dlmcnslon o| tlmc cxpcrlcnccd as |undamcntally pro-
ductlvc and l ndustrlal. Jhompson ldcntlhcs thc loglc that |cads to latcr
Jaylorcan l dcas about thc body, motlon, and productlvlty |Jhompson
I 967). lodcrn ldcas o| productlon thus havc tlmc as a salablc cntlty at
thclr hcart, cvoklng bcn|amln rankllns homlly that "tlmc ls moncy.
but vc havc had |cvcr |undamcntal lnslghts lnto thc commodlhcatlon
o| tlmc sccn |rom thc consumcrs polnt o| vlcv. ln carly l ndustrlal socl -
ctlcs, vhcrc l ndustrlal tlmc scts thc rhythm o| thc vork cyclc, productlon
dchncs vork, and consumptlon ls rcndcrcd rcsldual along vlth | clsurc,
vhlch comcs to bc rccognlzcd loglcally as thc rcvard |or productlon tlmc
vcll uscd Consumptlon cvolvcs as thc phcnomcnologlcal markcr o| tlmc
lc|t ovcr |rom vork, produccd by vork, and ]ustlhcd by vork. Lclsurc ac-
tlvltlcs bccomc thc vcry dchnltlon o| dlscrctlonary consumptlon | Ko]ck
I 987) , and consumptlon bccomcs thc proccss that crcatcs thc condltlons
|or thc rcncvcd labor or cntrcpicncurlal cncrgy rcqulrcd |or productlon.
Jhus, consumptlon ls sccn as thc rcqulrcd lntcrval bctvccn pcrlods o|
productlon.
but oncc tlmc ls commodlhcd, lt a||ccts consumptlon l n ncv vays.
lrst, thc dcgrcc o| tlmc ovcr vhlch onc has dlscrctlonary control bccomcs
an l ndcx |or ranklng and dlstlngulshlng varlous klnds o| vork, class, and
occupatlon rcc tlmc, vhcthcr |or vorkcrs, pro|csslonals, or school
chlldrcn, ls sccn as qulntcsscntlally thc tlmc o| consumptlon, and bccausc
dlscrctlonary consumptlon calls both |or |rcc tlmc |tlmc |rccd o| commod
lhcd constralnts) and |rcc moncy, at lcast to somc dcgrcc, consumptlon bc
comcs a tcmporal markcr o| lclsurc, o| tlmc avay |rom vork. Whcn con-
sumptlon ls trans|ormcd lnto contcmporary |orms o| lclsurc, vhcrc both
spacc and tlmc mark dlstancc |rom vork, vc cntcr thc vorld o| thc luxury
crulsc and thc packagcd vacatlon, commodlhcd as tlmc out o| tlmc. but
C o n : j t | e n , D t o t | e n , o n J H | s t e t y
= 79
cvcryonc vho has takcn a vacation vithin thc highly constraincd cir-
cumstanccs o| an i ndustrial socicty knovs that thc commodity clock o|
productivc timc ncvcr ccascs to opcratc. Jhis somctimcs lcads to thc para-
dox incrcasingly charactcristic o| industrial lcisurc thc harricd vacation,
packcd vith so many act|vitics, sccncs, and choiccs, vhosc purposc is to
crcatc a hypcrtimc o| lcisurc, that thc vacation indccd bccomcs a |orm o|
vork, o| |rcnctic lcisurclcisurc cvcr conscious o| its |orthcoming rcn-
dczvous vith vork timc.
| n |act, thcrc is rcally littlc cscapc |rom thc rhythms o| industrial pro-
duction, |or vhcrcvcr lcisurc is rcliably availablc, and socially acccptablc,
vhat is rcquircd is not only |rcc timc but disposablc incomc. Jo consumc,
vhcthcr in scarch o| subsistcncc or lcisurc, vc havc to lcarn to contain
moncy, that most huid o| valucs As lary Louglas has pointcd out, moncy
alvays thrcatcns to slip through thc cracks o| thc structurcs vc build to
dam, husband, and rcstrict its crratic |lovs , I 967). l n thosc industrial soci-
ctics vhcrc consumcr dcbt has bccomc monstrously largc, hnancial insti-
tutions havc cxploitcd thc proclivity o| consumcrs to spcnd bc|orc rathcr
than a|tcr thcy savc. rom thc consumcrs point o| vicv, thcy arc not sim-
plc dupcs o| an cxploitativc systcm o| hnancial lcnding. Jhc crcdit ccon-
omy is also a vay o| cnhancing buying povcr in thc |acc o| hugc salary di|-
|crcntials, an cxplosivc grovth in vhat is buyablc, grcat intcnsihcation i n
thc spccd vith vhich |ashions changc, and thc likc. Lcbt is incomc cx-
pansion by othcr mcans. C| coursc, |rom ccrtain pcrspcctivcs, paying
largc amounts o| i ntcrcst to scrvicc consumcr dcbt is not hcalthy. but |rom
vhosc point o| vicv Jhc consumcr can ratchct up his or hcr purchascs, h-
nancial institutions makc a killing, and thcrc is pcriodic bloodlctting, i n
thc |orm o| cithcr ma|or collapscs likc thc rcccnt savings and l oan cata-
strophc i n thc Onitcd Statcs or brutal incrcascs i n intcrcst ratcs that as-
phyxiatc consumcr cxpcnditurc |or a vhilc.
l n |act, as thc immcnsc popularity o| magazincs such as Nonr in thc
Onitcd Statcs attcsts, consumption in complcx industrial socictics is nov a
vcry complicatcd skill that rcquircs knovlcdgc o| a l argc varicty o| hscal
and cconomic mystcrics, ranging |rom stock-markct volatilitics to housing
starts and l- I . | n thc past dccadc, morc Amcrican consumcrs havc had to
bccomc

tcratc in thc mystcrics o| macrocconomics than cvcr bc|orc, at

lcast to thc dcgrcc that thcy arc |orccd to cntcr thc mazc o| consumcr
lcnding. C| coursc, thcrc is a groving group at thc bottom, notably thc
homclcss, vho havc spcnt thcir chips and must nov vatch, or dic, on thc
sidclincs, as thcir |ricnds and collcagucs strugglc vith thc roulcttc o| con-
sumcr dcbt managcmcnt. Jhc rclcvancc o| thcsc proccsscs to thc argu-
C a r s p t | a r . D r a t | a r , a r J H | s t a r
= 80 =
mcnt at hand is that in socictics likc thc Onitcd Statcs, thcrc is cmcrging a
gigantic, i| silcnt, strugglc bctvccn consumcrs and ma|or lcndcrs, vhcrc at
issuc arc rival undcrstandings o| thc |uturc as a commodity. Whcrc bankcrs
and othcr lcndcrs arc cagcr to cncouragc borroving ,thcir ma]o: challcngc
is to minimizc bad loans) , thc consumcr has to dchnc an opcn-cndcd tcm-
poral horizon vithin vhich thc discounting o| thc |uturc is an cxtrcmcly
tricky busincss. Kcccnt dcbatcs in thc Onitcd Statcs ovcr rcductions in thc
Social Sccurity tax rcvcal that most Amcrican consumcrs arc prcy to a va-
ricty o| distortcd pcrccptions about thc taxcs to vhich thcy arc sub|cct. A
good part o| this con|usion is rootcd in thc dc|ormation o| thc cxpcricncc
o| timc by thc structurcs that currcntly organizc consumcr dcbt. otablc
among thcsc is thc typc o| crcdit linc, bascd on homc cquity, through
vhich consumcrs can simply vritc chccks against somc spccihcd largc sum
that dchncs thc banks scnsc o| thcir ability to pay. What this involvcs is
taking thc small pcriodicitics o| thc avcragc crcdit card and turning thcm
into a scductivc vista o| |lcxiblc purchasing povcr, vhich ultimatcly pro|-
its banks and rctail busincsscs vhilc putting incrcasing strain on houschold
incomcs to scrvicc thcsc loans.
Jhis |caturc o| thc crcation o| timc disciplinc on thc consumption sidc
o| advanccd i ndustrial socictics is not a simplc rc|lcx, or invcrsion, o| thc
logic o| industrial production. Jhc pcculiar commodihcation o| thc |uturc,
vhich is at thc hcart o| currcnt consumcr dcbt, is intimatcly ticd to thc
structurc o| mcrchandising, |ashion, and |antasy that vcrc discusscd in thc
prcvious scction Latc i ndustrial consumption rclics on a pcculiar tcnsion
bctvccn |antasy and nostalgia that givcs substancc |and sustcnancc) to
consumcr unccrtainty about commoditics, moncy, and thc rclationship bc-
tvccn vork and lcisurc. |t is not simply thc casc that consumption plays
thc ccntral rolc in socictics vhcrc production oncc did, as baudrillard has
argucd , I 975), morc to thc point, consumption has bccomc thc civilizing
vork o| postindustrial socicty ,Llias I 978) . Jo spcak o| contcmporary i n-
dustrial socictics as consumcr socictics is to crcatc thc illusion that thcy arc
simply cxtcnsions o| carlicr consumcr rcvolutions but consumption today
trans|orms thc cxpcricncc o| timc in a vay that |undamcntally distin-
guishcs it |rom its cightccnth- and ninctccnth-ccntury prcdcccssors.
Jhus, largc-scalc innovations in lcnding havc had a rcmarkablc cultural
c||cct. Jhcy havc crcatcd an opcn-cndcd rathcr than cyclic climatc |or
consumcr borroving. thcy havc thcrcby linkcd borroving to thc long, li n-
car scnsc o| a l i |ctimc o| potcntial carnings and thc cqually opcn-cndcd
scnsc o| thc grovth valuc o| asscts such as houscs, rathcr than to thc short
and inhcrcntly rcstrictivc cyclcs o| monthly or annual incomc. Consump-
C o r s u j t | o r , D u t a t | o r . a r J H | s t o t
= 8 I =
tion has thus bccomc not thc horizon o| carning but its cnginc |or a vast
numbcr o| consumcrs in contcmporary industrial socictics or thc anthro-
pologist, vhat is striking hcrc ,apart |rom thc many implications |or sav-
ings, productivity, invcstmcnt, cross-gcncrational cntitlcmcnts, and thc
likc) is that thc small pcriodicitics |typically daily oncs) o| consumption
havc nov bccomc subtly contcxtualizcd in an opcn, lincar scnsc o| thc
vcry rhythm o| consumcr l i |c. Jhc cquivalcnt o| Jhompsons timc disci-
plinc nov rcigns not ]ust in thc rcalm o| production but also i n thc rcalm
o| consumption. but ticd as it is to uncvcn, complcx, and o|tcn long pcri-
odicitics, thcsc tcmporal disciplincs o| consumption arc morc povcr|ul bc-
causc thcy arc lcss transparcnt than thc disciplincs o| production. Anyonc
vho has tricd to hgurc out thc cxact logic o| thc hnancc chargc on a
monthly lastcrCard bill vill knov about thc unccrtainty to vhich | rc|cr.
but it is not simply thc casc that consumption has nov bccomc thc dri -
ving |orcc o| i ndustrial socicty Jhc |act is that consumption is nov thc so
cial practicc through vhich pcrsons arc dravn into thc vork o| |antasy
,chaps. I and 2) . |t is thc daily practicc through vhich nostalgia and |an-
tasy arc dravn togcthcr in a vorld o| commodihcd ob]ccts. ln thc prcvious
discussion, l argucd that a sort o| crsatz nostalgianostalgia vithout
mcmoryvas incrcasingly ccntral to mass mcrchandising and that thc
intcrplay o| patina and |ashion vas thus paradoxical. | vould nov suggcst
that thc commodihcation o| timc on thc consumption sidc implics morc
than thc slmplc cxpansion o| vants, stylcs, ob]ccts, and cho|ccs vitncsscd
i n carlicr consumcr rcvolutions. What vc havc nov is somcthing bcyond a
consumcr rcvolution, somcthing vc may call a rcvolution o| consump-
tion, ln vhich consumption has bccomc thc principal vork o| latc indus-
trial socicty. by this | do not mcan that thcrc havc not bccn important
changcs in production or in thc sitcs, mcthods, tcchnologics, and organi-
zations |or manu|acturing commodtics
Consumption has nov bccomc a scrious |orm o| vork, hovcvcr, i| by
ucr| vc mcan thc disciplincd ,skillcd and scmiskillcd) production o| thc
mcans o| consumcr subsistcncc. Jhc hcart o| this vork is thc social disci-
plinc o| thc imagination, thc disciplinc o| lcarning to link |antasy and nos
talgia to thc dcsirc |or ncv bundlcs o| commoditics. Jhis is not to rcducc
vork to a palc mctaphor, mirroring its strong anchoragc in production. |t
is to suggcst that lcarning hov to navigatc thc opcn- cndcd tcmporal |lovs
o| consumcr crcdit and purchasc, in a landscapc vhcrc nostalgia has bc-
comc divorccd |rom mcmory, involvcs ncv |orms o| labor. thc labor o|
rcading cvcr-shi|ting |ashion mcssagcs, thc labor o| dcbt scrvicing, thc
labor o| lcarning hov bcst to managc ncvly complcx domcstic hnanccs,
C e n s j t e n , D r o t e n , a n J H s t e r y
~ 82 =
and thc labor o| acquiring knov'cdgc in thc complcxitics o| moncy man
agcmcnt. Jhis labor is not princ.pally targctcd at thc production o| com
moditics but is dircctcd at producing thc conditions o| consciousncss in
vhich buin can occur. Lvcry houscvi|c knovs that housckccping is vork
as rcal as any othcr. Wc arc all housckccpcrs nov, laboring daily to prac
ticc thc disciplincs o| purchasc in a landscapc vhosc tcmporal structurcs
havc bccomc radically polyrhythmic. Lcarning thcsc multiplc rhythms ,o|
bodics, products, |ashions, intcrcst ratcs, gi|ts, and stylcs) and hov to intc
gratc thcm is not ]ust vorkit is thc hardcst sort o| vork, thc vork o| thc
imagination. Wc arc back thcn to Lurkhcim and lauss and thc naturc o|
thc collcctivc consciousncss, but nov vith a tvist. Jhc vork o| consump-
tion is as |ully social as it is symbolic, no lcss vork |or involving thc disci
plinc o| thc imagination. but incrcasingly |rccd |rom thc tcchniqucs o| thc
body, thc vork o| consumption is all thc morc opcn-cndcd, situatcd in his-
torics and gcncalogics vhosc con]uncturc has to bc cxamincd, alas, casc
by casc. Jhc study o| consumption vill nccd to attcnd to thc historical, so
cial, and cultural conditions undcr vhich such vork un|olds as thc ccntral
prcoccupation o| othcrwisc vcry di||crcnt contcmporary socictics.
Carclasiar
rom tvo vcry di||crcnt dircctions, onc draving on lax Wcbcr and thc
othcr on orbcrt Llias, Colin Campbcll , I 987) and Chris Ko|ck | I 987)
suggcst that thc kcy to modcrn |orms o| consumcrism is p|rusurr, not lcisurc
,thc crucial altcrnativc |or Ko|ck) or satis|action ,thc crucial altcrnativc |or
Campbcll ) . Jhis turn to plcasurc as thc organizing principlc o| modcrn
consumption convcrgcs vith my ovn argumcnt in thc last tvo scctions o|
this chaptcr, but it rcmains nov to shov hov thc sort o| plcasurc |havc in
mind rclatcs to my argumcnts about timc, vork, and thc body.
As |ar as thc cxpcricncc o| timc is conccrncd, thc plcasurc that lics at
thc ccntcr o| modcrn consumption is ncithcr thc plcasurc o| thc tcnsion
bctvccn |antasy and utility |as Campbcll suggcsts) nor thc tcnsion bc-
tvccn i ndividual dcsirc and collcctivc disciplincs |Ko]cks proposal), al
though thcsc lattcr contrasts arc rclcvant to any largcr account o| modcrn
consumcrism. Jhc plcasurc that has bccn inculcatcd into thc sub|ccts vho
act as modcrn consumcrs is to bc |ound in thc tcnsion bctvccn nostalgia
and |antasy, vhcrc thc prcscnt is rcprcscntcd as i| it vcrc alrcady past. Jhis
inculcation o| thc plcasurc o| rpormrru||t is at thc hcart o| thc disci plining
o| thc modcrn consumcr. Jhc valorization o| cphcmcrality cxprcsscs itscl|
at a varicty o| social and cultural lcvcls. thc short shcl| l i |c o| products and
C e n s j | i e n , D t o t i e n , o n J H i s t e t y
= 8 3 =
li|cstylcs, thc spccd o| |ashion changc, thc vclocity o| cxpcnditurc, thc
polyrhythms o| crcdit, acquisition, and gi|t, thc transicncc o| tclcvision-
product imagcs, thc aura o| pcriodization that hangs ovcr both products
and l i |cstylcs in thc imagcry o| mass mcdia. Jhc much-vauntcd |caturc o|
modcrn consumptionnamcly, thc scarch |or novcltyis only a symp-
tom o| a dccpcr disciplinc o| consumption in vhich dcsirc is organizcd
around thc acsthctic o| cphcmcrality. |ockcts o| rcsistancc arc cvcry-
vhcrc, as aristocrats battcn dovn thcir sumptuary hatchcs, as vorking
classcs and othcr discn|ranchiscd groups appropriatc and rcsist mass acs-
thctics, and as statcs throughout thc vorld scck immortality by |rcczing
cultural di||crcncc. but thc dominant |orcc, sprcading through thc con-
suming classcs o| thc vorld, appcars to bc thc cthic, acsthctic, and matcr-
ial practicc o| thc cphcmcral .
|| this valorization o| cphcmcrality is i ndccd thc kcy to modcrn con-
sumption, thcn thc tcchniqucs o| thc body di||cr i n vhat vcrc carlicr
contrastcd as sumptuary and |ashion rcgimcs. |n sumptuary rcgimcs, thc
body is a sitc |or thc inscription o| a varicty o| signs and valucs about idcn-
tity and di||crcncc, as vcll as about duration |through thc ritcs o| passagc) .
| n rcgimcs o| |ashion, thc body i s thc sitc |or thc inscription o| a gcncral-
izcd dcsirc to consumc in thc contcxt o| thc acsthctic o| cphcmcral ity. Jhc
tcchniqucs o| thc body appropriatc to this modcrn consumption rcgimc
involvc vhat Laura lulvcy has callcd scopophilia |thc lovc o| gazing)
, I 975), a varicty o| tcchniqucs |ranging |rom dicts to scx-changc opcra-
tions) |or body changc that makc thc body o| thc consumcr itscl| potcn-
tially cphcmcral and manipulablc, and a systcm o| body-rclatcd |ashion
practiccs in vhich imprrsonution |o| othcr gcndcrs, classcs, rolcs, and occu-
pations), not indcxing, is thc kcy to distinction |Savchuk I 988) .
Jhis notion o| thc manipulation o| thc body, as vcll as my gcncral ar-
gumcnt about consumption as vork, raiscs thc qucstion o| hov thc acs-
thctic o| cphcmcrality, thc plcasurc o| thc gazc |particularly i n rclation to
tclcvision advcrtisi ng) , and thc manipulability o| thc body add up to any-
thing |undamcntally ncv, a|tcr all, consumption, particularly at thc |cvcl
o| thc houschold, alvays involvcd drudgcry, visual plcasurc is not a mod-
crn prcrogativc, and manipulating thc body is as old as gymnastics i n
Sparta and yogic praxis in ancicnt |ndia. What is ncv is thc ssfrmufic and
rnrru|izrd linkagc o| thcsc thrcc |actors into a sct o| practiccs that involvc a
radically ncv rclationship among vanting, rcmcmbcring, bcing, and buy-
ing. Jhc historics and gcncalogics that crisscross | i n thc vorld o| thc prc-
scnt) to constitutc this ncv rclationship arc dccply variablc, although thcy
havc thc valorization o| cphcmcrality at thcir hcart. Consumption crcatcs
C a r s a j t | a r , D a r a t | a r . a r J H | s t a r
= q =
timc, but modcrn consumption sccks to rcplacc thc acsthctics o| duration
vith thc acsthctics o| cphcmcrality.
Although thc |ull pursuit o| thc rclation among bodics, consumption,
|ashion, and tcmporality in latc capitalism is bcyond thc scopc o| this
chaptcr, onc suggcstion is vorth making by vay o| conclusion. ln hcr rc-
ccnt cssay on thc imagcry o| thc immunc systcm in contcmporary scicn-
tihc and popular discourscs i n thc Onitcd Statcs, Lmily lartin ( I 992) has
dravn on thc vork o| Lavid |arvcy ( I 989) and othcrs to shov that i n thc
contcxt o| thc |lcxibility dcmandcd by contcmporary global capitalism,
thcrc has bccn a grcat dcal o| comprcssion o| timc and spacc, and thc
body comcs to bc sccn as a chaotic, hypcr|lcxiblc sitc, riddcn vith contra-
dictions and var|arc. Jhc argumcnt | havc madc in this chaptcr is to sug-
gcst that this situation can also bc lookcd at |rom thc point o| vicv o| thc
logic o| consumption in a highly globalizcd, unruly, latc capitalism. rom
this pcrspcctivc, thc acsthctic o| cphcmcrality bccomcs thc civilizing
countcrpart o| |lcxiblc accumulation, and thc vork o| thc imagination is to
l i nk thc cphcmcrality o| goods vith thc plcasurcs o| thc scnscs. Con-
sumption thus bccomcs thc kcy link bctvccn nostalgia |or capitalism and
capitalist nostalgia.
C o r s u j t i o r . D u r a t i o r , a r J H i s t o r y
= 85 =
A K l l
N.: :r
|. | .r:: s
J
l8l0 Wlh N006f0l!
1h6 6C0l00l2800 0 0080 LflCK6
orIhc |ormcrcolony, dccolonizaIionisadialogucwiIh IhccolonialpasI,
andnoIasimplcdismanIlingo|colonialhabiIsandmodcso|li|c.lowhcrc
arcIhccomplcxiIicsandambiguiIicso| Ihis dialogucmorccvidcnI Ihan in
Ihc vicissiIudcs o| crickcI in Ihosc counIrics IhaI wcrc oncc parI o| Ihc
briIish Lmpirc. n Ihc ndian casc, Ihc culIural aspccIs o| dccolonizaIion
dccply a||ccI cvcry domain o|public li|c, |rom languagc andIhc arIs Io
idcasabouI poliIical rcprcscnIaIion andcconomic|usIicc. ncvcry ma|or
publicdcbaIcinconIcmporary ndia, oncundcrlyingsIrandisalwaysIhc
qucsIion o|whaI Io do wiIh Ihcshrcds and paIchcs o| Ihc colonial hcri-
Iagc. Somc o|Ihcsc paIchcs arc insIiIuIional, oIhcrsarc i dcological and
acsIhcIic.
lalcolm luggcridgc oncc |okcdIhaI ndians wcrc Ihc lasI living
Lnglishmcn, Ihus capIuringIhc|acI-Iruc aI lcasI o|Ihcurbanizcd and
WcsIcrnizcdcliIcs o|ndiaIhaIwhilcLngland iIscl|bccamc gradually
dcnaIurcdasiIlosIiIsLmpirc,aspccIso|iIshcriIagcIookdccprooIin Ihc
colonics. ln Ihc arcas o| poliIics and cconomics, Ihc spccial rclaIionship
bcIwccn ndia andLngland hasvcry liIIlc mcaning anymorc, as Lngland
sIrivcs Io ovcrcomc cconomic disasIcrandndians rcach ouIi ncrcasingly
IoIhcLniIcdSIaIcs,IhcliddlcLasI, andIhcrcsIo|IhcAsianworld. buI
Ihcrc i sa parI o| | ndian culIurc Ioday IhaI sccms |orcvcrIo bc Lng|and,
oU

andthatiscrickct. t thcrc|orc isworth cxaminingthcdynamicso|dccol-

onization in this sphcrc,whcrc thc urgc tocutthc ticswith thc colonial
pastsccmswcakcst.
hcproccssbywhichcrickctgraduallybccamcindigcnizcdincolonial
ndiacanbcstbc cnvisioncdbymakingadistinctionbctwccn hard and
so|tcultural |orms. lardcultural |ormsarcthoscthatcomcwithascto|
links bctwccnvaluc, mcaning, andcmbodicdpracticc thatarc di|hcultto
brcak and hard to trans|orm. So|t cultural |orms, bycontrast, arc thosc
that pcrmit rclativcly casy scparation o| cmbodicd pcr|ormancc |rom
mcaning andvaluc, and rclativcly succcss|ul trans|ormation atcach lcvcl.
n tcrms o|this distinction, wouldsuggcstthatcrickctisa hardcultural
|orm that changcs thoscwho arc socializcd into it morc rcadilythan it is
itscl|changcd.
Lncrcasonthatcrickct is notcasilysusccptiblc torcintcrprctation as
it crosscs social boundarics is that thc valucs it rcprcscnts arc, at thcir
hcart,puritanoncs, i nwhich rigidadhcrcncc to cxtcrnalcodcs isparto|
thc disciplinc o|intcrnal moral dcvclopmcntamcs I J, chap. 2) . lot
unlikc thc dcsign principlcs o| thc bauhaus, |orm hcrc closcly |ollows
,moral) |unction. o somccxtcnt,all rulc-govcrncdsporthassomco|this
hardquality, but it is arguably morc prcscnt i n thosc compctitivc |orms
that comc to cncapsulatc thc corc moral valucs o| thc socicty in which
thcyarcborn.
hus, crickctas ahardcultural |ormought torcsistindigcnization. n
|act,countcrintuitivcly, ithasbccomcpro|oundlyindigcnizcdanddccolo-
nizcd, and ndia is o|tcn sccn as su||cring |rom avcritablccrickct|cvcr
, luri I 82) . hcrc arc two ways to account |or this puzzlc. hc hrst, rc-
ccntly suggcstcdby Ashis landy , I 8b), isthatthcrc arc mythic struc-
turcs bcncath thc sur|acc o| thc sport that makc it pro|oundly ndian in
spitc o|itsWcstcrn historical origins. hcaltcrnativc approach ,although
itisnotcntirclyinconsistcntwithmanyo|landys insights into crickcti n
ndia) is that crickct bccamc i ndigcnizcd through a sct o| complcx and
contradictory proccsscs that parallcl thc cmcrgcncc o|an ndiannation
|romthcbritishLmpirc.hcargumcntdcvclopcdi nthischaptcristhati n-
digcnization iso|tcn a product o|collcctivcandspcctacular cxpcrimcnts
with modcrnity, andnotncccssarilyo|thc subsur|acc a|hnity o|ncwcul-
tural |ormswithcxistingpattcrnsinthccul turalrcpcrtoirc.
hc indigcnization o|a sport likc crickcthas many dimcnsions. ithas
somcthingtodowiththcwaythcsportismanagcd, patronizcd, andpub
licizcd,ithassomcthingtodowiththcclassbackgroundo|ndianplaycrs
andthuswith thcircapabilitytomimicVictorian clitcvalucs,ithassomc-
P l o y | q m | t | M e J : r | i y

0
IhingIodo wiIh Ihc dialccIicbcIwccn IcamspiriIandnaIionalscnIimcnI,
which is inhcrcnI in Ihc sporIandis impliciIly corrosivc o|Ihc bonds o|
cmpirc,iIhassomcIhingIo dowiIhIhcwayinwhicharcscrvoiro|IalcnI
iscrcaIcdandnurIurcdouIsidcthcurbancliIcs, so IhaIIhcsporIcan bc-
comc inIcrnally scl|-susIaining, iI has somcIhing Io do wiIh Ihc ways in
which mcdia and languagc hclp Io unyokc crickcI |rom iIs Lnglishncss,
andiIhas somcIhing Io do wiIh Ihc consIrucIion o|a posIcolonial malc
spccIaIorshipIhaIcan chargc crickcIwiIh Ihc powcr o|bodily compcIi-
IionandvirilcnaIionalism.Lacho|IhcscproccsscsinIcracIcdwiIhoncan-
oIhcrIoindigcnizccrickcIi nndia, i nawayIhaIisdisIincI|rom Ihcpar-
allcl proccss in oIhcr briIish colonics. ,or somc scnsc o|Ihc diaspora o|
crickcIIhroughIhccmpircasawholc, sccAllcn I 985. )
Lbviously, Ihc sIory o| crickcI dcpcnds on Ihc vanIagc poinI |rom
which iI isIold. hc rcmarkablc implicaIions o|Ihc hisIory o| crickcI in
Ihc Laribbcan havc bccn immorIalizcd in Ihc corpus o| L. L. K. )amcs
, I 93, sccalsoLiawara I 990andbirbalsingh I 98). AusIralianshavchad
a long sIrugglc-dramaIizcd i n crickcIIo brcak |rcc o|Ihc sancIimo-
nious and paIronizing way in which Ihcyarc rcgardcd by Ihc Lnglish.
SouIhA|rica hnds in crickcI ycIanoIhcrcon|licIcdway Io rcconcilc iIs
bocrandLnglish gcncalogics. buIiIis i nIhccolonicsoccupicdbyblack
andbrownpcoplcsIhaIIhcsIoryo|crickcIismosIanguishcdandsubIlc.
in Ihc Laribbcan, lakisIan, ndia, and Sri Lanka ,on Ihc lasI, scc KobcrIs
I 985) . do noI prcIcnd IhaI whaI crickcI implics abouI dccolonizaIion
|romIhc ndianpcrspccIivcholdsgood|orcvcryoIhcr|ormcrcolony,buI
iIissurclyoncparIo|IhclargcrsIoryo|IhcconsIrucIiono|aposIcolonial
andglobalculIural |ramcwork|orIcamsporI.
t Coorio| ctrt
I is no cxaggcraIion Io suggcsI IhaI crickcI camc closcr Ihan any oIhcr
public |orm Io disIilling, consIiIuIing, and communicaIing Ihc valucs o|
Ihc VicIorian uppcr classcs i n Lngland Io Lnglish gcnIlcmcn as parI o|
IhcircmbodicdpracIiccs, andIo oIhcrs asa mcans |or apprchcndingIhc
class codcs o| Ihc pcriod. Is hisIory in Lnglandgocs back inIo Ihc prc-
colonialpcriod, andIhcrcisliIIlc doubIIhaIIhcsporIisLnglishinorigin.
nIhcsccondhal|o|Ihc nincIccnIhccnIury, whcncrickcIacquircdmuch
o|iIs modcrn morphology, iIalso Iookshapc as Ihc mosI powcr|ul con-
dcnsaIion o|VicIoriancliIcvalucs. hcsc valucs, abouIwhichmuch has
bccnwriIIcn,canbcsummarizcdas|ollows.LrickcIwasaquinIcsscnIially
masculinc acIiviIy, andiIcxprcsscdIhc codcsIhaIwcrccxpccIcdIogov-
P1y: m :| MxJ : ::y
= 9 I =
crn all masculinc bchavior. sporIsmanship, a scnsc o| |air play, Ihorough
conIrol ovcr Ihc cxprcssion o| sIrong scnIimcnIs by playcrs on Ihc hcld,
subordinaIion o|pcrsonal scnIimcntsandi nIcrcsIs IoIhosco|Ihc group,
unqucsIioncdloyalIyIoIhcIcam.
AlIhough crickcIbccamc a ccnIral insIrumcnI o|socializaIion|orIhc
VicIoriancliIc, iIconIaincd|romIhcsIarIasocialparadox. Iwashoncdas
ani nsIrumcnIo|cliIc|ormaIion,buIlikcallcomplcxandpowcr|ul|ormso|
play, iI boIh conhrmcd and crcaIcd sporIing sodaliIics IhaI Iransccndcd
class. hus, iIwasalwaysopcnIoIhcmosIIalcnIcd,andusc|ul) amongIhc
lowcrandmiddlc classcswhosIumblcdinIoiI. hosc amongIhcgrcaIun-
washcdinVicIorianLnglandwhowcrccapablco|sub|ccIingIhcmsclvcsIo
Ihcsocial andmoral disciplincs o|IhcplayinghcldcouldcnIcrinIoa lim-
iIcd inIimacy wiIhIhcirsupcriors. hc pricc o| admission wascomplcIc
dcdicaIion Io IhcsporIand,usuallygrcaIIalcnI on Ihc hcld. n VicIorian
LnglandcrickcIwasalimiIcdroadIo social mobiliIy. L|coursc,noamounI
o|sharcdcrickcIwouldmakcanLnglishmancon|uscanLx|ordblucwiIha
Yorkshirc working-class pro|cssional crickcIcr. buI on Ihc playing hcld
,whcrccoopcraIionwasncccssary)IhcrcwassomcrcspiIc|romIhcbruIali-
Iics o|classin Lngland. thas also bccn noIcdIhaI iIwasIhc prcscncc o|
Ihcsclowcr-classplaycrsIhaIallowcdIhcVicIoriancliIcIoincorporaIcIhc
harshIcchniqucsrcquircdIo win whilc rcIainingIhc idcaIhaIsporIsman-
ship involvcd a paIrician dcIachmcnI |rom compcIiIivcncss. Lowcr-class
pro|cssional playcrs Ihus did Ihc dirIy subalIcrn work o|winning so IhaI
Ihcirclasssupcriorscouldprcscrvc Ihc illusion o|agcnIlcmanly, noncom-
pcIiIivcsporI,landy! 8b, -20).hisi nhcrcnIparadoxancliIcsporI
whosccodco||airplaydicIaIcdanopcnncssIoIalcnI andvocaIioninIhosc
o|humblcorigins-isakcyIoIhccarlyhisIory o|crickcIinlndia.
ormuch o|Ihc nincIccnIh ccnIury i n ndia crickcIwasa scgrcgaIcd
sporI, wiIhLnglishmcn and ndiansplayingon opposiIc IcamswhcnIhcy
playcdIogcIhcraIall. LrickcIwasassociaIcdwiIh clubs, IhcccnIral social
insIiIuIions o|Ihc briIish i n lndia. lndian crickcI clubs ,and Ihcir associ-
aIcd Icams) wcrclargcly a producI o| Ihc lasI quarIcr o|Ihc ni ncIccnIh
ccnIury, alIhough Ihcrcwcrc a numbcr o|larsi clubs bascd i n bombay
sIarIinginIhc I840s. nIhis,asinoIhcrmaIIcrs,IhclarsiswcrcIhcbridgc
communiIy bcIwccn ndian and Lnglish culIural IasIcs. larsi Icams |rom
lndiaIourcdLnglandin Ihc I880s, and in l8888Ihc hrsI Lnglish Icam
Iourcd ndia ,alIhough Ihc ma|oriIy o| iIs maIchcs wcrc againsI Icams
whollycomposcdo|Lnglishmcn, andonlya |cwagainsIIcamscomposcd
o|ndians). bombaywas Ihc birIhplacco|crickct|or lndiansandsIill rc-
Iainsa prccmincnI placcinlndiancrickcIculIurc.
P | o y | q m | t | Me J : t y
= 2
AlIhoughIhcrcwasncvcraconsciouspolicyinrcgardIoIhcsupporIo|
crickcIbyIhc colonial rcgimc inlndia, crickcIcvolvcd inIo anuno|hcial
i nsIrumcnI o|sIaIc culIural policy. Jhis was largcly duc Io Ihc culIural
commiImcnIs o| Ihosc mcmbcrs o|Ihc VicIorian cliIc who occupicdkcy
posiIionsinndianadminisIraIion,cducaIion, and]ournalism, andwhorc
gardcd crickcI as Ihc idcal way Io IransmiI VicIorian idcals o|characIcr
and hIncss Io Ihc colony. Lord larris, govcrnoro|bombay |rom I 80 Io
I 8J, waspcrhapsIhcmosIcrucial hgurc in Ihcquasi-o|hcialpaIronagco|
crickcIi nndia, andhcwas|ollowcdbyasucccssiono|govcrnors,boIhin
bombayandi nIhcoIhcrprcsidcncics,whosawcrickcIas|ulhllingIhc|ol-
lowingrangc o|Iasks. solidi|ying Ihc bonds o|cmpirc, lubricaIingsIaIc
dcalings bcIwccn various ndian communiIics, which mighI oIhcrwisc
dcgcncraIc inIo communal ,li ndu'luslim) rioIs, and implanIingLnglish
idcalso|manlincss, sIamina, andvigorinIondiangroupssccnaslazy, cn-
crvaIcd,andc||cIc.nIhisrcgard,crickcIwasonco|manyarcnasinwhich
a colonial sociology was consIrucIcd andrcihcd. n Ihis sociology, ndia
was sccn as a congcrics o|anIagonisIic communiIics, populaIcd by mcn
,andwomcn)wiIhavaricIyo|psychological dc|ccIs. LrickcIwassccnas
an idcal way Io socializc naIivcs inIo ncw modcs o|inIcrgroup conducI
and ncw sIandards o|public bchavior. LsIcnsibly conccrncdwiIh rccrc-
aIion andcompcIiIion, iIsundcrlyingquasi-o|hcialcharIcrwas moral and
poliIical.hcundcrlyingconIradicIion,bcIwccncommunallyorganizcd
IcamsandIhcidcalo|crcaIingbroadcrcivicbonds,hasi n|lucnccdIhcdc
vclopmcnI o|crickcI |rom iIs inccpIion Io Ihc prcscnI and is dcalIwiIh
morc|ullyi nIhcncxIsccIiono|IhischapIcr.
LnIhcwholc, |romabouI l870Io I J0, in Ihc high pcriodo|IhcKa] ,
Ihcrc is nodoubI IhaI |or ndiansIo play crickcI was Io cxpcrimcnIwiIh
IhcmysIcricso|Lnglishuppcr-classl i |c. WhcIhcriIwasbyplayingIcams
|rom Lngland, which includcd mcn who had known cach oIhcr aI LIon
and larrow, Lx|ordandLambridgc, orduringIoursIo Lngland, a small
scgmcnIo|IhcndiansporIingpopulaIionwasiniIiaIcdinIoIhcmoraland
social mysIcrics and riIuals o|VicIori an crickcI ,Lashman I80, Lockcr
l7) .
hc biographics andauIobiographics o| Ihc hncsI ndian crickcIcrs
o| Ihis cra, such as Vi]ay lazarc , I 7, I 8 I ) , L. l )ai ,Kai]i I 7) , and
lushIaq Ali , I 8 l) , who all had acIivc crickcI carccrs inIo Ihc l40s,
clcarlyshowIhaI Ihcywcrccxposcd , i nspiIc o|Ihcirvcrydivcrscsocial
backgrounds)IoIhcvaluccommiImcnIsassociaIcdwiIhVicIoriancrickcI
sporIsmanship,scl|-c||accmcnI,IcamspiriI-aswcll asIoIhchagiography
and lorco| crickcIIhroughouIIhccmpirc,buIcspcciallyinLngland.
P l o y | r q m | t | M.J : | t y
J
buI class and racc conspircd in vcry complcx ways in Ihc VicIorian
ccumcnc , brcckcnridgc I 8, I ) andi niIs Ldwardian succcssorsIruc-
Iurcs. havc alrcadysuggcsIcdIhaIVicIorian crickcI involvcd imporIanI
class disIincIions in Lngland, disIincIions IhaI Io Ihisdaya||ccIIhc rcla-
Iions Ihcrc bcIwccn gcnIlcmcn and pro|cssional playcrs, coachcs and
playcrs, counIy and lcaguc crickcI. ogcIhcr, whiIc malcs o| all classcs
hclpcdIocrcaIc andcmbody a sporIing codc whosc paIrician moral di-
mcnsions wcrc ccnIral Io uppcr classcs, and whosc workmanlikc skills
wcrc poinIcrsIoIhcrolco|Ihcworkingclasscsi nIhcsporI. ,Llarkc and
Llarkc I 82, 828 3 o||cr an inIcrcsIing IrcaImcnI o|Ihcpcculiar i n|lcc-
Iionso|Ihcidcao|manlincss i nLnglishsporIingidcology. )hccomplcx-
iIyo|Ihisspccihcbrando|colonialdiscourscalsoi llusIraIcsoncvarianIo|
whaI has bccn sccn, in a raIhcr di||crcnI conIcxI, as Ihc ambivalcncc o|
colonial discoursc ,bhabha l4) .
Asi nmanyoIhcrarcas,includingarI,cIiqucIIc,l anguagc,andconducI,
iI is now incrcasingly clcar IhaI during Ihc hcyday o|Ihc modcrn colo-
nialisms,acomplcxsysIcm o|hcgcmonizingandhicrarchizingvalucsand
pracIiccs cvolvcd con|oinIly i n Ihc mcIropolis and iIs colonics , Loopcr
and SIolcr I 8) . n Ihc casc o|crickcI in ndia, Ihc kcy Io Ihc complcx
|lowsIhaI li nkcdcrickcI, class, andracc in Ihc colonial ccumcnc was Ihc
sIoryo|paIronagcandcoachingi nndia. boIhIhcbiographicsrc|crrcdIo
abovc and ancxccllcnIsynIhcIic accounI ,Lashman I 80, chap. 2 ) makc
iIclcarIhaI in Ihc pcriodbcIwccn I 870 and I 30 briIish involvcmcnI i n
ndiancrickcIwasvcrycomplcxiIinvolvcdo|hccrso|IhcarmysIaIioncd
in ndia,busincssmcn|romLngland,andscniorgovcrnmcnIo|hcials,allo|
whom hclpcdIo implanI Ihc idcao|crickcIinvarious ndian scIIings. AI
Ihc samc Iimc, howcvcr, ndian princcs broughI Lnglish and AusIralian
pro|cssionalcrickcIcrsIondiaIoIrainIhcirownIcams.
hcprincclyphasci nIhcpaIronagco|lndiancrickcIisi nsomcways
Ihc mosI i mporIanI in Ihc analysis o| Ihc indigcnizaIiono|crickcI. irsI,
crickcIasancliIcsporIrcquircdIhcsorIo|IimcandmoncynoIavailablc
IoIhcbourgcoiscliIcso|colonial ndi a. hcprinccs, onIhcoIhcrhand,
wcrc quick Io scc crickcI as anoIhcr cxIcnsion o| Ihcir royal IradiIions,
and Ihcy absorbcd suchsporIs as polo, ri|lc shooIing, gol|, andcrickcI
inIoIhcirIradiIionalarisIocraIicrcpcrIoircs.his pcrmiIIcdIhcmIoo||cr
ncwkinds o|spccIaclcIoIhcirsub]ccIs ,Lockcr I 7, 27), Ioli nkIhcm-
sclvcsIoIhc Lnglish arisIocracyi npoIcnIiallyncwand|ruiI|ulways, and
IoingraIiaIcIhcmsclvcsIoIhccolonialauIhoriIics i n| ndia,suchasLord
larri s) , who |avorcd crickcI as a mcans |or Ihc moral discipl i ning o|
LricnIals. hc princcswho supporIcdcrickcIwcrc o|Icn Ihclcss grand
P | y+ m:: | M e J + ::y
4
mcmbcrs o| thc ndian aristocracy, |or crickct was somcwhat chcapcr
than othcr |orms o| royal patronagc and spcctac| c. Lrickct had thrcc
appcals as anad|uncttothcli |cstylc andcthoso|pcttykingshipinndia.
(a) its rolc, cspccially i n thc orth, as a manly art in thc aristocratic
culturc o| lcisurc, (b) its Victorian crcdcntials, which opcncd doors i n
Lngland that might othcrwisc bc lcss wcll-oilcd (as in thc casc o|
Kan|itsinh| i ) , and (c) its rolc as a usc|ul cxtcnsion o|othcr royal public
spcctaclcs that hadbccn an important part o|thc obligations andmys-
tiquc o|royalty in ndia. Accordi ngly, small andlargc princcs i n many
parts o|ndia throughout this ccntury importcdcoachcs|rom Lngland,
organizcdtournamcntsandprizcs,subsidizcdtcamsandcoachcs, dcvcl-
opcdgroundsandpitchcs, importcdcquipmcntandcxpcrtisc,andhostcd
Lnglishtcams.
lostimportant,thcprinccsprovidcdbothdircctandindircctsupport
tomanycrickctcrs (orthcir|amilics)|romhumblcbackgrounds,whowcrc
cvcntually ablc tomakc thcirwaytobiggcrcitics,morcimportanttcams,
and somctimcs to national and intcrnational visibility. or many ndian
crickctcrsoutsidcthcbigcolonialciticsinthcpcriodbc|orcWorldWar ,
oncoranothcr|orm o|subsidy |rom princclyhouscswas thckcytothcir
owncntry intothc cosmopolitan world o| big-timc crickct. Such playcrs
wcrcthusablctoachicvcsomcmcasurc o|mobilitythroughcrickctandto
introducc a considcrablcdcgrcco|classcomplcxity into ndiancrickct, a
complcxitythatpcrsiststoday.
hc groundwork |or thc ndianization o| crickct was thcrc|orc laid
throughthccomplcx, hicrarchicalcross-hatchingo|britishgcntlcmcn i n
ndia, ndianprinccs, mobilcndianmcnwhowcrc o|tcn parto|thccivil
scrviccs andthc army, and, mostimportant, thosc whitccrickctingpro-
|cssionals (mai nly |rom Lngland andAustralia) who actually traincdthc
grcat ndian crickctcrso|thc hrstdccadcso|this ccntury. hcsc pro|cs-
sionals,thcmostpromincnto|whomwcrcrankarrant, bill litch, and
Llarric Lrimmctt, as wcll as thc somcwhat morc socially cstablishcd
britisharmymcn, collcgcprincipals, andbusincssmcnwhocoachcdbud-
ding ndian crickctcrs sccm to havcbccn thc crucial links bctwccn star-
dom, aristocracy, and tcchnical skill i n thc colonial crickcting world at
largc. Whatthcsc pro|cssionalcoachcsaccomplishcdwas toprovidc thc
tcchnical skillsthatwcrccrucial|orthc patronagc |antasicso|thc ndian
princcs (whichi n turn wcrc ticdtothcirown |antasics o|a monarchical
andaristocratic idcal o|cmpirc) tobctranslatcdintocompctitivc ndian
tcams actually composcd o| ndians. Although thcrc is no dccisivc cvi-
dcncc|orthc |ollowingintcrprctation, itishighlylikclythatsmall -town
P1y i m i t | MxJ : ::y
V3
boyslikclushtaqAli , Vi]aylazarc, and Lala Amarnath would havchad
a hardtimccntcringthc rarchcdworld o|worl d crickct ,still dominatcd
by Lnglish and Victorian sporting codcs) , without thc translation o|
crickct into an cmbodicd tcchnical practicc by thcsc lowcr-class whitc
pro|cssionals. Jhus,itisnotthccascthatanAnglophoncclassdramawas
simply rcproduccd in ndia, but that in thc circulations o| princcs,
coachcs, army o|hcials,viccroys, collcgc principals, andplaycrs o|hum
blcclassoriginbctwccn ndia, Lngland, andAustraliaacomplcximpcrial
classrcgimcwas |ormcd, i nwhich ndian and Lnglish social hicrarchics
wcrc intcrlinkcdandcross-hatchcdto producc, bythc I J0s, acadrc o|
nonclitc ndians who |clt thcmsclvcs to bc gcnuinc crickctcrs and gcn-
uinclyndianaswcll.
n this l ight, thc grcat princclybatsman Kan]itsinh]i , I 872 I J J ) is
probablyasadcxccption, |orwhomcrickctingandLnglishncssbccamcso
dccplyconncctcdthathccouldncvcrtakcthcidcao|crickctas anndian
gamcvcryscriously. lcwasthc)amsahcbo|lawanagar, asmallkingdom
i nSaurashtra, on thc wcstcoast o|ndia. Kan]i has a mythic placc in thc
annals o|crickct and is cvcn today ,alongwith a hand|ul o|othcrs likc
W. L. Lracc,Lonbradman, andLarySobcrs)considcrcdtobconco|thc
grcatbatsmcno|all timc. tisworth spcndingalittlctimconKan]i , |orhc
cxcmplihcswhatcolonialcrickctwasal l about. ronically, itwasprobably
]ust this pro|ound idcntihcation with thc cmpirc and thc crown that al-
lowcdKan]itobccomcthcquintcsscntial andlivingtropco|anLricntal
|ormo|crickctingski ll .
Kan]i was notsimplyagrcatrun-gcttcrbutwasalsosccnin crickct cir-
clcs as carryi ngapcculiarLricntal glow. Jhc grcat L. b. ry saido|him
thathc movcdas i|hchad no boncs, oncwouldnotbc surpriscdto scc
browncurvcs burning i n thc grass whcrc onc o|his cuts had travclcd or
bluc |lamc shimmcring round his bat, as hc madc onc o| his strokcs.
lcvillc Lardus saidthat whcn hc battcd, strangc lightwas sccn |or thc
hrsttimcon Lnglish hclds.Llcm li l l , thcAustraliantcstcrickctcr, simply
said.lcismorcthanabatsman, hcsa]ugglcr'billlitch,thcSurrcyand
Lngland|astbowlcr,rc|crrcdtohimasthcmastcr, thcmagician,allcitcd
i ndclcllow I7,chap. ) .
Kan]iwassccntobringapcculiarlyndiangcniustobatting,hcnccthc
rc|crcncc to magic and]uggl ing, strangc li ght andbluc |lamcs. Kan]i , in
|act, rcprcscntcdthc glamorous obvcrsc o|thc c||cmi nacy, lazincss, and
lack o| stamina that ndians wcrcthoughtby manycolonial thcorists to
cmbody , lutchins l7, chap. J, andy I 8J) . n Kan]i , wilc bccamc
guilc, trickcry bccamc magic, wcakncss bccamc supplcncss, and c||cmi-
P | y a t | Me J: t y
^
=
nacy was trans|ormcd into gracc. his oricntalist glow, o| coursc, had a
grcat dcal todo with Kan|is impcccablcsocial crcdcntials, his total dcvo-
tiontoLnglishinstitutions,all thcway|romcollcgctothccrown), andhis
unswcrvingloyaltytothccmpirc. lcthusnotonlyrcvolutionizcdcrickct
ando||crcdthccrowdsancxtraordinarytrcatwhcnhcwasatbat,butLng-
lishaudicnccscouldalwaysrcadi nhispcr|ormanccsaloyalandglamorous
o||cringo|thcmystcrious Lricnt to thc playing hclds o|Lton. Kan]i was
thc ultimatc brown Lnglishman. hcrc is no doubt, howcvcr, that Kan]i
bclongcd to that gcncration o| ndian princcs |or whom loyalty to thc
crown and thcirpridcinbcingndianwcrc cocxtcnsivc withoncanothcr,
although onc rcccnt analyst has suggcstcdthat Kan|is commitmcnts may
havc bccn cxprcssions o| dccp pcrsonal doubts and con|licts , andy
I 8b) . Kan]is storyis only ancxtrcmccasco|amorcgcncral irony. that
thcndianprinccs,who patronizcdcrickct as awayto cntcr thc patrician
Victorian world, andwhowcrclargclyopposcd to thc nationalistmovc-
mcnt, i n|act, laidthc grounds |orthc mastcryo|crickctamongordinary
ndians that was to blossom into a |ull -blown pridc in ndian crickcting
compctcnccbythc I J0s.
Cricr:t, ji:, orJ Notior
oday, thc cxtraordinary popularity o|crickct in ndia isclcarly ticd up
withnationalistscntimcnt.butinthccarlyhistoryo|crickctinndia,aswc
havc notcd alrcady, crickct |ostcrcd two othcr kinds o|loyalty. hc hrst
was ,and still is) to rcligious ,communal) idcntitics. hc sccond kind o|
l oyalty, rathcrmorcabstractlyinstantiatcdinthcsport,wasloyaltytocm-
pirc. hc intcrcsting qucstion hcrc is howthcidcao|thcndian nation
cmcrgcdasasalicntcrickctingcntity.
As|arbackasthc hrst clubsorganizcdbylarsisin bombayin thcmid-
ninctccnth ccntury, mcmbcrship in rcligious communitics bccamc thc
salicnt principlc around which ndians bandcd togcthcr to play crickct.
And this organizing principlc rcmaincd in placc until itwas dislodgcd i n
thc I J0s.li ndus,larsis,luslims,Luropcans, and,cvcntually, thc Kcst
,a labcl |or thc communally unmarkcd groups brought togcthcr into
crickcttcams) wcrc organizcdintocrickctclubs.hcrcwasmuchdcbatc
|romthcvcrystartaboutthcprosandcons o|thiscommunalorganization
o|crickct.Althoughclscwhcrcinprincclyndiathcma|orpatronso|sport
wcrc thc princcs, who paid norcgardto communal principlcs in thcirrc-
cruitmcnt o|playcrs, in thc prcsidcncics o| british ndia playcrs wcrc di-
vidcdinto rcligious andcthnicgroupings, somco|whichwcrc antagonis-
P1y: m:t | MxJ : +::y
7 =
Iic in public li|c morc gcncrally. hus, crickcI was an imporIanIarcna, i n
whichplaycrsaswcllascrowds lcarncdIoIhinko|Ihcmsclvcsaslindu,
lusl m, andlarsi, inconIrasIwiIhIhcLuropcans.
hcrc hasbccn muchgoodhisIoricalworkIo show IhaI Ihcsc social
caIcgoricswcrcboIhIhccrcaIion andIhcinsIrumcnIo|acolonialsociol-
ogyo|rulc,Appadurai I 8 I , Lohn I 87,Lirks I 87,rciIagI 8, landcy
I 0, lrakash I 0). buI Ihc |acI is IhaI IhcycnIcrcd dccply inIo ndian
scl|-conccpIions and ndian poliIics andculIural li|c. AlIhough iI is Iruc
IhaI ccnsus classihcaIions, Ihc conIrol o| rcligious cndowmcnIs, and Ihc
issuc o|scparaIc clccIoraIcswcrc Ihc major o|hcial arcnas inwhich issucs
o|communal idcnIiIywcrcrcihcdasparIo|a colonial sociologyo|ndia,
Ihcrolc o|crickcI i n Ihis proccss musI noI bc undcrcsIimaIcd. AI lcasI
inWcsIcrn ndia, briIisho|hcialslikcLovcrnorlarriswcrccomplaccnIin
Ihcir vicw o|crickcI as a sa|cIy valvc |or communal hosIiliIy, and as a
mcans|orIcachingndanshowIol ivcamicably wIh communaldivcrsiIy.
buI dccply cmbcddcd as Ihcy wcrc in Ihcir own hcIions abouI Ihc |rag-
mcnIaIion o| ndian socicIy, whaI Ihcy did noI rcalizc was IhaI on Ihc
playing hcld ,as clscwhcrc) Ihcy wcrc pcrpcIuaIing communal conccp
Iionso|idcnIiIyIhaIi nndianciIicsmighIhavcbccomcmorc|luid.hus,
wc havc Ihc paradox IhaI bombay, pcrhaps Ihc mosI cosmopoliIan col o-
nialciIy, hadi Isma]orcliIcsporIorganizcdaroundcommunallincs.
hiscommunal principlc was bound IobccomcoIioscas Ihcscrious-
ncss and quality o| crickcI in ndia incrcascd. Lnlikc crickcI in ndia,
LnglishcrickcIwasorganizcdaroundasysIcminwhichIhcnaIionwasIhc
cxcmplary uniI andcounIics, noIcommuniIics, wcrc iIs lowcr-lcvcl con-
sIiIucncics. noIhcrwords,IcrriIoryandnaIionhood|orLngland,commu-
niIyandculIuraldisIincIivcncss|orndia,sccchap.).huswhcnLnglish
Icamsbcgan IoIourndia, Ihc qucsIion washowIoconsIrucI an ndian
IcamIhaIwasahIIingopponcnI. nIhccarlyIours,i nthc I 80s,Ihcsc n-
dian Icams wcrc largcly composcd o| Lnglishmcn, buI as morc ndians
bcgan Io playIhcgamcandas morc paIrons andcnIrcprcncursbcganIo
organizcIcamsandIournamcnIs, iIwasi ncviIablcIhaIIhc|ull poolo| n-
dianIalcnIbcdrawn onIoconsIrucIa hrsI-raIcndianIcam.hisproccss,
whcrcby ndians incrcasingly camc Io rcprcscnI ndia in crickcI, |ollows
noI surprisingly Ihc hisIory o| Ihc cvoluIion o| ndian naIionalism as a
massmovcmcnI. Lrickct inIhcndiancolonialconIcxIIhuscasIsanuncx-
pccIcdlighIonIhcrclaIionshipbcIwccn naIionhoodandcmpirc. nso|ar
asLnglandwasnoIsimplyidcnIicalwiIhIhccmpirc,IhcrchadIobcoIhcr
par+llcl cnIiIics in Ihc colonics againsI whch Ihc Lnglsh naIion-sIaIc
P l y | q m+i | Me J: | t y
8
could play. Ihus, ndia had Io bc invcnIcd, aI lcasI |or Ihc purposcs o|
colonialcrickcI.
cIIhcrcwassurprisingly liIIlc cxpliciIcommunicaIionbcIwccn Ihosc
whowcrc rcsponsiblc |ororganizingcrickcI i n ndia onanall- ndiabasis
andIhosc, i n Ihc all -ndia Longrcss parIy ,andclscwhcrc) , who ,bcgin-
ni ngi nIhc I &&0s)wcrcpro|cssionallycommiIIcdIoIhcidcao|a |rcc n-
diannaIion. hcidcao|ndianIalcnI,anndianIcam,andndiancompc-
tition in inIcrnaIional crickcI cmcrgcd rc|aIivcly indcpcndcnI|y, undcr
nono|hcial sIimulaIion by iIspaIronsandpublicisIs. hus,crickcInaIion-
alismcmcrgcdasaparadoxical,alIhough logical, ouIgrowIh o|Ihcdcvcl-
opmcnIo|crickcIi nLngland.KaIhcrIhanbcingaspin-o||o|Ihcimagincd
communiIyo|naIionalisI poliIicians i n ndia, naIionallyorganizcdcrickcI
was an inIcrnal dcmando|Ihccolonial cnIcrprisc andIhusrcquircdcog-
naIc naIional orproIonaIionalcnIcrpriscsi nIhccolonics.
cvcrIhclcss,ascrickcIbccamcmorcpopulari nIhchrsIIhrccdccadcs
o|IhisccnIury, andasIhcnaIionalistmovcmcnI,parIicularlywiIhlahaIma
Landhi and Ihc ndian aIional Longrcss gaIhcrcd momcnIum i n Ihc
samc pcriod, crickcInaIionalismandcxpliciIlynaIionalisIpoliIicsassuch
camc inIo conIacI i n Ihc ordinary livcs o|young ndians. hus, . l. |
Salvc, a ma]or ndian poliIician and crickcI cnIrcprcncur, rccalls how i n
Ihccarly IhirIics hc andhis |ricndswcrc inIimidaIcdandprcvcnIcd|rom
playing on a hnc crickcI piIch in agpur by a ccrIain lr. homas, an
Anglo-ndianscrgcanI in chargc o|Ihc piIch,wholookcd likc anA|rican
capc bu||alo, massivc andhc|Iy in sizc, oIhcrwisc posscsscd o|o||cnsivc,
uncouIhandvulgarcharacIcrisIics, I &7, 5) . A|Icrscvcralscaryandabu-
sivc cpisodcs involvinghomas ,a classic subalIcrn hgurckccpingnaIivc
urchinsaway|romIhcsacrosancIspaccso|impcrial pcr|ormancc), Salvcs
|aIhcrand his |ricnds, all i nUucnIiallocal |ollowcrs o|Landhi, inIcrvcncd
onbchal|o|Ihcyoungboys wiIha scniorbriIisho|hcial i n agpur and
won Ihcm Ihc righI Io usc Ihc piIch whcn iI was noI i n o|hcial usc.
hroughouISalvcsnarraIiono|IhissIory, wcgcIasIrongscnsco|his|car
o|IhcAnglo-ndiansubalIcrn, IhcscnsuousaIIracIiono|playingonano|-
hcialpiIch,IhcouIragc asndianso|bcingkcpIouIo|a publicspacc,and
IhcnationalisI|lavoro|IhcirrcscnImcnI.IisprobablcIhaIcrickcInaIion-
alismando|hcialnaIionalisIpoliIicswcrcrarclywcddcdi nconsciouspub-
lic dcbaIcs or movcmcnIs, buI IhaI Ihcya||ccIcdIhc livcd cxpcricncc o|
play, skill,spacc,andrighIs|ormanyyoungndiansi nIhcsmallIownsand
playing hclds o|prcindcpcndcncc ndia. buIIhc growIh o| crickcI con-
sciousncssandcrickcIcxciIcmcnIcannoIbcundcrsIoodwiIhouIrc|crcncc
IoIhcrolco|l anguagc andIhcmcdia.
P l y: m i 1 | Mo J : ::y

lt~oco|zot|or orJ t|t MtJio
hcmcdiahavc playcdacrucialrolc in IhcindigcnizaIion o|crickcI, hrsI
Ihrough Ihc Lnglish-languagc crickcI commcnIarics aircd by All - ndia
Kadio, sIarIingi n I 9 J J . Largcly i nLnglish duringIhcIhirIics,|orIics, and
h|Iics ,Lashman I 9 &0, I 45-45), radiocommcnIary sIarIingi nIhcsixIics
wasincrcasinglyi nli ndi , ami l, andbcngal i , aswcllasi nLnglish.lulIi-
lingualradiocommcnIary i sprobablyIhcsingl cma]ori nsIrumcnI i nIhc
socializaIion o| Ihc ndian mass audicncc i n Ihc subIlcIics o| Ihc sporI.
Whilc covcragc o| IcsI maIchcs , i nvolving ndia and oIhcr counIrics)
hasbccn conhncdIo Lnglish, li ndi , ami l, andbcngali, oIhcr hrsI-class
maIchcsarcaccompanicdbyradiocommcnIary inallIhcma]orlanguagcs
o|IhcsubconIincnI. osysIcmaIicsIudyhasbccn madco|Ihcrolco|vcr-
nacularcrickcIcommcnIary i nsocializingnonurban ndians inIo Ihccos-
mopoliIanculIurc o|crickcI,buIiIwascvidcnIlyama]or|acIori nIhci n-
digcnizaIiono|IhcsporI.
hrough radios, which arc vcry widcly availablc and which aIIracI
largc crowds in Irain sIaIions, ca|cIcrias, and oIhcr public placcs, ndians
havcabsorbcdIhcLnglishIcrminologyo|crickcI,cspcciallyiIsnounsIruc-
Iurc,inIoavaricIyo|vcrnacularsynIacIicpaIIcrns.hisIypco|sporIspid-
gini scrucialIoIhci ndigcnizaIiono|IhcsporI,|ori IpcrmiIsconIacIwiIh
anarcanc|ormaIIhcsamcIimcasIhc|orm i sl inguisIicallydomcsIicaIcd.
hus, Ihc clcmcnIary vocabulary o| crickcI Icrms i n Lnglish i s widcly
knownIhroughouIndia , i ncrcasinglycvcni nvillagcs) .
hc complcx li nguisIic cxpcricnccs IhaI cmcrgcd i n Ihc conIcxI o|
vcrnacular broadcasIs arc cxcmpl i hcd i n Ihc |ollowing narraIivc |rom
Kichard Lashman. Luring Ihc I 972-7J scrics Ihis convcrsaIionbcIwccn
Lala AmarnaIh, Ihc cxpcrI, and Ihc li ndi commcnIaIorIook placca|Icr
A]iIWadckarhadsIraighIdrivcn locock |or |our o||Ihc |ronI |ooI. hc
dialoguc i llusIraIcs Ihis hybrid languagc and somc o| Ihc hazards o|
iIsusc.
!1 ^ L1 L T T1^ J1! L 1 Lala]i , aapwoback|ooIsIraighIdrivckc
barcmckyakahcnachahIchain
1 T11 ^1J !` Woback|ooInahin|ronI|ooIdrivcIhi . . . badisundcr
Ihi . . . wrisIyIhi .
LTT 1 ^J1J 1 lanbadiriskyIhi . Wadckarkoaisanahinkhclna
chahiyc.
1T11^1! LommcnIaIorsahib,riskynahinwrisIy. WrisIscmari
hui . . .
P l y: a i t | M:J : + t y
~ l ~
ranslaIion|
LT T1^ J1J L 1 Lala,whaIwouldyoulikcIosayabouIIhaIsIraighI
drivco||Ihcback |ooI
1 T11 ^1J ! haIwasa|ronIandnoIaback|ooIdrivc. . . iIwas
bcauIi |ul . . . waswrisIy.
LT T1^ J1J L 1 So IhaIwasrisky. WadckarshouldnIhavcplaycd
likcIhaI.
1 T11 ^1J ! lr. LommcnIaIor,riskyisnoIwrisIy. IwashiIwiIhIhc
wrisI. . . . ,Lashman I &0, I 47)
AlIhough Lashmans IranslaIion isnoI cnIircly scnsiIivc, iImakcs iIquiIc
clcarIhaI IhcvcrnacularizaIion o|crickcIhas iIs l inguisIic piI|alls. WhaI
hc docs noI noIc, howcvcr, isIhaIIhrough Ihc discussion o|suchcrrors
lindi spcakcrs domcsIicaIc a rclaIivcly csoIcric crickcI Icrm likc mt|s
hc mcdia hcgcmony o|crickcI ,o|Icn a sourcc o|complainI on Ihc
parIo|parIisans o|oIhcrsporIs) has grown sincc Ihcarrival o|Iclcvision.
A|IcravcrymodcsIsIarIwiIhsmallaudicnccsi nIhclaIc I 50s,Iclcvision
has nowcomplcIclyIrans|ormcdcrickcIculIurc in ndia. Asscvcral com-
mcnIaIorshavcpoinIcdouI,crickcIis pcr|ccIlysuiIcd|orIclcvision,wiIh
iIs many pauscs, iIs spaIial conccnIraIion o| acIion, andiIs cxIcndcd|or-
maI. Ioraudicnccs as wcll as advcrIiscrs iIisIhc pcr|ccIIclcvision sporI.
clcvision isaI IhccuIIingcdgc o|Ihc privaIizaIion o|lcisurc i ncon-
Icmporary| ndia,asclscwhcrc) . AspublicspaccsgrowmorcviolcnI,disor-
dcrly, anduncom|orIablc, Ihoscwhocana||ordIclcvision consumc Ihcir
spccIaclcs in Ihc company o|Ihcir|ricndsand|amily. his isIruc o|Ihc
IwogrcaIpassionso|Ihcmassaudicncc.sporIandcincma. nIhconccasc
IhroughlivccovcragcandinIhcoIhcrIhroughrcrunsandvidcocasscIIcs,
Ihc sIadium andIhc cincma hallarcbcingrcp|accdbyIhc livingroom as
Ihc scIIing |or spccIaclc. csI maIchcs arc sIill wcll aIIcndcd, buI Ihc
crowdsIhaIshowuparcmorcvolaIilc.olongcracomplcxsharcdcxpc-
ricnccbcIwccnIhcrichandIhcpoor, IhcsIadiumspccIaclcisamorcpo-
larizcdand|aggcdcxpcricncc,whichmanydo noIprc|crIoIhccool,pri-
vaIc,andomniscicnIIclcvisionscrccn. Asclscwhcrci nIhcworldi nrcgard
Io largc-scalc spccIaclcs, Ihcaudicncc o|livc maIchcs is iIscl|a prop in a
grandcr pcr|ormancc sIagcd |or Ihc bcnchI o| Iclcvision vicwcrs. hc
crowd is Ihcrc noI Io cn|oy Ihc livcncss o| Ihc spccIaclc buI Io providc
cvidcncc o| iI |or Ihc Iclcvision audicncc. An audicncc o| Ihc spccIaclc
|rom iIs own poinI o|vicw, iI is parIo|Ihc spccIaclc |or Ihosc aI homc.
his,Ioo, isparIo|Ihcproccsso|i ndigcnizaIionanddccolonizaIion.
c|cvision rcduccs |orcignIcamsandsIars Iomanagcab|c sizc, i Ivisu-
P | y+ m+: | M e J : i t y
= I 0 I =
ally domcsIicaIcsIhccxoIicnaIurc o|Ihc sporI, parIicularly|orIhoscwho
mighIprcviouslyonlyhavchcardmaIchcs on Ihcradio. And|oracounIry
whosccincmasIars arc iIsma]orcclcbriIics, IclcvisionlcndscincmaIicau-
IhoriIyIoIhcsporIsspccIacl c. nacivilizaIionwhcrcsccing,Josoa) isIhc
sacrcdi nsIrumcnIo|communion, Iclcvision hasinIcnsihcdIhcsIarsIaIus
o|IhcgrcaI ndiancrickcIplaycrs. ndianIcsIcrickcIcrshavc ncvcrbccn
Ihc ob|ccIs o|grcaIcr adulaIion Ihan i nIhc pasIdccadco|inIcnsc Iclcvi
sionvicwingo|ma|orgamcs.clcvisionhasdccpcncdIhcnaIionalpassion
|orcrickcI nurIurcdbyradio, buIboIh radiocommcnIary andIclcvision
waIchinghavcbccnrcin|orccd,|romIhcvicwpoinIo|audicnccrcccpIion
and parIicipaIion, by a vasI growIh in books, ncwspapcr covcragc, and
sporIs-magazinc consumpIion, noI]usI in Lnglish buI in Ihc vcrnaculars.
hc proli|craIion o|ncws, biographicso|sIars, commcnIarics, andin-
sIrucIional liIcraIurc, cspccially in Ihc ma|or crickcI-playing arcas, pro-
vidcs Ihc criIical backdrop |or Ihc spccial |orcc o|Iclcvision. Whilc Ihis
vcrnacular maIcrial is rcad and hcard by Ihosc who do noI Ihcmsclvcs
rcad, radio is hcard and imagincd in livc |orm, whilc Iclcvision covcragc
makcs Ihc IransiIion Io spccIaclc. hcsc mass-mcdiaIcd |orms havc crc-
aIcdapublicIhaIiscxIrcmclylargc,liIcraIcinmanydi||crcnIscnscsinIhc
subIlcIics o|IhcsporI, andcan bringIocrickcIIhcpassionsgcncraIcdby
rcading,hcaring,andsccing.
hcrolco|Ihcmassvcrnacularl iIcraIurc i nIhis proccss iscrucial, |or
whaI Ihcscbooks, magazincs, and pamphlcIs do isIo crcaIc a bridgc bc-
IwccnIhcvcrnacularsandIhcLnglishlanguagc,puIpicIurc andnamcso|
|orcign playcrs inIo | ndic scripIs and synIax, and rcin|orcc Ihc body o|
conIacIIcrms,LnglishIcrmsIransliIcraIcdinIo lindi, laraIhi, orami l )
IhaIarc hcardonIhcradio. Somco|IhcscmaIcrials alsoarc insIrucIional
andconIainclaboraIcdiagramsandvcrbalIcxIsaccompanyingIhcscillus-
IraIionsIhaIcxplain Ihcvarious sIrokcs, sIylcs, rulcs, andlogico|crickcI
Io rcadcrs who may know no Lnglish. his vcrnacularizaIion proccss,
which| havccxamincdmosIclosclywiIhabodyo|maIcrials inlaraIhi ,
providcs avcrbalrcpcrIoirc IhaIallowslargc numbcrs o|ndiansIocxpcri-
cncc crickcI as a l inguisIically |amiliar |orm, Ihus libcraIingcrickcI|rom
IhaIvcryLnglishncssIhaI hrsI gavc iI iIs moral auIhoriIyandinIriguc.
VcrnacularcommcnIaryonradio ,and laIcronIclcvision)providcsIhc
hrsIsIcpIoIhcdomcsIicaIiono|Ihcvocabularyo|crickcIbccausc iIpro-
vidcsnoI|usIaconIacIvocabul ary, buIalsoal i nkbcIwccnIhisvocabulary
andIhc cxciIcmcnIo| Ihc hcardorsccndrama o| Ihc gamc, iIs sIrokcs, iIs
rhyIhm, iIs physical Ihri l l . hc Lnglishncss o| crickcI Icrminology is
drawn inIoIhcworlds o|li ndi , laraIhi, ami l , and bcngali, buI iI i ssi -
P l o y | q m | t | M e J : | t y
= I02 =
multancouslybroughti nto intimatccontactwith thcactualplayingo| thc
gamc throughoutthcstrccts,playgrounds, andbuildinglotso|urban ndia
and thc |rcc spaccs o| many villagcs as wcll. hus, thc acquisition o|
crickcttcrminology i nthcvcrnacularrcin|orccs thc scnsco|bodilycom-
pctcncci nthc sport,whichisinturn givcnahc|tyboostbyrcgularspots
on tclcvision. hc grcat stars o| crickct arc imitatcd, chi ldrcn arc nick-
namcda|tcrthcm,andthctcrminologyo|crickct, i tsstrokcsanditsstars,
itsrulcsandi tsrhythms,bccomcparto|vcrnacularpragmaticsandascnsc
o|livcdphysicalcompctcncc.
hc vastcorpus o|printcd matcrials in thcvcrnaculars rcin|orcc this
linkbctwccn tcrminological control and bodily cxcitcmcnt and cxpcrtisc
byprovidinglargcamountso|in|ormation,statistics, andlorcthat|urthcr
support thc linguistic and pictorial compctcncc o| ndians who arc only
partiallycom|ortablci nthcAnglophoncworld. nthcmanybooks,maga-
zincs, andpamphlcts i nthcvcrnaculars, thcrulcs, strokcs, and tcrminol-
ogyo|crickct,mosto|tcn translitcratcddircctly|rom thc Lnglish so that
thcy rcmain part o| thc linguistic ccumcnc o| i ntcrnational crickct) arc
o|tcn accompanicdby schcmatic diagrams. Liscussingatlcngth thc livcs
andstylcs o|crickctcrsboth ndian and|orcign andcmbcddingthcscdis-
cussions indctailcddcbatcsanddia|ogucsaboutmattcrs o||udgmcntand
rcgulation ,suchas ncutral umpiring), thcsc matcrials hitchcrickcttcrmi -
nology to thc bodyasa sitc o|languagc uscandcxpcricncc. n addition,
bylocatingthcsc instructional matcrials i nncws, gossip, stars, andscnsa-
tionalcvcntssurroundingcrickct, crickctis drawn i nto a widcrworldo|
cclcbritics, controvcrsics, and contcxts outsidc o| sport, which |urthcr
cmbcditinli nguistically|amiliartcrrai n.
hclindi-languagcmagazincKt|l:t-Ktl:t providcsancxccllcntcxam-
plco|thcintcrocularworldo|thcvcrnacularrcadcr,sccAppadurai and
brcckcnridgc I99 Ib), |orthismagazinccontainsadvcrtiscmcnts|orlindi
pulphction,lindicomicbooks,variousbodyproductslikccontactlcnscs
andindigcnouslotions, andphoto albums o|crickctstars.hcrcarcalso
advcrtiscmcnts |or various kinds o| how-to and scl|-hclp pockctbooks,
mostcxplainingskillslikcclcctricwiringandshorthandaswcllasstrangcr
sub|ccts likc mcthodso|making lubricatinggrcasc |ormachincry. Iinally,
manylavish colorphotoso|crickctstarsandnumcrousncwsitcmsonspc-
cihc matchcs and tournamcnts placccrickcti na splcndidworldo|scmi-
cosmopolitanglitz,inwhichcrickctprovidcsthctcxtualsuturc|oramuch
morcdivcrsccollagc o|matcrialshaving to dowithmodcrn li|cstylcsand
|antasics. bccausc magazincs such as Kt|l:t-Ktl:t arc rclativcly chcaply
produccdandsold, thcirpapcrandgraphicsqualityislow, andthcrc|orci t
P | y:r m:: | Mx J : +r i :y
I 03 =
is noI aI all casyIo disIinguish various kinds o| ncws and opinion picccs
|rom Ihc advcrIiscmcnIs |or oIhcr kinds o| liIcraIurc and scrviccs. hc
IoIalc||ccIi s o|a scamlcsswcb o|vcrbal andvisual imprcssions o|cos-
mopoliIanism i nwhichcrickcI i sIhcconnccIivc Iissuc. LIhcrvcrnacular
magazincs arc morc chasIc and lcss inIcrocularIhan Ihis onc, buIas Ihcy
arc Iakcn IogcIhcr wiIh oIhcr prinIcd maIcrials, and cspccially wiIh Ihc
ad|accnI cxpcricnccs o| radio, Iclcvision, and hlm ncwsrccls o| crickcI
matchcs, thcrc is l i ttlcdoubtthatthcculturcoI crckct that is consumcd
byscmi -Anglophoncrcadcrs i sdccisivclyposIcolonialandpolygloI.
lcrhapscvcnmorcimporIanIarcIhcncwspapcrandmagazincsIorics,
as wcll as Ihc books, IhaI Icll Ihc crickcIing l i |c sIorics o|various sIars,
boIh oldandncw. WhaIIhcscvcrnacularsIorics do i sIo locaIc Ihc skills
andcxciIcmcnI o|Ihc sporI in l i nguisIically managcablc narraIivcs, Ihus
making comprchcnsiblc noI |usI sIars buI proximaIc crickcIing livcs.
hcscrcadablclivcsIhcnbccomcIhcbasis|ora rcncwcdinIimacyinIhc
rcccpIiono|radioandIclcvisioncovcragc o|crickcIcvcnIs,andIhcbod-
ilyhcxiso|cvcnIhcmosIrusIicboy,playingwiIhpoorcquipmcnIona|al-
lowhcld, i sIicdaIIhclcvclo|languagcandIhcbodyIoIhcworldo|high-
powcrcd crickcI spccIaclcs. hc |acI IhaI many o| Ihcsc books and
pamphlcIs arc ciIhcr ghosIwriIIcn or wriIIcn wiIh pro|cssional wriIcrs
docs noI dcIracI |rom Ihcir |orcc as Iools |or undcrsIanding crickcI |or
manyrcadcrs ouIsidc Ihc Anglophoncworld. byconnccIing Ihc l i |c o|a
sIar Io known placcs, cvcnIs, schools, Icachcrs, coachcs, and |cllowplay-
crs,anarraIivcsIrucIurci scrcaIcdinwhichcrickcIbccomcscnlivcncd|usI
asiIssIarsarcmadcgraspablc, |orancxccllcnIcxamplco|Ihis, sccShasIri
andlaIil I 9 &2) .
hc gcncral |orcc o| Ihc mcdia cxpcricncc i sIhus powcr|ully synacs-
IhcIic. LrickcIi srcad, hcard, andsccn, andIhc|orcco|dailyli|ccxpcri-
cnccso|crickcI,occasional glimpscso|livccrickcImaIchcsandsIars, and
thcmorcprcdictablccvcntsoIthccrickcIspcctaclc onIclcvisionallcon-
spircnoI|usIIovcrnacularizccrickcIbuIIoinIro|ccIthc masIcrIcrmsand
masIcrIropcs o|crickcI inIo Ihc bodily pracIiccs and body-rclaIcd |an-
Iasics o|manyyoung |ndian malcs. lrinI, radio, and Iclcvision rcin|orcc
cach oIhcr powcr|ully and crcaIc an cnvironmcnI in which crickcI is si -
mulIancouslylargcrIhan l i |c ,bccausco|i IssIars, spccIaclcs, andassocia-
IionwiIh Ihcglamouro|worldIcsIsandinIcrnaIional inIriguc) andclosc
Iol i |c, bccausci IhasbccnrcndcrcdinIolivcs, manuals, andncwsIhaIarc
no longcrLnglish-mcdiaIcd. As ndians |rom various l inguisIicrcgions i n
| ndiasccandhcarIhccrickcInarraIivcso|Iclcvisionandradio,Ihcydoso
noIasncophyIcssIrugglingIograspanLnglish|ormbuIasculIurallyliIcr-
P | y+ m:1 | Mo J+ :1y
IU4 =
atc vicwcrs |or whom crickct has bccn dccply vcrnacularizcd. hus, a
complcxscto|cxpcricntial andpcdagogical loopsissctupthroughwhich
thcrcccption o| crickct bccomcsa critical instrumcnt o| sub|cctivityand
agcncyinthcproccsso|dccolonization.
T|t j|t St|rts 8ocr
At thc rcccption cnd, dccolonization i nvolvcs thc acquisition o|cultural
litcracy in crickct by a mass audicncc, and this sidc o| dccolonization i n-
volvcsthcsorto|appropriation o|compctcnccthatwcarcal l inclincdto
applaud. butthcrc isalso a productiondimcnsionto dccolonization, and
hcrcwccntcrintothccomplcxworldo|cntrcprcncurship andspcctaclc,
o|statcsponsorshipandvastprivatc prohts.
Whilc itis truc that poorcrandlcssurbanc ndian mcnwcrc ablc to
cntcrthc cosmopolitan worldo|crickctthroughroyal oro|hcial support
in thc pcriod bc|orc WorldWar l , thc rclativclywidc classbasc o|cvcn
thcbcst ndian tcamswouldnothavc lastcda|tcrthcwarhaditnotbccn
|or thc |ascinating and quitc unusual pattcrn o|patronagc o|crickctby
ma|or busincss corporations, cspccially in bombay but also throughout
ndia. Lorporatc patronagc o|crickct isanintriguing|actor in thcsociol-
ogyo| ndian sport. ltscsscntials arc thcsc. many prcstigious companics
madcthcchoicctohircoutstandingcrickctplaycrs carly inthcircarccrs,
to givc thcm considcrablc |rccdom to maintain thc rigorous practicc
schcdulcs ,atthc ncts) toassurcthcirstayingin |orm, and, mostimpor-
tant, toassurc thcmsccurc cmploymcntasrcgularmcmbcrso|thcirsta||s
a|tcrthcircrickctcarccrs cndcd. Suchcmploymcnto|crickctcrswassccn,
originallyi nbombay inthc I 950s, as abcnchcial|orm o|socialadvcrtis-
ing, accruing goodwill to thc company by its support o| an i ncrcasingly
popularsport,o|somcstars, ando|thchcaltho|thc national imagcini n-
tcrnational compctition. Lorporatc cmploymcnt o|crickctcrs has mcant
not]ust thc promotion o|talcnt in thc big citics, but i n thc casc o|thc
Statc banko| ndia ,ahugcpubl ic-scctoropcration) , cxccllcnt crickctcrs
wcrcrccruitcdandhircdin branchcsthroughoutndia,sothatthispatron
was singlc-handcdly rcsponsiblc |or thcnurturancco|crickct |ar |rom its
urban homcs. hus, corporatcpatronagco|crickctisrcsponsiblc |orpro-
viding not only a quasi-pro|cssional mcans o|sccurity |or a sport whosc
dccpcstidcalsarcamatcur,butalsoastcadyinitiativc|ordrawinginaspir-
ingyoungmcn |rom thc poorcrclasscs and|romscmirural partso|ndia.
nturn, such corporatcsupporthasmcantthatthcstatchasbccnablc
tomakcarclativclylowinvcstmcntincrickctandyctrcapalargcprohtin
P l y i m+: | Me J+ :y
= I 05 =
Icrms o|naIional scnIimcnI. WhilcIhc paIronagc o|crickcIsinccWorld
War has bccn largcly a commcrcial undcrIaking on Ihc parI o| ma|or
corporaIions(asparIo|Ihcirpublic-rclaIionsandadvcrIisingbudgcIs) , Ihc
sIaIci nndiahasbccngcncrouswiIhiIscxIcnsiono|mcdiasupporIIoIhc
gamc. his alliancc bcIwccn sIaIc-conIrollcd invcsImcnIs-Ihrough
mcdia and Ihc provisiono|lawandordcr, privaIc commcrcial i nIcrcsIsi n
providingcarccrsccuriIyIoplaycrs, anda complcxpubl ic ,alIhough noI
govcrnmcnIal) body callcd Ihc board o| LonIrol-providcd Ihc in|ra-
sIrucIurc |orIhcIrans|ormaIion o|crickcIinIoama|ornaIional passion in
Ihc|ourdccadcssincc ndian indcpcndcncc in I 947.
hcIclcvisionphascinIhchi sIory o|ndiancrickcI, o|coursc, isparI
o| Ihc inIcnsc, rcccnI commcrcializaIion o| crickcI and Ihc associaIcd
commodihcaIion o| iIs sIars. Likc oIhcr sporIs hgurcs i n Ihc capiIalisI
world, IhcbcsI-known ndian crickcIsIarsarcnow mcIacommodiIics, |or
salc Ihcmsclvcs whilc |uclingIhc circulaIion o|oIhcr commodiIics. hc
sporIisincrcasinglyin Ihc hands o|advcrIiscrs, promoIcrs, andcnIrcprc-
ncurs,wiIhIclcvision, radio, andprinI mcdia |ccding IhcnaIionalpassion
|orIhcsporIandiIssIars. Such commodihcaIion o|publicspccIaclcsap-
pcars aI hrsI glancc Io bc simply Ihc ndian cxprcssion o| a worldwidc
proccssandthustorcprcscnInotdccoonizationorindigcnizationbutrc-
colonizaIionbyIhc|orccso|inIcrnaIionalcapiIal. buIwhaIiImosIlyrcp-
rcscnIsisIhcaggrcssivcmoodo|ndiancapiIalisIs i nscizingIhcpoIcnIial
o|crickcI|orcommcrcialpurposcs.
rans|ormcd inIo a naIional passion by thc proccsscs o|spccIaclc, in
Ihc pasIIwo dccadcs crickcI has bccomc a maIIcro|mass cnIcrIainmcnI
andmobiliIy|orsomcandIhcrcbyhasbccomcwrappcdupwiIhwinning
, andy I 989b) . ndiancrowdshavcbccomcsIcadilymorcgrccdy|or n-
dianvicIoricsi nIcsImaIchcsandsIcadilymorcviIupcraIivcabouI losscs,
ciIhcr athomc or abroad. hus, playcrs, coachcs, and managcrs walk a
IighIcr ropc Ihan Ihcy cvcr havc bc|orc. Whilc Ihcy rcap IhcbcnchIs o|
sIardom andcommcrcializaIion, IhcyhavcIobcincrcasinglysoliciIouso|
criIicsandIhccrowd,whodonoIIolcraIccvcn Icmporary scIbacks.his
hasmcanIasIcadygrowIhi nIhcprcssurc|orIcchnicalcxccllcncc.
A|Icrascriousslump|romIhcmidh|IicsIoIhclaIcsixIics,ndiancrick-
cIcrswon somc cxIraordinaryvicIorics in I 97 I ovcr IhcWcsIndicsand
Lngland, boIh on Ihc homc grounds o|IhciropponcnIs. AlIhough Ihc
I 97 I Icamwas hailcdbycrowds andcriIics alikc, Ihcrc wcrc suggcsIions
IhaIIhcvicIoricsowcdmuch Io luckandIhc poor|ormo|Ihc opposing
Icams.cvcrIhclcss, I 97 I markcdaIurningpoinI|orndiancrickcIundcr
Ihclcadcrshipo|A|iIWadckar.hcrcwcrc somcrcalscIbacksa|IcrIhaI,
P | y+ m:: | Mx J+ ::y
IU =
and yct ndian crickctcrs had shown that thcy could bcat thcir |ormcr
colonial mastcrs on thcir homc grounds and thc |ormidablc Laribbcan
playcrsonthcirs. hcsc I 97 I victoricsmarkcdthcpsychological inaugu-
rationo|ancwboldncssinndiancrickct.
hcscvcnticswcrc a pcriodinwhichcvcrytcsttcamwas humblcdby
thc Wcst ndics, who sccmcd too imposingto touch, with thcirbrilliant
batsmcn, thcircxtraordinary (andscary) |astbowlcrs, andthcirspccd in
thc hcld. Lrickct had bccomc thc Laribbcan sport, with cvcryonc clsc
strugglingtostayi nthcpicturc. nthiscontcxt, thcswcctcstmomcnt|or
ndian crickctwasthcvictoryovcrastrongWcstndicstcam in thc I 98 J
scrics. With that w|n, ndiacstablishcd itscl|as a world |orcc i n intcrna-
tionalcrickct,whosc rcal compctition was thc Wcst ndics and|akistan
rathcr than Lngland and Australia. SouthA|rica, cw Zcaland, and Sri
Lankarcmaincdlargclyoutsidcthctopranki ntcstcrickct.by I 98 J , Lng-
landappcarcdtobcaspcnt|orccintcstcrickct(inspitco|occasionalstars
likc an botham) and ndiaa ma]oronc.
butitisimportant notonlythatthcblackandbrown |ormcrcolonics
nowdominatcworl dcrickct. tissignihcantthatthcirtriumph coincidcs
with a pcriod inwhich thc impacto|mcdia, commcrcialization, andna-
tionalpassionhavcalmostcomplctclycrodcdthcoldVictorian civilitics
associatcdwith crickct. Lrickct is now aggrcssivc, spcctacular, and |rc-
qucntlyunsporting,withaudicnccsthirsting|ornationalvictoryandplay-
crsandpromotcrsout|orthcbuck. tishardtocscapcthcconclusionthat
thcdccolonization o|crickctwouldnothavcoccurrcdi|thcsporthadnot
bccndctachcd|romitsVictorianmoralintcgumcnt.oristhisproccssrc-
strictcdto thccolonics. ithasbccn noticcdthathatchcrism in Lngland
has donc much tocrodcthc idcology o||airplaythatonccdominatcd
crickcti nitshomccountry,larshall I 987) .
Lrickctnowbclongstoa di||crcntmoralandacsthcticworld, |ar|rom
thc onc imagincd by homas Arnold o| Kugby. othing marks this
changc in cthos as much as thc arrival o| thc pro|cssionalizcd, strictly
commcrcialphcnomcnono|WorldScricsLrickct,WsC),a global, mcdia-
ccntcrcdcrickct packagc crcatcdby an Australian by thc namc o|Kcrry
|ackcr. |ackcrs WsC was thc hrst ma|or thrcat both to thc colonial cc-
umcnc o| amatcur sportsmanship and thc post-World War cthic o|
crickctnationalism,ccntcrcdasitwasonthcma|orinnovationi nthcsport
sinccthcwaronc-daycrickctinwhichasinglcdaysplay (as opposcd
tohvcormorcdays)scttlcsthcoutcomc. Lnc-daycrickctcncouragcsrisk
taking, aggrcssivcncss, andbravadowhilcsuitingpcr|cctlythcintcnscat-
tcntion appropriatc to high-powcrcd tclcvision advcrtising anda highcr
P l y: m:: | MxJ : ::y
^ I 07 =
turnovcro|cvcnts and scttings. |ackcrs W>Cbypasscdnatonall oyaltyi n
thc namc o|mcdia cntcrtai nmcnt and|ast cconomcbcnchts |or playcrs.
Wcstndan,Lnglish,Australian, and|akistanicrickctcrswcrcqucktoscc
itsappcals. butn ndia playcrswcrcslowcrtorcspond, as thcstructurco|
patronagcn ndiagavc thcmmuchmorcsccurtythanthcircountcrparts
cn|oycd clscwhcrc. Still, |ackcrs bold cntcrprsc was thc signal that
crickcthadmovcd intoyctanothcr, postnationalistphasc, nwhich cntcr-
tainmcnt valuc, mcdia covcragc, and thc commcrcalization o| playcrs
would transccnd thc national loyalty o| thc carly postindcpcndcncc pc-
riodandthcVictorianamatcurcthico|thccolonialpcriod.
oday, ndian crickct rcprcscnts a complcx conhguration o|cach o|
thcsc hstorcal trans|ormations. hcrulc structurc o|thcgamc andthc
codcs o|bchavoron thc hcldarc still nominallyrcgulatcdby thc classic
Victorianvalucs o|rcstraint,sportsmanshi p, andamatcurism. Atthc samc
timc, natonal loyalty isa powcr|ul countcrpoint to thcsc dcals, andvic-
tory at anycost is thc dcmand o| crowds and tclcvision audicnccs. but
|rom thc pointo|vicw o|playcrs and promotcrs, thc Victorian codcand
natonalistconccrnsarcsubordinatcdtothctransnational llow o|talcnt,
cclcbrity, andmoncy.
hcncwcthos isbcst capturcd in thcrcccntlycrcatcdAustralasiaLup,
hostcdbythctinyLul|cmiratco|Shar|ah, whchhasaconsi dcrablcpop-
ulatono|ndianand|akistanimigrants.hiscupbringsoutboththccom
mcrcialandnationalstlogico|contcmporary crckct. nancxtrcmclycx
citinghnalscqucncc nthcdccsivcmatchn I 98, watchcdbyatclcvision
audcncco|h|tccnmillion, |akistan nccdcd|ourrunstowinandachicvcd
thcmi noncstrokcaganstthclastballo|thcmatch.hclvcaudicncc|or
thc gamcincludcdhlmstars andothcrcclcbritcs|rom ndiaand|akstan,
aswcllasSouthAsianmigrantsmakingthcrlivingonLul|moncy.
hc Shar|ahcup s a longway |rom thc playinghcldo| Lton. hc pa-
tronagco|olmoncy,thcscmiprolctarianaudicncco|ndianand|akistan
migrant workcrs i nthc |crsian Lul|, hlm stars |romthc subcontincntsit-
tingonasportshcldcrcatcdby slamicolwcalth, ancnormoustclcvision
audicncc i nthc subcontincnt, prizc moncyandadvcrtiscmcntrcvcnuc n
abundancc, bloodthrsty crickcthcrc, hnally, sthc last blow toVcto-
ranuppcr-classcrickctcodcs,andhcrcisad||crcntglobalccumcnc.A|tcr
Shar|ah, all crickct srobriandcrckct, not bccausc o| thc dramatic rulc
changcs associatcd with that |amous |orm o| crickct, but bccausc o| thc
succcss|ulh]ackingo|aritual|romitsoriginalLnglishpracticalhcgcmony
and tsVctoran moral ntcgumcnt. rom thcpcrspcctivc o|Shar|ah, itis
thcLtonianswhosccml kcrobrandcrstoday.
P l o y | q m+t | M.J e t y
= I 08 =
larto|Ihcdccolonizationo|crickct isthccorrosiono|thcmytho|thc
LommonwcalIh, Ihc loosc |ratcrnity o| nations unitcd by thcir prcvious
status as parIs o|Ihc british Lmpirc. hc LommonwcalIh has largcly bc
comc a community o| sport ,likc thc vy Lcaguc in Ihc castcrn LniIcd
SIaIcs). loliIically, itrcprcscnts a|aintshadowo|thcciviliticso|cmpirc.
nIradc, politics,anddipl omacyithasbccomcalarcc. li| iansdrivcndian
immigranIsouIo|thci]ian polity, Sinhalasandamilskill cachoIhcrin
Sri Lanka ,whilc Sinhala crickct tcams tour ndia), lakistan and ndia
Icctcr continuously onIhccdgc o|war, thcncwnations o|A|ricahghta
varictyo|intcrnccincbattlcs.
Yct thc Lommonwcalth Lamcs arc a scrious and succcss|ul intcrna-
tionalcntcrprisc,andglobalcrickctisstillonIhc|acco|iIana||airo|thc
LommonwcalIh. but Ihc Lommonwcalth that is consIiIuIcd by crickcI
todayis not an ordcrly community o||ormcrcolonics, hcldtogcIhcr by
commonadhcrcnccto aVictorianandcolonial codc. Iisanagonisticrc-
ality, in which a varicIy o| postcolonial pathologics ,and drcams) arc
playcdouton Ihc landscapc o|a common colonialhcriIagc. lo morcan
instrumcnI|orsocializingblackandbrown mcn inIo thcpubliccIiqucIIc
o|cmpirc, itisnowaninstrumcnt|ormobilizingnational scnIimcnt inIhc
scrvicco|IransnationalspccIaclcsandcommoditizaIion.
hc pcculiartcnsion bctwccn nationalism and dccolonization is bcsI
sccninthccrickctdiplomacybctwccn ndiaandlakisIan,whichi nvolvcs
multiplc lcvclso|compctiIion andcoopcraIion. lcrhapsthcbcstcxamplc
o|coopcrationi nthcspirito|dccolonizationisthcvcry complcxproccss
throughwhich poliIiciansandburcaucratsatthchighcsIlcvclso|thcIwo
anIagonistic naIions coopcraIcd in thc mid- I 98Us to shi|t thc vcnuc o|
thc prcsIigious World Lup |rom Lngland to thc subconIincnI in I987,
withIhchnancialbackingo|IhcKclianccLroup o| ndusIrics(onco|thc
biggcst, most aggrcssivc busincss houscs in contcmporary ndia) and Ihc
cncouragcmcnI o| thc lcadcrs o| thc two countrics (Salvc I 987). Yct i n
Shar]ah, aswcll as in cvcry vcnuc in ndia, lakistan, orclscwhcrc sincc
parIiIion,crickctmaIchcsbcIwccn lndiaandlakisIanarcthinlydisguiscd
nationalwars. Lrickctisnotso much a rclcascvalvc|orpopularhosIility
bcIwccnIhctwopopulaIionsasitisacomplcxarcna|orrccnactingthccu-
rious mixturc o| animosity and |ratcrnity Ihat charactcrizcs thc rclations
bctwccnthcsctwoprcviouslyunitcdnaIion-staIcs.Lngland,inanycasc,is
nolongcrparIo|Ihccquation,whcIhcrinthctcnscpoliIicso|Kashmiror
onthccrickctgroundso|Shar]ah.
Kcccnt|ournalisIiccovcragco|IhcAustralasiaLupmatchcsinShar|ah
,ripathi I99U) suggcsts Ihat thc Lul|sIaIcs havc movcd into incrcasing
P l o y | a | t | Me J : | t y
^ IU9 =
promincncc as vcnucs |or inIcrnaIional crickcI, and IhaI Ihc naIional ri -
valry bcIwccn ndia and lakisIan has bccn dclibcraIclyboIh highlighIcd
andconIaincdi nordcrIocrcaIcasimul acrumo|IhcircurrcnIIcnsionovcr
Kashmir.WhilcIhcarmics|acccachoIhcracrossIhcbordcrso|Kashmir,
Ihc crickcI Icams providc a sIar-sIuddcd simulacrum o| war|arc on Ihc
crickcIhcld.
Cerc|sier t Mtors e] MeJt~ity
IrcmainsnowIorcIurnIoIhcgcncral issucsscIouIinIhcinIroducIionIo
IhischapIcr.hccxamplco|crickcIsuggcsIssomcIhingo|whaIiIIakcsIo
dccolonizcIhcproducIiono|culIurc in rcgardIowhaI carlicrcharacIcr-
izcdashardculIural |orms. |n Ihis casc, parIicularly|rom Ihc ndianvan-
IagcpoinI,Ihckcy|orccsIhaIhavccrodcdIhcVicIorianmoralanddidac-
Iic |ramcwork o|crickcIarcIhc indigcnizaIion o|paIronagc, boIh i nIhc
scnsc o| hnding indigcnous paIrons whosc sIylcs can accommodaIc Ihc
|ormandhndingaudicnccswhocanbcdrawninIoIhcspccIaclc,sIaIcsup-
porIIhrough massivc mcdiasubsidics, andcommcrcial inIcrcsI, ciIhcr in
Ihc sIandard conIcmporary possibiliIics |or commodiIizaIion |orms or in
IhcslighIlymorcunusual|ormolcompanypaIronagc|orplaycrs.Iisonly
IhissIrongalliancco||orccsIhaIi nIhcndiancaschaspcrmiIIcdIhcgrad-
ual unyoking o|crickcI |rom iIs VicIorian valuc |ramcwork and iIs anima-
Iionbyncw|orccsassociaIcdwiIhmcrchandisingandspccIaclc.
YcI all Ihcsc |acIors do noI gcI Io Ihc hcarI o|our problcm. why is
crickcIanaIionalpassionWhyisiInoI]usIindigcnizcdbuIIhcvcrysym-
bol o|asporIingpracIiccIhaIsccmsIocmbody ndiaWhy is iIwaIchcd
wiIh rapI aIIcnIion i n sIadia |romShar]ah Io ladras and i n cvcry oIhcr
mcdia conIcxI as wcllWhyarcIhcsIarso|crickcIworshippcd, pcrhaps
cvcn morcIhanIhcircounIcrparIs inIhccincma
larIo|Ihc answcr Io IhcscqucsIions doubIlcss l ics i n Ihc pro|ound
li nks bcIwccn Ihc idcas o| play in human li|c , luizinga I 950), o| orga-
nizcd sporI in mobilizing simulIancously powcr|ul scnIimcnIs o| both
naIionandhumaniIy(lacAloon I984, I 990), ando|agonisIicsporIinrc-
calibraIingIhcrclaIionshipbcIwccnlcisurc andplcasurc inmodcrni ndus-
IrialsocicIics(LliasandLunningI98,largrcavcs I982) . IromIhcscpcr-
spccIivcs,crickcIcanbcsccnasa|ormo|agonisIicplayIhaIhascapIurcd
Ihc ndianimaginaIiondccisivcly.
buI to account |or Ihc ccnIral placc o| crickcI in Ihc | ndian imagina-
Iion, onc musIundcrsIand howcrickcI links gcndcr, naIion, |anIasy, and
bodily cxciIcmcnI. I i s Iruc IhaIamongIhc ndianuppcrclasscs, cspc-
P | y m i 1 | M e J : i 1 y
= I I0 =
cially inso|ar as thcy arc ablc to insulatc thcmsclvcs |rom thc masscs (ci-
thcrinthcirhomcsorinspccialvicwingscctionswhilcwatchingcrickct),
womcnhavcbccomcbothplaycrs andahcionadas o|crickct.ct, |orthc
nation at largc, crickct is a malc- dominatcdactivity i ntcrms o|playcrs,
managcrs,commcntators, ahcionados,andlivcaudicnccs.lalcspcctators,
cvcnwhcnthcydo notdominatc audicnccsatlivcor tclcviscdgamcs,arc
thc prc|crrcd vicwcrs o| thc gamc bccausc thc apical spcctaclcs, tcst
matchcsorma]oronc- daymatchcs, involvconlymalcplaycrs.hcndian
|cmalc gazc, at lcast thus |ar, is twicc rcmovcd, as thcyarc most o|tcn
watching malcs playbut also watchingmalcs watchingothcrmalcs play.
or thc malcvicwcr, watchingcrickct is a dccplycngagcdactivity, at thc
lcvcl o|bodilyhcxis (bourdicu I 977) , as mostndian malcs undcrthcagc
o||orty havc cithcr sccn crickct gamcs, havc playcd thcmsclvcs in somc
localvcrsiono|thc gamc, orhavcrcadabout andsccn itspracticc. hus,
thc plcasurc o| vicwing crickct |or thc ndian malc, as with virtually no
othcrsport, isrootcdi nthcbodilyplcasurco|playing, orimaginingplay-
ing, crickct.
but bccausc crickct, through thc cnormous convcrgcncc o| statc,
mcdia, andprivatc-scctorintcrcsts, hascomctobc idcntihcdwithndia,
withndianskill,ndianguts,ndiantcamspirit,andndianvictorics,
thcbodilyplcasurcthatisatthccorco|thcmalcvicwingcxpcricnccissi-
multancously part o|thccrotics o|nationhood.hiscrotics, particularly
|orworking-class and lumpcn malc youththroughoutndia, isconncctcd
dccplytoviolcncc, not]ustbccauscallagonisticsporttapsthcinclination
toaggrcssivcncssbutbccauscthcdivisivcdcmandso|class,cthnicity, lan-
guagc, andrcgionin|actmakcthcnationapro|oundlycontcstcdcommu-
nity.hccroticplcasurco|watchingcrickct|orndianmalcsub|cctsisthc
j|:ost: e) o:rc, i nanimagincdcommunity,whichinmanyothcrarcnasis
violcntlycontcstcd. (Scclitra I 98lora slightlydillcrcntanglc on this
proccss. ) his plcasurc is ncithcrwholly cathartic norvicarious bccausc
playingcrickctiscloscto, orparto|,thccxpcricncco|manyndianmalcs.
t is, howcvcr, magnihcd, politicizcd, andspcctacularizcdwithout losing
itslinkstothclivcdcxpcricncco|bodilycompctcnccandagonisticbond-
ing. his sct o| links bctwccn gcndcr, |antasy, nation, and cxcitcmcnt
could notoccurwithouta complcx group o|historical contingcncics i n-
volvingcmpirc, patronagc,mcdia,andcommcrcc--contingcncicsthatsct
thcstagc|orthccurrcntcmbodicdcxcitcmcntaboutcrickctin ndia.
Wc can now rcturn to thc puzzlc with which wc bcgan. low did
crickct,ahardcultural |orm tightlyyokingvaluc,mcaning,andcmbodicd
practicc,bccomcsopro|oundlylndianizcd,or,|romanothcrpointo|vicw,
P l y: m i t | MxJ : :t y
I I I =
dc-Victorianizcd bccausc in thc proccss o|itsvcrnacularization (through
books, ncwspapcrs, radio, and tclcvision) itbccamc an cmblcm o| | ndian
nationhoodatthcsamctimcthatitbccamcinscribcd,aspracticc,ontothc
| ndian (malc)body. Lccolonization inthiscascnotonlyi nvolvcsthccrc-
ationo|imagincdcommunticsthroughthcworkingso|printcapitalismas
Andcrson l 9&J) has suggcstcd, but it also involvcs thc appropriation o|
agonistic bodily skills thatcanthcn|urthcr lcndpassion and purposc to
thccommunitysoimagincd.hismaybcthcspccialcontributiono|spcc-
tatorsport,asopposcdtothc manyothcr|ormso|publicculturc) to thc
dynamicsoldccolonization.
bccausc gcndcr, body, and thc crotics o| nationhoodcan comc into
powcr|ul con]uncturc through othcr sports (such as socccrand hockcy,
whicharcvcrypopularin |ndiacvcn today), onc can stillask,whycrickct
lcrc, | mustmakc a spcculativc lcap andsuggcstthatcrickctis thc idcal
|ocus |or national attcntion andnationalist passion bccausc it a||ords thc
cxpcricncc o| cxpcrimcnting with what might bc callcd thc mcans o|
modcrnity to a widc varicty o| groups within | ndian socicty. o thosc
groupswhoconstitutcthcstatc, particularlythroughthcircontrol o|tclc
vision,ito||crsthcscnsco|bcingablctomanipulatcnationalistscntimcnt.
o thc tcchnocrats, publicists, ]ournalists, and publishcrs who dircctly
controlthcmcdia,itprovidcsthc scnsc o|skill in handlingthctcchniqucs
o|tclcvisingsports spcctaclcs, o|manipulatingprivatc-scctoradvcrtising,
o| controllingpublic attcntion, and, in gcncral, o|mastcringthc mcdia
thcmsclvcs. o thc privatc scctor, crickct a||ords a mcans |or linking
lcisurc, stardom, andnationalism, thus providing a scnsc o|mastcry ovcr
thc skills o|mcrchandisingand promotion. o thcvicwingpublic, crickct
a||ordsthc scnsc o|cultural l itcracy in a worldsport (associatcdwith thc
still- not-crascdscnsco|thctcchnologicalsupcriorityo|thcWcst)andthc
morc di||usc plcasurc o|association with glamour, cosmopolitanism, and
nationalcompctitivcncss. o thcuppcr-middlc-classvicwcr, ita||ords thc
privatizcdplcasurcs o|bringing stardom and nationalistscntimcntwithin
thcsa|candsanitizcdcnvironso|thc livingroom. o working-class and
lumpcnyouth, ito||crs thc scnsc o|group bclonging, potcntial violcncc,
andbodilycxcitcmcntthatcharactcrizcs |ootball passion in Lngland. o
ruralvicwcrs,rcadcrs,andl istcncrs,crickct(appropriatclyvcrnacularizcd)
givcsa scnsco|control ovcrthclivcso|stars, thc|atco|nations, andthc
clcctricityo|citics. | nallthcsccascs,whilcthccndso|modcrnitymaybc
undcrstood (andcontcstcd) variously asworldpcacc, nationalskill, indi-
vidual |amc, andtcamvirility or mobility, thc mcans o|modcrnity con-
taincdin crickcti nvolvcacon|lucncco|livcd intcrcsts,whcrcthcproduc-
P l y:r a:: | M e J : r +:y
I I 2 =
crs andconsumcrs o| crickct cansharc thccxcitcmcnto|ndianncsswith-
out its many, divisivc scars. linally, although pcrhaps lcast consciously,
crickct givcs all thcsc groups andactors thc scnsc o| havinghi|ackcdthc
gamc |rom its Lnglish habitus into thc colonics, at thc lcvcl o|languagc,
body,andagcncyaswcll ascompctition, hnancc, andspcctaclc. |crickct
didnotcxisti nndia,somcthinglikcitwouldccrtainlyhavcbccninvcntcd
|orthcconducto|publiccxpcrimcntswiththcmcanso|modcrnity.
P l y | a:t | Me J : r + t y
^ I I 3 =
0
Num06f l0 h6 L0l00l8l m8l08l00
ln Ihcl aIIcrpart o| I 99U, in Ihc lasI monIhs o| Ihcrcgimc o| V Singh,
and in thc turbulcnI IransiIion Io thc rulc o| thc counIry by S. Lhan-
drasckhar, ndia,cspcciallyIhclindi -spcakingorIh)wasrockcdbyIwo
ma]orsocialcxplosions.hchrst, associaIcdwithIhclandalLommission
KcporI, piIIcdmcmbcrso|di||crcnIcastcsagainstcachothcrina manncr
Ihatmany|carcdwould dcstroy Ihc poliIy. hc sccond, associatcdwiIh
thc holyciIyo|Ayodhya, pitIcdli ndus andlusl imsagainsIcachoIhcr
ovcr thc conIrol o| a sacrcd sitc. hcsc crosscuIting ssucs, whosc intcr-
rclaIionship has bccn noIcd andanalyzcd a grcatdcal in rcccnt monIhs,
bothinvolvcdqucstionso|cntitlcmcnI,whatarcyourrights)andclassih-
cation ,whaIgroupdoyoubclongtoandwhcrcdocsiIhti nthcpoliIical
landscapc) . hischaptcrcxplorcsIhccolonial roots o|oncdimcnsion o|
Ihc volaIilc poliIics o| communiIy and classihcation i n contcmpora
ndia. n so doing, it |ollows thc lcad o| many rcccnt authors who havc
IraccdcasIc andcommuniIarian politicstothcpolitics o|grouprcprcscn-
tationinthcIwcnIicthccnIury, Kothari I 989a, I 989b,Shah I 989)aswcll
asIoIhcrolco|Ihccolonialccnsus,haparI 989). buIIhcprcciscanddis-
IincIivc links bcIwccn cnumcration and classihcation i n colonial ndia
havcnotbccn spccihcd, andthatiswhat proposc Iodo i nthis chaptcr.
Ldward Saids |amous book , I 978) is ccnIrally conccrncd wiIh Ihc
= I I 4 =
|orms o|knowlcdgcthatconstitutcwhathcdchncdasoricntalism,buthc
docs not spcci|y how cxactly thc oricntalist knowlcdgc pro]cct and thc
colonialpro]ccto|domination andcxtractionwcrcconncctcd. lcvcrthc
lcss, i n two ways hc docs sct thc stagc |or thc argumcnt o|this chaptcr.
Liscussingthcvariouswaysthcdiscoursco|oricntalism crcatcdavistao|
cxoticism, strangcncss,anddi ||crcncc,hcsaysthatrhctoricallyspcaking,
oricntal ismi sabsolutclyanatomicaland:r:tot|o:, touscitsvocabularyi s
tocngagci nthcparticularizinganddividingo|thingsLricntali ntoman
agcablcparts ( I 978, 72,cmphasismi nc). Alittlclatcri nthcbookhcsug-
gcststhatincxhumi ngdcadLricntal languagcs,oricntalistswcrcinvolvcd
i n a proccss i n which rcconstructivc prccision, scicncc, cvcn |o|rot|er
couldprcparcthcway|orwhatarmics, administrations, andburcaucracics
wouldlatcrdoonthcground, inthcLricnt , I 2 J, cmphasismi nc).
lnthi schaptcrl wanttoshowthatthccxcrcisc o|burcaucratic powcr
itscl| i nvolvcdthccolonial imaginationandthati nthis imagination num-
bcr playcda crucial rolc. ly gcncral argumcnt i sthatcxoticization and
cnumcrationwcrccompl icatcdstrandso|asinglccolonialpro|cctandthat
in thciri ntcraction licsacrucialparto|thccxplanationo|groupviolcncc
andcommunal tcrror in contcmporary lndia. ln makingthis argumcnt, it
mightbc notcdthat | bui|don Lavid Luddcns conccrn withoricntalist
cmpiricism, I 99J) .
lyccntralqucstioni ssimplc. l sthcrc anyspccial |orcctothcsystcm-
aticcountingo|bodicsundcrcolonialstatcsi nlndia,A|rica,andSouthcast
Asia, ori sitsimplyalogicalcxtcnsiono|thcprcoccupationwithnumbcrs
in thcmctropolis,that is, in Luropc in thc sixtccnthand scvcntccnth ccn-
turics l naskingthisqucstion, andinscckingtoanswcrit, l havcbccnin-
spircd by two cssays. onc by bcncdict Andcrson ( I 99 I ) and onc by
Sudipta Kavira| ( I 994), whichtogcthcrsuggcstan importantncwagcnda
|oracritiquco|Luropcancolonia|ru|c. akingthc |ndiancolonialcxpcri-
cnccas mycasc, l shall try toclaboratcthcidcathatwchavcpaidagood
dcalo|attcntionto thcclassi hcatorylogico|colonialrcgimcs,butlcssat-
tcntion to thc ways in which thcy cmploy quantihcation i n ccnsuscs as
wcllasi nvariousothcri nstrumcntslikcmaps,agrariansurvcys, racialstud-
ics, andavarictyo|othcrproductionso|thccolonialarchivc.
Lct mcbric|lyanticipatcmyargumcnt. l bclicvc thatthc british colo-
nialstatccmploycdquantihcationi nitsrulc o|thclndiansubcontincntin
a waythatwasdi ||crcnt |rom its domcstic countcrpart i nthccightccnth
ccntury (brcwcr I 989) and|rom itsprcdcccssorstatcs i n lndia, including
thclughals,whoccrtainlyhadclaboratcapparatuscs|orcounting,classi-
|ying, andcontrolli ngthclargc populationsundcrthcircontrol . o makc
N | : : t | : C o l o | l :: o
= I I 5 =
thiscasc,buildtwoargumcntsand raisc a numbcro|qucstions|or|urthcr
rcscarch.hc hrst, morccxtcnsivcargumcntwillsccktoidcnti|ythcplacc
o| quantihcation and cnumcraton in british classihcaton actvtcs n
colonial ndia. hcsccond, onlyadumbratcdhcrc,wllsuggcstwhy, con-
trarytoappcarancc, thsvarictyo|dynamicnominalism, lacking I 98)
wasdi||crcnt |rom carlicrstatc-supportcdnumcricalcxcrcscs i nboththc
mctropolisandthccolonics.
rtot|ot Stottq|ts
luch has bccn writtcn about thc virtual obscssion o| thc british statc i n
ndiawithclass|yingi tsndianpopulation. hclocusclassicuso|thisl i t-
craturcisbcrnardLohnscssayhcLcnsus,SocialStructurcandLb|ccti-
hcation in South Asia , I 987), whcrc hc shows that thc ndian ccnsus,
rathcr than bcing a passivc nstrumcnt o| data gathcri ng, crcatcs by its
practicallogcand|ormancwscnsco|catcgoryidcntityi nndia,whichin
turn crcatcs thc condtions |orncw stratcgics o|moblity, status politics,
and clcctoral strugglc n ndia. hc classi hcatory dimcnsion o| Lohns
workhasbccn carrcd|orwardbymanyscholars,includnglicholasLirks
, I 987), LavidLuddcn( I 99J) , Lyanlrakash, I 99U) ,andscvcralhstorians
o| thc subaltcrn school, including Kana]it Luha ( I 98J ), Lavid Arnold
, I 988) , and Lipcsh Lhakrabarty ( I 98J) . his clcmcnt has also rcccntly
bccn rcsituatcd in a ma]or study o| thc oricntalst imaginaton in ndia
, ndcn I 99U) . Lohnsconccrnwiththcccnsushas alsobccn carricd|orth
inan importantcdtcdcollcction ,barricr I 98 I ) . All thcsc historianshavc
shown invarious ways that colonial classihcatons had thc c||cct o|rcd-
rccting mportant indigcnous practiccs in ncw dircctions, by putting di|-
|crcntwcghtsandvalucsoncxistingconccptionso|groupidcntity, bodily
dstinctions, andagraranproductvity. butlcssattcntion hasbccn paidto
thcissuco|numbcrs, mcasurcmcnt,andquantihcationi nthiscntcrprisc.
hcvastoccano|numbcrsrcgardngland, hclds, crops, |orcsts,castcs,
tribcs, and so|orth, collcctcd undcr colonial rulc |romvcry carlyi nthc
ninctccnthccntury, wasnotautlitariancntcrprisc i na simplc, rc|crcntal
manncr. |tsutiltariansmwasparto|a complcx including i n|ormational,
]usthcatory, and pcdagogcal tcchniqucs. larticular |unctionarics at par-
tcularlcvclso|thcsystcm,hl l i ngburcaucratic|ormsthatwcrcdcsigncdto
providcrawnumcrical data, didsccthcirtasksasutilitarian in acommon
scnsc, burcaucratic way. Statc-gcncratcd numbcrs wcrc o|tcnputto im-
portantpragmatcuscs, ncludngscttngagrariantaxlcvcls,rcsolvingland
disputcs, asscssingvarious military options, and, latcri nthcccntury, t-
N | + t | : Cxl x 1 I : x
I I =
ing Ioad|udicaIcindigcnousclaims|orpoliIicalrcprcscnIaIion and policy
changc. lumbcrssurclywcrcusc|ul inallIhcscways.buIIhclcssobvious
poinIisIhaIsIaIisIicswcrcgcncraIcdin amounIsIhaI|ardc|caIcdanyuni-
hcdburcaucraIic purposc. Agrarian sIaIisIics, |or cxamplc, wcrc noIonly
hllcd wiIh classi hcaIory and Icchnical crrors, Ihcy also cncouragcd ncw
|ormso|agrarianpracIiccandscl|-rcprcscnIaIion ,SmiIh I 985) .
hus, alIhoughcarlycolonialpolicicso|quanIihcaIionwcrcuIiliIarian
in dcsign, would suggcsI IhaI numbcrs gradually bccamc morc impor-
IanIlyparIo|Ihc illusion o|burcaucraIic conIrol anda kcy Io a colonial
imaginary in which counIablc absIracIions, o| pcoplc and rcsourccs aI
cvcry imaginablc lcvcl and |or cvcry conccivablc purposc, crcaIcd Ihc
scnsco|aconIrollablcindigcnousrcaliIy.lumbcrswcrcparIo|IhcrcccnI
hisIorical cxpcricncc o| liIcracy |or Ihc colonial cliIc (loncy I 989,
homas I 987), whohadIhuscomcIobclicvc IhaIquanIihcaIionwasso
ciallyusc|ul. hcrc isamplc cvidcnccIhaIIhcsignihcancc o|Ihcsc num-
bcrswaso|IcnciIhcrnoncxisIcnIorscl|-|ulhlling,raIhcrIhanprincipally
rc|crcnIial Io a complcx rcaliIycxIcrnal Io Ihc acIiviIics o| Ihc colonial
sIaIc. n Ihc longrun, IhcsccnumcraIivc sIraIcgics hclpcdIoigniIccom-
muniIarian andnaIionalisIidcnIiIicsIhaI in |acIundcrmincdcolonialrulc.
LncmusIIhcrc|orcaskhowIhcidcao|numbcras aninsIrumcnIo|colo-
nialconIrolmighIhavccnIcrcdIhcimaginaIiono|IhcsIaIc.
n rcgard Io Lngland, Ihc answcr Io Ihis qucsIion musI go back Io
IhcsIoryo|numcracy,liIcracy,sIaIchscalism, andacIuarialIhinkinginIhc
scvcnIccnIh and cighIccnIh ccnIurics (lacking I 975, chap. I 2, I 982,
I 98,brcwcr I 989). hisisavcrycomplcxsIoryindccd,buIbyIhccndo|
Ihc cighIccnIhccnIury, numbcr, likc landscapc, hcriIagc, andIhc pcoplc,
hadbccomcparIo|Ihclanguagco|IhcbriIishpoliIicalimaginaIion ( Lud-
dcnI 99J) , andIhcidcahadbccomchrmlyimplanIcdIhaIapowcr|ulsIaIc
couldnoIsurvivcwiIhouImakingcnumcraIion a ccnIral Icchniquc o| so-
cial conIrol. hus, Ihc ccnsus in briIain madc rapid Icchnical sIridcs
IhroughouIIhcnincIccnIhccnIuryanddoubIlcssprovidcdIhcbroadsca|-
|olding |or Ihc laIc-nincIccnIh-ccnIury ccnsus in ndia. Lnc ovcrvicwo|
maIcrial on Ihc ni ncIccnIh-ccnIuryccnsusi nbriIain ,LawIon I 978) sug-
gcsIsIhaI, opcraIingasiIdidwiIhina|ramcworko|commonscnscclassih-
caIionssharcdbyo|hcialdomwiIhordinarypcoplc,IhcbriIishccnsusdid
noIhavcIhcrc|racIivcandgcncraIivcc||ccIsIhaIiIdidi nndia.
Whilc cannoIdccisivclyshowhcrc IhaIIhcopcraIions o|IhcbriIish
ccnsus aI homcwcrcdi||crcnI|romIhosc in ndia, IhcrcarcIhrccsound
rcasonsIosupposcIhaIIhcrcwcrcimporIanIdi||crcnccs.lirsI,Ihcbasiso|
IhcbriIishccnsuswasovcrwhclmingly IcrriIorial andoccupaIional raIhcr
N | + : t | : Cx| xi | l : t i x
= I I 7 =
IhancIhnicorracial . ' Sccond, inso|aras iIs conccrnswcrc sociological in
Lngland, IhcccnsusIcndcdIobc dirccIlyIicdIoIhcpoliIicso|rcprcscn-
tation,asinthcissuco|roIIcnboroughs. inay,andmosIimporIant,both
briIishandlrcnchccnsuspro]ccIs,aswcllasIhccmbryonicsocialscicnccs
wiIhwhichIhcywcrcassociaIcd),IcndcdIorcscrvcIhcirmosIinvasivci n-
vcsIigaIions |orIhcirsocial margins. Ihc poor,Ihcscxuallypro|ligaIc, Ihc
lunaIic, andIhc cri mi nal . |n Ihc colonics, by conIrasI, Ihc cnIirc popu|a
Iionwassccn asdi ||crcnIi nproblcmaIicways,Ihisshi|IlyingaIIhcvcry
hcarI o| oricnIalism ,ligam I 990, 287) . lurIhcrmorc, in lndiaIhisoricn-
IalisIinclinaIionwasprcordaincdIomccIiIsi ndigcnouscounIcrparIi nIhc
apparcnIcardi nalityo|di||crcncci nIhcindigcnousi dcologyo|casIc,asiI
appcarcd Io WcsIcrn cycs. hc similariIics and di ||crcnccs bcIwccn Ihc
briIish and lrcnch colonial pro]ccIs i n Ihis rcgardhavc ycI Io bcworkcd
ouI,buIiIis clcarIhaIIhcconccrn wiIh dcviancc andmarginaliIyaIhomc
was cxIcndcd Io Ihc managcmcnI o| cnIirc populaIions i n Ihc LricnI
,ArmsIrong I 990, Kabinow I 989) . WhilcIhcrcwcrcclcarandimporIanI
connccIions bcIwccn Ihc cnIcrpriscs o|classihcaIion, scicncc, phoIogra-
phy, criminology, andso on, in IhcmcIropolis and in IhccolonicsiIdocs
noIappcarIhaIcnumcraIivcacIiviIicsIookIhcsamcculIural|ormi nLng-
landand i n ndia, i| |orno oIhcrrcason bccausc Ihc Lnglish did noIscc
Ihcmsclvcs as a vasI cdihcc o| cxoIic communiIics, dcvoid o| a poliIy
worIhIhcnamc.
nacolonialscIIingsuchasIhc|ndianonc, IhccncounIcrwiIhahighly
di||crcnIiaIcd, rcligiouslyLIhcrscIo|groupsmusIhavcbuilIonIhcmcI-
ropoliIanconccrnwiIhoccupaIion, class, andrcligion,allo|whichwcrca
promincnI parI o| Ihc briIish ccnsus in Ihc ni ncIccnIh ccnIury. his crc-
aIcd a siIuaIion i n which Ihc hunI |or i n|ormaIion and archivcs |or Ihis
i n|ormaIion Iook on cnormous proportions, and numcrical daIa bccamc
crucial Io Ihis cmpiricisI drivc. by Ihis Iimc, sIaIisIical Ihinking had bc-
comc allicdIoIhcpro]ccIo|civicconIrol,boIhi nLnglandandlrancc,i n
pro]ccIs o| saniIaIion, urban planning, criminal law, and dcmography
,Languilhcim I 989, Lwald I 98, lacking I 975, I 982, I 98) . I would
Ihushavc bccn IcmpIing |or Luropcan burcaucraIs Io imaginc IhaI good
numcrical daIa wouldmakc iI casicr Io cmbark on pro|ccIs o|social con-
Irolorrc|ormi nIhccolonics.
JhisargumcnIraiscsIwoscparaIcbuIrclaIcdissucs. Was ndiaasj:c|o|
casc ora ||t|rj casc i nrcgardIo Ihc rolc o|cnumcraIion, cxoIicizaIion,
and dominaIion i n Ihc Icchniqucs o| Ihc modcrn naIion-sIaIc would
arguc IhaI iI was a spccial casc bccausc in ndia Ihc oricnIalisI gazc cn-
countcrcdani ndigcnous sysIcm o|classihcaIonIhaIsccmcdvirIuallyi n-
N | : r t | e C o l o | l | : | o
I I 8 =
vcntcdby somc carlicr, indigcnous|orm o|oricntalism. do notsubscribc
tothcvicwthatcarlylindutcxtsconstitutcasimplcvariationonlatcrori-
cntalist tcxts, thus]usti|ying thc cxoticizing tcndcncics o|, |or cxamplc,
thc colonial lcgal digcsts. laking this casc |ullywouldtakc mc too |ar
ahcd in this contcxt, but lct mc simply notc that csscntialism, too, is a
mattcr o| contcxt and that thc rclationship bctwccn lindustcrcotyping
andbritishcsscntialismi nthcmattcro|castccannotbcconsidcrcdapart
|romathoroughgoingcomparisono|statcandrcligious|ormationsinvcry
di||crcnthistoricalcontcxts.
cvcrthclcss,itwouldbc|oolishtoprctcndthatbritishoricntalismdid
not cncountcr in ndia an indigcnous social imaginary that appcarcd to
valorizcgroupdi||crcnccinarcmarkablcway.Lastcinndia,cvcni|itwas
itscl| a vcrycomplicatcd part o| thc ndian social imaginary andwas rc-
|ractcdandrcihcdinmanywaysthroughbritishtcchniqucso|obscrvation
andcontrol, was ncvcrthclcss not a hgmcnt o|thc british political imagi-
nation. nthisrcgard, Lricntalcsscntializingi nndiacarricdasocial|orcc
that can comc only whcn two thcorics o| di ||crcncc sharc a critical as-
sumption.thatthcbodicso|ccrtaingroupsarcthcbcarcrso|socialdi||cr
cncc andmoral status. his iswhcrc ndia isa spccial casc. butlookcdat
|romthcvantagc pointo|thcprcscnt,ndiamayalsobcrcgardcdasal i m-
itingcasco|thctcndcncyo|thcmodcrn nation-statctodraw oncxisting
idcaso|li nguistic,rcligious,andtcrri torialdi ||crcncctoproduccthcpco
plc(balibar I 99U) .
hc rolc o| numbcrs in complcx i n|ormation-gathcring apparatuscs
suchasthccolonialoncinndiahadtwosidcsthatinrctrospcctnccdtobc
distinguishcd.hconcsidcmaybcdcscribcdas|ustihcatoryandthcothcr
asdisciplinary. Avcrylargcparto|thc statistical i n|ormationgathcrcdby
british |unctionaricsin ndia didnot|ust|acilitatclcarningordiscovcry in
rcgard to rul ing | ndian tcrritorics. hcsc statistical data also assistcd in
arguingandtcachinginthccontcxto|burcaucraticdiscourscandpracticc,
hrstbctwccnthcLastndiaLompanyandthcLnglishparliamcntandlatcr
bctwccn thc o|hcials o|thc crown in ndia and thcirbosscs i n London.
(Smith I 985is a classicstatcmcnto|thc gcncral logicthatknitstogcthcr
rcports,manuals, andrccordsinninctccnth-ccntury| ndia. ) umbcrswcrc
acriticalparto|thcdiscoursc o|thccolonialstatcbccauscitsmctropolitan
i ntcrlocutors had comc to dcpcnd on numcrical data, howcvcr dubious
thciraccuracy and rclcvancc, |or ma|or social or rcsourcc-rclatcd policy
initiativcs. his |ustihcatory dimcnsion o|thc usc o| numbcrs in colonial
pol icy, o|coursc, alsorclatcs to thcdi ||crcntlcvclso|thcbritishstatc in
ndia,whcrcnumbcrswcrcthc|ucl|orascricso|ncstcdstrugglcsbctwccn
N | : r t | : C e l e r i | l r t e r
I I 9 =
ndiano|hcialsatthclowcstlcvclso|thcburcaucracy,upthcsystcmtothc
govcrnor-gcncral o| ndia, through a scrics o| crosscutting committccs,
boards, and individual o|hccholdcrs, who conductcd a constant intcrnal
dcbatcaboutthc plausibility andrclcvancc o|various classihcations and
thc numbcrs attachcd to thcm ,Lirks I 987, chaps. I Uand I I , lutchins
I 97, I 8 I , lrcslcrI 987, chap.2) .
lumbcrsrcgardingcastcs, villagcs, rcligiousgroups, yiclds, distanccs,
andwcllswcrcparto|alanguagco|policydcbatc,i nwhichthcirrc|crcn-
tialstatus quicklybccamc |arlcssimportant than thcirdiscursivc impor-
tancci nsupportingorsubvcrtingvariousclassihcatorymovcsandthcpol-
icy argumcnts bascd on thcm. tis importantto notc hcrcthat numbcrs
pcrmittcdcomparisonbctwccnkinds o| placcs andpcoplc thatwcrc oth-
crwisc di||crcnt, thatthcywcrcconciscwayso|convcyi nglargcbodicso|
i n|ormation,andthatthcyscrvcdasashort|orm |orcapturingandappro-
priatingothcrwiscrccalcitrant|caturcso|thcsocialandhumanlandscapc
o|ndia. tisnotsomuchthatnumbcrsdidnotscrvcastraight|orwardrc|-
crcntialpurposci ncolonial pragmatics,scrvingto indicatc|caturcso|thc
ndian social worldtoburcaucratsandpoliticians,butthatthisrc|crcntial
purposcwas o|tcn not as important as thc rhctorical purposc. his is in
partduc to thc |act that thc shccrvastncss o| thc numbcrs i nvolvcd in
ma|or policy dcbatcs in thc ni nctccnth ccntury o|tcn madc thcirstrictly
rc|crcntialorin|ormationaldimcnsionunmanagcablc.
Yct thc |usti hcatory |unctions o| thcsc numcrical stratcgics sccm to
havc bccn no morc important than thcir pcdagogical and disciplinary
oncs.Withrcgardtothislattcr|unction, oucaultsidcasaboutbiopolitics
ccrtainlyarcmostrclcvant,givcnthatthccolonialstatcsawitscl|asparto|
thc ndianbody politicwhilc itwassimultancouslycngagcdi nrcinscrib-
ingthcpolitics o|thc ndian body, cspcciallyi nitsinvolvcmcntwithsati,
hook swinging, posscssion ritcs, and othcr|orms o|bodymanipulation
,Lirks I 989,lani I 99U) . willrcturntothispointlatcr.butthcnumcrical
issuccomplicatcsmattcrssomcwhat.lorwhatisinvolvcdhcrcarcnotsim-
plythclogistical nccdso|thcstatcbutalsoitsdiscursivcnccdsconstrucd
ccntrallyasstatistical nccds.
lorcovcr,thiswasnot]ustamattcro|providingthcnumcricalgrist|or
a policyapparatuswhosc discursivc |orm had bccn constructcdthrough a
complcxLuropcan dcvclopmcntinvolvingprobabilisticthinkingandcivic
policy. twasalsoamattcro|discipliningthcvasto|hcialdomo|thccolo-
nialstatc,sccalsoSmith I 985andLohn I 987), aswcll as thcpopulation
that thcsc o|hcials wishcd to control andrc|orm, so thatnumbcrscould
bccomcanindispcnsablcparto|itsburcaucraticpracticcsandstyl c.
N | : : | : Cxl x | | | i :i x
I 2U =
Nl: orJ CoJoste o|t|cs
hc instancc o|rupturcbctwccn thc cmpiricist and disciplinary momcnts
o|colonialnumcrologycanbcsccni nthcmanytcchnicaldocumcntspro
duccd in thc middlc o| thc ni nctccnth ccntury. hcrc arc many ways in
which this shi|tcanbcconccptualizcd, includingthconcthatsccs itasa
trans|ormation o|thc ccnsus as an instrumcnt o| tax to an i nstrumcnto|
knowlcdgc,i nthcwordso|KichardSmith, I 985, I ), whoidcntihcsthis
shi|tas occurri ng in thc lun]ab around I 850. n thc discussion that |ol-
lows, usc a documcnt|romroughly thc samcpcriod|romwcstcrn ndia
toi llustratcthc|ormationo|thcncwsorto|numcricalgazco|thccolonial
statci nthcmiddlco|thcninctccnthccntury.
hisdocumcnt,publishcdundcrthc titlcT|: Jert k:jett e] ! 9, was ac-
tuallypublishcdasabookin I 975bythcLandKccordsLcpartmcnto|thc
statco|laharashtrainwcstcrnlndia(Lovcrnmcnto|laharashtra I 975) .
ts subtitlc isM:ost::rt orJ C|osscoter k|:s e] t|: D:ccor, C,otot, Kerlor
orJ Korotc Sto:,s tbclongs to a class o|documcnts that show thc Last
lndia Lompany sccking to standardizc its land-rcvcnuc practiccs across
thc|ullcxtcnto|itstcrritoricsandtorationalizcpracticcsgcncratcdinthc
lattcrparto|thccightccnthandinthccarlyparto|thcninctccnthccntury
in thc hcat o| conqucst. t is, par cxccllcncc, a documcnt o| burcaucratic
rationalization, which sccks tocrcatc andstandardizcrcvcnucrulcs |orall
thclandundcrLastndiaLompany]urisdictioninthcLcccanrcgion. but
it also contains a scrics o| lcttcrs andrcports |rom thc carly part o| thc
I 840s that rcvcal a scrious dcbatc bctwccn local and ccntral o|hcialdom
aboutthc minutiac o| mapping thc agricultural tcrrain o|wcstcrn ndia,
andits largcr purposcs, such as asscssmcnt anddisputc scttlcmcnt. tis a
quintcsscntialdocumcnto|cadastral politics.
ollowing Kana]it Luhas charactcrization o|thc prosc o|countcrin-
surgcncy,Luha I 98J) , wcmaycallthcJert k:jett aclassiccxamplco|thc
prosc o| cadastral domination. his is prosc composcd partly o| rulcs,
partly o| ordcrs, partlyo| appcndiccs, andpartly o| lcttcrs andpctitions,
whichmustbcrcadtogcthcr. l nthisprosc,thcintcrnaldcbatcso|thcrcv-
cnuc burcaucracy, thc pragmatics o| rulc |ormation, and thc rhctoric o|
utility always accompanicd thc hnal rccommcndations by authoritics at
various lcvcls o| ncw tcchnical practiccs. hcsc arc documcnts whosc
mani|cstrhctoric is tcchnical ,that is, positivist, transparcnt, and ncutral)
butwhoscsub tcxtscontcstatory ,in rcgardtosupcriors) anddisciplinary
(inrcgardtoi n|criors) .
hcbulko|thcdocumcnt, likcmostothcrso|itsilk,istrulyborgcsian,
N | : t | : C e l e | o l l q t e
= I 2 I =
sIruggl ingIohndIcxIual mcIhodsandrcprcscnIaIionsadcquaIcIocapIur-
ingboIhIhcscopcandIhcmi nuIiaco|IhcndianagriIcrrain. hcanalogy
Io)orgc LuisborgcssclassicsIory o| IhcmapIhaIhadIo bc aslargcasIhc
domainiIiconicizcdisnoI|anci|ul, asiscvidcnccdbyIhc|ollowingcom-
plainIbyonco|hcialabouIancarlicrIcchniquco|mapping.
PI IHC ItmC C r. rtngCs survCy C IHC CCCan IHCrC WCrC sCmC VCry CC
IatCC anC tnIrtCaIC rCCCrCs prCparCC, unCCr IHC namC C kathaIs, WHtCH WC
HaVC asC CunC tI CxpCCtCnI IC CC aWay WtIH as usCCss, anC ICnCtng Oy
IHCtr grCaI CngIH anC CCmpCxtIy IC tnVCVC tn COsCurtIy, taIHCr IHan CuCt
CaIC, IHC suOCcIs C WHtCH IHCy IrCaI, anC Oy IHCtr VCty Ouk IC rCnCCr IHC
CCICCItCn C CrrCrs a maIICr C mpCsstOt tIy , I 975CCInCIC. IHC kathaIs prC
parCC Cr many C \HC vtagCs assCssCC Oy r. rtngC WCrC upWarCs C JUU
yarCs t n CngIH) . ,Je|ntR:(et, 55)
loIwiIhsIandingIhiscomplainIin I 840abouIIhcborgcsianabsurdiIics
o| carlicrmappingc||orIs, Ihc Icnsion bcIwccn rcprcscnIaIional cconomy
anddcIaildocsnoIdisappcar.hroughouIIhc I 840s,abaIIlcconIinucsbc-
Iwccn Ihc survcy auIhoriIics o| Ihc Lcccan and Ihc board o| Kcvcnuc,
which has somcwhaI morc synopIic and panopIic aspiraIions |or iIs sur-
vcys. irsI, Ihcrc is Ihc rclaIionship bcIwccn mcasurcmcnI and classihca-
Iion,which isiIscl|ancxpliciIsub|ccI o|discussioninmanyo|IhclcIIcrs
andrcporIs lcadingupIoIhc1ert k:jett. which hxcdIhcbasicrulcs o|sur-
vcy |or Ihis rcgion |or scvcral subscqucnI dccadcs. As rcgards mcasurc-
mcnI, IhcbriIisho|hcialsdirccIlyrcsponsiblc |orIhc asscssmcnI pcrccivcd
iIas a problcm o| adapIing cxisIing IrigonomcIric, Iopographic, and pro-
IracIion mcIhods Io crcaIc maps IhaIIhcy saw asboIhaccuraIc and |unc-
Iional.hcywcrc conccrncdIo mulIiplycopicso|Ihcscmaps inIhcmosI
cconomical and accuraIc manncr, as wcll as Io guard againsI any |uIurc
|raudulcnIaIIcmpIaIalIcraIion, andIhcrc|orcIhcsco|hccrssuggcsIcdIhaI
Ihcy shouldbc liIhographcd 1ert k:jett, 9I 0) . hcirconccrn |oraccu-
racy in mcasurcmcnI alrcady incorporaIcd cxisIing sIaIisIical idcas abouI
pcrccnIagcs o|crrorandavcragccrror,which IhcywanIcdIorcducc.
Jhcsc o|hccrs rccognizcd IhaI classihcaIionwas a much Irickicr issuc
Ihan mcasurcmcnI, rcgarding mcasurcmcnI, howcvcr, Ihcy wcrc naivcly
posiIivisI hcscrcsulIsarco|anabsoluIc andi nvariablccharacIcr, capa-
blco|bcingarrivcdaIwiIhcqualccrIainIybymanymodcs, I 0) . hcclas-
sihcaIion o|hcldslorpurposcs o|a |airasscssmcnI poscda hosIo|prob-
lcms involving Ihc IypihcaIion o|variaIion |or purposcs o|classihcaIion,
so IhaI Ihc classihcaIion could bc gcncral cnough Io apply Io a largc
rcgion, ycI spccihc cnough Io accommodaIc imporIanIvariaIions on Ihc
N | : t | + C e | e i | I | :| e
I 22 =
ground.hcrcsultingsolutioni nvolvcda ninc|oldclassihcationo|soils, a
complcx systcm o|notation |orhcldasscssors, and an intricatcalgorithm
|or translating such qualitativc vari ation into quantitativc valucs rclcvant
torcvcnucasscssmcnt.
lutanothcrway, thcdctailcddisciplincso|mcasurcmcntandclassihca-
tion (thc oncrclyingonthciconic practiccs o|trigonomctry andsurvcy-
ing in gcncral and thc othcr on numcrical and statistical idcas o|avcragc
and pcrccntagc crror), wcrc thc twin tcchniqucs through which an cqui-
tablc policy o|rcvcnuc was cnvisioncd, bascdon principlcs o|thcmost
gcncralapplicabiliIythatwouldsimultancouslybcasscnsitivcas possiblc
tolocalvariation. his mcntal iIy-gcncralityo|application andscnsitiv-
itytominutcvariations-wasthcccntraltcnsionnot]usto|cadastral sur-
vcys but o|all thc i n|ormational aspirations o| thccolonial statc. As cx-
plain bclow, this mcntality is also thc crucial l i nk bctwccn thc cadastral
logic o|thc hrst hal| o|thcccntury and thc human ccnsuscs o|thc lattcr
parto|thcccntury, i ntcrmso|cnumcration andcxoticization.
hc cxchangcs surroundingthc I 847rcport also rcvcal thc cmcrgcnt
tcnsion bctwccn thc varictics o| knowlcdgc that constitutcd oricntalist
cmpiricism. tshouldnotbcvcrysurprisingthato|hcialsmorcclosclycon-
ccrncdwithlocalvariationandon-thc-groundaccuracyand|airncsswcrc
rcscnt|ul o|thcobscssivcpanoptical nccds o| thc highcr lcvclso|thcbu-
rcaucracy. llustrating l i tcrally thc powcr o|thc tcxtual supplcmcnt ,i n
thcdcconstructionistusagc) , numcrical tablcs, hgurcs,andcharts allowcd
thc contingcncythc shccrnarrativccluttcro|proscdcscriptionso|thc
colonial landscapc-to bc domcsticatcd into thc abstract, prccisc, com-
plctc,andcoolidiomo|numbcr. L|coursc,numbcrscouldbc|oughtovcr,
but this battlc had an i nstrumcntal quality, |ar rcmovcd |rom thc hcat o|
thc novcl, thcli ghto|thc camcra, andthccolonialrcalism o| administra-
tivccthnographics.
hcscpropcrticswcrco|particularvaluctothoscwhosoughttotamc
thcvcry divcrsitics o| thc land andthc pcoplc that othcr aspccts o|thc
Lricntalcpistcmcsuchasphotography, travclogs,cngravings,andcxhibi-
tionsdidsomuchtocrcatc. n I 840, LicutcnantWingatc,thco|hcialmost
rcsponsiblc|ortranslatingthcasscssmcntnccdso|thccolonial statc into
locally |casiblc tcchnical andburcaucratic practiccs i nthcLcccan, wrotc
tothcrcvcnuccommissioncrin loona, his immcdiatcsupcrior, clcarlycx-
prcssing|rustrationwiththcchangingi ntcrcstso|thcccntralburcaucracy
'hcprcscntsurvcy,morcovcr,wasinstitutcd|orpurclyrcvcnucpurposcs,
andthc qucstion o|rcndcringit subscrvicnt to thosc o| Lcography and
opographyi snowmootcd|orthchrsttimc. tcanhardlythcrc|orcbci n
N | : t | : C e | e : | l :t :e
I 2 3 =
|arncss ob|cctcd to thc plan o| opcratons that t docs not ncludc thc
accomplshmcnt o| ob|ccts thatwcrc not contcmplatcdat thc tmc o| ts
|ormaton,) .
hc o|hcal at thc ncxt lcvcl up n thc rcvcnuc burcaucracy, although
lcss|orthrghtthan Wngatc,ncvcrthclcssmakcstclcarthat hc spuzzlcd
bythcrclatonbctwccnthcrcvcnucnccdsandthcsccnthcnccdso|hs
supcrors. lcdatngbctwccntwomportantlcvclso|thcburcaucracy, hc
adds, atthcconcluson o|an mportant lcttcr, that|orcvcrypurposc|or
whchaKcvcnuc L|hccrcan dcsrcamap, thoscalrcady |urnshcdbythc
latcsurvcyundcrla|or}opp, andthoscnowmakngoutsc] bythcLcc-
can Kcvcnuc Survcys, o|whcha spccmcn sanncxcd, sccmtomcamply
su|hccnt, and|anythngmorc accuratc or dctalcdbc rcqurcd, tmust
bc,concludc|orsomcpurposco|spcculatvcsccncc,onthcncccsstyor
othcrwsco|whchamnotrcqurcdtocxprcssanopnon, 8 I 82) .
Locumcnts such asthc 1e|at k:jet wcrc crucal n thc dscplnngo|
lowcr-lcvcl, cspccally natvc |unctonarcs n thc cmprcst practccs o|
colonial rulc. n thc collccton o|maps, mcasurcs, andstatstcs o| cvcry
sort, thcsc documcnts, and thc rulcs contancdanddcbatcdwthnthcm,
showthat|unorLuropcano|hcalswcrccrtcallyconccrncdwthmakng
surc that thc standards o| colonal admnstratvc practcc wcrc drllcd
ntothcmnutcstbodlytcchnqucs o|thcscmcasurcrs. hcsctcchnqucs
couldbcsccnasdscplnarytcchnqucsapplcdbothtolowcr-lcvclLuro-
pcan o|hcaldomandtothcrlndansubordnatcs. butthcrcwasanmpor-
tant d||crcncc. Whcrcas thc |ormcrmght not rccognzc thcr own sub-
|ccton to thc rcgmc o| numbcr n thc doms o| sccncc, patrotsm, and
mpcral hcgcmony,wthwhchthcy wcrc racally dcnt hcd) , |or ndan
o|hcaldomthcscpractccswcrca drcctnscrptonontothcrbodcsand
mnds o| practccs assocatcd wth thc powcr and |orcgnncss o| thcr
rulcrs. nths, as nothcraspcctso|thc control o|colonal laborandrc
sourccs, notallsubaltcrntcsarcdcntcal.
hcvastapparatus o|rcvcnuc asscssmcntwasn|act parto|acomplcx
systcm o| dscplnc and survcllancc n and through whch natvc |unc-
tonarcswcrcnstllcdwthawholcscrcso|numcrcalhabts,tcdtoothcr
habtso|dcscrpton,conography, anddstncton), thcschabtsnturnn-
volvcdnumbcrthroughacomplcxscto|rolcs,ncludngthosco|classhca-
ton, ordcrng, approxmaton, anddcnthcaton. hc poltcal arthmctc
o|colonalsmwastaughtqutc ltcrally onthcgroundand translatcdnto
algorthms thatcouldmakc |uturc numcrcal actvtcs habtual and nstll
burcaucratcdcscrptonwthanumcrologcal n|rastructurc.
n cach o|thcsc mportantways, thc prosc o| cadastral control sct thc
N | : r t | : C e l e r i o l | o q r o t e r
= I 24 =
grounds, andconsIitutcdarchcarsal , |orlatcr discourscconccrninghuman
communiIicsandthcircnumcraIion. hisrchcarsalhadIhrcccomponcnIs.
iIscIIhcsIagc|orthcwidcsprcadusco|sIandardizingcnumcrativcIcch-
niqucstoconIrolon-thc-groundmatcrialvariations,itIrcaIcdthcphysical
|caturcs o|Ihc landscapc, as wcll as its productiviIy and ccological vari -
abiliIy, as scparablc ,to somc cxIcnI) |rom thc complcx social righIs i n-
volvcdi nitsuscandmcaning|orrural ndians, andiIconstiIuIcda pcda
gogicalprcparation|orIhckindoldisciplinaryrcgimcthatwouldlaIcrbc
rcquircd|orhumanccnsustakcrsandtabulaIorsatalllcvcls.
umbcr,andIhcsIatisticalidcologyundcrlyingnumbcr)wasIhc liga-
turco|IhcsccadasIraltcxIsandprovidcdthckcylinksbcIwccnIhcsctcxts
and thc dcbatcs Ihat thcy rcporIcd and thc practiccs Ihcy wcrc dcsigncd
Io disciplinc. hus, Ihrough a carc|ul rcadingo|Ihcsc apparcnIly simply
IcchnicaldocumcnIs,onccanuncarIhidcologicalIcnsionsand|racIurcsas
wcll as pracIiccs o|Icachingandsurvcillancc, in which i Iis not onlythc
cascIhatland is to rulc ,calc I ). Lolonial rulc had a pcdagogical
anddisciplinary |uncIion, so that land isIo tcach thcmcasurcmcntand
classihcation o|landwasthcIrainingground |orthcculturc o|numbcri n
whichsIaIisticsbccamcIhcauIhori zingdiscoursco|thcappcndix,giving
indirccIwcighItoIhcvcrbal porIiono|thcIcxI)at thc samc IimcthaIiI
gavchighcr-lcvclo|hcialsapcdagogicalanddiscipli naryscnsco|control-
lingnoI]ustthctcrritoryovcrwhichthcysoughI Io rulc,butalsothcna-
tivc |uncIionaricsIhroughwhichsuchrulcnccdcdIobcc||cctcd.As|aras
thc nativc isconccrncd, thc rcgimc o| numbcr, ascvcrypagc o|such doc
umcntsmakcsclcar, ispartlythcrctocountcractIhcmcndaciIythaIissccn
asconstitutionalIo mostnativcs,both|armcrsandmcasurcrs.
Wc Ihus havc onc part o| an answcr to Ihc qucsIion with which wc
bcgan, namcly, whaI spccial rolc docs thc cnumcration o| bodics havc
undcrcolonialrulchavcsuggcsIcdthatnumbcrswcrcachangingparIo|
Ihccolonial imaginary and |uncIion in|usIihcaIoryand pcdagogicalways
aswcll as in morc narrowly rc|crcnIialoncs. hchistory o|british rulc i n
Ihcninctccnth ccntury may bc rcad i n part as a shi|t |rom a morc |unc-
tional usc o|numbcr i n whaI has bccn callcd Ihc hscal mi litarism o|thc
briIishsIaIcaIhomc,brcwcr I 8)Ioamorcpcdagogicalanddisciplinary
rolc. ndianbodicswcrc graduallynoIonlycatcgorizcdbut givcn quanIi-
tativc valucs ,bayly I 88, 88-8), incrcasingly associatcdwithwhat |an
lackinghascallcddynamic nominalism , I 8), Ihat is, thccrcation o|
ncwkindso|scl|byo|hciallycn|orccdlabclingactivitics.
umbcrplaycdacriticalrolcinsuchdynamicnominalismi nthccolo-
nial scIting, partly bccausc itprovidcda sharcdlanguagc |ori n|ormation
N | + :r :| + C e | e r | | | :r t :e r
= I 25 =
Irans|cr, dispuIaIion, and lnguisIc commcnsuraIon bcIwccn ccnIcr and
pcriphcry, and|ordcbaIcsamongahugcarmyo|mcdiaIingburcaucraIs in
nda.umbcrwasIhusparIo|IhccnIcrprisco|tors|otr Ihccolonialcx-
pcricncc inIo Icrms graspablc i nIhcmcIropolis,IcrmsIhaIcouldcncom-
passIhccIhnological pcculiarIicsIhaIvarious oricnIalsIdiscourscs pro-
vidcd. umcrical glosscs consIiIuIcda kind o|mcIalanguagc |orcolonial
burcaucraIic discourscwiIhinwhichmorccxoIcundcrsIandingscouldbc
packagcd, aI a Iimc whcn cnumcraIng populaIions and conIrolling and
rc|ormingsocicIyhadcomc IogcIhcr i nLuropc. hcsc numcrical glosscs
IhaI appcaras accompanyingdaIa |ordscursivcdcscripIions andrccom-
mcndaIions arcbcsIrcgardcdas a normalzing|ramc|orIhcsIrangcrds-
cursvc rcaliIicsIhaIIhcvcrbal porIonso|manycolonial IcxIsnccdcdIo
consIrucI. his normalzng |ramc |uncIons aI Ihrcc o| Ihc lcvcls dis-
cusscd by oucaulI, Ihosc o| knowlcdgc and powcr, IcxI and pracIicc,
rcadingandruling. ollowingKchardSmiIhs disIincIion( I 85) bcIwccn
rulc-by-rccord and rulc-by-rcporI, iI can bc sccn IhaI numbcrs in :ceJs
provdcd Ihc cmprical ballasI |or Ihc dcscripIivisI IhrusI o| Ihc colonial
gazc, whcrcas numbcrs i n:jets provdcd morc o|a normalizng |ramc,
balancingIhcconIcsIaIory andpolyphonic aspccIs o|Ihc narraIivc por-
Ionso|IhcscrcporIs, whichsharcdsomc o|IhcIcnsions o|Ihcprosc o|
counIcrinsurgcncy (Luha I 83) .
Coor|o 8oJy Corts
hcsccnumcraIvcpracIiccs, nIhcscIIngo|al argclyagrculIuralsoccIy
IhaIwasalrcadyIoalargcdcgrccpracIicallyprcparcd|orcadasIralconIrol
by Ihc lughal sIaIc, had anoIhcr ma]or conscqucncc. hcy wcrc noI
mcrclyarchcarsal|orIhccounIingpracIccso|Ihc ndian naIonal ccnsus
a|Icr I 870. hcyalsoaccomplshcda ma|or andhiIhcrIo largclyunnoIiccd
Iask. hchugc apparaIus o|rcvcnuc scIIlcmcnIs, land survcys, andlcgal
and burcaucraIic changcs i n Ihc hrsI hal| o| Ihc nincIccnIh ccnIury did
somcIhingbcyondcommodiIzingland (Lohn I ), Irans|orminglords
inIo landlords and pcasanIs inIo IcnanIs (lrakash I 0) , and changing
rcciprocalsIrucIurcso|gi|IandhonorinIosalablcIiIlcs,whichwcrcscmi -
oIically|racIurcd andwcrc rcndcrcd markcIablc, whilcrcIaningsomc o|
IhcmcIonymic|orccIhaIIicdIhcmIonamcdpcrsons.hcyalsounyokcd
socal groups|rom Ihc complcxandlocalizcdgroupsIrucIurcs andagrar-
an pracIiccs in which Ihcyhadprcviouslybccncmbcddcd,whcIhcrin Ihc
conIcxI o|IhcslcnIscIIlcmcnIo||ros in SouIhndia(rykcnbcrg I 77,
Li rks I 87), o||ros nlaharashIra ,lrcsIon I 8) , o|bondcdlaborcrs
N | : i :| : C e | e : | | i : i e
I 2 =
in bihar, lrakash I 0), oro|)ulahasin LIIarlradcsh ,landcy I 0) .hc
hugc divcrsiIy o|casIcs, sccIs, Iribcs, andoIhcr pracIical groupings o| Ihc
ndianlandscapcwcrc Ihus rcndcrcd inIo avasIcaIcgorical landscapcun
IcIhcrcdIoIhcspccihciIicso|Ihcagrari anIcrrai n.
his unyoki ngoccurs i nIwo ma]orsIcps, oncassociaIcdwiIhIhcpc-
riodbc|orc I 870, duri ngwhich issucs o|landscIIlcmcnIandtaxaIion arc
dominanI colonial pro]ccIs, and Ihc oIhcrwiIh Ihc pcriod |rom I 870 Io
I J I , Ihc cra o|Ihc grcaI All-ndia Lcnsus, o|which Ihc cnumcraIion o|
humanpopulaIions is Ihc dominanIpro|ccI.hc ycars |rom abouI I 840Io
I 870markIhc IransiIion|rom onc ma|ororicnIaIionIoIhcoIhcr.hc hrsI
pcriodscIsIhcsIagc|orIhcsccondinIhaIiIisdominaIcdbyaconccrn|or
Ihc physical and ccological basis o| land producIiviIy and rcvcnuc, as
havcalrcadysuggcsIcd, IhchrsIcraIo somc cxIcnIunyokcs IhisvariabiliIy
|rom Ihc social and humanworldassociaIcdwiIh iI, i nIhc conIcxI o|c|-
|orIs IowagcabaIIlco|sIandardizaIion againsI on-Ihc-groundvariaIion.
nIhcsccondpcriod, so usc|ully cxplorcdbyKashmi lanI , I 87) i n Ihc
conIcxIo|IhcorIh-WcsIlrovi nccs andLudh,Ihcrcvcrscmovcoccurs,
and human groups ,casIcs) arc IrcaIcd Io a considcrablc cxIcnI as ab
sIracIablc |rom Ihc rcgional andIcrriIorial conIcxIs i n which Ihcy |unc
Iion. Iiso|courscimporIanIIonoIcIhaIIhcsccolonialpro]ccIswcrccon
currcnIly plagucdby inIcrnal conIradicIions ,Ihc urgc Io spccihciIy and
gcncralizabiliIy in Ihcnamcso|casIcs|orIhc All-ndiaLcnsus,|orcxam-
plc) , byinconsisIcncics among di||crcnI colonial pro|ccIs, and, mosI im-
porIanI,byIhc|acIIhaIcolonialburcaucraIicopcraIionsdidnoIncccssar-
ilyIrans|ormpracIiccs ormcnIaliIics on Ihc ground. shall rcIurn Io Ihis
issucIowardIhccndo|IhischapIcri na discussion o|Ihccolonialsub|ccI.
lanIs scminalcssaydiscusscsIhcwayi nwhichcasIcbccamcacrucial
siIc|orIhcacIiviIicso|IhcnaIionalccnsuscsa|Icr I 870againsIoIhcrsiIcs.
Along wiIh Ihc cssayby SmiIh , I 85) , lanIs argumcnI allows us Io scc
IhaIcolonialburcaucraIicpracIicc,as aconIingcnIandhisIoricallyshapcd
locuso|agcncyi niIsownrighI,hclpcdIocrcaIcaspccialandpowcr|ulrc-
laIionshipamongcsscnIializaIion, discipli nc, survcillancc,ob|ccIihcaIion,
and group consciousncss byIhc lasI dccadcs o| Ihc nincIccnIh ccnIury.
umbcrsplaycdacrucialrolc in Ihiscon|uncIurc,andIhc carlicrsIaIis
Iical panopIicon was a criIical |acIor in Ihc gravi IaIion o|Ihc ccnsus Io
wardcasIcas akcysitco|social classihcaIion, ascasIcappcarcdIobcIhc
kcyIo| ndiansocialvariabiliIyaswcllasIoIhc| ndianmcnIaliIy. lanI,who
buildsonIhccarlicrworko|SmiIh,poinIsouIIhaIIhcusco|casIc|ordi|-
|crcnIiaIingasIrcamo|daIawashrsIapplicdi nIhcrcalmo|scxsIaIisIics
|romIhisrcgion, I 87, I 48) . Spccihcally, iIwasargucdi nIhc I 872rcporI
N | : t | t | : C e l e | o l l o q | o t | e
= I 2 7 =
o|thcAll -| nda Lcnsus |orthcorth Wcstlrovnccs and Ludh thatccr-
tan hypothcscs about scx ratos n rclaton to |cmalc n|antcdc could
onlybccxplancdbyrc|crcncctocastc.hsconccrnwthcxplanngand
controllngcxotcbchavors sacrucalpccco|cvdcnccthatcmprcsm
andcxotczatonwcrcnotdsconncctcdaspcctso|thccolonal mag nary
n | nda. hs lnkagco|cmprcalstatstcsandthcmanagcmcnto|thccx-
otcwas thcbass |or a morc gcncral polcy orcntaton-that much o|
what nccdcd to bc known about thc ndan populaton would bccomc
ntcllgblc only by thc dctalcdcnumcraton o|thc populaton n tcrms
o|castc.
Althoughthcsubscqucnthstoryo|thcAll-ndaLcnsusshowsthat n
practccthcrcwcrccnormousd|hcultcsandanomalcsnvolvcdwththc
c||ort to construct an all-ndagrd o| namcd andcnumcratcdcastcs, thc
prncplcwas notabandoncduntlthc I 30s. As lantshows,bythcturn
o|thcccntury, thc cpstcmologcalstatus o| castc asalocalc|orrccognz-
ngqualhcdandsocallyc||cctvcuntso|thcndanpopulatonwaswcll
cstablshcd-asourLcnsusKcportso|I I I - I 3 I conhrm, I 4) . butts
also worth notng that bccausc thc hunt |ordata about castc crcatcd a
hugc and unmanagcablc |low o| n|ormaton, cvcn as carly as thc I 80s,
onlynumcrcalma|ortcswcrcgvcnpromncncc nthcccnsusrcports.
hus,thcconccrnwthnumcrcalma|ortcscmcrgcdasaprncplc|oror-
ganzng ccnsus n|ormaton. hs apparcntly nnocuous burcaucratc
prncplc,o|coursc,salogcal bass |orthcdcaso|ma|ortyandmnorty
groupsthatsubscqucntlya||cctcdlndu-luslmpoltcs ncolonalnda
andcastcpoltcsn ndadurngthctwcntcthccnturyuptothc prcscnt.
Whlctstruc thatcastcast|: mastcrtropcwthwhchtotaxonomzc
thc | ndan landscapc s a rclatvcly latc product o| colonal rulc ,lant
I 87), thc morc gcncral csscntalzaton o| ndan groups gocs back at
lcast to thc bcgnnngs o|thc nnctccnth ccntury, | notcarlcr, as Lyan
landcy has shown wth thc wcavng castcs o| Lttar lradcsh ,landcy
I 0) . Lntl thc lastdccadcs o| thc n nctccnthccntury, howcvcr, thc cs-
scntalzaton o| groups n orcntalst and admnstratvc dscoursc was
largclyscparatc|romthccnumcratvc practccso|thcstatc, cxccpt nso|ar
as thcywcrcdrcctlylnkcdto localzcdrcvcnucpurposcs. An analysso|
an I 823colonalccnsusnSouth|nda,Luddcn I 88) showsthatthclatc-
nnctccnth-ccntury prcoccupatonwth socal classhcaton andcnumcra-
ton s antcpatcdvcrycarly. but thscarly ccnsus sccms, on thc wholc,
pragmatc, localstc, andrclatonal nts trcatmcnto|groups,rathcrthan
abstract,un|ormtaran, orcncyclopcdc ntsaspratons. hswas stll a
ccnsus orcntcd to toxot|er rathcr than to lrem|:J:, to usc Smths tcrms.
N | e :r i | e Cx| x l I i r ::x
= I 2 8 =
A|Icr I 870, howcvcr, noIonly had numbcrs bccomc an nIcgralparIo|
Ihccolonal imaginary andIhcpracIical dcologics o|Islow-lcvcl |unc-
Ionarics, buI ndian socal groups hadbccomcboth |uncIonallyandds-
cursvclyunyokcd |rom local agrarian landscapcs andscI adr|I i n a vasI
pan-ndansocalcncyclopcda.hisrclcascwasa|uncIono|Ihcgrowng
scnsc IhaI Ihc social morphology o|casIc could provdc an ovcrall grid
IhroughIhcccnsus|ororganzngknowlcdgcabouIIhcndanpopulaIion.
hcsc arc IhccondIons |or Ihc spccal |orcc o|Ihc ndan ccnsus a|Icr
I 870, which was nIcndcdIo quanI|yprcvously scI classihcaIionsbuI i n
|acIhad|usIIhcrcvcrscc||ccIIosIimulaIcIhcscl|mobilzaIiono|Ihcsc
groupsnIo avarcIyo|largcrIranslocalpoliIical |orms.
lcrc also is Ihc placc Io noIc Ihc kcy d ||crcncc bcIwccn Ihc brIsh
andIhcirlughalprcdcccssors.whlcIhclughalsdidagrcaIdcalIomap
and mcasurc Ihc landundcr Ihcr conIrol |or rcvcnuc purposcs , labb
I 3) , IhusgcncraIngalargcparIo|Ihcrcvcnucvocabularyalvcinndia
andlaksIan cvcn Ioday, Ihcy conducIcd noknownccnsus o|pcrsons, a
|acI noIcd by r|an labb as Ihc ccnIral rcason why I isd|hculI Io csIi-
maIcIhc populaIiono|lughal nda, labib I 82, I 3) . LnumcraIiono|
varousIhngswasccrIanlyparIo|IhclughalsIaIcmagnary aswasIhc
acknowlcdgmcnI o| group dcnIiIcs, buI noI Ihc cnumcraIon o| group
dcnIiIics. As |or Ihc oIhcr ma|or prccolonal poliIical |ormaIons o| Ihc
subconIncnI, such as Ihc V]ayanagara kngdom, Ihcy do noI appcar Io
havcsharcdIhclncar,ccnIralizing,rccordkccpngmodcso|Ihclughals
andwcrcoricnIcdIo numbcras a |armorcsubIlccosmopolIcso|namcs,
IcrrIorcs, honors, sharcs, andrclaIons ,brcckcnrdgc I 83) . n Ihs rc-
gard, non-lughal sIaIcs n Ihc ndan subconIncnIbc|orc colonal rulc,
includingIhosclikcIhclaraIhaswhoranclaboraIclymoncIizcdpoliIical
domans,lcrlin I 87), donoIsccmIohavcbccnconccrncdwIhnumbcr
asadirccI nsIrumcnIo|social conIrol. nIhcscprccolonalrcgmcs,cnu-
mcraIvcacIvIcswcrcIicdIoIaxaIon,accounIng,andlandrcvcnuc,buI
Ihc l nkagc o| cnumcraIon Io group idcnIIy sccms vcry wcak i ndccd.
Whcrc IdidcxsI,IsccmsIohavcbccnconnccIcdIovcryspcchcsocal
|ormaIons,suchasol|otos (wrcsIlingandgymnasIcsodalIcs) , andnoIIo
IhccnumcraIion o|Ihc populaIon aIlargc ,rcIag I 0).
orIhs lasI, IoIalzng IhrusI Io cnIcrIhcmagnary o|IhcsIaIc, Ihc
crucal nIcrvcnngsIcpwas Ihc csscnIalzingandIaxonomznggazc o|
carlyoricnIalism ,o|IhcLuropcan varcIy), |ollowcdby Ihc cnumcraIivc
habI applcdIoIhc land n Ihc hrsI hal|o|IhcnncIccnIhccnIury, andh-
nallyIhcdcao|poliIical rcprcscnIaIon asIcd, noIIocsscnIiallysimlar
ciIizcnsandindviduals buI Io communiIicsconccivcd as i nhcrcnI|yspc-
N | : : t | : Cx| x: | | : t :x
^
I 2
=
cial . hccsscnIializingandcxoIicizinggazc o|oricnIalism in ndiain Ihc
cighIccnIh and ni ncIccnIh ccnIurics providcs Ihc crucial link bcIwccn
ccnsus classihcaIions and casIc and communiIy poliIics. lcrc, wc arc h-
nallyaI IhchcarIo|IhcargumcnI,boIhrcgardi ngIhcdi||crcnccsbcIwccn
Ihc colonial rcgimc in ndia ,and iIs mcIropoliIan counIcrparIs as wcll as
iIs indigcnous prcdcccssors) and Ihc link bcIwccn colonial classihcaIory
poliIics and conIcmporary dcmocraIic poliIics. hc cnumcraIion o| Ihc
social body, conccivcd as aggrcgaIions o|individuals whosc bodics wcrc
inhcrcnIlyboIhcollccIivcandcxoIic,scIsIhcsIagc|orgroupdi ||crcnccIo
bc Ihc ccnIral principlc o| poliIics. LinkingIhc idca o| rcprcscnIaIion Io
Ihc idca o|communiIics characIcrizcdby bioracial commonaliIics , inIcr-
nally)andbioracialdi||crcnccs,cxIcrnally)sccmsIobcIhccriIicalmarkcr
o|Ihc colonialIwisI in Ihc poliIicso|Ihc modcrnnaIion- sIaIc.
WhaIoccurrcdinIhccolonywas acon|uncIurc IhaI ncvcroccurrcdaI
homc. IhcidcaIhaIIcchniqucso|mcasurcmcnIwcrcacrucialwayIonor-
malizcIhcvariaIion insoil andland, con|oincdwiIhIhcidcaIhaInumcri-
cal rcprcscnIaIion was a kcy Io normalizing Ihc paIhology o|di||crcncc
Ihrough which Ihc ndian social bodywas rcprcscnIcd. hus, Ihc idca o|
Ihcavcragc man ,| |e: e,:r o|jucIclcI) , smugglcdinIhrough sIaIis-
Iics ,as iIs cpisIcmological undcrbclly), was broughI inIo Ihc domain o|
group di||crcncc.hisscIsupan oricnIalisI cxIcnsion o|IhcmcIropoliIan
idcao|IhcnumcricalrcprcscnIaIiono|groups ,conccivcdascomposcdo|
avcragcindividuals)andIhcidcao|scparaIcclccIoraIcs,whichisanaIural
ouIgrowIh o|Ihc scnsc IhaI lndiawas alando|groups ,boIh |orciviland
poliIical purposcs) andIhaIndiansocial groupings wcrc inhcrcnIlyspc-
cial . hus, undcrcolonial rulc, aI lcasIi n briIish lndia, Ihc numcrical di-
mcnsiono|classihcaIion carrics Ihcsccds o|a spccial conIradicIion, as iI
was broughI Io bcar on a worldconccivcd as onc o| incommcnsurablc
group di||crcnccs.
Not|oro|s, Rtjtstrtot|er orJ Nlt
hc communiIarianapproach,which laIcr ,in Ihc hrsIparIo|Ihc IwcnIi-
cIhccnIury)hasiIsmosIdramaIicmani|csIaIioni nscparaIcclccIoraIcs|or
lindus andluslims, lasan I 7, |andcy I 0,Kobinson I 74) , wasby
no mcansrcsIricIcdIoIhcm. IwasbuilIon carlicridcasabouI casIcasIhc
criIical principlc o| a gcncra morphology o| Ihc lndian populaIion ,as
knownIhroughIhcccnsus) andsIillcaricridcasabouIIhcpowcrso|cnu-
mcraIioningraspingIhcvariabiliIyandIhcIracIabi liIyo|ndias landand
rcsourccs. his communiIarian approach was also crucial in dchningIhc
N | : | t | : C. | . | o | l o q | o t | .
= I 3 0 =
dynamics o| idcas o| o,e|t, and |re|t, as culturally codcd tcrms |or
dominanI and discn|ranchiscd groups in South |ndia ,rykcnbcrg I 87,
Saraswathi I 74,Washbrook I 7,chap. )andclscwhcrc. Iisthusvcry
plausiblcto arguc, as Ka|ni Kothari , I 8a, I 8b) and oIhcrs havcdonc,
IhaIIhcvcry|abrico||ndiandcmocracyrcmainsadvcrsclya||cctcdbythc
idcao|numcricallydominatcdblocvoIing, asopposcdtomorcclassically
libcralidcaso|Ihcbourgcois individuals castinghisvoIcas a dcmocratic
citizcn.
Although it isbcyondthcscopco|this chaptcrtoshowi na dcIailcd
way how thc cogniIivc importancc o|casIc in thc ccnsus o|ndia in thc
I 870s anIicipatcsthccommuniIarian politics o|thisccnIury, itshouldbc
notcdIhatcvcna|tcr I 3 I , whcn castcccascdtobc accnIralconccrn o|
thc |ndian ccnsus, thc idca o|politics as thc contcst o|csscnIializcd and
cnumcratcd communitics ,Ihc lattcr bcing a conccpt l owc to Kavira|
I 4) hadalrcady takcn hrm hold o|local and rcgional politics and Ihus
nolongcrrcquircdIhcsIimulationo|thcccnsustomainIainits holdon n-
dianpolitics.AsShah , I 8)hasnotcd, thcrchasbccnasIcady,andsuc-
ccss|ul) c||orI i nthc past|cwdccadcsto rcvcrsc thc post- I 3 I policy o|
climinatingcastccounts|romIhcccnsus.
lannah |iIkin , I 7) and othcrs havcwrittcn cloqucnIly about Ihc
complcx rclationships among rcprcscntation i n its moral, acsIhctic, and
poliIicalscnscs. nccdnoIrcpcatthisWcstcrn gcncalogyhcrc, cxccptto
noIc that |airly carly i n thc history o| Ihc Lnl ighIcnmcnt thc idca o|
dcmocracy bccamc ticd to an idca o| Ihc rcprcscnIativc sovcrcignIy o|
sub|ccIs.hus,asKobcrtrykcnbcrg, I 87)haspointcdout|orthcndian
conIcxI, clcctoral politics bccamcboth a politics o|:j:s:rtoter ,o| Ihc
pcoplcto Ihcpcoplcagamco|mirrors i nwhichIhcsIaIc ismadcvirIu
allyinvisiblc)andapoliticso|:j:s:rtoto:r:ss, thati s, apoliticso|sIaIistics,
i nwhich somcbodics couldbc hcldIo stand|oroIhcrbodics bccausc o|
Ihc numcrical principlc o|mctonymy rathcrIhan thcvaricdcosmopoliti-
cal principlcso|rcprcscntationIhathadcharactcrizcdi dcaso|divincrulc
in manyprcmodcrn politics.
Luringthcni ncIccnth andcarlyIwcnticth ccnIury, Ihc colonial staIc
|ound iIscl| i n an inIcrcsting contradiction i n |ndia as it sought Io usc
idcas o| rcprcscntation and rcprcscnIaIivcncss aI lowcr lcvcls o| ndias
poliIical ordcr, with paIcrnalist, monarchic, and qualiIativc pri nciplcs at
thcIop. hcsIoryo||ndianscl|-govcrnmcnI,whichwasconhncdIoava-
ricty o|villagc- and districI-lcvcl bodics during thc bulk o| thc sccond
hal| o| thc ni ncIccnIh ccntury) bccamc Irans|ormcd stcadily into thc
logic o| | ndian nationalism, which co-optcdthc colonial logic o|rcprc-
N | : | t | : C o l e | l l :: | e
= I 3 I =
scnIaIivcncss and uscd iI Io anncxIhc dcmocraIic idca o| rcprcscnIaIion
asscl|-rcprcscnIaIi on.
hus, Ihc counIingo|bodics IhaIhadscrvcdIhcpurposcso|colonial
rulcaIlowcrlcvclsi nIhclasIhal|o|IhcnincIccnIhccnIuryIurncdgradu-
allyinIo Ihc idca o| Ihc rcprcscnIaIion o| ndian sclvcs (scl|-rulc) as na-
Iionalism bccamc a mass movcmcnI. L|coursc, i n hindsighI, as larIha
LhaIIcr|cchas hclpcdusscc, naIionalismsu||crcd|rom sharing Ihcbasic
IhcmaIico|colonialisI IhoughI andIhuscouldnoIgcncraIc a Ihorough-
going criIiquc o|iI ( LhaIIcr|cc I 8) . So, Ihc poliIics o|numbcrs, cspc-
ciallyi nrcgardIocasIcandcommuniIy, isnoIonlyIhcbanco|dcmocraIic
poliIicsinndia,buIIhcscoldcridcnIiIicshavcbccomcpoliIicizcdinways
IhaIarcradicallydi||crcnI|romoIhcrlocal conccpIionso|IhcrclaIi onship
bcIwccnIhcordcro|)ots andIhclogico|IhcsIaIc.hcproccssbywhich
scparaIc lindu andluslim idcnIiIics wcrc consIrucIcd aI a macro lcvcl
andIrans|ormcdnoI|usIinIoimagincdcommuniIicsbuIalso inIocnumcr-
aIcdcommuniIics isonlyIhcmosIvisiblc paIhologyo|IhcIrans|cro|Ihc
poliIics o| numcrical rcprcscnIaIion Io a socicIy in which rcprcscnIaIion
andgroupidcnIiIyhadnospccialnumcricalrclaIionshipIoIhcpoliIy.
buI iI couldsIillbcsaidIhaIcolonialrulc, ciIhcro|IhcbriIish in ndia
oro|oIhcrLuropcanrcgimcs clscwhcrc i nIhcworld, was noI alonc in
gcncraIing cnumcraIcd communiIics. lany l argc non-Luropcan sIaIcs,
i ncludingIhcLIIomans,lughals,andvariousLhincscdynasIics,hadnu-
mcrical conccrns.Whcrclics Ihcce|ero| di||crcnccorIhc maIurc colo-
nialsIaIc,numbcrswcrcparIo|acomplcximaginary i nwhichIhcuIiliIar-
ian nccdso|hscal mi liIarism i nIhcworldsysIcm,IhcclassihcaIorylogics
o|oricnIalisIcIhnology, Ihcshadowprcscncco|WcsIcrndcmocraIicidcas
o|numcricalrcprcscnIaIion,andIhcgcncralshi|I|romaclassi hcaIoryIoa
numcricalbiopoliIicscrcaIcdancvolvinglogicIhaIrcachcdacriIicalcon-
|uncIuralpoinIi nIhclasIIhrccdccadcso|IhcnincIccnIhccnIuryandIhc
hrsIIwo dccadcso|IhcIwcnIicIh.
hcncIrcsulIwassomcIhingcriIicallydi||crcnI|romalloIhcrcomplcx
sIaIcapparaIuscsinrcgardIoIhc poliIicso|IhcbodyandIhcconsIrucIion
o|communiIics as bodics. luIvcrysimply, oIhcr rcgimcs mayhavc had
numcrical conccrns andIhcymay also havc had classihcaIory conccrns.
buIIhcscrcmaincdlargclyscparaIc,andi Iwas onlyi nIhc complcxcon-
|uncIurc o|variablcs IhaI consIiIuIcd Ihc pro|ccI o| Ihc maIurc colonial
sIaIcIhaIIhcscIwo|ormso|dynamicnominalismcamcIogcIhcrIocrcaIc
apoliIyccnIcrcdaroundscl|-consciouslycnumcraIcdcommuniIics.Whcn
Ihcsc communiIics wcrc also cmbcddcd in a widcr o|hcial discoursc o|
spacc, Iimc, rcsourccs, and rclaIions IhaI was also numcrical in criIical
N | : + : | : Cx| x+ | | i t i x
I 3 2 =
ways, a spccihcally colonial poliIical ariIhmcIic was gcncraIcd, in which
csscnIializingandcnumcraIinghumancommuniIicsbccamcnoIonlycon-
currcnIacIiviIicsbuIunimaginablcwiIhouIoncanoIhcr.
hisariIhmcIicis acriIicalparI o|colonialbiopoliIics (aI lcasIin Icrms
o|IhcbriIishinndia)noIonlybccausciIinvolvcdabsIracIionso|numbcr
whcrcasoIhcrsIaIcrcgimcshadmorcconcrcIc numcrical purposcs (such
asIaxcs,corvcclabor, andIhclikc). hcmodcrn colonial sIaIcbrings Io-
gcIhcr Ihc cxoIicizing vision o| oricnIalism wiIh Ihc |amiliarizing dis-
coursco|sIaIisIics. nIhcproccss,thcbodyo|Ihccolonialsub]ccIismadc
simulIancously sIrangc and doci lc. Is sIrangcncss lics in Ihc |acIIhaI iI
comcsIobcsccnasIhcsiIco|cruclandunusualpracIiccsandbizarrcsub-
]ccIiviIics.buIcolonialbodycounIscrcaIc noIonlyIypcsandclasscs (Ihc
hrsImovc Ioward domcsIicaIingdi||crcnccs)buIalsohomogcncousbod-
ics (wiIhin caIcgorics) bccausc numbcr, by iIs naIurc, |laIIcns idiosyn-
crasicsandcrcaIcsboundaricsaroundIhcschomogcncousbodicsasiIpcr-
|ormaIivclylimiIsIhcircxIcnI. nIhislaIIcrrcgard, sIaIisIicsarcIobodics
andsocialIypcswhaImapsarcIoIcrriIorics.Ihcy|laIIcnandcnclosc.hc
linkbcIwccncolonialismandoricnIalism, Ihcrc|orc, ismosIsIronglyrcin-
|orccdnoI aI Ihc loci o|classihcaIion andIypihcaIion (ashas o|Icn bccn
suggcsIcd)buI aIIhcloci o|cnumcraIion, whcrcbodicsarccountcd, ho-
mogcnizcd, andboundcd i n Ihcir cxIcnI. hus, Ihcunruly body o|Ihc
colonial sub]ccI ( |asIing, |casIing, hook swinging, abluIing, burning, and
blccding) is rccupcraIcd Ihrough Ihc languagc o| numbcrs IhaI allows
IhcscvcrybodicsIobcbroughIback,nowcounIcdandaccounIcd,|orIhc
humdrum pro]ccIso|IaxaIion, saniIaIion, cducaIion,war|arc, andloyalIy.
lyargumcnIIhus |armighIbcrcadasimplyingIhaIIhccolonialpro-
]ccI o|csscnIializing,cnumcraIing, andappropriaIingIhc social landscapc
waswhollysucccss|ul . n|acI, IhaIis noIIhccasc, andIhcrcisamplccvi-
dcncc|romavaricIyo|sourccsIhaIIhcpro]ccIso|Ihccolonial sIaIcwcrc
bynomcanscomplcIclyc||ccIivc,cspcciallyinrcgardIoIhccolonizingo|
Ihc ndianconsciousncss. nvariouskinds o|pcasanIandurban rcvolI, i n
various kinds o| auIobiographic andhcIional wriIing, i n many di||crcnI
sorIso|domcsIic|ormaIionandcxprcssion,andinvariouskindso|bodily
andrcligiouspracIiccs ndians o|manyclasscs conIinucdpracIiccsandrc-
produccdundcrsIandingsIhaI|arprcdaIcdcolonialrulc. lorcovcr, ndian
mcn and womcn dclibcraIcly rccasI Ihcir conccpIions o| body, socicIy,
counIry, and dcsIiny in movcmcnIs o| proIcsI, inIcrnal criIiquc, and ouI-
righI rcvolI againsI colonial auIhoriIics. I is indccd |rom Ihcsc various
sourccs IhaI Ihc cncrgics o| local rcsisIancc wcrc drawncncrgics and
spaccs(ranging|rom praycrgroupsandaIhlcIicassociaIionsIoasccIicor-
N | : : : | : Cxl x i | I + t :x
= I 3 3 =
dcrs andmcrcantlcordcrs)thatprovdcdthcsocalbass o|thcnatonalst
movcmcnt. hcsc cncrgcs pcrmttcd somconc lkc Landh, and many
othcrlcsscr-knownhgurcs, torccapturc socalandmoralground|romthc
brtsh ,and |rom thc dscoursc o| orcntalsm tscl|). hcsc rcllcctons
brngusbacktoaproblcmrascdcarlcr, thato|thc colonalsub|cctnrc-
latontothccnumcratvcandclass hcatorypro|cctso|thcstatc.
hcrcs o|courscnocasygcncralzaton to bcmadcaboutthcdcgrcc
towhchthcc||ortto organzcthccolonalpro|cct around thc dca o|cs-
scntalzcd andcnumcratcdcommuntcsmadc nroads nto thc practcal
conscousncsso|colonalsub|cctsn nda. |tscasy cnough, howcvcr,to
say that thc rcsults must havc varcd accordng to varous dmcnsons o|
thc poston o| thc colonal sub|cct hcr gcndcr, hcr closcncss to or ds-
tancc |rom thc colonal gazc, hcr nvolvcmcnt wth or dctachmcnt |rom
colonalpoltcs,hcrpartcpatonn ordstancc|rom thcburcaucratcap-
paratustscl|.| tsalsotructhatvarous |ndanpcrsons andgroups ddrc-
man ,n mcmory|notncmprcalrcalty)tcdto localty, whatcvcrthc
panoptcon saw or sad. Also, whlc ccrtan componcnts o|thc colonal
statcwcrc actvcpropagators o|thc dscourscs o|group dcntty, othcrs,
suchasthoscnvolvcdwthcducaton, law, andmoralrc|orm,wcrcmpl-
catcdnthccrcatono|whatmghtbccallcdacolonalbourgcossub|cct,
conccvcd as an ndvdual. hs problcm s not rcsolvablc hcrc, but t
nccdstobcrcmarkcdasanmportantssucthatanyntcrprctatono|cnu-
mcratcdcommuntcswllcvcntuallyhavctocngagc
but cvcn |varous spaccs rcmancd |rcc o| thc colonal panoptcon
,whcthcrthroughthcagcncyo|rcsstngcolonal sub|cctsorthcncapac-
tcs and contradctons o|thc colonal |uggcrnaut), thc |act s that thc
colonalgazc,andtsassocatcdtcchnqucs,havclc|tanndclblcmarkon
|ndan poltcal conscousncss. larto|ths ndclblc hcrtagc sto bc sccn
nthcmattcro|numbcrs. |tscnumcraton, n assocatonwthncw|orms
o|catcgorzaton,thatcrcatcsthc lnkbctwccnthcorcntalzngthrusto|
thc brtshstatc, whch saw nda as a muscumor zoo o|d ||crcncc and
o| d||crcnccs, and thc pro|cct o| rc|orm, whch nvolvcd clcanng up
thcslcazy, llabby, |ral, |cmnnc, obscquousbodcso|natvcsntoclcan,
vrlc,muscular,moral,andloyalbodcsthatcouldbcmovcdntothcsub-
|cctvtcs propcr to colonalsm ,Arnold I88) . Wth Landh, wc havc a
rcvolt o| thc ndan body, a rcawakcnngo||ndansclvcs, and a rcconst-
tuton o|thcloyalbodyntothcunrulyandsgn-rddcnbodyo|massna-
tonalstprotcst ,Amn ! 84, bondurant I58) . butthc |act that Landh
had to dc a|tcr watchng bodcs dchncd as lndu and luslm burn
and dchlc onc anothcr rcmnds us that hs succcss aganst thc colonal
N | : r t | : C e l e r o l I o q r o t e r
= (3 4 =
pro|ccIo|cnumcraIion, andiIsidca o|IhcbodypoliIic,was noI andisnoI
complcIc.
hc burning body o| Koop Kanwar ,associaIcd wiIh Ihc rcnasccnI
Ka|puI consciousncss o|urban malcs in smal l -Iown Ka|asIhan) , Ihc scl|-
immolaIions o| young, middlc-class mcn and womcn a|Icr Ihc landal
Lommission KcporI was rcviIalizcd, and Ihc bodics o| Ihc lo s:mols i n
Ayodhya ando|lusl ims i nLucknowandclscwhcrc suggcsI IhaI i ndigc-
nousi dcaso|di||crcncchavcbccomcIrans|ormcdinIoadcadlypoliIicso|
communiIy, a proccss IhaI has many hisIorical sourccs. buI Ihis culIural
andhisIoricalIindcrwouldnoIburnwiIhIhcinIcnsiIywcnowscc, buI|or
conIacIwiIh Ihc Icchniqucs o|Ihc modcrn naIion-sIaIc, cspccially Ihosc
havingIo dowiIh numbcr. hc kinds o|sub|ccIiviIyIhaI ndians owc Io
IhcconIradicIionso|colonialismrcmain boIhobscurcanddangcrous.
N | + | r t | + C e | e r l l o i o t i e r
= I 3 5 =
l P K l l l
l a . | n a | | a n a |
L a . a | | a n .

L6 8t6f fm0f08lSm
hc conIcmporary world s hllcd wIh cxamplcs o|cIhnc conscousncss
IhaIarcclosclyl nkcdIo naIonalsm andvolcncc. Iwll nol ongcrscrvc
Io look aI cIhncIyas |usI anoIhcrprncplc o|group dcnIIy, as |usI an-
oIhcrculIural dcvcc|orIhcpursuIo|group nIcrcsIs, orassomcdalccI-
calcombnaIono|IhcIwo. Wc nccdanaccounIo|cIhncIyIhaIcxplorcs
IsmodcrnIy lcrhaps Ihc mosI clcar ndcxo|modcrncIhncIysIhaII
draws IogcIhcr groups IhaI by Ihcr shccr spaIal sprcad and numcrcal
sIrcngIharcvasIlylargcrIhan Ihc cIhncgroupso|IradIonalanIhropol-
ogy. amls, Scrbs,Skhs,lalaysans,basqucs,andoIhcrsarcallvcrylargc
groups, arc all clamanIs Io naIonhood, and arc all nvolvcd n volcnI
con|ronIaIonswIhcxsIngsIaIc sIrucIurcs andoIhcr largc-scalc cIhnc
groupngs. hs maIrx o| largc szc, naIonalsI aspraIon, andvolcncc
characIcrzcsIhcscncwcIhncIcs. IsIoIhsmaIrxIhaIIhschapIcrs
addrcsscd, alIhoughrccognzcIhaIIhcIcrm:t|r|c| mayalsobcrclcvanI
Iosmallcr, lcssvolaIlc,morc nsIrumcnIallyorganzcdgroupngs.
T|t 8ocr 8ox o] |oJ|o|s
hc prmordalsI Ihcss n vrIually all o| Is many |orms ,ApIcr I 5,
saacs I 75,Shls I 57) so|l IIlcusc naccounIng|orIhc cIhncIcso|
= I 39 =
thctwcnticthccntury histhcsisdistractsus|romccrtainimportant|acts,
cspcciallyaboutthcncwcthniciticso|AsiaandLuropcinthcpastdccadc.
nllcshingoutthisclaim, shallproposcthcskclctono|ancwapproachto
cthnic movcmcnts, cspccially in thcir violcnt and dcstructivc momcnts.
bothinarguingthatthcprimordialistthcsisisdccplyllawcdandinsccing
in cthnicity a historically constitutcd |orm o|social classihcation that is
rcgularly misrccognizcdandnaturalizcd as a primcmovcrin social li|c,
buildonimportantcarlicrworkinanthropology ,Lomaro||andLomaro||
I 2b,barth I ,Lccrtz I J) `
hc hrst stcp towardmy casc isto outl incthc primordialistargumcnt.
ncsscncc, itsaysthc|ollowing.allgroupscntimcntsthatinvolvcastrong
scnsc o|group idcntity, o|wc-ncss, drawon thosc attachmcnts thatbind
small, intimatc collcctivitics, usually thoscbascdonkinshiporitscxtcn-
sions. dcaso|collcctivcidcntitybascdonsharcdclaimstoblood, soil,or
languagc draw thcir a||cctivc |orcc |rom thc scntimcnts that bind small
groups.hisdcccptivclysimplcthcsishasccrtainspccialqualiticsthatdc-
scrvctobc notcd. tisusuallycitcdtoaccount|orccrtainaspcctso|pol i-
tics, notablythoscthatshowgroupscngagingi nvarious|ormso|bchavior
thatintcrmso|thcmodclarcconsidcrcdirrati onal
lcrc, twovcrydi||crcntpocs o| irrationaityarccollapscd. Lnc polc,
whichholdsthcgrcatcstappcalstoourcommonscnsc,isthcpolco|group
violcncc, cthnocidc, and tcrror. hc othcrpolcisconstitutcdbyany |orm
o|bchaviorthat appcars antimodcrn, whcthcriti nvolvcssluggish partici-
pationinclcctions,corruptioninburcaucracy,rcsistancctomodcrncduca-
tional tcchniqucs,orrc|usalto complywithmodcrnstatcpolicics,ranging
|rombirthcontroltomonoli ngualism. lodcrnizationthcory, cspcciallyas
itwasapplicdtothcncw,postcolonialnationsbyAmcricanpolitical scicn-
tists,waslargclyrcsponsiblc |or dchningthisantimodcrnsymptomo|pri-
mordialism. nrcccntc||ortsto cxplain cthnic violcncc, thctwocxplana-
tory targcts o|primordialistthcoryhavcbccomcsubtly |uscd, sothatthc
primordialism o| rcsistancc to modcrnization and thc primordialism o|
cthnicviolcncchavcbccomcloosclyidcntihcd hclinkagc o|ccrtainrc-
ligiouslundamcntalismstoactso|pol iticalviolcncc has lcntrcncwcdcrcd-
ibil itytothcsctwovcrydi||crcntsymptomso|primordi alism. hcbomb-
ings atthcWorldradc LcntcrincwYork brought outvarious popular
|ormso|thisprimordialist thcorizingin|ull |orcc.
hc primordialist pcrspcctivconmattcrs o|group mobilizationbrings
togcthcrontogcnctic and phylogcnctic idcas about human dcvclopmcnt.
hatis, |ustas thcindividual inWcstcrn psychologyissccn tocarrydccp
withinhim orhcrana||cctivccorcthatcanrarclybc trans|ormcd andcan
L } : o } t : P e J o l | s
= I 40 =
always bc gntcd, so socal collcctvtcs arc sccn to posscss a collcctvc
consccnccwhoschstorcalrootsarc n somcdstantpastandarcnotcas-
lychangcablcbutarc potcntally avalablc to gnton byncw hstorcal
and poltcal contngcnccs. tsnotsurprsngthat ths lnkagco|thc n
|ancyo|ndvdualsandthcmmaturtyo|groups smadcwththcgrcat-
cstcom|ortaboutthcnatonso|thc non-Wcstcrnworld,althoughthccx-
ploson o| cthnc con|lcts n Lastcrn ,and cvcn n Wcstcrn) Luropc s
blurrngthclncbctwccnthcWcstandthcnon-Wcstnrcgardto thcpr-
mordalst thcss. hc |act that thc old languagc o| modcrnzaton has
bccnrcplaccdbyncwtalko|thcobstaclcstocvl socctyandsustanablc
dcmocracyshouldnotobscurc thcpcrsstcncc o|thc prmordalstthcss.
A quckword scarch |ort|l: and t|lo||s n thc Amcrcan prcss should
clnchthccasc.
Whatswrongwththcprmordalstthcss Lncproblcm sa logcal
oncandlcsburcdnthcunvcrsalstassumptonso|thcprmordalstar-
gumcnt, cspccallyn tsmorcradcalLnlghtcnmcnt-dcrvcd|orms. l |all
socctcs and natons arccomposcd o|smallcrunts bascd on prmordal
tcs, and|thcrcarccthncanmostcsburcdncvcrynatonalclosct,why
do onlysomc cxplodc nto cxplctprmordalst |ury hs sa compara-
tvc qucston, anda largc part o|thc l tcraturc o|comparatvc poltcs n
thc past thrcc dccadcs has trcdto answcr ths qucston, somctmcs wth
rc|crcncctostructural|actorsandsomctmcs tocultural |actors.hcscan-
swcrs havc gcncrallyprovcn bankrupt bccausc thcrc sgrowng cvdcncc
thatthc problcmandthcsolutonarcuncom|ortablycomplct.Lctmcbc
morcconcrctc.thcrcsncrcasngcvdcnccthatWcstcrnmodclso|polt-
cal partcpaton, cducaton, moblzaton, and cconomc growth, whch
wcrc calculatcd to dstancc thc ncw natons |rom thcr most rctrogradc
prmordalsms,havc had|ustthcoppostcc||cct.hcsc mcdcncsappcar
ncrcasngly to crcatc atrogcnc dsordcrs. hs lattcr argumcnt, whch
has much mcrt, has takcn somc modcratc |orms , brass I 4, ambah
I 8), but also somc radcal |orms , Kothar I 8c, andy I 8a). but
howcvcrmuchoncmaywshtoblamcthcpoltcalcontcxt|orthc|alurcs
o|whatuscdto bccallcdpoltcal dcvclopmcnt ,that s, maturaton away
|rom thc dangcrs o|prmordalsm) , thcrc s too much cvdcncc that thc
curc andthc dscasc arc d|hcult todsaggrcgatc. lcrhaps thc snglc bcst
cxamplc o|ths s thc way n whch armcd|orccs throughout thc hrd
Worldhavcturncdouttobcbrutal , corrupt, antcvl, andscl|-cxpandng.
Lncwayto handlc ths cmbarrassmcnt |orthcorsts who hold ,cvcn
mpl ctly) to thc prmordalst thcss s thc pcrod-o|-hardshp thcory
,such as was hcld byvarousAmcrcan cconomsts n thc hrst |lush o| lb-
L : } : o } t : P | e J | o l | s
I 4 I =
cralzaIon n Ihc |ormcr SovcI Lnon) . I was also cvdcnccd n Vclav
lavcls spccch gvcn aI Ihc cnd o|Ihc hrsIycar o| hs lcadcrshp o| Ihc
Ihcn-unIcdLzcchoslovaka,whchsuggcsIcdIhaIIhcsoccIcso|LasIcrn
LuropcmusIgoIhroughapan|ul pcrodo|dcIoxhcaIonIhaIcan nIurn
causc prmordalsI |cvcrs Io rccur. hs argumcnI bcars somc curous
a|hniIcsIolarxisIvicwso|IhcIribulaIonso|IhcdcIaIorshpo|Ihcpro-
lcIaraI, Ihc pcrodbc|orc Ihc sIaIc wIhcrs away andsocalsI humanIy
bccomcsscl |-govcrnng. hccomparaIvcargumcnIalsorunsnIod|hcul-
IcsbccausccIhnccxplosionsIodaycharacIcrzcsuchavarcIyo|polIcs,
|orcxamplc,nnda,Lzcchoslovaka,ndoncsa,rancc,IhcLnIcdSIaIcs,
LgypI, SouIhA|rca. WhaIcomparaIvcIhcorycanshowuswhaI scom-
mon nsuch d||crcnIcascs o|cIhncIurbulcncc
LncvaraIononIhccomparaIvsIanswcrshi sIorcal, andIhIswIh
Ihc dcvclopmcnIalsI IhrusI o|IhcprmordalsIcasc. hs vcrson o|Ihc
argumcnIwouldsuggcsI IhaI IhosccounIrcs IhaIhavc hadImcIowork
ouI Ihc LnlghIcnmcnI pro|ccI o| polIcal parIcpaIonbascd on Ihc
i dca o|ancducaIcd, posIcIhnc, calculaIng ndvdual, subssIng on Ihc
workngso|Ihc |rcc markcI and parIcpaIngn a gcnunc cvl soccIy
arcndccdablcIo sIavc o|| Ihc dsordcrs o| prmordalsm. lar cxccllcncc,
hcrc,arcIhoscsoccIcsIhaIhcwcdcloscsI andlongcsI Iod||crcnIvcr-
sons o|Ihc cvl-soccIy modcl, namcly, Ihc soccIcs o|WcsIcrn Luropc
(Ihc prc- I 989MAJC soccIcs) andIhc LnIcd SIaIcs. loIcnIal mcmbcrs
o| Ihs club arc Ihc aggrcssvcly procapIalsI soccIcs o| Asa and LaIn
Amcrca,suchas )apan,Sngaporc,awan,Korca,Lhlc,ArgcnIna,brazl,
anda|cwoIhcrs. L|coursc, aquckglanccaIIhsgroupovcrIhcpasIIwo
dccadcs suggcsIsIhaIIhccxpcrmcnIshardlyunconIamnaIcdbyIhcac
Ivc nvolvcmcnIo|IhcLnIcdSIaIcs nvarous |orms o|cconomc,polI-
cal, and dcologcal subsdy Io Ihcsc soccIcs, so IhaIIhcrcxpcrcnccs
wIhovcrcomngprmordalsmcanhardlybcsccnasasucccss|orIhccn-
dogcnousvIaltyo|IhcLnlghIcnmcnIprogram. nanycasc, nmanyo|
IhcscsoccIcsasIrongdosco|sIaIcauIhortaransmsccmsIobcrcqurcd
(|ollowng)cannc KrkpaIrcks |amous andsubIlc dsIncIon bcIwccnau-
IhorIaran and IoIalIaran sIaIcs) . hus, |you cannoI cducaIc soccIcs
ouIo|prmordalsm,youcan ccrIa nlybcaI IouIo|Ihcm. AI IhsponI,
IhcroadIodcmocracyspavcdwIhIhcbodcso|dcmocraIs. lardsIaIcs
canhardlybcuscdIoshowcascIhcroad|romprmordalsmIomodcrnIy.
Lvcn Ihosc socicIcs IhaI havc had Ihc longcsIundsIurbcdpcrods o|
cIhncharmony, or, IopuI I anoIhcrway, o| succcss|ulculIural pluralsm,
sccmoncwayoranoIhcrIobccomngaparIaIthcscams. consdcrnda,
Ihc |ormcr SovcI Lnon, Sr Lanka, Ihc LnIcd Kngdom, and LgypI.
L:] e ) t e P o J: | :s
* I 42 =
hcsc arc soccIcs IhaI d ||cr n many rcgards. Lach o| Ihcm had ccrIan
lncs o|cIhnc clcavagc bulInIo Ihcm, buI allo|Ihcmarcnow splI noI
|usI along Ihcsc prcdcIablc lncs buI alongoIhcrsas wcll. hc c||orIs n
LnglandIo promoIcmulIculIuralsmandIomprovcwhaIarcIcrmcdtoc:
t:|oters arcclcarly|alng, parIly n IhcconIcxIo|whaI now lookslkcIhc
carcaIurc o|ahrdWorldcconomy. n nda, Ihc lndu-luslm dvdc
s now onc among scvcral cIhnc and scparaIsI movcmcnIs, crosscuI by
Ihc largcsI casIc wars cvcr sccn n Ihc hsIory o| Ihc subconIncnI, un-
lcashcdbyIhcrcvvalo|IhclandaILommssonKcporI nIhccarlyycars
o|Ihc I 0s. n Sr Lanka,Ihcaml- Snhalawarshavcycldcdanncrcas-
ngharvcsI o|oIhcr lncs o|clcavagc among Snhala spcakcrs andaml
spcakcrs, dvsons IhaIappcarIo gcncraIc ncwprmordal sms(loorsh,
burghcr, buddhsI,andoIhcr). As hnshIhsbook, buddhsImonks|rom
all ovcr Sr Lanka havc paradcd Ihrough IhcsIrccIs o|Lolombo, proIcsI-
ng Ihc bold ncw plans |or dcccnIralzaIon o|Ihc ncw prcsdcnI o|Sr
Lanka, LhandrkaKumaraIunga.
All IhaI Ihs lcavcs s a |cw Luropcan capIalsI dcmocraccs (such as
Lcrmanyandrancc), Ihc LnIcdSIaIcs, and)apan assIaIcsIhaIappcar
noIIobcIhrcaIcncdbycIhncsIr|c.YcIIhcprospccIscvcn nIhcsccascs
arcnoIclcar.wIncssIhcproblcmo|Korcans n)apan,o|A|rcan-Amcrcans
andlspanc-AmcrcansnIhcLnIcdSIaIcs,o|ranans,)cws,urks, and
oIhcr gucsI-workcr populaIons n rancc and Lcrmany. hcsc suggcsI
IhaI cvcn Ihc mosI sIaunchlycapIalsIdcmocraccs arc noI cIcrnallysa|c
|romwhaI ssccn as Ihc prmordalsI bug. KghI-wngracsI, |ascsI, and
|undamcnIalsImovcmcnIs nLuropc andIhcLnIcdSIaIcsccrIanlyap-
pcarIobcmorcprmordal nIhcrbchavorIhanIhcracalmnorIcsIhcy
opcnly abhor. hc LnIcdSIaIcs, Lcrmany,)apan, and rancc arc n any
casc cnormously dvcrsc n Ihcr hsIorcs as modcrn naIon-sIaIcs and n
Ihcr commImcnIs Io polIcal pluralIy as a ccnIral prncplc o|polIcal
parIcpaIon.hcsc|acIs makcIcrucal Io dcnI|yIhclmIso|Ihc pr-
mordalsI approach Io cIhnc sIr|c, as Ihc Ihcss rcsIs crucally on Ihc
vcwo|ccrIan populaIonsandpolIcsasn|anIlcandrclcsmplcIlyon
somc sorI o|gcrmIhcoryo|cIhncsIr|c n WcsIcrndcmocraccs.haIs,
Ihcsc dcmocraccs arc sccn as |undamcnIally maIurc buInow as aI rsk
bccausc Ihcy havc bccomc hosIIo populaIons (Iypcally|rom Ihc hrd
World) IhaIcarryIhc prmordal bug-Ihc bug, IhaI s, IhaI makcs Ihcm
aIIachcd n n|anIlcways Io blood, languagc, rclgon, and mcmory and
makcs Ihcm volcncc-pronc and ll -cquppcd|orparIcpaIon n maIurc
cvc soccIcs.
LcIus summarzc Ihc ccnIral cmbarrassmcnI o|Ihc prmordalsIpcr-
L:] : o ] t : P : e t J: l :s
I 4 3 =
spcctvc. Lvcnthcwdcsprcadcommtmcnttothcdca o|dcmocracyna
vcry largc numbcr o| socctcs snccWorldWar , ncludng thosc n thc
socalst bloc, whch placcd hcavy cmphass on thc pro|cct o|modcrnty
|tcchnology, modcrn sccncc, mass partcpaton n poltcs, massvc n-
vcstmcnts n hghcr cducaton, and mmcnsc propaganda |or ncw dcas
aboutctzcnshp,both ncaptalstandsocalstrcgmcs), whyarccthnc
prmordalisms morc alvc thancvcrApart|rom argungthat thc opcra-
ton was succcss|ul althoughthc patcnt dcd, tappcars thatthc prmor-
dalst thcss cannot account |or thc ntcnshcaton and sprcad o|cthnc
scntmcnt n a world dcvotcd to varous vcrsons o| thc Lnlghtcnmcnt
pro|cct.hslcavcsuswthtwooptons.blamngthcrccpcntso|thcthc-
ory ,whorcccvcdtundcrthcgusc o|avarctyo|natonalandntcrna-
tonal dscourscso|dcvclopmcntandmodcrnzaton,usuallyaggrcssvcly
sponsorcdbythcapparatuso|thcmodcrn naton-statc),orrcthnkngthc
prmordalstpcrspcctvctscll. hopcthatwhatl havcsadso|ar|usthcs
thclattcrproposal.
T|: oit|cs o] A]:ct
Lndcrncathmostprmordalstmodclsarcnotonlythcassumptonslhavc
dscusscdabovc,butalsoathcoryo|a||cctnrclatontopoltcs,whchwc
nowhavc scvcral cxccllcnt rcasons to qucston. hc hrst sct o| rcasons,
whch havcadumbratcd alrcady andwhch l wll notdcvclop atlcngth
hcrc,hasbccndcnthcdbymanylarxstandnatonalstcrtcso|captal-
stdcvclopmcnt.ltconsstsolthcvcwthatthcpro|ccto|dcvclopmcnt,as
thasbccnmposcdonthcnon-Wcstcrnworld,hastypcally nvolvcdthc
crcatono|ncwcltcsandncwgapsbctwccncastcsandclasscs,whchmay
nothavcarscncxccpt|orvarousncocolonalstpro|cctsnthcncwstatcs.
lodcrnzaton s hcldrcsponsblc |orvarous |rctons o|rsngcxpccta-
tonsand|orkcycontradctonsbctwccncconomcandpoltcalparticpa-
ton. hcsc |ucl mass |rustraton thatcan caslybc translatcdby dcma-
gogucs o|allvarctcsntocthnczcddscourscandacton. l subscrbc to
thsargumcntn agcncralway,although l do notbclcvc tshnc-grancd
cnough to account |orthcspcchc con|uncturcs thattrggcr cthncvo-
lcncc npartcularsocctcs.orarcthcscthcorcscntrcly|rcco|thcdca
thatthcrcsalways arcalsubstratc o|prmordalsta||cctthatspcrpctual
tndcrwatng tobccxplotcdbyspcchcpoltcal ntcrcsts atagvcnmo-
mcntnthchstoryo|anygvcn naton- statc.
hcsccondscto|rcasons|ordoubtngthcprmordalstpcrspcctvcon
thcrolco|a||cctnpolt|cscomcsouto|abroadbodyo|ltcraturcthatdc-
L ] : o ]1: P : o J o | .
^ I 44 =
rivcs|romconIincnIalpoliIicalIhcory andsomco|iIsAmcricanvarianIsi n
IhcpasI Iwo dccadcs. hi s is Ihc liIcraIurc IhaI cmphasizcs noIIhcmc-
chanicalworkingso|IhcprimordialhomunculusIhaIdrivcsgrouppoliIics,
cspcciallyinIhchirdWorld,buIIhaIsIrando|socialandpoliIicalIhcory
IhaI sIrcsscs Ihc rolc o| Ihc imaginaIion in poliIics. his sIrand, which is
widcly associaIcdwiIhIhcwork o|bcncdicIAndcrson , I 83) , also has iIs
rooIs in Ihc vcncrablc IradiIion o|works IhaI highlighI Ihc auIonomy o|
idcology in poliIical l i |c (goingback Io anoIhcr o|Ihc sIrands in Ihcpro-
Ican IhoughI o|laxWcbcr, as opposcd Io his cvoluIionisI, primordialisI
idcas). IisalsoassociaIcdwiIh Ihcworko|LorncliusLasIoriadisonIhc
imaginary , I 87), o|Llaudc Lc|orI onidcology, I 8), o|LrncsIoLaclau
and LhanIal lou||c on hcgcmony , I 85) . hcsc works in Iurn draw on
andcomplicaIcIhcworko|AnIonioLramsci, KaymondWilliams,andoIh-
crs whowcrcconccrncdwiIh Ihc Irans|ormaIion o|idcologics inIo com-
mon scnsc. havccmphasizcd Ihcvaluc o| Ihis pcrspccIivc andmy own
rcliancconiIi nchapIcrI . SIrcssingncgoIiaIionandconIcsIaIioni nIhcli|c
o| all complcxpoliIics, Ihcsc Ihinkcrs (as wcll as Ihcir associaIcs i n Ihc
birmingham School i n Lngland and Ihc subalIcrn school o|hisIorians i n
ndia)bcganIoshowusa ncwwayIoscc subalIcrn consciousncss. nIhis
vicw,cnrichcdbyrcccnIworkonIhcsIraIcgicso|cvcrydayl i |c,dcLcrIcau
I 84), popularconsciousncsswasshownIobclcssakncc-|crksympIomo|
buricd and scmiconscious idcologics o| idcnIiIy and morc a consciously
workcd-ouI sIraIcgy o| irony and saIirc, which could criIiquc Ihc ruli ng
ordcrwhilccxpcrimcnIingwiIhsIylcso|idcnIiIypoliIics(lcbdigc I 7) .
AI Ihc samc Iimc, Ihc raIhcrdi||crcnI work o|)amcs ScoII , I 85) on
Ihcwcaponso|Ihcwcak,drawingonIhccarlicrmoralcconomyworko|
L. hompson andoIhcrs, bcgan Io show IhaI Ihosc social ordcrs and
groupingsIhaIwcrc apparcnIly passivcvicIimso|largcr |orccs o|conIrol
and domination wcrc ncvcrIhclcss capablc o| subIlc |orms o| rcsistancc
andcxiI (inAlbcrIlirschmansIcrmsj I 70|)IhaIsccmcdnoIIobc pri-
mordialisI in anyway. Lommon Ioa gooddcal o|Ihiswork,which i sdi -
vcrsc in oIhcrrcgards, isIhc idca IhaIconccpIions o|Ihc|uIurc play a |ar
largcrrolc Ihan idcas o|Ihc pasI in group poliIicsIoday, alIhoughprimor-
dialisI pro|ccIions onIo Ihc pasI arc noI irrclcvanI Io Ihc conIcmporary
poliIicso|IhcimaginaIi on.
WiIhIhcrccogniIionIhaIimaginaIionandagcncyarc |armorcviIalIo
groupmobilizaIionIhanwchadhiIhcrIoimagincd,wccanmorccasilyi n-
IcrposcIhcinvcnIiono|IradiIioncriIiquco|Lriclobsbawm andcrcncc
Kangcr, I 83) , whichdrovcanoIhcrnail inIoIhcco|hno|Ihcprimordial-
isIpcrspccIivc.AlIhoughIhcrchavcbccnscriouscriIicismso|Ihisi n|lucn-
L | ) : ):+ P | x J i a | i s
I 45 =
tal thcss ,notlcast ts tcndcncy to scc somc tradtons as authcntcbut
othcrs as nvcntcd) , thas alcrtcd us to thc dca that bctwccn thc land-
scapco|dscourscsabouttradtonandthcscnsbltcsandmotvcso|n-
dvdual actors sa hstorcal dscoursc thatssucsnot |rom thc dcpths o|
thc ndvdual psychc or |rom thc hoary msts o|tradton but |rom thc
spcchc,hstorcallystuatcdplay o|public andgroup opnons aboutthc
past. Lncma|orcontrbutono|thsworkstoponttothc|actthatmuch
o| natonal and group poltcs n thc contcmporary world has to do not
wth thc mcchancs o| prmordal scntmcnt, but wth what am callng
thc work o|thcmagnaton.l shallrcturn tothcthcmco|thc magna-
tonbclow.
hc grcat rony n much o| thswork s that t shows bcyonda doubt
that vcry o|tcn thc crcaton o| prmordal scntmcnts, |ar |rom bcng an
obstaclc to thc modcrnzng statc, s closcto thc ccntcro|thc pro|cct o|
thc modcrn naton-statc. hus, many rac al, rcl gous, and cultural |unda-
mcntalsms arc dclbcratcly |ostcrcd by varous naton-statcs, or partcs
wthn thcm, nthcrc||orts to supprcss ntcrnal dsscnt, toconstruct ho-
mogcncous sub|ccts o| thc statc, and to maxmzc thc survcllancc and
control o|thc dvcrsc populatons undcrthcrcontrol . ln thcsc contcxts,
modcrnnaton-statcso|tcndraw onclasshcatoryanddscplnary appara-
tuscsthatthcy nhcrtcd |rom colonalrulcrsandthatn thc postcolonal
contcxt havc substantal n|lammatory c||ccts An cxccllcnt cxamplc o|
ths s thc poltcs o|numbcrn colonal lndia andthc poltcs o|castc n
thcrcccntcontrovcrsy ovcrthclandalLommssonKcport nnda,scc
chap. ). Lkcwsc, rcccntwork on poltcal culturc n)apan , Kclly I 0,
lvyI 5)showsthatthcstatcandma|orcommcrcal ntcrcstshavcdonca
grcat dcal toconstruct and cncrgzc thc dscoursc o|)apancscncss and o|
tradton, }tsote) nanc||orttocxplotthcdcao| )apanasthcrcpostory
o|aunquc,homogcncous|ormo|culturaldi||crcncc. ln Lngland, thchcr-
tagcndustryhasworkcdtocrcatc a landscapco|hcrtagc,conscrvaton,
monumcnts, and Lnglsh hstorcal spacc, |ust as thc rolco| brtan as a
worldpowcrhas|adcdconsdcrably hs dscoursc o|Lnglshncsssonly
thcmostrcccntphascnthcntcrnalcolonalsm, lcchtcrI 75)through
whch a hcgcmonc dca o| Lnglshncss was crcatcd hs dca, rcgnant
today, makcs thc dscoursc o|multcultural sm n Lngland strangcly hol-
lowandsupportsthcmplctandcxplctracsmsthatcouldbcplaycdon
bylargarctJhatchcrnthcalklands,by)ohnla|ornthcLul |War, as
wcll asby |ascstand racst hatc groups nLngland.
Itsthssorto|moblzatonthatcharactcrzcdnchaptcrI ascultur-
alst,whch stosay, asnvolvngcthnctcsmoblzcdbyornrclatonto
L | ) : o ) t : P | e J o l s
! 4
thc practiccs o| Ihc modcrn nation-staIc. C|ttol|s suggcsts somcIhing
morcthanciIhcr:t|r|c| orc|tt:, boIho|whichtcrmspartakco|Ihcscnsc
o| Ihc natural, Ihc unconscious, and Ihc IaciI in group idcnIity. Whcn
idcntiticsarcproduccd i n a hcldo|classihcation, mass mcdiaIion, mobi -
lizaIion, andcnIiIlcmcnIdominatcdbypoliIicsatthclcvcl o|Ihc nation-
sIaIc, howcvcr, Ihcy takc cultural di ||crcnccs as Ihcir cersc|es ob|cct.
hcscmovcmcnts can takca varicIy o| |orms. Ihcycan bc dircctcd pri-
marilyIowardscl|-cxprcssion,auIonomy,andc||ortsatculturalsurvival,or
thcy can bc principally ncgativc in |orm, charactcrizcd largcly by haIc,
racism,andthcdcsircIodominaIcorcliminaIcothcrgroups.hisisakcy
disIincIion bccausc culturalisI movcmcnts |or auIonomy and dignity i n
volvinglong-dominaIcdgroups ,suchasA|rican-Amcricansi nthcLniIcd
SIaIcs andLaliIs i n lndia) arc o|Icn tcndcnIiously IarrcdwithIhc samc
brush as Ihosc Ihcy opposc, as bcingsomchow racist oranIidcmocraIic.
Although modcrn cthnicity is i n this scnsc culturalisI and inIimatcly
l i nkcdIo IhcpracIiccso|Ihc nation-sIaIc, iIisalsoworIhnoIing thaI an
imporIanIgroupo|culturalistmovcmcnts istodayttorsrot|ero|, givcn Ihat
many mobilizcd national cthnicitics, bccausc o|inIcrnaIional migraIion,
opcraIc bcyondIhcconhncso|a singlc naIionstaIc. hcsc IransnaIional
culIuralisI movcmcnIs arc intimaIcly connccIcd with whaI l rc|cr Io as
diasporicpublicsphcrcs.
hc hnal andpcrhapslcastobviousrcccntdcvclopmcnI thatmakcs it
di|hculIIosusIainIhcprimordialistthcsisas itapplicsIocIhnicpoliIics is
thcnoIion, largcly dcvclopcdi nIhcpastdccadcbyculIural anIhropolo-
gisIs,IhatthccmotionsarcnoIraw, prccul tural matcrialsthaIconsIiIuIca
univcrsal,transsocialsubsIratc.WhilciIisnoIpossiblcwiIhinIhcscopc o|
thi schapIcrtolay outthc|ullcontourso|thi sargumcnI,i tsmaininsighIis
thata||ccI is i nmanyimporIanIways lcarncd. whaI Io |ccl sadorhappy
abouI, howIocxprcssiIi ndi||crcnIconIcxIs, andwhcthcrornoIthccx
prcssion o| a||ccIs is a simplc playingouI o| inncrscntimcnIs ,o|Icn as-
sumcdIo bcunivcrsal) arcall issucs IhaIhavcbccnrichlyprobl cmaIizcd
, Lutz andAbu- Lughod I 0) . his body o|workhas gonc |ar Io show
IhaI cmoIion is culIurally constructcd andsociallysituatcdandIhat uni-
vcrsalaspcctso|a||cctdonoIIcllusanyIhingvcryrcvcaling.
hisworkhIsvcrywcllwiIhanothcrstrando|workinrcccntculIuralan
Ihropology,AsadI 83, vandcrVccrI 8), whichshowsIhaIvarious|orms
o| scnsory cxpcricncc and bodily Icchniquccmcrgc as parIs o| hisIorically
constitutcdrcgimcs o|knowlcdgc andpowcr. hissIrand,whichisalsoi n-
||ucnccdbylichcloucaulIsvicwso|thchistoricallyconstitutcdrclations
bctwccnknowlcdgc andpowcr, buildsonIhcclassicworko|larcclauss
L ] : ] t : P + e J+ | +s
I 47 =
, I 73)onIhcIcchnqucso|IhcbodyandIhcsuggcsIonso|lcrrcbourdcu
, I 77) and oIhcrs on cmbodcdcxpcrcncc and Is cmcrgcncc wIhn spc-
chcculIural |ramcworks o|habIandcxpcrcncc.hcIhrusIo|Ihsworks
IhaI, |ar|rom rcprcscnIngIhcpro|ccIon o|bodly sIaIcs andcxpcrcnccs
onIolargcrcanvascso|acIonandrcprcscnIaIon,bodlyIcchnqucsanda|-
|ccIvcdsposIonso|IcnrcprcscnI|usIIhcopposIc. namcly,IhcnscrpIon
uponbodlyhabIo|dscplncso|scl|-conIrolandpracIccso|groupdsc-
plnc, o|IcnIcdupwIhIhcsIaIcandIsnIcrcsIs.hc dscussono|l ndan
crckcInchapIcr5hIsdrccIlynIhsIradIon
lnIurn, IhsworkssupporIcdnoIonlybyIhcnsghIso|oucaulIand
oIhcrsonIhchsIorcalproccssbywhchIhcbodysIrans|ormcd,appro-
praIcd, andmoblzcd,buIalso byIhcworko|orbcrI Llas andhs |ol-
lowcrsIhaIshowsIhaIparIcular, andpowcr|ul,scnscso|bodlycomporI
mcnIandcvlIyarc IhcdrccIproducI o|courIly andbourgcosdcaso|
dgnIy and dsIncIon. hs gcncral orcnIaIon s noIwholly problcm
|rcc Ihc qucsIon o| how culIural and polIcal schcmaIa mprnI Ihcm-
sclvcsuponbodlycxpcrcnccandIhusmoIvaIcagcnIs npowcr|ul ways
ssIllbcngworkcdon. WhaI docs sccmclcars IhaI Ihcrc islIIlcpayo||
n scparaIngIhcworldo|cmoIon anda||ccI|rom Ihcworldo|languagc
andscl|-rcprcscnIaIon andIhaIIhcsc nIurnarcrcmarkablyrcsponsvcIo
macroconccpIons o|cvlIy anddgnIy, as consIrucIcd by nIcrcsIs and
dcologucsIhaIcxcrcscpowcrovcrwholcsocalordcrs.
hc causal chan s, lnoIrcvcrscd, aI lcasI problcmaIzcd. lnsIcad o|
movng |rom nncr scnImcnIs Io ouIcr dsplays IhaI aggrcgaIc upward
nIo largcr |orms o| acIon and rcprcscnIaIon, Ihs body o|work works
|romIhcIopdown,or|romIhcmacroIoIhc mcro,suggcsIngIhaIpowcr
s largcly a maIIcr o| Ihc mprnIng o| largc-scalc dscplncs o| cvlIy,
dgnIy, andbodly conIrol onIo Ihc nImaIc lcvcl o|cmbodcd agcnIs.
hsanIhropologcallIcraIurc, whlc noIycIconclusvcandbynomcans
problcm-|rcc, suggcsIs IhaI Ihc |cclngs and scnImcnIs o| acIors arc
largcly comprchcnsblc only wIhn spcchc culIural |ramcs o| mcanng
andsIylc andlargcrhsIorcal |ramcs o|powcranddscplnc. l IIhuscalls
nIoscrous qucsIonIhcdcao|a laycro|prmordalscnImcnIIhaImay
bcsccnIolurkbcncaIhIhcsur|acco|culIural |orms,socalordcrs,andhs-
IorcalmomcnIs.
YcIcrowds andIhc ndvdualswho consIIuIcIhcmccrIanlysccm Io
dsplay Ihcparadoxo|unplanncdangcrandcoordnaIcdIargcIngo|vc-
Ims.hsmxIurco|combusIblIyandcoordnaIonsaIIhchcarIo|Ihc
mysIcryo|IhccrowdandIhcroIandhascxcrcscdobscrvcrs|romLus-
IavcLcbononward. lIsobvouslyacrIcal parIo|cIhncvolcncc lnIhc
L ] : ]1 : P | e J: | :s
I 48 =
scrpIs IhaIsccmIo undcrlc muchcIhncvolcncc , |orrarcly ssuchvo-
lcncccnIrcly chaoIc) Ihcrc sclcarly a sorI o|ordcr, whch Iwould bc
Ioo casy Io aIIrbuIc Io Ihc conIngcnccs o| sccrcI plans, ouIsdc agcnIs,
and hddcn calculaIons bcncaIh Ihc sur|acc o| group |rcnzy ,ambah
I 990) . hc challcngc sIo capIurc Ihc|rcnzy o|cIhncvolcnccwIhouI
rcducngIIoIhcbanalandunvcrsalcorco|nncr, prmordalscnImcnIs.
Wc nccdIo manIanIhcscnsc o|psychc, andcmbodcd,ragc aswcll as
Ihc nIuIon IhaIIhc scnImcnIs o|cIhnc volcncc ,lkc anyoIhcr sorI
o| scnImcnI) makc scnsc only wIhn largc-scalc |ormaIons o|dcology,
magnaIon,anddscplnc.hssccms an mpossblcIask, buI shallsug-
gcsIn Ihc |ollowngsccIon IhaIIhcIropc o|mplosonsaIcnIaIvcway
ouIo|IhcprmordalsIIrap.
t|ric ljosiors
|IhcprmordalsIpcrspccIvcsso|rcqucnIlymslcadng,Isccmsmpor-
IanIIo hndancquallygcncral pcrspccIvcwIhwhchIomovcbcyondI.
hcalIcrnaIvcsamodclo|cIhncmploson,aIropcdclbcraIclypuI|or-
ward agansI Ihc connoIaIons o|cxploson so o|Icn assocaIcdwIh Ihc
prmordalsIvcw.As|arasknow, Ihcdca o|mplosonhasbccnuscd n
IhcconIcxIo|socalmovcmcnIsonlyrcccnIlyandraIhcrcrypIcally nIhc
conIcxIo|sIaIcvolcnccandrc|ugcc|ormaIonsnwcaksIaIcs,ZolbcrgcI
al . I 989, 25-57). Lnkng dcas |rom)amcsScoIIandAlbcrIlrschman,
ArsIdcZolbcrgandcollcagucs clam IhaIpcasanIswhoIryIododgcIhc
prcdaIory acIons o| Ihc sIaIc may hnd Ihcmsclvcs corncrcdby Ihc sIaIc
andIhus |orccd nIo volcncc. n Ihs manncr, wIhdrawal |rom Ihc sIaIc
mayIrggcr a volcnI mploson, a dvson o|boIh rulcrs andrulcd nIo
prmary soldarIy groupsvyngwthcachoIhcr na dcspcraIc scarch |or
sccurIy , 257) . hs crypIc usc o|Ihc magc o| mploson s suggcsIvc
andsrclaIcdIoIhcmorcdclbcraIcusc shall makco|I.
bc|orc l go onIospcc|ycxacIlyhowIhcmodclo|mplosoncanpro-
vdcamorcusc|ulapproachIocIhnccon|ronIaIonsIhanIhcprmordal-
sImodcl, nccdIoscIIhcsIagc |orIhsapproachnabroadcrway. am
gcncrallycommIIcdIoIhcvcwIhaIIhcworldwc lvc nIodaysglobal
andIransnaIonal nawaynoIanIcpaIcdbycarlcrmodcls nIhcsIudyo|
nIcrnaIonal polIcs, as havc madc clcar n Ihc hrsI parI o|Ihs book.
oIonlyam l convnccdo|IhcvrIucs o|Ihc ncorcalsmo|KobcrI Kco-
hancandoIhcrs, andIssIrongcrIquco|Ihccarlcr, sIaIc-ccnIcrcdrcalsI
vcw ,Kcohanc I 98), buI am also convnccd IhaI cvcn Ihc ncorcalsI
vcwdocs noIgo |arcnoughIoaccommodaIcIhcmanyproccsscs,cvcnIs,
L:) : )1 : P :x J:1:s
= I 49 =
and structurcs that appcar to work largcly outsidc thc stratcgic intcrac-
tions o|nation-statcs. hus, am sympathctic to thc broad approach o|
)amcs Koscnau , I 990), which appcals |orancntirclyncwvicwo|global
politicsandstrcsscsthcimagco|turbulcncc,cspcciallyas ithasbccn dc-
vclopcdbyphysicistsandmathcmaticians. buildingonthcidcao|bi|urca-
tion and rclatcd idcas o| complcxity, chaos, and turbulcncc in complcx
systcms,Koscnauargucsthatthcdynamicso|contcmporaryworldpolitics
cannotbcaccountcdlorcxccptbysccingthatthcrcarctwosystcmsinbi-
lurcatcdplayi ncontcmporaryworldpolitics.thcmulticcntricsystcmand
thcstatcccntricsystcm.
Koscnausmai nmcssagcisthatstructurcandproccssi ntodayspolitics
arc arti|acts o|thc turbulcnt intcrplay o|thcsctwo bi|urcatcd systcms,
cacho|which a||ccts thcothcrs inmultiplcways, atmultiplc lcvcls, and
in ways that makc cvcnts cnormously hard to prcdict. o account |or
cvcntstructurcs i nthcmulticcntricworldhcdcscribcs,Koscnausuggcsts
thatwcrcplaccthc idca o|cvcnts with thcimagco|cascadcs,actionsc-
qucnccs in thc multiccntric world that gathcr momcntum, stal l , rcvcrsc
coursc, and rcsumc ancw asthcirrcpcrcussionssprcadamongwholcsys-
tcmsandsubsystcms, 299) . hcsortso|cascadcthatKoscnauidcnti|ics
arcacrucialcomponcnto|whatmightbccallcdthcstructurco|cxtcrnal-
iticsthatpartlyaccount|orthcshapcandtimingo|particularcthniccon-
llagrations. bccausc notall microcvcntsassociatcdwith dailyl i |c i ncth-
nically scnsitivc localitics lcad to cthnic violcncc, thc cascadc conccpt
may hclpusundcrstandwhyonc particularact o|rcligious dcsccrati on,
oroncparticulartcrroristkilling, oroncparticulari n|lammatory spccch
ignitcs largc- scalc cthnic violcncc. hc idca o| global turbulcncc as a
modclo|worldpoliticssccmsalsoto |itavarictyo| othcr modcls,suchas
Lash andLrrys idca o| disorganizcdcapitalism , Lash and Lrry I 987) ,
KobcrtsonsandArasonsrcccntcssaysonglobalization, Kobcrtson I 990,
Arason I 990), and my own c||orts to rcsituatc thc politics o| cultural
di||crcnccagainst apicturco|dis|uncturcsinthcglobalculturalcconomy
,sccchap. 2) .
buti t sccmsalong|ourncy|rom idcaso| globalturbulcnccandimagcs
o| cascadc and |low to thc actualitics o| cthnic violcncc and concrctc
humanbrutality.o closcth|sgap, ldrawontwotcrmsrcccntlyproposcd
byambiah, I 990)inanc||orttoidcnti|ythcdynamicso|crowdbchavior
inthccontcxto|cthnicv|olence~)eco|zoter andtorsoo|ot|er. lcdcvcl-
opsthcsctcrms in thccontcxto|a closc rcadingo|thcriots in Karachii n
I 985bctwccn lathansandloha|irs ,bihari s), thc lattcrbcinglakistanis
whooriginallymigratcd|romLastcrnlndia.
L }e } t e P | e J | o l | s
I 50 =
by CCatZaItCn mCan IHC prCCCss C prCgrCsstVC CCnuCaItCn C CCa tnCt
CCnIs anC CtspuICs C IHCtr parItCuars C CCnICxI anC aggrCgaIlng IHCm,
IHCrCOy narrCWtng IHCtr CCnCrCIC rtCHnCss. ransVauaItCn rCCrs IC IHC par
aC prCCCss C asstmtaItng parItCuars IC a argCr, CCCCItVC, mCrC CnCur-
tng, anC IHCrCCrC Css CCnICxIOCunC, CausC Cr tnICrCsI. HC prCCCssCs C
CCatZaItCn anC IransVauaItCn IHCrCOy CCnIrtOuIC IC a prCgrCsstVC pCar
tZaItCn anC CtCHCICmtZaItCn C issuCs anC parItsans, suCH IHaI IHC CtmaCItC
aCIs C VtCCnCC Oy grCups anC mCOs OCCCmC tn a sHCrI ItmC sCu htng
mantCsIaItCns, tnCarnaItCns anC rCtnCarnaItCns, C aCgCCy trrCsCVaOC
CCmmuna sptIs OCIWCCn aIHans anC btHarts, btkHs anC tnCus, btnHaCsC
anC amts, Cr Paays anC LHtnCsC. ,amOtaH I VVU, JU)
hc proccsscs o||ocalizaIion andIransvaluaIionIhaIambiah idcnIi-
hcsarc cvcn morcrcvcalingwhcnplaccdwiIhinwhaIcan bcsccnas Ihc
cvcnI cascadcs (i n Koscnaus scnsc) IhaIlinkcdKarachi and iIs ncighbor-
hoodsIodcvclopmcnIsi nrcgionalandnaIionalpoliIicsin lakisIan and in
worldpoliIicsas pcrccivcdbylakisIani s. Such cascadcs includcdIhcvic-
Iory o| bcnazir bhuIIo i n Ihc clccIions |orIhc primc mi nisIcrshi p, Ihc
rcadingo|IhisvicIoryin Karachi andclscwhcrcasa vicIory |orSindovcr
lun|abinrcgionalpoliIics,Ihcpro]ccIionbyvariouspro-ZiaparIics o|Ihc
wcakncss o| bhuIIo asawoman and asacorrupIdcsccndanIo|hcr|aIhcr,
andIhc parallcl cmcrgcncc o|Ihc NN (loha|irjaumi lovcmcnI) as a
ma|or parIy |orIhc |ormaIion o|loha|iridcnIiIy. hcsc rcadings in Iurn
could i n|lamc laIhan social and cconomic sIrcngIh in Karachi and |ccd
inIo Ihc gcncralizcd angcr wiIh bhuIIos parIy i n Karachi, cspccially
amongIhosc,likcIhclaIhans,whodidnoIhavcasIrongpoliIicalvoicci n
rcgionalpoliIicsi nSind. hus,IhcdclicaIcanddcadlyi nIcrprcIaIion(and
i nIcrpcncIraIion)o|cvcnIsonIhcsIrccIs o|Karachi, whichun|oldcdinIo
a drama rapidly rcad i n macro Icrms, couldnoI havc Iakcn Ihcvarious
IurnsiIdidwcrciInoI|orIhc implosivc c||ccIso|widcracIionscqucnccs
onIhcsIrccIpoliIicso|Karachi.L|coursc,IhcscvcrycvcnIsrcvcrbcraIcd
ouIward and upward, Ihrough oIhcr cascadcs o| cvcnIs IhaI crcaIcd Ihc
scnsc IhaI bhuIIo could noI mainIain civil ordcr. his pcrccpIion, mobi -
lizcdalongwiIh oIhcrpoliIical imagcs and manipulaIions,wasparIo| hcr
cvcnIual down|all in I 990, a down|all associaIcd wiIh ma]or shi|Is in Ihc
poliIicso|IhcsubconIincnIand in IhcpcrccpIion o|ndiaandIhc LniIcd
SIaIcsi nIhca|IcrmaIho|IhcLul|War.
his is obviouslyasimplihcdpicIurc inIowhichoncwouldwanIIoi n-
Iroducc a grcaI many oIhcrcxIcrnaliIics, such asIhc sIridcnI anIi - | ndian
andanIi - li ndunoIcIhaIbhuIIoi nIroduccdinIohcrspccchcsabouIAzad
L i ) : ]1 : P i x J i | i s
= I 5 I =
Kashmir, in an c||ort to dc|usc hcr imagc as a wcakwoman and a pcrson
who had bccn so|t on thc loha|irs in thc contcxt o|thc I 985 Karachi
riots. hc situation in Karachi has grown both morc inviolatc andmorc
implosivc in thcpcriodsincc I 985, and in I 995Karachi isa sccnco|civil
warandcthnicviolcncconaparwithlogadishu,bciruto|thc I 980s,and
oncstcpshorto|Kabulinthcpastdccadc.bhuttorcturncdto powcra|tcr
bcingdc|catcdinancarlicrclcctionandoncc again|accsavolatilcKarachi
and a highly insccurc national mandatc. luch has happcncd in Karachi
sincc I 985, and a scrics o|violcnt battlcs bctwccn thc |orccs o|thc statc
and thcarmcdyouth o|thcbb hasbroughtthcdcath toll in Karachi to
morcthancighthundrcdpcrsonsbctwccn)anuaryand)unc I 995.
luchcouldbcsaidaboutthchistoryo|violcncci nKarachi i nthcpast
dccadcthatissalicnttothcgcncralargumcntso|thisbookandthcspccihc
conccrnso|thischaptcr.Asacity, Karachiisadcprcssingly|orcc|ul cxam-
plco|thcsorto|urbanwar|arc | discuss i nchaptcr9, which produccs lo-
calityundcrconditionso|cvcrydaytcrrorandarmcdbattlc.Sinccthcmid-
I 980s, thcbb, whichbcgan as a |ruit o|thcscnsco|sharcd gricvancc
among mi grants to lakistan |rom Lastcrn | ndia, has itscl| bccomc dccply
dividcd, and its lcadcrship now |unctions in cxilcinLngland. ltisthus an
cxccllcntcxamplc o|a movcmcntthatis diasporic, transnational, andanti-
statc withoutdcmandingnationalautonomy. bhutto hcrscl |has dcploycd
thclanguagco|tcrrorismand| ihadagainstthcMb, thusblurringthclincs
bctwccnsubcontincntalpolitics,thcbb o|tcnbcingsccnasticdtolndia,
thclando|orgino|thcloha|irs)andlakistaninationalpolitics.
Allsidcsin thc con|lictthc statc, thc di||crcnt |actionso|thc bb,
and thc rul ing party, thc lakistan lcoplcs larty-havc movcd |rom rc
liancc on pcttyarms to thc usc o| rockct launchcrs, armorcd cars, and
bunkcrs.hcrcisnosharpcrindicationo|thcimplosiono|globalandna-
tionalpoliticsintothcurban worldo| Karachi thanthc|ollowingquota
tion|romoncKarachiwarlord,who lcads a dissidcnt bb |action in thc
Landhi ncighborhood Lctthcm makc a scparatc provincc orcountry or
whatcvcrthcywant. hisarcawill rcmain mystatc, lani| I 995, 40).
hcurban war|arc o|Karachi islinkcdtorcgional, statc, national,and
globalpoliticsthroughthcdrugtra|hc,thccriminal izationo|politics,thc
c||orts to cnumcratc thcma|orcthnicpopulationsby thc statc ,sccchap.
), and thc hal|-million migrants who comc cvcry ycar to this alrcady
ovcrstrctchcdcity o|twclvcmillion.
butthisisnotthcplacc|oradctailcdstudyo|cthnicviolcncci nKarachi.
hckcypointisthatboth |ocal izationandtransvaluationtakcthcircncrgy
|rom macrocvcnts andproccsscs ,cascadcs) that linkglobal politics tothc
L | } : o } t : P | + . J i o l | s
I 5 2 =
mcropolIcso|sIrccIs andncghborhoods. Synchroncally, Ihcsccascadcs
provdcIhcmaIcral|orlnkngproccsscso||ocalzaIonandIransvaluaIon.
haIs, IhcyprovdcmaIcral |orIhcmagnaIono|acIorsaIvarous lcvcls
|orrcadnggcncral mcanngs nIo local andconIngcnI cvcnIs,|usIasIhcy
provdcIhcalb|ornscrbnglong-sIandngscrpIsabouIcIhncmanpula
IionsandconspracicsonIoapparcnIlyIrvalsIrccIcvcnIs.
buIIhcrcsa dachronc dmcnsonIoIhsl nkagcaswcll.A|Icrall, Ihc
prmordalsIpcrspccIvcwassIrongcsI,cvcn |wrongcsI) naccounIng|or
Ihc polIcso|a||ccI and Ihus |orIhcvolcnInIcnstyo|cIhnccon|ronIa-
Ions.AncwpcrspccIvco|IhcsorIproposcdhcrcmusIprovdcanalIcrna-
IvccIologyo|whaIKaymondWllamswouldhavccallcdIhcsIrucIurco|
|cclng ncIhncvolcncc. NacrocvcnIs, orcascadcs,workIhcrwaynIo
hghlylocalzcdsIrucIurcso||cclngbybcngdrawn nIoIhcdscourscand
narraIvcso|Ihclocal Iy, ncasualconvcrsaIonsandlow-kcycdIoralzng
o|IhcsorIIhaI o|Icn accompancsIhccollccIvcrcadngo|ncwspapcrs n
many ncghborhoods and on many |ronI sIoops o| Ihc world. Loncur
rcnIly, Ihc local narraIvcsandploIsnIcrms o|whchordnaryl |c andIs
con|lcIsarcrcadand nIcrprcIcdbccomcshoIIhroughwIhasubIcxIo| n-
IcrprcIvcpossblIcsIhaIsIhcdrccIproducIo|Ihcworkngso|Ihc|eco|
magnngo|broadcrrcgonal,naIonal,andglobalcvcnIs.
hcIroublcwIhsuchlocalrcadngssIhaIIhcyarco|IcnslcnIandlI
crallyunobscrvablc,cxccpInIhcsmallcsIo|passngcommcnIsonworld
ornaIonal cvcnIs IhaIoccurnIhccvancsccnIsmall Ialko|Ica sIalls, cn
cmahouscs, and urban gaIhcrng placcs. hcy arc parI o|Ihc nccssanI
murmuro|urbanpolIcaldscourscandIsconsIanI,undramaIccadcnccs.
buIpcrsonsandgroupsaIIhsmosIlocall cvclgcncraIcIhoscsIrucIurcso|
|cclngIhaIovcrImcprovdc Ihcdscursvc hcldwIhnwhchIhccxplo-
svcrumors,dramas,andspccchcso|IhcroIcanIakchold.
hs pcrspccIvc docsnoIrcqurc a prmordalsI assumpIon nordcr
IoaccounI |orIhclocalsIrucIurcso||cclngIhaIgvccIhncroIs andcol -
lccIvc acIon IhcrbruIal and ncxplcablc |orcc. hcsc local |cclngs arc
Ihc producI o| long-Icrm nIcracIons o| local and global cascadcs o|
cvcnIs IhaIbuldupsIrucIurcso||cclng, whch arcboIhsocal andhsIor-
cal andarcparIo|Ihc cnvronmcnIwIhn whch, gradually, Ibccomcs
possblcIocnvsagcancghborasahcnd,ashopkccpcrasa|orcgnIraIor,
andalocalIradcrasa ruIhlcss capIalsIcxploIcr. LnccIhs anIhologyo|
magcs sacIvaIcd,Ihcproccsscso|whchambahspcaksIakcovcr, and
wcarcassurcdIhaIIhcrcwllbc|rcsh cpsodcso|rccollccIon,nIcrprcIa
Ion, and su||cr ng, whcha|IcrIhcroIsubsdcs wll work Ihcrwayoncc
agannIoncwlocalsIrucIurcso||cclng.
L ]+ ) t : P e J | s
J 3 =
butthcrc is no dcnyingthat such conccpts as cascadc, transvaluation,
|ocalization, and implosion sccm too abstract, too mcchanistic, too gcn-
craltocapturcthcbrutccontingcncy, thcrawviolcncc, thcclcctricblood
lust, thcinstinctto dcgradation thatsccmtoaccompanythccthnictcrror
o|such placcsas Kwandaandbosnia, Karachi and Lolombo. Whcn rapc,
torturc, cannibalism, and thc brutal usc o| blood, |cccs, and body parts
cntcrthcsccnarioo|cthnicclcansing,wcarc |accdwith thclimitsnot|ust
o|socialscicnccbuto|languagc itscl|. Lan onc sayanythingusc|ul about
this sorto|violcnccinthcglobalizcdworld thatthis book dcscribcs
l vcnturc onc hypothcsis in thc |acc o|myown intcrprctivc paralysis
whcn |accd with thc gory group violcncc o| todays cthnic wars. ' hc
worstkindso|violcncc inthcscwarsappcartohavcsomcthingtodowith
thc distortcd rclationship bctwccn daily, |acc-to- |acc rclations and thc
largc-scalc idcntitics produccdbymodcrn nation-statcs and complicatcd
by largc-scalc diasporas. lorc cxactly, thc most horriblc |act about thc
rapc, dcgradation,torturc, andmurdcro|thcncwcthnicwarsisthatthcy
happcn in manycascs bctwccn actorswho know, orthoughtthcy kncw,
onc anothcr. Lur horror is sparkcdby thc shccrintimacy that |rcqucntly
|ramcsthc ncw cthnicviolcncc. tishorrorat thc ncighborturncdkillcr/
torturcr/rapist. What docs this intimacy havc to do with mcdia, statc-
politics,andglobalmacrocvcnts
hcragco|thoscwhokil l, maim, andrapc sccms tobc ticdupwith a
pro|ound scnsco|bctrayal that is |ocuscd onthcvictims, andthcbctrayal
isticdupwith thcrclationshipbctwccn appcarancc andrcality. Whcn thc
ncighborhoodmcrchant is rcvcalcdto bc, in hishcart, a Lroat, whcnthc
schooltcachcrturnsout to bc sympathctic to thc lutu, whcn yourbcst
|ricnd turns out to bc a luslim rathcr than a Scrb, whcn your unclcs
ncighborturns outtobcahatcdlandlord-whatsccmsto|ollowis ascnsc
o|dccpcatcgoricaltrcachcry, thatis, trcachcryaboutgroupidcntityasdc-
hncdbystatcs,ccnsuscs, thcmcdia, andothcrlargc-scalc|orccs.
At hcart, thisscnsc o|bctrayal is about mistakcn idcntity i n a world
whcrcthcstakcsassociatcdwiththcsc idcntiticshavcbccomccnormously
high. hc ragc that such bctrayal sccms to inspirc can o|coursc bc cx-
tcndcdtomasscso|pcrsonswhomaynothavcbccnintimatcs,andthus it
cananddocsbccomcincrcasinglymcchanicalandimpcrsonal,butwould
proposcthatitrcmainsanimatcdbya pcrccivcdviolationo|thcscnsco|
knowingwhothcLthcrwasando|ragcaboutwhothcyrcallyturn outto
bc. hisscnsco|trcachcry,o|bctrayal,andthuso|violatcdtrust,ragc,and
hatrcdhascvcrythingto dowitha world inwhichlargc-scalc idcntitics
|orciblycntcrthclocal imagination andbccomc dominantvoicc- ovcrs in
L:] : ]1 : P : e J:/ s
I 54 =
thctra|hc o|ordinaryli|c. hcprimarylitcraturccloscsttothcmostbrutal
cpisodcs o| contcmporary cthnic violcncc is shot through with thc lan-
guagc o|thcimpostor, thcsccrctagcnt, andthccountcr|cit pcrson. his
discoursc brings togcthcr unccrtainty about catcgorics and intimacy
amongpcrsons-thckcy|caturco|thcncwviolcncc.
hcrcarcmanycxamplcso|contcmporary politicalviolcnccthatsus-
tain this pointo|vicw. thas a pcdigrcc i nsuch wcll-knowninstanccsas
thc markingo|Lcrman)cws as impostorsbythc azis ,Andcrson I 983,
I 49). | wccxaminccvidcnccclosctothcactualmomcntso| grcatcstbru-
talityinrcccntcpisodcso|groupviolcncc ,Las I 995 lalkki I 995 Sutton
I 995), itshows that thc rcvclation o|hatcd and hatc|ul o|hcial idcntitics
bchindthcbodilymaskso|rcal ,andknown)pcrsonssccmscrucial tothc
pcrpctrationo|thcworst|ormso|mutilationanddamagc.Lonvcrscly,thc
cxposurc o|thc individual namcs, historics, andmcmoricso|spccihc pcr-
sonsbchindthccorpscso|thcvictimso|advcrsccatcgorizationisuscdto
provokcthcstrongcsto|scntimcnts.hcscrcciprocalproccsscs-xposing
impostors and rcstoring rcal pcrsons through pcrsonalizcd mcmorials-
sccmto licatthccorco|thccmbodicdviolcncco|todays cthnicbattlcs.
Kcmcmbcringand|orgcttingarcvitaltonationalism,Andcrson I 983) , but
thcyarccvcn morcvital to its brutal cmbodicd politics. hisvicwo|thc
pcculiar and stunning brutality o| cthnic and racial war|arc docs not
cxcludc othcr|actors thatusually hgurc in thcorics o|cthnicviolcncc-
cconomic|rustrations,manipulationbypoliticians,|carso|rcligiouschangc,
aspirations|orcthnicscl|-govcrnancc, scapcgoatingintimcso|crisis,and
thclikc.Allthcsc|actorssurclyaccount|orthcovcralldynamicso|cthnic
stri|ci n many social andhistorical scttings. but thcysccm unablc to ac-
count |or thc shccr brutality o| modcrn cthnocidc and cthnic war, and
thcir scnsc o| runaway contingcncy. his hypothcsis about violcncc i n
rclation totrcachcry, intimacy, andidcntity is mcant toaccount |or thc
trans|ormation o|ordinary pcoplc into killcrs, torturcrs, andrapists and
thcrc-prcscntation o||ricnds, ncighbors, andcoworkcrs asob|cctso|thc
dccpcsthatrcdandragc
|thc hypothcsis o|trcachcry is plausiblc, ithas much to dowith thc
largc-scalc idcntiticscrcatcd,trans|ormcd, andrcihcdbymodcrnstatcap-
paratuscs ,o|tcn in a transnational and diasporic hcld) and circulatcd
through thc mcdia. Whcn thcsc idcntitics arc convincingly portraycd as
primary ,i ndccd as primordial) loyaltics by politicians, rcligious lcadcrs,
andthc mcdia, thcn ordinarypcoplcscl|-|ulhllinglysccm to actas i|only
thiskindo|idcntitymattcrcdandasi|thcywcrcsurroundcdbyaworldo|
prctcndcrs.Suchrcprcscntationso|idcntity,andidcntihcation)sccmcvcn
L+] : ]:: P + e J+ | +s
" I 55 =
morc plausblc na world o|mgranIs and mass mcda,whchcan subvcrI
Ihc cvcryday ccrIanIcs IhaI comc |rom |acc-Io- |acc knowlcdgc o| Ihc
cIhncLIhcr `
oI all culIuralsImovcmcnIslcadIovolcnccbcIwccncIhncgroups,
buI culIural smnso|ar as Involvcs dcnIIcs moblzcdaI Ihc lcvcl o|
Ihc naIion-sIaIchas hgh poIcnIal |or volcncc, cspccally n an cra
whcnIhcculIuralspacco|IhcnaIon-sIaIcssub]ccIIoIhccxIcrnalIcso|
mgraIon and mass mcda. Such cxIcrnalIcs would noI ncccssarly n-
crcascIhcpoIcnIal|orvolcncccxccpI|oroncmorcconIradcIonIhaIa|
|ccIsallnaIon-sIaIcsn prncplc andmosInaIon-sIaIcs npracIcc. hs
sIhcconIradcIonbcIwccnIhcdcaIhaIcachnaIon-sIaIccanIrulyrcp-
rcscnIonlyonccIhnosandIhcrcalIyIhaIallnaIon-sIaIcshsIorcallyn
volvc Ihc amalgamaIon o| many dcnIIcs. Lvcn whcrc long-sIandng
dcnIIcs havc bccn |orgoIIcn or bur cd, Ihc combnaIon o| mgraIon
and mass mcdaIon assurcs Ihcr rcconsIrucIon on a ncw scalc and aI
l argcrlcvcls. l ncdcnIally,IhsswhyIhcpolIcso|rcmcmbcrngand|or-
gcIIng,andIhuso|hsIoryandhsIorography) ssoccnIralIoIhccIhn-
csIbaIIlcsIcdupwIhnaIonalsm,vandcrVccr I 994) . LulIuralsImovc-
mcnIsamongmnorIcsandhsIorcallydomnaIcdgroups IcndIocnIcr
nIoaconscousdalogucwIhIhcculIuralsmso|numcrcalma]orIcs. As
IhcscculIural smscompcIc|orapccc o|IhcnaIon ,ando|Ihcrcsourccs
o| Ihc sIaIc) , Ihcy ncvIably cnIcr nIo Ihc spacc o| poIcnIal volcncc.
hsproposald||crs|undamcnIally|romIhcprmordalsIpcrspccIvc.
lIdocs noIrcgarda subsIraIum o|cIhncscnImcnIas Ihcbcdrock o|Ihc
cxplanaIono|cIhnc cxplosons. KaIhcr, IsuggcsIsIhaIcIhncsIrucIurcs
o| |cclngarc Ihcmsclvcscomplcx producIs o|Ihc local magnaIon ,mc-
daIngabcwldcrngvarcIyo|globalcascadcsasIhcymovcIhroughIhc
localIy) . Lpsodcso|cIhncvolcnccmayIhusbcrcgardcdasmplosvcn
Iwo scnscs. n Ihc sIrucIural scnsc, Ihcy rcprcscnI Ihc |oldng nIo local
polIcs o|prcssurcs andrpplcs |rom ncrcasngly wdcr polIcal arcnas,
and n Ihc hsIorcal scnsc, Ihc local polIcal magnaIon s ncrcasngly
sub|ccIIoIhc Uowo|largccvcnIs ,cascadcs) ovcrImc, cvcnIsIhaI n|lu-
cncc Ihc nIcrprcIaIon o| mundanc occurrcnccs and graduallycrcaIc a
rcpcrIorc o| advcrsaral cIhnc scnImcnIs. hcsc can sccm prmordal aI
hrsI sghI buI arc surcly Ihc producI o|longcr-Icrm proccsscs o| acIon,
communcaIon, nIcrprcIaIon, and commcnI. Lncc Ihcsc cvcnIs occur,
howcvcr, I s |ar cascrIo scc Ihcrcxplosvc dmcnsons, as Ihcy sprcad
ouIward,n|lamngoIhcrsccIorsanddrawngoIhcrssucs nIoIhcvorIcx
o| cIhnc|ury. buI Ihs cxplosvc dmcnson, powcrcd by ,andcmpowcr-
ng) Ihc proccsscs o||ocalzaIon and IransvaluaIon, should noIblndus
L i ) : o }1 : P + e J+o | s
I 5 =
IoiIsinitialcondiIions.hcsc conditionsarcbcIIcraccounIcd|orinIcrms
o|Ihc idca o|implosion proposcd in Ihis chaptcr Ihan by thc many vcr-
sions o| Ihc primordialisI pcrspccIivc thaI saIis|y our thirsI |or hnal, and
ahistorical ,cxplanations,cspcciallyo|apparcnIlyirrationalbchavior.
MeJt~ t|r|c|ty
LcImcundcrlinc, cvcn i|crypIically, whaI ismodcrn ,inmyusagc, culIur
alisI)abouIconIcmporary cIhnic movcmcnIs. odays largc-scalcand |rc
qucnIlyviolcnIcIhnicmovcmcnIscall|orancwundcrsIandingo|Ihcrcl a-
IionshipbcIwccn hisIory and agcncy, a||ccI and poliIics, largc-scalc and
local|actors. |havcsuggcsIcdIhroughouIIhischapIcrIhatoncwayIocn
gagcIhcscrcquircmcnIsisIorcsisIIhc nncr-ouIcrdialccIicimposcdonus
bythcprimordi alsIwayo|IhnkingandIhinkinsIcadi nIcrms o|Ihcdi -
alccIicso|implosionandcxplosionovcrIimcasIhckcyIoIhcpcculiardy-
namicso|modcrncIhnicity.
Lookcdat in Ihisway, modcrn cIhnicmovcmcnIs,culIuralisms)canbc
IicdIo thc crisis o| Ihc naIion- staIc Ihrough a scrics o| inIcrcsIing links.
irst, all modcrn nation-sIaIcs havc subscribcdIoandcontribuIcdIothc
idca thaIlcgitimaIc poliIics musIbc thc ouIgrowIh o|naIural a|hniIics o|
somc sorI. hus, cvcn as many naIion-sIaIcs cntcra crisis o|lcgiIimation
and |acc Ihc dcmands o| migranI groups, Ihcywork wiIhin a lcgacy in
whichnaIionalscl|-rulcmusIrcsIonsomcsorto|traditiono|naturala|hn-
iIy. Sccond, Ihcspccihcpro|ccts ,howcvcr succcss|ul) o|Ihcmodcrn na-
Iion-sIaIc, ranging|rom sanitaIiontothcccnsus, |rom |amilyplanningto
discasc conIrol, and |rom immigraIion conIrol Io languagc policy, havc
IicdconcrcIc bodily pracIiccs ,spccch, clcanlincss, movcmcnI, hcalIh) to
|otj:-sco|: groupidcntiIics,thusincrcasingIhcpotcntialscopco|cmbodicd
cxpcricnccso|group a|hnity. inally,whcIhcrindcmocraIicornondcmo-
craticstatcscIups, Ihc languagc o|righIs andcntitlcmcntmorc gcncrally
hasbccomcincxIricablylinkcdtothcsclargc-scalcidcnIiIics.odays cIh
nicpro|ccIsarcincrcasinglydchncdbyIhcscthrcc|caturcs o|IhcculIurc
o| thc modcrn naIion-staIc. Ethnic groups may imaginc Ihcir|uIurcs, but
cvcn hcrc ,as wiIh larxs obscrvaIions abouI mcn making Ihcir hisIory)
Ihcymaynotdo|ustasIhcyplcasc.Asstatcs losc thcirmonopolyovcrIhc
idcao|naIion,iIisundcrsIandablc IhaI all sorIs o|groups will Icndtousc
Ihclogic o|Ihc naIion Iocapturcsomcorallo|Ihcstatc, orsomcorallo|
thcir cntitlcmcnts |rom Ihc sIaIc. his logic hnds its maximum powcrIo
mobilizcwhcrcthcbodymcctsthcstatc, that is, inIhoscpro|cctsIhatwc
call cIhnicand o|Icn misrccognizcasaIavistic.
L | } : o } t : P | e J | | | s
I 57 =
O
8fl0lSm 800 S |uuf6S
Wc nccdIoIhinkoursclvcsbcyondIhcnaIion. ' hisisnoIIosuggcsIIhaI
IhoughIalonc will carryusbcyondIhc naIion orIhaIIhc naIion islargcly
aIhoughIoranimagincdIhing. KaIhcr, iIisIosuggcsIIhaIIhcrolco|in-
IcllccIual pracIiccs is Io idcnIi|y Ihc currcnI crisis o|Ihc naIion and i n
idcnIi|ying iI Io providc parI o| Ihc apparaIus o| rccogniIion |or posI-
naIionalsocial|orms.AlIhoughIhcidcaIhaIwcarccnIcringaposInaIional
worldsccms Io havcrcccivcdiIs hrsIairingsi nl iIcrarysIudics, iIisnowa
rccurrcnI (i |unscl|conscious) Ihcmc in sIudics o| posIcolonialism, global
poliIics, and inIcrnaIional wcl |arc pol icy. buI mosIwriIcrs who havc as-
scrIcd or implicd IhaI wc nccd Io Ihink posInaIionally havc noI askcd
cxacIly whaI cmcrgcnI social |orms compcl us Io do so, or in whaIway.
hislaIIcrIask is Ihc principal |ocuso| IhischapIcr.
estJiscs|o: Ce|er|ts
orIhosc o|uswho grcwup malc in Ihc cliIcsccIors o|IhcposIcolonial
world, naIionalism was ourcommon scnsc andIhc principal|usIihcaIion
|orourambiIions, oursIraIcgics, andourscnsco|moralwcll-bcing. ow,
almosI hal| a ccnIury a|Icr indcpcndcncc was achicvcd |or many o| Ihc
ncw naIions, Ihc naIion |orm is undcr atIack, and IhaI, Ioo, |rom many
I 5 8
poinIso|vicw. AsIhc idcological alibi o|IhcIcrriIorial sIaIc, iI is Ihc lasI
rc|ugc o|cIhnic IoIaliIarianism. ln imporIanIcriIiqucso|Ihc posIcolony
(lbcmbc I 992) , iIs discourscshavcbccn shownIobc dccplyimplicaIcd
i nIhc discourscs o|colonialismiIscl|. Ihas |rcqucnIlybccn avchiclc|or
Ihc sIagcdscl|- doubIs o|Ihc hcrocso|Ihc ncw naIions-Sukarno, )omo
KcnyaIIa,)awaharlal chru, LamalAbdcl asscr-who hddlcdwiIh na-
Iionalism whilc Ihc public sphcrcs o| Ihcir socicIics wcrc bcginning Io
burn.So, |orposIcolonialinIcllccIualssuchasmyscl|,IhcqucsIionis, docs
paIrioIismhavca |uIurc AndIo whaIraccsandgcndcrs shall IhaI |uIurc
bclong
o answcrIhisqucsIionrcquircsnoI|usIancngagcmcnIwiIhIhcprob-
lcma Iics o| Ihc naIion |orm, Ihc imagincd community (Andcrson I 99 I ) ,
IhcproducIiono|pcoplc(balibarI 99 I ) ,IhcnarraIiviIyo|naIions(bhabha
I 990) , andIhccoloniallogicso|naIionalisIdiscoursc( LhaIIcr|cc I 98) . I
also rcquircs a closc cxaminaIion o|Ihc discourscs o|Ihc sIaIc and Ihc
discourscs IhaIarcconIaincdwiIhin IhchyphcnIhaIlinksnaIion IosIaIc
(chap. 2, lbcmbc cI al. I 992) . WhaI|ollowsisancxploraIion o|onc di-
mcnsion o|Ihishyphcn.
hcrc is a disIurbingIcndcncy in Ihc WcsIcrn acadcmy Ioday Io di-
vorcc Ihc sIudy o|discursivc |orms |romIhc sIudy o|oIhcrinsIiIuIional
|orms,andIhcsIudyo|liIcrarydiscourscs|romIhcmundancdiscourscso|
burcaucracics,armics, privaIc corporaIions, andnonsIaIcsocialorganiza-
Iions.hischapIcrisi nparIaplca|orawidcningo|Ihc hcldo|discoursc
sIudics i|IhcposIcolonyisin parIadiscursivc|ormaIion, iIisalsoIrucIhaI
discursiviIyhas bccomc Ioo cxclusivclyIhc sign andspacc o|Ihc colony
andIhc posIcolonyin conIcmporary culIural sIudics. o widcn Ihc scnsc
o| whaI counIs as discoursc dcmands a corrcsponding widcning o| Ihc
sphcrc o|Ihc posIcolony, Io cxIcndiIbcyondIhc gcographical spaccs o|
Ihc|ormcrcolonialworld. nraisngIhcissuco|Ihcjestrot|ero|, will sug-
gcsIIhaIIhc| ourncy|romIhcspacco|Ihc|ormcrcolony (acolor|ulspacc,
a spacco|color) Io Ihcspacco|thcposIcolonyisa|ourncyIhaIIakcsus
inIoIhchcarIo|whiIcncss. Imovcsus,IhaI is, IoAmcrica, aposInaIional
spaccmarkcdby iIswhiIcncssbuImarkcdIoo by iIsuncasy cngagcmcnI
wiIhdiasporic pcoplcs, mobilc Icchnologics, andquccrnaIionaliIics.
T|t Tejt e] t|t T|lt
n spiIc o|allIhccvidcnccIoIhcconIrary, Ihcsc archardIimcs|orpaIrio-
Iism. laimcdbodicsandbarbcdwirc i nLasIcrnLuropc,xcnophobicvio-
lcnccinlrancc,lIagwavingi nIhcpoliIicalriIualso|IhcclccIionycarhcrc
Pt :e t :s J l t s F t +s
>
I 59
>
in thc Lnitcd Statcs-all sccm to suggcst that thc wil l ingncss to dic |or
oncs country is still a global |ashion. but patriotism is an unstablc scnti-
mcnt,whichthrivcsonlyatthclcvcloIthcnation-statc.bclowthatlcvclit
is casily supplantcdby morc intimatc loyaltics, abovc thatlcvcl it givcs
way to cmpty slogans rarcly backcd by thc will to sacrihcc or kill. So,
whcnthinkingaboutthc|uturco|patriotism,itisncccssary hrsttoinquirc
intothc hcalth o|thcnation- statc.
lydoubtsabout patriotism ,patria-tism)arcticdup withmy|athcrs
biography, in which patriotism and nationalism wcrc alrcady divcrging
tcrms. Asa warcorrcspondcnt |orKcutcrsin bangkok in I 940, hcmctan
cxpatriatcndiannationalist,SubhasLhandrabosc,whosplitwithLandhi
andchruonthcissuco|violcncc. boschadcscapcd|rombritishsurvcil-
lancc in ndia, withthcactivcsupport o|thc)apancsc, andcstablishcda
govcrnmcnt-in-cxilc in SouthcastAsia. hc army that bosc |ormcd |rom
l ndian o|hccrs and cnlistcd mcn whom thc )apancsc had takcn prisoncr
callcditscl|thc ndian ational Army. his ndian Armywasroundly dc
|catcdby thc british ndian Armyin Assam (on ndian soil , as my |athcr
ncvcr tircd o| noting) in I 944, and thc provisional govcrnmcnt o| Azad
lind(rccndia, inwhichmy|athcrwasministcro|publicityandpropa-
gandasooncrumblcdwiththcdc|cato|thcAxispowcrs.
Whcn my |athcr rcturncd to ndia in I 945, hc and his comradcswcrc
unwclcomchcrocs, poorcousinsin thcstoryo|thc nationaliststrugglc |or
lndianindcpcndcncc.hcywcrcpatriots,butboscsanti -britishscntimcnt
andhis links with thc Axis powcrs madc him an cmbarrassmcnt both to
Landhisnonviolcnccandchrus abian Anglophilia.o thc cndo|thcir
livcs, my|athcrandhiscomradcsrcmaincdpariahpatriots,roguc nation
alists. ly sistcr, brothcrs, and grcw up inbombaywcdgcdbctwccn |or-
mcr patriotism, bosc-stylc, and bourgcois nationalism, chru-stylc. Lur
ndia, with its )apancsc conncctions and anti-Wcstcrn ways, carricd thc
namclcss aroma o|trcason, in rcspcct to thc cozy alliancc o|thc chrus
and lountbattcns, and thc bourgcois compact bctwccn Landhian non
violcncc andchruvian socialism. ly |athcrs distrust o| thc chru dy-
nastyprcdisposcdustoimagincastrangc,dctcrritorializcdlndia,invcntcd
inaiwan andSingaporc, bangkok andualaLumpur, quitc indcpcndcnt
o|cwLclhiandthcchrus,thcLongrcsslartyandmainstrcamnation-
alisms. So,thcrcisa spccial appcal|ormci nthc possibilitythatthcmar-
riagc bctwccn nations and statcs was always a marriagc o|convcnicncc
andthatpatriotismnccdsto hndncwob]cctso|dcsirc.
Lncma]or|actthataccounts|orstrainsi nthcuniono|nationandstatc
isthatthcnationaistgcnic, ncvcrpcr|cctlycontaincdin thcbottlc o|thc
P o t xt s o J l t s F t +s
= I 0
tcrritorial statc, is nov itscll diasporic Larricd in thc rcpcrtoircs ol
incrcasingly mobilc populations ol rclugccs, tourists, gucst vorkcrs, trans-
national intcllcctuals, scicntists, and i llcgal alicns, it is incrcasingly unrc-
straincd by idcas ol spatial boundary and tcrritorial sovcrcignty. Jhis rcvo-
lution in thc loundations ol nationalism has crcpt up on us virtually
unnoticcd. Whcrc soil and placc vcrc oncc thc kcy to thc l inkagc ol tcrri -
torial alhliation vith statc monopoly ol thc mcans ol violcncc, kcy idcnti-
tics and idcntihcations nov only partially rcvolvc around thc rcal itics and
imagcs ol placc. l n thc Sikh dcmand lor lhalistan, i n rcnch-Lanadian
lcclings about ucbcc, i n lalcstinian dcmands lor scll-dctcrmination, im-
agcs ol a homcland arc only part ol thc rhctoric ol popular sovcrcignty
and do not ncccssarily rcl|cct a tcrritorial bottom l inc. Jhc violcncc and
tcrror surrounding thc brcakdovn ol many cxisting nation- statcs arc not
signs ol rcvcrsion to anything biological or innatc, dark or primordial
(Lomaroll and Lomaroll I 2b). What thcn arc vc to makc ol this rc-
ncvcd blood lust i n thc namc ol thc nation
Nodcrn nationalisms involvc communitics ol citizcns i n thc tcrritori-
ally dchncd nation- statc vho sharc thc collcctivc cxpcricncc, not ol lacc-
to- lacc contact or common subordi nation to a royal pcrson, but ol rcading
books, pamphlcts, ncvspapcrs, maps, and othcr modcrn tcxts togcthcr
(labcrmas I 8, Lalhoun l 2). ln and through thcsc collcctivc cxpcri-
cnccs ol vhat bcncdict Andcrson , I l ) calls print capitalism and vhat
othcrs incrcasingly scc as clcctronic capitalism,' such as tclcvision and
cincma (Warncr I 2, Lcc I 3) , citizcns |o|r: thcmsclvcs to bclong to
a national socicty. Jhc modcrn nati on-statc i n this vicv grovs lcss out ol
natural lactssuch as languagc, blood, soi l , and racc-and morc out ol a
quintcsscntial cultural product, a product ol thc collcctivc imagination.
Jhis vicv distanccs itscll, but not quitc cnough, lrom thc dominant thco-
rics ol nationalism, lrom thosc ol ) L. lcrdcr and Luiscppc Nazzini and
sincc thcn lrom al l sorts ol right-ving nationalists, vho scc nations as
products ol thc natural dcstinics ol pcoplcs, vhcthcr rootcd in languagc,
racc, soil , or rcligion. ln many ol thcsc thcorics ol thc nation as imagincd,
thcrc i s alvays a suggcstion that blood, kinship, racc, and soil arc somc-
hov lcss imagincd and morc natural than thc imagination ol collcctivc i n-
tcrcst or solidarity. Jhc tropc ol thc tribc rcactivatcs thi s hi ddcn biologism
largcly bccausc lorcclul altcrnativcs to it havc yct to bc articulatcd. Jhc
historical con]uncturcs conccrning rcading and publicity, tcxts and thcir
l inguistic mcdiations, nations and thcir narrativcs arc only nov bcing ]ux-
taposcd to lormulatc thc spccial and spccihc diacritics ol thc national
imaginary and its public sphcrcs ,Lcc I 3) .
P o i t | e i | s o r J I i s ! i r : s
I I
hc cadcrs ol thc ncv nations that vcrc lormcd in Asia and Alrica
altcr Word War lllasscr, lchru, Sukarnovoud havc bccn distrcsscd
to scc thc lrcqucncy vith vhich thc idcas ol tribaIism and nationaIism arc
conlatcd in rcccnt pubic discoursc in thc Wcst. hcsc cadcrs spcnt a
grcat dcal ol thcir rhctorical cncrgics in urging thcir sub]ccts to givc up
vhat thcy sav as primordia oyaticsto lamiy, tribc, castc, and rc-
gionin thc intcrcsts ol thc lragic abstractions thcy callcd lgypt,
lndia, and lndoncsia. hcy undcrstood that thc ncv nations nccdcd to
subvcrt and anncx thc primary oyatics attachcd to morc intimatc collcc-
tivitics. hcy rcstcd thcir idcas ol thcir ncv nations on thc vcry cdgcs ol
thc paradox that modcrn nations vcrc i ntcndcd to bc somchov opcn, uni-
vcrsa, and cmanci patory by virtuc ol thcir spccial commitmcnt to citi-
zcny virtuc but that t|:| nations vcrc noncthccss, i n somc csscntial vay,
dillcrcnt lrom and cvcn bcttcr than othcr nations. ln many vays thcsc
lcadcrs kncv vhat vc havc tcndcd to lorgct, namcy, that nations, cspc-
cialy i n muti cthnic scttings, arc tcnuous cocctivc pro]ccts, not ctcrna
natura lacts. 1ct thcy too hcpcd to crcatc a lasc dividc bctvccn thc arti -
hciality ol thc nation and thosc lacts thcy lascy pro]cctcd as primordia-
tribc, lamiy, rcgi on.
l n its prcoccupation vi th thc controI, cassihcation, and survcillancc ol
its sub]ccts, thc nati on-statc has oltcn crcatcd, rcvitaizcd, or lracturcd
cthnic idcntitics that vcrc prcviousy llui d, ncgotiabc, or nasccnt. Cl
coursc, thc tcrms uscd to mobiizc cthnic viocncc today may havc ong
historics. but thc rca itics to vhich thcy rclcr-Scrbo-Lroatian anguagc,
basquc customs, Lithuanian cuisincvcrc most oltcn crystallizcd in thc
ninctccnth and cary tvcnticth ccnturics. lationaism and cthnicity thus
lccd cach othcr, as nationaists construct cthnic catcgorics that in turn
drivc othcrs to construct countcrcthnicitics, and thcn i n timcs ol poitica
crisis thcsc othcrs dcmand countcrstatcs bascd on ncvlound countcrna-
tionalisms. or cvcry nationaism that appcars to bc naturally dcstincd,
thcrc i s anothcr that is a rcactivc byproduct.
Whic viocncc i n thc namc ol Scrbs and Nouccans, lhmcr and Lat-
vians, Lcrmans and )cvs tcmpts us to think that all such idcntitics run dark
and dccp, vc nccd ony turn to thc rcccnt riots in lndia occasioncd by thc
rcport ol a govcrnmcnt commission that rccommcndcd rcscrving a largc
pcrccntagc ol govcrnmcnt ]obs lor ccrtain castcs dchncd by thc ccnsus and
thc constitution as backvard Kioting and carnagc, and not a lcv kiings
and suicidcs, took pacc i n lorth lndia ovcr such abcls as othcr backvard
castc, vhich comc out ol thc tcrminologica distinctions ol thc lndian
ccnsus and its spcciaizcd protocos and schcducs. lov astonishing i t
P: :o ::s r J l :s F : +s
I 2
sccms that anyonc vould dic or kill lor cntitlcmcnts associatcd vith bcing
thc mcmbcr ol an othcr backvard castc. !ct this casc i s not an cxccption
i n its macabrc burcaucratic banality it shovs hov thc tcchnicaI nccds ol
ccnsuscs and vcl larc lcgislation, combincd vi th thc cynical tactics ol clcc-
toral politics, can drav groups into quasi-racial idcntihcations and lcars.
Jhc mattcr is not so di llcrcnt as it may appcar lor such apparcntly natural
labcls as )cv, Arab, Lcrman, and lindu, cach ol vhich involvcs pcoplc
vho choosc thcsc labcls, othcrs vho arc lorccd into thcm, and yct othcrs
vho through thcir philological scholarship shorc up thc historics ol thcsc
namcs or hnd thcm handy vays ol tidying up mcssy problcms ol l anguagc
and history, racc and bclicl. Cl coursc, not all nation statc policics arc
hcgcmonic, nor arc all subaltcrn lorms ol agcncy impotcnt to rcsist thcsc
prcssurcs and scductions. but it docs sccm lair to say that thcrc arc lcv
lorms ol popular consciousncss and subaltcrn agcncy that arc, in rcgard to
cthnic mobilization, lrcc ol thc thought lorms and political hclds pro-
duccd by thc actions and discourscs ol nation-statcs.
hus, minoritics i n many parts ol thc vorld arc as artihcial as thc ma-
]oritics thcy arc sccn to thrcatcn. Whitcs i n thc Lnitcd Statcs, li ndus i n
lndia, lnglishmcn i n Lrcat britainall arc cxamplcs ol hov thc political
and admi nistrativc dcsignation ol somc groups as minoritics (blacks and
lispanics i n thc Lnitcd Statcs, Lclts and lakistanis i n thc Lnitcd ling-
dom, Nuslims and Lhristians i n lndia) hclps to pull ma]oritics (silcnt or
vocal) togcthcr undcr labcls vith short l ivcs but long historics. Jhc ncv
cthnicitics arc oltcn no oldcr than thc nation-statcs that thcy havc comc to
rcsist. Jhc Nuslims ol bosnia arc bcing rcluctantly ghcttoizcd although
thcrc i s lcar among both Scrbians and Lroats ol thc possibility ol an
lslamic statc in luropc. Ni noritics arc as oltcn madc as thcy arc born.
Kcccnt cthnic movcmcnts oltcn involvc thousands, somctimcs mil lions
ol pcoplc vho arc sprcad across vast tcrritorics and oltcn scparatcd by vast
distanccs. Whcthcr vc considcr thc l inkagc ol Scrbs dividcd by l argc
chunks ol bosnia lcrzcgovina, or lurds dispcrscd across lran, lraq, and
Jurkcy, or Sikhs sprcad through London, Vancouvcr, and Lalilornia, as
vcll as thc lndian lun]ab, thc ncv cthnonationalisms arc complcx, largc-
scalc, highly coordinatcd acts ol mobilization, rcliant on ncvs, logistical
llovs, and propaganda across statc bordcrs. Jhcy can hardly bc consid-
crcd tribal, i l by this vc mcan that thcy arc spontancous uprisings ol
closcly bondcd, spatially scgrcgatcd, naturally allicd groupings. ln thc casc
vc hnd most lrightcning today, vhat could bc callcd Scrbian tribalism is
hardly a simplc thing givcn that thcrc arc at lcast 2. 8mi l l i on !ugoslav lam-
ilics vho havc produccd about I . 4mi l l i on mixcd marriagcs bctvccn Scrbs
P t e t s J l t s F t : .
I 3
and Lroats , lobsbavm l 2) . o vhich tribc could thcsc lamilics bc said
to bclong ln our horrihcd prcoccupation vith thc shock troops ol cthno-
nationalism, vc havc lost sight ol thc con|uscd scntimcnts ol civilians, thc
torn loyaltics ol lamilics that havc mcmbcrs ol varring groups vithin thc
samc houschold, and thc urgings ol thosc vho hold to thc vicv that Scrbs,
Nuslims, and Lroats i n bosnia- lcrzcgovina havc no lundamcntal cnmity.
lt is hardcr to cxplain hov principlcs ol cthnic alhliation, hovcvcr dubious
thcir provcnancc and lragil c thcir pcdigrcc, can vcry rapidly mobilizc l argc
groups into violcnt action.
What docs sccm clcar i s that thc tribal modcl, i nsolar as i t suggcsts
prcpackagcd passions vaiting to cxplodc, l|ics in thc lacc ol thc contingcn-
cics that spark cthnic passion. hc Sikhs, until rcccntly thc bulvark ol thc
lndian army and hi storically thc hghting arm ol li ndu lndia against Nus-
lim rulc, today rcgard thcmsclvcs as thrcatcncd by li nduism and sccm
villing to acccpt aid and succor lrom lakistan. hc Nuslims ol bosnia-
lcrzcgovina havc bccn lorccd rcluctantly to rcvitalizc thcir lslamic alhlia-
tions. ar lrom activating long-standing tribal scntimcnts, bosnian Nuslims
arc torn bctvccn thcir ovn conccption ol thcmsclvcs as ej:or Ms||s ,a
tcrm rcccntly uscd by l]ub Lanic, vicc prcsidcnt ol bosnia) and thc vicv
that thcy arc part ol a transnational lslam, vhich i s alrcady activcly i n-
volvcd i n bosnian varlarc. Wcalthy bosnians vho l ivc abroad i n countrics
such as urkcy arc alrcady buying vcapons lor thc dclcnsc ol Nuslims i n
bosnia. o lrcc us lrom thc tropc ol thc tribc, as thc primordial sourcc ol
thosc nationalisms that vc hnd l css civic than our ovn i n thc Lnitcd
Statcs, vc nccd to construct a thcory ol l argcscalc cthnic mobilization
that cxplicitly rccognizcs and intcrprcts its postnational propcrtics.
estrotiero| leotiers
Nany rcccnt and violcnt cthnonationalisms arc not so much cxplosivc as
implosivc. hat i s, rathcr than bcing rootcd i n somc primordial substratc
ol allcct dccp vithin cach ol us that is brought up and out into vidcr sorts
ol social cngagcmcnt and group action, thc rcvcrsc i s oltcn thc casc. hc
cllccts ol largc-scalc i ntcractions bctvccn and vithin nation-statcs, oltcn
stimulatcd by ncvs ol cvcnts i n cvcn morc distant locations, scrvc to cas-
cadc , Koscnau I 0) through thc complcxitics ol rcgional, local, and
ncighborhood politics until thcy cncrgizc local issucs and implodc into
various lorms ol violcncc, including thc most brutal oncs. What vcrc prc-
viously cee| cthnic idcntitics ,Sikh and li ndu, Armcnian and Azcrbai]ani ,
Scrb and Lroat) thus turn |et, as localitics implodc undcr thc prcssurc ol
P t | o : | s n J l:s F : : s
I 4
cvcnts and proccsscs distant in spacc and timc lrom thc sitc ol thc implo-
sion. Among bosnias Nuslims it is possiblc to vatch thc tcmpcraturc ol
thcsc idcntitics changc bclorc our vcry cycs as thcy hnd thcmsclvcs
pushcd avay lrom a sccular, luropcanist idca ol thcmsclvcs into a morc
lundamcntalist posturc. Jhcy arc bcing pushcd not only by thc thrcats to
thcir survival lrom Scrbs but also by prcssurc lrom thcir lcllov Nuslims in
Saudi Arabia, lgypt, and Sudan, vho suggcst that bosnian Nuslims arc
nov paying thc pricc lor playing dovn thcir lslamic idcntity undcr Lom-
munist rul c. bosnian Nuslim l cadcrs havc bcgun to cxplicitly statc that il
thcy do not rcccivc hclp quickly lrom thc Wcstcrn povcrs, thcy might
havc to turn to lalcstinian modcls ol tcrror and cxtrcmism.
Cnc important vay to account lor thosc cascs in vhich cool idcntitics
turn hot and implosions lrom onc placc gcncratc cxplosions i n othcrs i s to
rcmi nd oursclvcs that thc nation-statc i s by no mcans thc only gamc in
tovn as lar as translocal loyaltics arc conccrncd. Jhc violcncc that sur-
rounds idcntity politics around thc vorld today rcllccts thc anxictics at-
tcndant on thc scarch lor nontcrritorial principlcs ol solidarity. Jhc movc-
mcnts vc nov scc in Scrbia and Sri Lanka, Nountain larabakh and
lamibia, lun]ab and ucbcc arc vhat might bc callcd "tro]an nation-
alisms. Such nationalisms actually contain transnational, subnational l inks
and, morc gcncrally, non national idcntitics and aspirations. bccausc thcy
arc so oltcn thc product ol lorccd as vcll as voluntary diasporas, ol mobilc
intcllcctuals as vcll as manual vorkcrs, ol dialogucs vith hostilc as vcll as
hospitablc statcs, vcry lcv ol thc ncv nationalisms can bc scparatcd lrom
thc anguish ol displaccmcnt, thc nostalgia ol cxil c, thc rcpatriation ol
lunds, or thc brutal i tics ol asylum sccking. laitians i n Niami, Jamils in
boston, Noroccans i n rancc, Noluccans i n lolland arc thc carricrs ol
thcsc ncv transnational and postnational loyaltics.
Jcrritorial nationalism i s thc alibi ol thcsc movcmcnts and not ncccs-
sarily thcir basic motivc or hnal goal . l n contrast, thcsc basic motivcs and
goals can bc lar darkcr than anything having to do vith national sovcr-
cignty, as vhcn thcy sccm drivcn by thc motivcs ol cthnic puri hcation and
gcnocidc, thus, Scrbian nationalism sccms to opcratc on thc lcar and ha-
trcd ol its cthnic Cthcrs lar morc than on thc scnsc ol a sacrcd tcrritorial
patrimony. Cr thcy can bc simply idioms and symbols around vhich many
groups comc to articulatc thcir dcsirc to cscapc thc spccihc statc rcgimc
that i s sccn as thrcatcning thcir ovn survival . lalcstinians arc morc vor-
ricd about gctting lsracl oll thcir backs than about thc spccial gcographi -
cal magic ol thc Wcst bank.
Whilc thcrc arc many scparatist movcmcnts i n thc vorld todaythc
Pt :x t :s J l t s ! t : s
I 5
basqucs, thc Jami l s, thc ucbccois, thc Scrbs-that sccm dctcrmincd to
lock nationhood and statchood togcthcr undcr a singlc cthnic rubric,
morc imprcssivc stil l arc thc many opprcsscd minoritics vho havc su||crcd
displaccmcnt and |orccd diaspora vithout articulating a strong vish |or a
nation-statc o| thcir ovn. Armcnians in Jurkcy, lutu rc|ugccs |rom bu-
rundi vho livc i n urban Janzania, and lashmiri lindus i n cxilc i n Lclhi
arc a |cv cxamplcs o| hov displaccmcnt docs not alvays gcncratc thc |an-
tasy o| statc building. Although many antistatc movcmcnts rcvolvc around
imagcs o| homcland, soil, placc, and rcturn |rom cxil c, thcsc imagcs rc|lcct
thc povcrty o| thcir ,and our) political languagcs rathcr than thc hcgcmony
o| tcrritorial nationalism. lut anothcr vay, no idiom has yct cmcrgcd to
capturc thc collcctivc intcrcsts o| many groups in translocal solidaritics,
cross-bordcr mobilizations, and postnational idcntitics. Such intcrcsts arc
many and vocal, but thcy arc still cntrappcd in thc l i nguistic imaginary o|
thc tcrritorial statc. Jhi s incapacity o| many dctcrritorializcd groups to
think thcir vay out o| thc imaginary o| thc nation-statc i s itscl| thc causc
o| much global violcncc bccausc many movcmcnts o| cmancipation and
idcntity arc |orccd, i n thcir strugglcs against cxisting nation-statcs, to cm-
bracc thc vcry imaginary thcy scck to cscapc. lostnational or non national
movcmcnts arc |orccd by thc vcry logic o| actually cxisting nation-statcs
to bccomc anti national or antistatc and thus to inspirc thc vcry statc povcr
that |orccs thcm to rcspond i n thc languagc o| countcrnationalism. his
vicious circlc can only bc cscapcd vhcn a languagc i s |ound to capturc
complcx, nontcrritorial, postnational |orms o| allcgiancc.
Nuch has bccn said i n rcccnt ycars about thc spccd vith vhich i n|or-
mation travcl s around thc vorld, thc intcnsity vith vhich thc ncvs o| onc
city |lashcs on thc tclcvision scrccns o| anothcr, o| hov moncy manipula-
tions i n onc stock cxchangc a||cct hnancc ministrics a contincnt avay.
Nuch has bccn said, too, about thc nccd to attack global problcms, such as
AILS, pollution, and tcrrorism, vith conccrtcd |orms o| intcrnational action.
Jhc dcmocracy vavc and thc AILS pandcmic arc to somc cxtcnt causcd by
thc samc kinds o| intcrsocictal contact and transnational human tra|hc.
rom thc pcrspcctivc o| thc Lold War, thc vorld may havc bccomc
unipol ar. but i t has also bccomc |t|c:rt|c, to usc |amcs Koscnaus tcrm
, I 0). Adapting mctaphors |rom chaos thcory, Koscnau has shovn hov
thc lcgitimacy o| nation- statcs has stcadily vcakcncd, hov i ntcrnational
and transnational organizations o| cvcry typc havc proli |cratcd, and hov
local politics and global proccss a||cct cach othcr i n chaotic but not un-
prcdictablc vays, o|tcn outsidc thc i ntcractions o| nation statcs.
Jo apprcciatc thcsc complcxitics, vc nccd to do morc than vhat social
P: :e t . + o J l t s ! t t : s
I =
scicntists ikc to call comparison, putting onc country or cuturc ncxt to
anothcr as il thcy vcrc as i ndcpcndcnt in i lc as i n thought Wc nccd to
takc a lrcsh ook at a varicty ol organizations, movcmcnts, idcologics, and
nctvorks ol vhich thc traditiona mutinationa corporation is only onc
cxamplc. Lonsidcr such transnationa philanthropic movcmcnts as labitat
lor lumanity (vhosc vountccrs scck to buid ncv cnvironmcnts vith lc-
lov vountccrs i n larl|ung locations) . Jakc thc various intcrnationa tcr-
rorist organizations, vhich mobiizc mcn ,and somctimcs vomcn) , moncy,
cquipmcnt, training camps, and passion in a bcvildcring crosshatching
ol idcologica and cthnic combinations. Lonsidcr intcrnational lashion,
vhich i s not |ust a mattcr ol globa markcts and crossnationa- stylc canni -
bal i sm but i s incrcasingly a mattcr ol systcmatic transnational asscmbagcs
ol production, tastc translcr, pricing, and cxhibition. Jakc thc varicty ol
Lrccn movcmcnts that havc bcgun to organizc thcmscvcs transnationaly
around spccihc sorts ol biopolitics. Lonsidcr thc vorld ol rclugccs. or
ong vc havc takcn rc|ugcc issucs and organizations to bc part ol thc l|ot-
sam and |ctsam ol poitical l i lc, l|oating bctvccn thc ccrtaintics and stabii-
tics ol nation-statcs. What vc cannot scc thcrclorc is that rclugcc camps,
rclugcc burcaucracics, rclugcc-rclicl movcmcnts, rc|ugccoricntcd dcpart-
mcnts ol nationstatcs, and rclugcc-oricntcd transnational phianthropics
al constitutc onc part ol thc j:or:rt lramcvork ol thc cmcrgcnt, post-
nationa ordcr. Anothcr cxcclcnt cxamplc, coscr to homc pcrhaps, i s thc
argc numbcr ol organizations, movcmcnts, and nctvorks ol Lhristian
philanthropy, such as Word Vision, that havc ong blurrcd thc boundarics
bctvccn cvangcl ical , dcvclopmcnta, and pcacckccping lunctions i n many
parts ol thc vorld. lcrhaps thc bcst studicd ol thcsc cxampcs i s thc
Clympic movcmcnt, ccrtainly thc l argcst modcrn instancc ol a movcmcnt
born i n thc contcxt ol luropcan conccrns vith vorld pcacc in thc lattcr
part ol thc ninctccnth ccntury. Jhis movcmcnt, vith its spccia lorm ol
diacctical pay bctvccn national and transnational acgianccs ,NacAoon
I 8 I , lang, NacAoon, and LaNatta l 88) rcprcscnts ony thc most
spcctacular among a scrics ol sitcs and lormations on vhich thc unccrtain
luturc ol thc nation-statc vill turn.
ln al thcsc cascs, vhat vc arc looking at arc not ]ust intcrnaiiona so-
gans, or intcrcst groups, or imagc translcrs. Wc arc looking at thc birth ol
a varicty ol compcx, postnational socia lormations. Jhcsc lormations arc
nov organizcd around principlcs ol hnancc, rccruitmcnt, coordi nation,
communication, and rcproduction that arc |undamcntaly postnational and
not |ust mutinationa or intcrnationa . Jhc cassic modcrn mutinational
corporation is a slighty mislcading cxampc ol vhat is most important
P o t i e t | s o J l t s F t : s
| 7 =
about thcsc ncv |orms prcciscy bccausc it rcics cruciay on thc cga,
hsca, cnvironmcnta, and human organization o| thc nation- statc, vhic
maximizing thc possibiitics o| opcrating both vithin and across nationa
structurcs, avays cxpoiting thcir lcgitimacy. Jhc ncv organizationa
|orms arc morc divcrsc, morc lluid, morc ad hoc, morc provisiona, css
cohcrcnt, css organizcd, and simpy css impicatcd in thc comparativc
advantagcs o| thc nation-statc. Nany o| thcm arc cxpicity constitutcd to
monitor thc activitics o| thc nation-statc. Amncsty l ntcrnationa is an cx-
cccnt cxampc. Cthcrs, argcy associatcd vith thc Lnitcd lations, vork
to contain thc cxccsscs o| nation-statcs, |or cxampc, by assisting rc|ugccs,
monitoring pcacc-kccping arrangcmcnts, organizing rcic| in |amincs, and
doing thc ungamorous vork associatcd vith occans and tari||s, intcr-
nationa hcath and abor.
1ct othcrs, ikc Cx|am, arc cxampcs o| goba organizations that vork
outsidc thc quasi-o|hcia Lnitcd lations nctvork and rcy on thc grovth
o| nongovcrnmcnta organizations (|COs) in many parts o| thc dcvcop-
ing vord. Jhcsc NCOs, vhich opcratc i n a host o| arcas ranging |rom
tcchnoogy and thc cnvironmcnt to hcalth and thc arts, grcv |rom css
than tvo hundrcd i n I 0 to morc than tvo thousand i n thc cary I 70s.
Jhcy o|tcn constitutc ma]or grassroots organi zations |or sc|-hcp that
grov out o| and contributc to a scnsc o| thc imitcd capabiity o| nationa
govcrnmcnts to dcivcr thc basics o| i |c i n such socictics as lndia.
Sti othcr organizations, vhich vc o|tcn ca |undamcntaist, such as
thc Nusim brothcrhood in thc Niddc last, thc Lnihcation Lhurch, and
any numbcr o| Lhristian, li ndu, and Nusim organizations, constitutc
|u-scrvicc goba movcmcnts that scck to acviatc su||cring across na-
tiona boundarics vhic mobi i zi ng hrst-ordcr oyatics across statc bound-
arics. Somc o| thcsc cvangcica movcmcnts (such as thc radica li ndu
group knovn as thc Ananda Narg, vhich has bccn hcd rcsponsibc |or
thc assassination o| lndian dipomats abroad) arc aggrcssivcy opposcd to
spccihc nation-statcs and arc lrcqucnty trcatcd as scditious. Cthcrs, such
as thc Lnihcation Lhurch, simpy vork thcir vay around thc nation-statc
vithout dirccty qucstioni ng its ]urisdiction. Such cxampcs, vhich vc sti
tcnd to scc as cxccptiona or pariah organizationa |orms, arc both in-
stanccs and i ncubators o| a postnationa goba ordcr.
T|t Htot e] h|ittrtss
Jhc tcrm jestrot|ero|, so |ar uscd vithout commcnt, has scvcra impica-
tions that can nov bc morc coscy cxamincd. Jhc hrst is tcmpora and his-
P: | e : | s u J l:s ! : : s
= I 8
torical and suggcsts that vc arc in thc proccss o| moving to a global ordcr
in vhich thc nation-statc has bccomc obsolctc and othcr |ormations |or al -
lcgiancc and idcntity havc takcn i ts pl acc. Jhc sccond is thc idca that vhat
arc cmcrging arc strong altcrnativc |orms |or thc organization o| global
tra|hc i n rcsourccs, imagcs, and idcas|orms that cit!cr contcst thc na-
tion-statc activcly or constitutc pcacc|ul altcrnativcs |or largcscalc politi-
cal loyaltics. Jhc third implication i s thc possibility that, vhilc nations
might continuc to cxist, thc stcady crosion o| thc capabi l i tics o| thc na-
tion-statc to monopolizc loyalty vill cncouragc thc sprcad o| national
|orms that arc l argcly divorccd |rom tcrritorial statcs. Jhcsc arc rclcvant
scnscs o| thc tcrm jestrot|ero', but nonc o| thcm implics that thc nation-
statc i n its classical tcrritorial |orm is as yct out o| busincss. lt i s ccrtainly in
crisis, and part o| thc crisis is an incrcasingly violcnt rclationship bctvccn
thc nation- statc and its postnational Cthcrs.
Jhc Lnitcd Statcs is a particularly salicnt placc i n vhich to considcr
thcsc propositions bccausc, on thc |acc o| it, it has managcd to rctain most
succcss|ully thc i magc o| a national ordcr that i s simultancously civi l ,
plural , and prospcrous. lt appcars to nurturc a vibrant and complcx sct o|
public sphcrcs, including somc that havc bccn cal l cd altcrnativc, par-
ttal , or countcr pubics (bcrant and lrccman ! 992, lrascr | 992, lanscn
I 993, Kobbins I 993, black lublic Sphcrc Lollcctivc I 995) . lt rcmains
cnormously vcalthy by global standards, and although its |orms o| public
violcncc arc many and vorrisomc, its statc apparatus is not gcncrally dc-
pcndcnt on |orms o| torturc, imprisonmcnt, and violcnt rcprcssion. Whcn
this i s addcd to thc |act that multiculturalism in thc Lnitcd Statcs sccms to
takc prcdominantly nonviolcnt |orms, vc appcar to bc |accd vith a grcat,
uncontcstcd povcr that dominatcs thc ncv vorld ordcr, that dravs i n im-
migrants i n thc thousands, and that sccms to bc a triumphant cxamplc o|
thc classic, tcrritorial nation-statc Any argumcnt about thc cmcrgcncc o|
a postnational global ordcr vill havc to cngagc its grcatcst apparcnt |al si h-
cation, thc contcmporary Lnitcd Statcs. Jhi s l ast scction l ays thc ground-
vork |or such an cngagcmcnt.
Lntil a |cv ycars ago, l vas contcnt to livc i n that spccial spacc allottcd
to |orcigncrs, cspccially Anglophonc, cducatcd oncs l ikc myscl|, vith
|aint traccs o| a british acccnt. As a black voman at a bus stop i n Lhicago
oncc said to mc vith approval , l vas an last lndian. Jhat vas i n I 972. but
sincc that happy convcrsation morc than tvo dccadcs ago, it has bccomc
stcadily lcss casy to scc myscl|, armcd vith my lndian passport and my
Anglophonc vays, as somchov immunc |rom thc politics o| racial idcntity
i n thc Lnitcd Statcs . lot only i s it that a|tcr ncarly thrcc dccadcs o| bcing
Pt o t +s J l t s F t : s
I 9 =
a rcsidcnt alicn in thc Lnitcd Statcs, marricd to an Anglo-Saxon Amcrican
voman, thc lathcr ol a bicultural tccnagcr, my lndian passport sccms likc a
rathcr slight badgc ol idcntity. hc nct ol racial politics is nov cast vidcr
than cvcr bclorc on thc strccts ol thc urban Lnitcd Statcs.
Ny ovn complcxion and its rolc in minority politics, as vcll as in strcct
cncountcrs vith racial hatrcd, prompt mc to rcopcn thc l i nks bctvccn
Amcrica and thc Lnitcd Statcs, bctvccn biculturalism and patriotism, bc-
tvccn diasporic idcntitics and thc (i n)stabilitics providcd by passports and
grccn cards. lostnational loyaltics arc not irrclcvant to thc problcm ol di -
vcrsity in thc Lnitcd Statcs. l l, i ndccd, a postnational ordcr is in thc mak-
ing, and Amcricanncss changcs its mcanings, thc vholc problcm ol divcr-
sity in Amcrican l i lc vill havc to bc rcthought. l t i s not ]ust thc lorcc ol
ccrtain dcductions that movcs mc to this rccommcndation. As l oscillatc
bctvccn thc dctachmcnt ol a postcolonial, diasporic, acadcmic idcntity
,taking advantagc ol thc mood ol cxilc and thc spacc ol displaccmcnt) and
thc ugly rcalitics ol bcing racializcd, minoritizcd, and tribalizcd i n my
cvcryday cncountcrs, thcory cncountcrs practicc.
A book rcccntly publishcd by Kandom lousc i s Tl:s Hem koc:, k:|-
|er. orJ |J:rtty D:t:|r: Scc:ss r t|: N:m C|elo| cere, , lotkin I 3) .
Writtcn by }ocl lotkin, an intcrnationally rccognizcd authority on global,
cconomic, political and social trcnds, as thc dust ]ackct boasts, it traccs
thc conncctions bctvccn cthnicity and busincss succcss. lotki ns hvc
tribcs-thc }cvs, thc Lhincsc, thc |apancsc, thc british, and thc l ndians-
arc an odd group, but thcy rcprcscnt primordial ism vith a high-tcch lacc.
hcy arc Nax Wcbcrs pariah capitalists i n latc-tvcnticth-ccntury trans-
national drag. books l ikc this arc rcmindcrs that last lndians arc still a
tribc, as arc thc }cvs and othcrs, vorking thc primordial lodc to makc thcir
vay to global dominancc. So, thc tropc ol thc tribc can turn on its ovn
prcmiscs, and vc can havc vast global tribcs, an imagc that sccks to havc it
both vays, vith primordial intimacy orJ high-tcch stratcgics. lovcvcr di -
asporic vc gct, likc thc }cvs, South Asians arc doomcd to rcmain a tribc,
lorcvcr hxcrs and dcalcrs i n a vorld ol opcn markcts, lair dcals, and oppor-
tunity lor a l .
or thosc ol us vho havc movcd into thc national lantasy , bcrlant
l I ) ol Amcrica lrom thc lormcr colonics, thcrc i s thus thc scductivcncss
ol a plural bclonging, ol bccoming Amcrican vhilc staying somchov dias-
poric, ol an cxpansivc attachmcnt to an unboundcd lantasy spacc. but
vhilc vc can makc our idcntitics, vc cannot do so cxactly as vc plcasc. As
many ol us hnd oursclvcs racializcd, biologizcd, mi noritizcd, somchov rc-
duccd rathcr than cnablcd by our bodics and our historics, our spccial dia-
P t e t s u J I :s F t : s
= I 70 =
critics bccomc our prisons, and thc tropc o| thc tribc scts us o|| |rom an-
othcr, unspccihcd Amcrica, |ar |rom thc clamor o| thc tribc, dccorous,
civil , and vhitc, a land in vhich vc arc not yct vclcomc.
Jhis brings us back to thc pcrvasivc idiom and imagc o| tribalism. Ap-
plicd to lcv 1ork, Ni ami , and Los Angclcs (as opposcd to Sara|cvo,
Sovcto, or Lolombo), thc tropc o| tribalism both conccals and i ndulgcs a
di ||usc racism about thosc Cthcrs ( |or cxamplc, lispanics, lranians, and
A|rican-Amcricans) vho havc insi nuatcd thcmsclvcs into thc Amcrican
body politic. lt allovs us to maintain thc idca o| an Amcricanncss that prc-
ccdcs (and subsists i n spitc o|) thc hyphcns that contributc to i t and to
maintain a distinction bctvccn tribal Amcricans (thc bl ack, thc brovn,
and thc ycllov) and othcr Amcricans. Jhis tropc |aci l i tatcs thc |antasy
that civil socicty i n thc Lnitcd Statcs has a spccial dcstiny i n rcgard to
pcacc|ul multiculturalismi ntclligcnt multiculturalism |or us, bloody cth-
nicity or mi ndlcss tribalism |or thcm.
Jhcrc has dcvclopcd a spccial sct o| l i nks bctvccn dcmocracy, divcr-
sity, and prospcrity i n Amcrican social thought. built on a complcx dia-
l oguc bctvccn political scicncc (thc only gcnuinc madc-i n-Amcrica social
scicncc vithout obvious luropcan countcrparts or antcccdcnts) and vcr-
nacular constitutionalism, a com|ortablc cquilibrium vas cstablishcd bc-
tvccn thc idcas o| cultural divcrsity and onc or anothcr vcrsion o| thc
mclting pot. Svinging bctvccn Notero| C:eoj|c and k:oJ:s D:st, this
anodync polarity has provcd rcmarkably durablc and com|orting. lt ac
commodatcs, somctimcs on thc samc pagc or in thc samc brcath, a scnsc
that plurali ty is thc Amcrican gcnius orJ that thcrc is an Amcricanncss that
somchov contains and transccnds plurality. Jhis sccond, post-Livil War
accommodation vith di||crcncc is nov on its last lcgs, and thc political
corrcctncss-multiculturalism dcbatc is its pccul iar, parochial Watcrloo.
larochial bccausc i t insistcntly rcluscs to rccognizc that thc challcngc o|
diasporic pluralism is nov global and that Amcrican solutions cannot bc
sccn i n isolation. lcculiar bccausc thcrc has bccn no systcmatic rccogni-
tion that thc politics o| multiculturalism is nov part and parccl o| thc cx-
tratcrritorial nationalism o| populations vho l ovc Amcrica but arc not ncc-
cssarily attachcd to thc Lnitcd Statcs. Norc bluntly, ncithcr popular nor
acadcmic thought i n this country has comc to tcrms vith thc di||crcncc
bctvccn bcing a land o| immigrants and bcing onc nodc i n a postnational
nctvork o| diasporas.
ln thc postnational vorld that vc scc cmcrging, diaspora runs vith, and
not against, thc grain o| idcntity, movcmcnt, and rcproduction. lvcryonc
has rclativcs vorking abroad. Nany pcoplc hnd thcmsclvcs cxilcs vithout
Pt e t i s J l t s ! t : s
I 7 I
rcaly having movcd vcry larLroats in bosnia, lindus in lashmir, Nus-
lims i n lndia. 1ct othcrs hnd thcmsclvcs in pattcrns ol rcpcat migration. l n-
dians vho vcnt to last Alrica i n thc ninctccnth and carly tvcnticth ccn-
turics lound thcmsclvcs pushcd out ol Lganda, lcnya, and anzania i n thc
I 80s to hnd lrcsh travails and opportunitics in lngland and thc Lnitcd
Statcs, and thcy arc nov considcring rcturning to last Alrica. Similary,
Lhincsc lrom long long vho arc buying rcal cstatc in Vancouvcr, Lu]a-
rati tradcrs lrom Lganda opcning motcls i n lcv }crscy and ncvspapcr
kiosks i n lcv 1ork Lity, and Sikh cabdrivcrs i n Lhicago and lhiladclphia
arc al cxamplcs ol a ncv sort ol vorld i n vhich diaspora i s thc ordcr ol
things and scttlcd vays ol l i lc arc incrcasingly hard to hnd. hc Lnitcd
Statcs, alvays i n its scl- pcrccption a land ol immigrants, hnds itscll avash
in thcsc global diasporas, no ongcr a coscd spacc lor thc mclting pot to
vork its magic, but yct anothcr diasporic svitching point. lcopc comc
hcrc to scck thcir lortuncs, but thcy arc no longcr contcnt to lcavc thcir
homclands bchind. Llobal dcmocracy lcvcr and thc brcakdovn ol thc So-
vict cmpirc havc mcant that most groups that vish to rcncgotiatc thcir inks
to thcir diasporic idcntitics lrom thcir Amcrican vantagc points arc nov lrcc
to do so. thus, Amcrican }cvs ol loish origin undcrtakc loocaust tours i n
lastcrn luropc, lndi an doctors lrom Nichigan sct up cyc cinics i n lcv
Lcl hi , lacstinians i n Lctroit participatc in thc politics ol thc Wcst bank.
T|t le e t|t Torsrot|er
hc lormula ol hyphcnation ,as i n ltalian-Amcricans, Asian-Amcricans,
and Alrican-Amcricans) i s rcaching thc point ol saturation, and thc right-
hand sidc ol thc hyphcn can barcy contain thc unrulincss ol thc lclthand
sidc. lvcn as thc cgitimacy ol nation- statcs i n thcir ovn tcrritorial con-
tcxts i s incrcasingly undcr thrcat, thc idca ol thc nation lourishcs transna-
tionally. Salc lrom thc dcprcdations ol thcir homc statcs, diasporic com-
munitics bccomc doubly loya to thcir nations ol origin and thus
ambivalcnt about thcir loyaltics to Amcrica. hc politics ol cthnic idcntity
i n thc Lnitcd Statcs i s i nscparably l i nkcd to thc goba sprcad ol originaly
local national idcntitics. or cvcry nation-statc that has cxportcd signi h-
cant numbcrs ol its populations to thc Lnitcd Statcs as rclugccs, tourists,
or studcnts, thcrc is nov a dcloca|izcd torsroter, vhich rctains a spccia|
idcological l i nk to a putativc placc ol origin but i s othcrvisc a thoroughly
diasporic collcctivity ` lo cxisting conccption ol Amcricanncss can con-
tain this argc varicty ol transnations.
l n this sccnario, thc hyphcnatcd Amcrican might havc to bc tvicc
P o : :e t :s o J l t s ! t +s
l 72
hyphcnatcd ,Asian-Amcrican}apancsc or lativc-AmcricanScncca or
AlricanAmcrican-|amaican or lispanicAmcricanbolivian) as diasporic
idcntitics stay mobilc and grov morc protcan. Cr pcrhaps thc si dcs ol thc
hyphcn vill havc to bc rcvcrscd, and vc can bccomc a lcdcration ol dias-
poras. Amcricanltalians, Amcricanlaitians, Amcrican-lrish, Amcrican-
Alricans. Lual citizcnships might i ncrcasc il thc socictics lrom vhich vc
camc rcmain or bccomc morc opcn. Wc might rccognizc that diasporic di -
vcrsity actually puts l oyalty to a non tcrritorial transnation hrst, vhilc rcc-
ognizing that thcrc i s a spccial Amcrican vay to conncct to thcsc global
diasporas. Amcrica, as a cultural spacc, vill not nccd to compctc vith a
host ol global idcntitics and diasporic loyaltics. lt might comc to bc sccn
as a modcl ol hov to arrangc onc tcrritorial locus ,among othcrs) lor a
cross-hatching ol diasporic communitics. ln this rcgard, thc Amcrican
problcm rcscmblcs thosc ol othcr vcalthy i ndustrial dcmocracics ,such as
Svcdcn, Lcrmany, lolland, and rancc) , al l ol vhich lacc thc challcngc
ol squaring lnlightcnmcnt univcrsal isms and diasporic pluralism.
hc qucstion i s, can a postnational politics bc built around this cultural
lact Nany socictics nov lacc i nlluxcs ol immigrants and rclugccs, vantcd
and unvantcd. Cthcrs arc pushing out groups i n acts ol cthnic clcansing
i ntcndcd to producc thc vcry pcoplc vhosc prccxistcncc thc nation vas
supposcd to rati ly. but Amcrica may bc alonc i n having organizcd itscll
around a modcm political idcology i n vhich pluralism i s ccntral to thc
conduct ol dcmocratic l i lc. Cut ol a dillcrcnt strand ol its cxpcricncc, this
socicty has also gcncratcd a povcrlul lablc ol itscll as a land ol immigrants.
ln todays postnati onal, diasporic vorld, Amcrica i s bcing invitcd to vcld
thcsc tvo doctrincs togcthcr, to conlront thc nccds ol pluralism arJ ol i m-
migration, to construct a socicty oerJ diasporic divcrsity.
but such imagcs as thc mosaic, thc rainbov, thc quilt, and othcr tropcs
ol complcxity-i n- divcrsity cannot supply thc imaginativc rcsourccs lor this
task, cspccially as lcars ol tribalism multiply. ribcs do not makc quilts, al -
though thcy somctimcs makc conlcdcracics. Whcthcr i n dcbatcs ovcr i m
migration, bi l ingual cducation, thc acadcmic canon, or thc undcrclass,
thcsc l i bcral imagcs havc sought to contain thc tcnsion bctvccn thc ccn-
tripctal pull ol Amcricanncss and thc ccntri lugal pull ol diasporic divcrsity
i n Amcrican l i lc. hc battlcs ovcr alhrmativc action, quotas, vcllarc, and
abortion i n Amcrica today suggcst that thc mctaphor ol thc mosaic cannot
contain thc contradiction bctvccn group idcntitics, vhich Amcricans vill
tolcratc ,up to a point) i n cultural l i lc, and individual idcntitics, vhich arc
still thc nonnegotiablc principlc bchind Amcrican idcas ol achicvcmcnt,
mobility, and ]usticc.
P o : :o :i s o J l :s F : : s
= I 7J
What is to bc donc hcrc coud bc a spccial pacc lor Amcrica in thc
ncv, postnational ordcr, and onc that docs not rcy on cithcr isolationism
or gobal domination as its al tcrnativc basis. hc Lnitcd Statcs i s cmi-
ncntly suitcd to bc a sort ol cutural laboratory and a lrcc-tradc zonc lor
thc gcncration, circulation, importation, and tcsting ol thc matcrials lor a
vorld organizcd around diasporic divcrsity. ln a scnsc, this cxpcrimcnt i s
arcady undcr vay. hc Lni tcd Statcs i s alrcady a hugc, lascinating garagc
salc lor thc rcst ol thc vord. lt providcs gol l vacations and rcal cstatc lor
thc |apancsc, busincss-managcmcnt idcoogics and tcchniqucs lor luropc
and lndia, soap-opcra idcas lor brazil and thc Ni ddlc last, primc ministcrs
lor 1ugosavia, supply-sidc cconomics lor loland, Kussia, and vhocvcr
csc vil try, Lhristian lundamcntalism lor lorca, and postmodcrn archi -
tccturc lor long long. by also provi ding a sct ol imagcs-Kambo i n
Alghanistan, "Wc Arc thc Word, Lcorgc bcrnard Shav i n baghdad,
Lokc gocs to barcclona, lcrot gocs to Washingtonthat i nk human
rights, consumcr stylc, antistatism, and mcdia gitz, it might bc said that
thc Lnitcd Statcs is party accountabc lor thc idiosyncrasics that attcnd
struggcs lor sclldctcrmination in othcrvisc vcry dillcrcnt parts ol thc
vorld. his i s vhy a Lnivcrsity ol lova svcatshirt i s not ]ust a siy symbol
i n thc ]unglcs ol Nozambiquc or on thc barricadcs ol bcirut. lt capturcs
thc lrcc-lloating ycarning lor Amcrican stylc, cvcn in thc most intcnsc
contcxts ol opposition to thc Lni tcd Statcs. hc cutural politics ol quccr
nationality is an cxampc ol this contradictory ycarning i n thc Lnitcd
Statcs , bcrlant and rccman I 2) . hc rcst ol this ycarning i s provokcd
by authoritarian statc poicics, massivc arms industrics, thc i nsistcnty hun-
gry cyc ol thc ccctronic mcdia, and thc dcspair ol bankrupt cconomics.
Cl coursc, thcsc products and idcas arc not thc immaculatc conccp-
tions ol somc mystcrious Amcrican knov-hov but arc prcciscy thc rcsult
ol a complcx cnvironmcnt in vhich idcas and intccctuals mcct i n a vari-
cty ol spccia scttings (such as abs, l i brarics, classrooms, music studios,
busincss scminars, and political campaigns) to gcncratc, rclormulatc, and
rccirculatc cutural lorms that arc lundamcntay postnationa and dias-
poric. hc roc ol Amcrican musicians, studios, and rccord companics in
thc crcation ol vorld bcat i s an cxccllcnt cxampc ol this sort ol dovn-
homc but ollshorc cntrcprcncurial mcntality. Amcricans arc loathc to
admit thc picccmcal, pragmatic, haphazard, llcxiblc, and opportunistic
vays i n vhich thcsc Amcrican products and rcproducts circulatc around
thc vorld. Amcricans likc to think that thc Lhincsc havc simply bought
thc virtucs ol lrcc cntcrprisc, thc lolcs, thc suppy sidc, thc laitians and
iipinos, dcmocracy, and cvcryonc, human rights. Wc rarcly pay attcn-
P: :c ::s J l :s F : : s
= I 74 =
tion to thc complicatcd tcrms, traditions, and cultural stylcs into vhich
thcsc idcas arc loldcd and thus translormcd bcyond our rccognition. Jhus,
during thc historic cvcnts ol Jananmcn Squarc i n I 989, vhcn it sccmcd as
il thc Lhincsc pcoplc had bccomc dcmocratic ovcrnight, thcrc vas con-
sidcrablc cvidcncc that thc vays i n vhich dillcrcnt groups i n Lhina un-
dcrstood thcir problcms vcrc both i ntcrnally varicd and ticd to various
spccihcitics ol Lhinas history and cultural stylc.
Whcn Amcricans scc translormations and cultural complications ol
thcir dcmocratic vocabulary and stylc, i l thcy noticc thcm at al l , thcy arc
annoycd and dismaycd. ln this misrcading ol hov othcrs handlc vhat vc
stil l scc as e national rccipc lor succcss, Amcricans pcrlorm a lurthcr act
ol narcissistic distortion. vc imaginc that thcsc pcculiarly Amcrican invcn-
tions , dcmocracy, capitalism, lrcc cntcrprisc, human rights) arc automati-
cally and i nhcrcntly intcrconncctcd and that our national saga holds thc
kcy to thc combination. l n thc migration ol our vords, vc scc thc victory
ol our myths. Wc arc bclicvcrs in tcrminal convcrsion.
Jhc Amcrican victory i n thc Lold War nccd not ncccssarily turn
pyrrhi c. Jhc lact is that thc Lnitcd Statcs, lrom a cultural point ol vicv, i s
alrcady a vast lrcctradc zonc, lull ol idcas, tcchnologics, stylcs, and id-
ioms ( lrom NcLonalds and thc larvard busincss School to thc Lrcam
Jcam and rcvcrsc mortgagcs) that thc rcst ol thc vorld hnds lascinating.
Jhis lrcctradc zonc rcsts on a volatilc cconomy, thc ma]or citics ol thc
Amcrican bordcrland ( Los Angclcs, Niami, lcv !ork, Lctroit) arc nov
hcavily mi l i tarizcd. but thcsc lacts arc ol l i ttlc rclcvancc to thosc vho
comc, cithcr briclly or lor morc cxtcndcd stays, to this lrcc tradc zonc.
Somc, llccing vastly grcatcr urban violcncc, statc pcrsccution, and cco-
nomic hardship, comc as pcrmancnt migrants, lcgal or i l lcgal. Cthcrs arc
shorttcrm shoppcrs lor clothcs, cntcrtainmcnt, loans, armamcnts, or quick
lcssons i n lrcc-markct cconomics or civi l -socicty politics. Jhc vcry unruli-
ncss, thc rank unprcdictabi l i ty, thc quirky invcntivcncss, thc shccr cultural
vitality ol this lrcc-tradc zonc arc vhat attract all sorts ol diasporas to thc
Lnitcd Statcs.
or thc Lnitcd Statcs, to play a ma]or rolc i n thc cultural politics ol a
postnational vorld has vcry complcx domcstic cntailmcnts. lt may mcan
making room lor thc lcgitimacy ol cultural rights, rights to thc pursuit ol
cultural dillcrcncc undcr public protcctions and guarantccs. lt may mcan a
painlul brcak lrom a lundamcntally ordist, manulacturc-ccntcrcd conccp-
tion ol thc Amcrican cconomy, as vc lcarn to bc global i nlormation bro-
kcrs, scrvicc providcrs, stylc doctors. l t may mcan cmbracing as part ol our
livclihood vhat vc havc so lar conhncd to thc vorld ol broadvay, lolly
P o t e t s + o r J I t s ! t : s
I 75 =
vood, and Lisncyland. thc import ol cxpcrimcnts, thc production ol lan-
tasics, thc labrication ol idcntitics, thc cxport ol stylcs, thc hammcring out
ol pluralitics. lt may mcan distinguishing our attachmcnt to Amcrica lrom
our villi ngncss to dic lor thc Lnitcd Statcs. his suggcstion convcrgcs
vith thc lolloving proposal by Laurcn bcrlant.
HC suOCCI WHC WanIs IC aVCtC IHC mCanCHCy tnsanlIy C IHC sCaO
sIraCItCn IHaI ts CtItZCnsHtp, anC IC rCstsI IHC urC C sCCVCrCCmtng IHC
maICrta pCtItCa CCnICxI tn WHtCH sHC tVCs, musI CCVCCp IaCItCs Cr ICus
tng IHC tnICrarItCuaItCn, nCW Cur HunCrCC yCars CC, OCIWCCn IHC LntICC
bIaICs anC PmCrtCa, IHC naItCn anC uICpta. | I VV , 2 I )
Jhat is, it may bc timc to rcthink monopatriotism, patriotism dircctcd
cxclusivcly to thc hyphcn bctvccn nation and statc, and to allov thc ma-
tcrial problcms vc laccthc dchcit, thc cnvironmcnt, abortion, racc,
drugs, and ]obsto dchnc t
[
osc social groups and idcas lor vhich vc
vould bc villing to livc, and dic. hc quccr nation may only bc thc hrst ol
a scrics ol ncv patriotisms, i n vhich othcrs could bc thc rctircd, thc un-
cmploycd, and thc disablcd, as vcl l as scicntists, vomcn, and lispanics.
Somc ol us may still vant to l ivcand diclor thc Lnitcd Statcs. but
many ol thcsc ncv sovcrcigntics arc inhcrcntly postnational. Surcly, thcy
rcprcscnt morc humanc motivcs lor alhliation than statchood or party al-
hliation and morc intcrcsting bascs lor dcbatc and crosscutting allianccs.
Koss lcrots voluntccrs i n I 2 givc us a bricl, i ntcnsc glimpsc ol thc pov-
crs ol patriotism totally divorccd lrom party, govcrnmcnt, or statc. Amcr-
ica may yct construct anothcr narrativc ol cnduring signihcancc, a narra-
tivc about thc uscs ol loyalty altcr thc cnd ol thc nation-statc. ln this
narrativc, boundcd tcrritorics could givc vay to diasporic nctvorks, na-
tions to transnations, and patriotism itscll could bccomc plural, scrial, con-
tcxtual, and mobi l c. lcrc lics onc dircction lor thc luturc ol patriotism in
a postcolonia| vorld. latriotismlikc historyis unlikcly to cnd, but its
ob]ccts may bc susccptiblc to translormation, i n thcory and i n practicc.
l t rcmains nov to ask vhat transnations and transnationalism havc to
do vith postnationality and its prospccts. Jhis rclationship rcquircs dc-
tailcd cngagcmcnt i n its ovn right, but a lcv obscrvations arc i n ordcr. As
populations bccomc dctcrritori alizcd and incomplctcly nationalizcd, as
nations spli ntcr and rccombinc, as statcs lacc i ntractablc di lhcultics i n thc
task ol producing "thc pcoplc, transnations arc thc most important social
sitcs i n vhich thc criscs ol patriotism arc playcd out.
Jhc rcsults arc surcly contradictory. Lisplaccmcnt and cxil c, migration
and tcrror crcatc povcrlul attachmcnts to idcas ol homcland that sccm
P t i e : i s J I :s F : : s
= I 7 =
morc dccply tcrritorial than cvcr. but it is also possiblc to dctcct in many o|
thcsc transnations (somc cthnic, somc rcligious, somc philanthropic, somc
militaristic) thc clcmcnts o| a postnational imaginary. Jhcsc clcmcnts |or
thosc vho vish to hastcn thc dcmisc o| thc nation-statc, |or all thcir con-
tradictions, rcquirc both nurturc and critiquc. l n this vay, transnational so-
cial |orms may gcncratc not only postnational ycarnings but also actually
cxisting postnational movcmcnts, organizations, and spaccs. ln thcsc post-
national spaccs, thc incapacity o| thc nation-statc to tolcratc divcrsity (as
i t sccks thc homogcncity o| its citizcns, thc simultancity o| its prcscncc,
thc conscnsuality o| its narrativc, and thc stability o| its citizcns) may, pcr-
haps, bc ovcrcomc.
Pt :x t +s J l t s F t : s
= I 77 =
V
1h6 f00uCt|00 0 L0C8l|t
his chaptcr addrcsscs rclatcd qucstions that havc ariscn i n an ongoing sc-
rics ol vritings about global cultural llovs. l bcgin vith thrcc such qucs-
tions. What i s thc placc ol local ity i n schcmcs about global cultural llov
Locs anthropology rctain any spccial rhctorical privilcgc in a vorld vhcrc
locality sccms to havc lost its ontological moorings Lan thc mutually
constitutivc rclationship bctvccn anthropology and local ity survivc in a
dramatically dclocalizcd vorld Ny argumcnt docs not stcm dircctly lrom
conccrn vith cithcr thc production ol spacc ( Lclcbvrc l 99 l ) or thc disci-
plinary anxictics ol anthropology as such, although thcy broadly i nlorm
my rcsponsc to thcsc qucstions. Kathcr, i t cngagcs a continuing dcbatc
about thc luturc ol thc nati on-statc ,chap. 8) . Ny conccrn i s vith vhat lo-
cality might mcan i n a situation vhcrc thc nationstatc laccs particular
sorts ol transnational dcstabilization.
l vicv locality as primarily rclational and contcxtual rathcr than as
scalar or spatial. l scc i t as a complcx phcnomcnological quality, consti-
tutcd by a scrics ol l inks bctvccn thc scnsc ol social immcdiacy, thc tcch-
nol ogics ol i ntcractivity, and thc rclativity ol contcxts. his phcnomcno-
logical quality, vhich cxprcsscs itscll i n ccrtain kinds ol agcncy, sociality,
and rcproducibility, i s thc main prcdicatc ol locality as a catcgory ,or sub-
]cct) that l scck to cxplorc. ln contrast, l usc thc tcrm r:||le|eeJ to rcl

r
| 78
to thc actualy cxisting social lorms in vhich locaity, as a dimcnsion or
valuc, is variably rcalizcd. lcighborhoods, in this usagc, arc situatcd com-
munitics charactcrizcd by thcir actuaity, vhcthcr spatial or virtual , and
thcir potcntia lor social rcproduction. '
As part o l this cxporation, l addrcss tvo lurthcr qucstions. lov docs
|eco||t,. as an aspcct ol socia l i lc, rcatc to r:||le|eeJs as substantivc socia
lorms ls thc rcationship ol locaity to ncighborhoods substantialy a-
tcrcd by rcccnt history, cspccialy by thc global crisis ol thc nation- statc
A simpcr vay to charactcrizc thcsc multipc goals i s through this qucs-
tion What can loca ity mcan i n a vorld vhcrc spatial ocalization, quotid-
ian intcraction, and social scac arc not avays isomorphic
lecot|rq t|: Sl):ct
lt is onc ol thc grand cichcs ol social thcory ,going back to Jocnnics,
Wcbcr, and Lurkhcim) that ocaity as a propcrty or diacritic ol social l i lc
comcs undcr sicgc in modcrn socictics. but locality is an inhcrcntly lragilc
socia achicvcmcnt. lvcn i n thc most intimatc, spatially conhncd, gco-
graphically isolatcd situations, locaity must bc maintaincd carcluly
against various kinds ol odds. Jhcsc odds havc at various timcs and placcs
bccn conccptuaizcd di llcrcntly. ln many socictics, boundarics arc zoncs
ol dangcr rcquiring spccial ritual maintcnancc, i n othcr sorts ol socictics,
social rclations arc i nhcrcntly hssivc, crcating a pcrsistcnt tcndcncy lor
somc ncighborhoods to dissolvc. ln yct othcr situations, ccoogy and tcch-
noogy dictatc that houscs and inhabitcd spaccs arc lorcvcr shilting, thus
contributing an cndcmic scnsc ol anxicty and instabiity to socia i lc.
Nuch ol vhat vc cal thc cthnographi c rccord can bc rcvrittcn and
rcrcad lrom this point ol vicv. ln thc hrst instancc, a grcat dcal ol vhat
havc bccn tcrmcd |t:s e) josso: i s conccrncd vith thc production ol vhat
vc might call |eco| sl):cts. actors vho propcrly bcong to a situatcd com-
munity ol kin, ncighbors, lricnds, and cncmics. Lcrcmonics ol naming and
tonsurc, scarihcation and scgrcgati on, circumcision and dcprivation arc
compcx socia tcchniqucs lor thc inscription ol locality onto bodics.
Lookcd at s ighty di llcrcntly, thcy arc vays to cmbody locaity as vcl as
to ocatc bodics i n socially and spatialy dchncd communitics. Jhc spatial
symbolism ol ritcs ol passagc has probaby bccn paid lcss attcntion than its
bodiy and socia symboism. Such ritcs arc not simpy mcchanical tcch-
niqucs lor socia aggrcgation but social tcchniqucs lor thc production ol
nativcs, a catcgot\ l havc discusscd clscvhcrc ,Appadurai l 988) .
What i s truc ol thc production ol loca sub]ccts i n thc cthnographic
T | : P e J c t e r e} L e c o l t y
= I 79
rccord is as truc ol thc proccsscs by vhich locality is matcrially produccd.
hc building ol houscs, thc organization ol paths and passagcs, thc mak-
ing and rcmaking ol hclds and gardcns, thc mapping and ncgotiation ol
transhuman spaccs and huntcr-gathcrcr tcrrains i s thc inccssant, oltcn
humdrum prcoccupation ol many small communitics studicd by anthro-
pologists. hcsc tcchniqucs lor thc sjot|o| production ol locality havc bccn
copiously documcntcd. but thcy havc not usually bccn vicvcd as instanccs
ol thc production ol locality, both as a gcncral propcrty ol social l i lc and as
a particular valuation ol that propcrty. brokcn dovn dcscriptivcly into
tcchnologics lor housc building, gardcn cultivation, and thc likc, thcsc
matcrial outcomcs havc bccn takcn as cnds i n thcmsclvcs rathcr than as
momcnts in a gcncral tcchnology ,and tclcology) ol localization.
hc production ol locality i n thc socictics historically studicd by an-
thropologists ,on islands and i n lorcsts, agricultural vi l lagcs and hunting
camps) is not simply a mattcr ol producing local sub]ccts as vcll as thc
vcry ncighborhoods that contcxtualizc thcsc sub]cctivitics. As somc ol thc
bcst vork in thc social logic ol ritual i n thc past lcv dccadcs so amply
shovs ,Lcvis I 98, Nunn I 98, Schicllclin I 985) , spacc and timc arc
thcmsclvcs socializcd and localizcd through complcx and dclibcratc prac-
ticcs ol pcrlormancc, rcprcscntation, and action. Wc havc tcndcd to call
thcsc practiccs cese|e|co| or |to|~terms that by distracting us lrom thcir
activc, intcntional, and productivc charactcr crcatc thc dubious imprcs-
sion ol mcchanical rcproduction.
Cnc ol thc most rcmarkablc gcncral lcaturcs ol thc ritual proccss is i ts
highly spccihc vay ol localizing duration and cxtcnsion, ol giving thcsc
catcgorics namcs and propcrtics, valucs and mcanings, symptoms and lcg-
i bi lity. A vast amount ol vhat vc knov ol ritual in smal l -scalc socictics can
bc rcvisitcd lrom this point ol vicv. hc l argc body ol l itcraturc on tcch-
niqucs lor naming placcs, lor protccting hclds, animals, and othcr rcpro-
ductivc spaccs and rcsourccs, lor marking scasonal changc and agricultural
rhythms, lor propcrly situating ncv houscs and vclls, lor appropriatcly
dcmarcating boundarics ,both domcstic and communal) is substantially
l itcraturc documcnting thc socialization ol spacc and timc. Norc prcciscly,
it is a rccord ol thc spatiotcmporal production ol local i ty. Lookcd at this
vay, Arnold van Lcnncps cxtraordinary and vital study ol ritcs ol passagc
, I 95) , much ol }amcs L. razcrs bizarrc cncyclopcdia , I 900), and bron-
islav Nalinovskis monumcntal study ol robriand gardcn magic , I 9 I )
arc substantially rccords ol thc myriad vays i n vhich small-scalc socictics
do not and cannot takc locality as a givcn. Kathcr, thcy sccm to assumc
that locality is cphcmcral unlcss hard and rcgular vork is undcrtakcn to
T | : P e J c t i e r e ) L c c o l t y
I 80
producc and maintain its matcriality. !ct this vcry matcriality is somctimcs
mistakcn lor thc tcrminus ol such vork, thus obscuri ng thc morc abstract
cllccts ol this vork on thc production ol locality as a structurc ol lccling.
Nuch that has bccn considcrcd local knovlcdgc is actually knovlcdgc
ol hov to producc and rcproducc locality undcr conditions ol anxicty and
cntropy, social vcar and l|ux, ccological unccrtainty and cosmic volatility,
and thc alvays prcscnt quirkincss ol kinsmcn, cncmics, spirits, and quarks
ol all sorts. Jhc locality ol local knovlcdgc is not only, or cvcn mainly, its
cmbcddcdncss in a nonncgotiablc hcrc and nov or its stubborn disintcrcst
i n things at largc, although thcsc arc ccrtainly crucial propcrtics as Lli llord
Lccrtz has rcmindcd us in much ol his vork ,Lccrtz I 975, I 983) . Local
knovlcdgc is substantially about producing rcliably local sub]ccts as vcll
as about producing rcliably local ncighborhoods vithin vhich such sub-
]ccts can bc rccognizcd and organizcd. ln this scnsc, local knovlcdgc is
vhat i t is not principally by contrast vith othcr knovlcdgcsvhich ( lrom
somc non local point ol vicv) thc obscrvcr might rcgard as lcss localizcd
but by virtuc ol its local tclcology and cthos. Wc might say, adapting
Narx, that local knovlcdgc is not only local i n itscll but, cvcn morc im-
portant, lor itscll.
lvcn i n thc smallcst ol socictics, vith thc humblcst ol tcchnologics and
i n thc most dcsolatc ol ccological contcxts, thc rclationship bctvccn thc
production ol local sub|ccts and thc ncighborhoods i n vhich such sub|ccts
can bc produccd, namcd, and cmpovcrcd to act socially is a historical and
dialcctical rclationshi p. Without rcliably local sub|ccts, thc construction
ol a local tcrrain ol habitation, production, and moral sccurity vould havc
no intcrcsts attachcd to it. but by thc samc tokcn, vithout such a knovn,
namcd, and ncgotiablc tcrrain alrcady avai lablc, thc ritual tcchniqucs lor
crcating local sub|ccts vould bc abstract, thus stcrilc. Jhc long-tcrm rc
production ol a ncighborhood that is simultancously practical, valucd, and
takcn- lor-grantcd dcpcnds on thc scamlcss i ntcraction ol localizcd spaccs
and timcs vith local sub]ccts posscsscd ol thc knovlcdgc to rcproducc
locality. lroblcms that arc propcrly historical arisc vhcncvcr this scam-
lcssncss i s thrcatcncd. Such problcms do not arrivc only vith modcrnity,
colonialism, or cthnography. l strcss this point nov bccausc l vi l l discuss
bclov thc spccial propcrtics ol thc production ol locality undcr thc condi-
tions ol contcmporary urban l i lc, vhich involvc national rcgimcs, mass
mcdiation, and i ntcnsc and irrcgular commoditization.
ll a l argc part ol thc cthnographic rccord can bc rcrcad and rcvri ttcn as
a rccord ol thc multi larious modcs lor thc production ol locality, it lollovs
that cthnography has bccn unvittingly complicit in this activity. Jhis is a
T | : P c J c t i c r c } L c c o l t y
I 8 I
point about knovlcdgc and rcprcscntation rathcr than about guilt or vio-
lcncc. hc cthnographic pro|cct i s i n a pcculiar vay isomorphic vith thc
vcry knovlcdgcs i t sccks to discovcr and documcnt, as both thc cthno-
graphic pro|cct and thc social pro]ccts i t sccks to dcscribc havc thc pro-
duction ol locality as thcir govcrni ng tclos ' hc misrccognition ol this
lact i n both pro]ccts, as involving only morc humdrum and discrctc ac-
tions and scttings (housc building, child naming, boundary rituals, grcct-
ing rituals, spatial puri hcations) , is thc constitutivc mi srccognition that
guarantccs both thc spccial appropriatcncss ol cthnography to ccrtain
kinds ol dcscription and its pcculiar lack ol rcllcxivity as a pro|cct ol
knovlcdgc and rcproduction. Lravn into thc vcry local i zation thcy scck
to documcnt, most cthnographic dcscriptions havc takcn locality as
ground not hgurc, rccognizing ncithcr its lragil ity nor its cthos os o jtej:tt,
e) sec|o| |): his produccs an unproblcmatizcd collaboration vith thc scnsc
ol incrtia on vhich locality, as a structurc ol lccling, ccntrally rclics.
hc valuc ol rcconcciving cthnography (and rcrcading carlicr cthnog-
raphy) lrom this pcrspcctivc i s thrcclold. ( I ) i t shilts thc history ol
cthnography lrom a history ol ncighborhoods to a history ol thc tcch-
ni qucs lor thc production ol locality, , 2) i t opcns up a ncv vay to think
about thc complcx coproduction ol i ndigcnous catcgorics by organic in-
tcllcctuals, administrators, linguists, missionarics, and cthnologists, vhich
undcrgirds l argc portions ol thc monographic history ol anthropology,
( 3 ) it cnablcs thc cthnography ol thc modcrn, and ol thc production ol
locality undcr modcrn conditions, to bc part ol a morc gcncral contribu-
tion to thc cthnographic rccord tet cett ogcthcr, thcsc cllccts vould
hclp guard against thc too-casy usc ol various oppositional tropcs (thcn
and nov, bclorc and altcr, small and l argc, boundcd and unboundcd, stablc
and lluid, hot and cold) that implicitly opposc cthnographics ol and i n thc
prcscnt to cthnographics ol and i n thc past.
1b: Ccn!:x!s c| Lccal|!
havc so lar locuscd on locality as a phcnomcnological propcrty ol social
l i lc, a structurc ol lccling that i s produccd by particular lorms ol intcntional
activity and that yiclds particular sorts ol matcrial cllccts. !ct this dimcn-
sional aspcct ol locality cannot bc scparatcd lrom thc actual scttings in and
through vhich social l i lc is rcproduccd. o makc thc link bctvccn locality
as a propcrty ol social l i lc and ncighborhoods as social lorms rcquircs a
morc carclul cxposition ol thc problcm ol contcxt. hc production ol
ncighborhoods is alvays historically groundcd and thus contcxtual. hat
T | : P e J c t e r e } L e c o | | t y
= I 8 2 =
i s, ncighborhoods arc inhcrcntly vhat thcy arc bccausc thcy arc opposcd
to somcthing clsc and dcrivc lrom othcr, alrcady produccd ncighborhoods.
ln thc practical consciousncss ol many human communitics, this somc-
thing clsc i s oltcn conccptualizcd ccologically as lorcst or vastcland,
occan or dcscrt, svamp or rivcr. Such ccological signs oltcn mark bound-
arics that simultancously signal thc bcginnings ol nonhuman lorccs and
catcgorics or rccognizably human but barbarian or dcmonic lorccs. rc-
qucntly, thcsc contcxts, against vhich ncighborhoods arc produccd and
hgurcd, arc at oncc sccn as ccological, social, and cosmological tcrrains.
lt may bc usclul hcrc to notc that thc social part ol thc contcxt ol
ncighborhoods-thc lact, that is, ol othcr ncighborhoodsrccalls thc
idca ol :t|rescoj: (chap. 3), a tcrm l uscd to gct avay lrom thc idca that
group idcntitics ncccssarily imply that culturcs nccd to bc sccn as spatially
boundcd, historically unscl lconscious, or cthnically homogcncous lorms.
ln this carlicr usagc, l implicd that thc idca ol cthnoscapc might bc salicnt
cspccially to thc latc tvcnticth ccntury, vhcn human motion, thc volati l -
ity ol imagcs, and thc conscious idcnti typroducing activitics ol nation-
statcs l cnd a lundamcntally unstablc and pcrspcctival quality to social l i lc.
!ct ncighborhoods arc alvays t o somc cxtcnt cthnoscapcs, insolar as
thcy involvc thc cthnic pro]ccts ol Cthcrs as vcll as consciousncss ol such
pro]ccts. Jhat i s, particular ncighborhoods somctimcs rccognizc that thcir
ovn logic i s a gcncral logic by vhich Cthcrs also construct rccognizablc,
social, human, situatcd l i lc-vorlds. Such knovlcdgc can bc cncodcd i n thc
pragmatics ol rituals associatcd vith clcaring lorcsts, making gardcns,
building houscs, vhich alvays carry an implicit scnsc ol thc tclcology ol
locality building ln morc complcx socictics, typically associatcd vith lit-
cracy, pricstly classcs, and macroordcrs lor thc control and disscmination
ol povcr|ul idcas, such knovlcdgcs arc codihcd, as i n thc casc ol thc ritu-
als associatcd vith thc colonization ol ncv vil lagcs by brahmans i n prc-
colonial lndia.
All locality building has a momcnt ol colonization, a momcnt both hi s-
torical and chronotypic, vhcn thcrc i s a lormal rccognition that thc pro-
duction ol a ncighborhood rcquircs dclibcratc, risky, cvcn violcnt action
in rcspcct to thc soil, lorcsts, animals, and othcr human bcings. A good
dcal ol thc violcncc associatcd vith loundational ritual ( bloch ! 98) is a
rccognition ol thc lorcc that is rcquircd to vrcst a locality lrom prcviously
uncontrollcd pcoplcs and placcs. lut i n othcr tcrms (dc Lcrtcau I 984) ,
thc translormation ol spaccs into placcs rcquircs a conscious momcnt,
vhich may subscqucntly bc rcmcmbcrcd as rclativcly routinc. Jhc pro-
duction ol a ncighborhood i s inhcrcntly colonizing, i n thc scnsc that i t i n-
T | : P e J c t | e r e } L e c o l t y
I 8 3
volvcs thc asscrtion ol socially (oltcn ritually) organizcd povcr ovcr
placcs and scttings that arc vicvcd as potcntially chaotic or rcbcllious.
Jhc anxicty that attcnds many rituals ol habitation, occupation, or scttlc-
mcnt is a rccognition ol thc implicit violcncc ol al l such acts ol coloniza-
tion. Somc ol this anxicty rcmains in thc ritual rcpctition ol thcsc mo-
mcnts, long altcr thc loundational cvcnt ol colonization. ln this scnsc, thc
production ol a ncighborhood is inhcrcntly an cxcrcisc ol povcr ovcr
somc sort ol hostilc or rccalcitrant cnvironmcnt, vhich may takc thc lorm
ol anothcr ncighborhood.
luch ol thc narrativc matcrial uncarthcd by cthnographcrs vorking in
small communitics, as vcll as much ol thcir dcscription ol rituals ol agri -
culturc, housc building and social passagc, strcsscs thc shccr matcrial
lragil ity associatcd vith producing and maintaining locality. lcvcrthclcss,
hovcvcr dccply such dcscription is cmbcddcd i n thc particularitics ol
placc, soil, and ritual tcchniquc, it invariably contains or implics a thcory
ol contcxta thcory, in othcr vords, ol vhat a ncighborhood is produccd
lrom, against, in spitc ol, and in rclation to. Jhc problcm ol thc rclation-
ship bctvccn ncighborhood and contcxt rcquircs much lullcr attcntion
than can bc allordcd hcrc. Lct mc skctch thc gcncral dimcnsions ol this
problcm. Jhc ccntral dilcmma is that ncighborhoods both arc contcxts
and at thc samc timc rcquirc and producc contcxts. lcighborhoods arc
contcxts in thc scnsc that thcy providc thc lramc or sctting vithin vhich
various kinds ol human action (productivc, rcproductivc, i ntcrprctivc, pcr-
lormativc) can bc initiatcd and conductcd mcani nglully. bccausc mcaning-
lul l i lcvorlds rcquirc lcgiblc and rcproduciblc pattcrns ol action, thcy arc
tcxt-likc and thus rcquirc onc or many contcxts. lrom anothcr point ol
vicv, a ncighborhood is a contcxt, or a sct ol contcxts, vithin vhich
mcani nglul social action can bc both gcncratcd and i ntcrprctcd. ln this
scnsc, ncighborhoods arc contcxts, and contcxts arc ncighborhoods. A
ncighborhood is a multiplcx intcrprctivc sitc.
lnsolar as ncighborhoods arc imagincd, produccd, and maintaincd
against somc sort ol ground (social, matcrial , cnvironmcntal ) , thcy also rc-
quirc and producc contcxts against vhich thcir ovn intcll igibility takcs
shapc. Jhis contcxt-gcncrativc dimcnsion ol ncighborhoods is an impor-
tant mattcr bccausc it providcs thc bcginni ngs ol a thcorctical anglc on thc
rclationship bctvccn local and global rcalitics. lov so Jhc vay i n vhich
ncighborhoods arc produccd and rcproduccd rcquircs thc conti nuous
construction, both practical and discursivc, ol an cthnoscapc (ncccssarily
nonlocal) against vhich local practiccs and pro|ccts arc imagincd to takc
placc.
T | : P t e J c t c r e } L e c o | t y
\ o+
ln onc dimcnsion, at onc momcnt, and lrom onc pcrspcctivc, ncigh-
borhoods as cxisting contcxts arc prcrcquisitcs lor thc production ol local
sub]ccts. Jhat is, cxisting placcs and spaccs, vithin a historically produccd
spatiotcmporal ncighborhood and vith a scrics ol localizcd rituals, social
catcgorics, cxpcrt practitioncrs, and i nlormcd audicnccs, arc rcquircd in
ordcr lor ncv mcmbcrs ,babics, strangcrs, slavcs, prisoncrs, gucsts, alhncs)
to bc madc tcmporary or pcrmancnt local sub]ccts. lcrc, vc scc locality in
its takcn-lor-grantcd, commonscnsical, habitus dimnsion. l n this dimcn-
sion, a ncighborhood appcars to bc simply a sct ol contcxts, historically
rcccivcd, matcrially cmbcddcd, socially appropriatc, naturally unproblcm-
atic. lathcrs yicld sons, gardcns yicld yams, sorccry yiclds sickncss, hunt-
crs yicld mcat, vomcn yicld babics, blood yiclds scmcn, shamans yicld
visions, and so lorth. Jhcsc contcxts i n conccrt appcar to providc thc un-
problcmatizcd sctting lor thc tcchnical production ol local sub]ccts i n a
rcgular and rcgulatcd manncr.
but as thcsc local sub]ccts cngagc in thc social activitics ol production,
rcprcscntation, and rcproduction ,as in thc vork ol culturc) , thcy con-
tributc, gcncrally unvittingly, to thc crcation ol contcxts that might cx-
cccd thc cxisting matcrial and conccptual boundarics ol thc ncighbor-
hood. Alhnal aspirations cxtcnd marriagc nctvorks to ncv villagcs, hshing
cxpcditions yicld rchncmcnts ol vhat arc undcrstood to bc navigablc and
hsh-rich vatcrs, hunting cxpcditions cxtcnd thc scnsc ol thc lorcst as a rc-
sponsivc ccological lramc, social conllicts lorcc ncv stratcgics ol cxit and
rccolonization, trading activitics yicld ncv commodity-vorlds and thus
ncv partncrships vith as-yct-uncncountcrcd rcgional groupings, varlarc
yiclds ncv diplomatic all ianccs vith prcviously hostilc ncighbors. And al l
ol thcsc possibilitics contributc to subtlc shi lts in l anguagc, vorldvicv, rit-
ual practicc, and collcctivc scll-undcrstanding. lut summarily, as local sub-
]ccts carry on thc continuing task ol rcproducing thcir ncighborhood, thc
contingcncics ol history, cnvironmcnt, and imagination contain thc po-
tcntial lor ncv contcxts ,matcrial, social , and imaginativc) to bc produccd.
l n this vay, through thc vagarics ol social action by local sub]ccts, ncigh-
borhood as contcxt produccs thc contcxt ol ncighborhoods. Cvcr timc,
this dialcctic changcs thc conditions ol thc production ol locality as such.
lut anothcr vay, this is hov thc sub]ccts ol history bccomc historical sub-
]ccts, so that no human community, hovcvcr apparcntly stablc, static,
boundcd, or isolatcd, can usclully bc rcgardcd as cool or outsidc history.
his obscrvation convcrgcs vith Narshall Sahlinss vicv ol thc dynamics
ol con]unctural changc , I 985) .
Lonsidcr thc gcncral rclationship among various !anomami groups i n
T | : P e J c t | e r e ) L e c o l i t y
= I 8 5 =
thc rain lorcsts ol brazil and Vcnczucla. Jhc rclationship among scttlc-
mcnts, population shilts, prcdatory varlarc, and scxual compctition can bc
vicvcd as a proccss i n vhich spccihc !anomami villagcs ,ncighborhoods) ,
i n and through thcir actions, prcoccupati ons, and stratcgics, actually pro-
ducc a vidcr sct ol contcxts lor thcmsclvcs and cach othcr. Jhis crcatcs a
gcncral tcrritory ol !anomami movcmcnt, i ntcraction, and colonization i n
vhich any givcn villagc rcsponds t o a matcrial contcxt vidcr than itscll
vhilc simultancously contributing to thc crcation ol that vidcr contcxt. ln
a largcrscalc pcrspcctivc, thc ovcrall nctvork ol spacc and timc, i n vhich
thc !anomami producc and gcncratc rcciprocal contcxts lor spccihc acts
ol locali zation ,vill agc building), also produccs somc ol thc contcxts in
vhich thc !anomami as a vholc cncountcr thc brazi lian and Vcnczuclan
nation-statcs. ln this scnsc, !anomami locali ty-producing activitics arc
not only contcxt-drivcn but arc also contcxt-gcncrativc. Jhis i s truc ol all
locality producing activitics.
Jhus, ncighborhoods sccm paradoxical bccausc thcy both constitutc
and rcquirc contcxts. As cthnoscapcs, ncighborhoods incvitably imply a
rclational consciousncss ol othcr ncighborhoods, but thcy act at thc samc
timc as autonomous ncighborhoods ol i ntcrprctation, valuc, and matcrial
practicc. Jhus, locality as a rclational achicvcmcnt i s not thc samc as a l o-
cality as a practical valuc i n thc quotidian production ol sub]ccts and colo-
nization ol spacc. locality production is incvitably contcxtgcncrativc to
somc cxtcnt. What dchncs this cxtcnt is vcry substantially a qucstion ol
thc rclationships bctvccn thc contcxts that ncighborhoods crcatc and
thosc thcy cncountcr. Jhis is a mattcr ol social povcr and ol thc dillcrcnt
scalcs ol organization and control vithin vhich particular spaccs ,and
placcs) arc cmbcddcd
Although thc practiccs and pro]ccts ol thc !anomami arc contcxtpro-
ducing lor thc brazilian statc, i t is cvcn trucr that thc practiccs ol thc
brazilian nati on- statc involvc harsh, cvcn ovcrvhclming lorccs ol mi l i tary
i ntcrvcntion, largc-scalc cnvironmcntal cxploitati on, and statcsponsorcd
migration and colonization that thc !anomami conlront on hugcly un-
cqual tcrms. ln this scnsc, vhich l vill pursuc i n thc ncxt scction on thc
conditions ol locality production in thc cra ol thc nation- statc, thc
!anomami arc bcing stcadily |eco||z:J. i n thc scnsc ol cnclavcd, cxploitcd,
pcrhaps cvcn clcanscd i n thc contcxt ol thc brazi l i an polity. Jhus, vhilc
thcy arc stil l i n a position to gcncratc contcxts as thcy producc and rcpro-
ducc thcir ovn ncighborhoods, thcy arc incrcasingly prisoncrs in thc con-
tcxt- producing activitics ol thc nation-statc, vhich makcs thcir ovn cl
lorts to producc locality sccm lccbl c, cvcn doomcd.
T | : P e J c t | c r e} L e c o | t y
= I 8
his cxamplc has vidc gcncral applicability hc capabi l i ty ol ncigh-
borhoods to producc contcxts ,vithin vhich thcir vcry localizing activi-
tics acquirc mcaning and historical potcntial) and to producc local sub]ccts
i s pro|oundly a|lcctcd by thc localityproducing capabilitics ol largcrscalc
social |ormations ,nation-statcs, kingdoms, missionary cmpircs, and trad-
ing cartcls) to dctcrminc thc gcncral shapc ol all thc ncighborhoods
vithin thc rcach ol thcir povcrs. hus, povcr is alvays a kcy lcaturc ol
thc contcxtual rclations o| ncighborhoods, and cvcn hrst contact alvays
involvcs di ||crcnt narrativcs ol hrstncss |rom thc tvo si dcs involvcd in it.
hc political cconomy that links ncighborhoods to contcxts is thus
both mcthodologically and historically complcx. Cur idcas o| contcxt dc-
rivc l argcly |rom l inguistics. Lntil rcccntly, contcxt has bccn opportunisti -
cally dchncd to makc scnsc ol spccihc scntcnccs, rituals, pcr|ormanccs,
and othcr sorts ol tcxt. Whilc thc production o| tcxts has bccn carclully
considcrcd lrom scvcral di ||crcnt points o| vicv ,auman and riggs l 990,
lanks I 989), thc structurc and morphology o| contcxts has only latcly bc-
comc thc locus o| any systcmatic attcntion ,Luranti and Loodvin l 992) .
cyond anthropological l inguistics, contcxt rcmains a poorly dchncd idca,
an incrt conccpt indcxing an incrt cnvironmcnt. Whcn social anthropol o-
gists appcal to contcxt, i t is gcncrally to a looscly undcrstood scnsc ol thc
social |ramc vithin vhich spccihc actions or rcprcscntations can bcst bc
undcrstood. Socioli nguistics, cspccially as dcrivcd |rom thc cthnography
o| spcaking ,lymcs I 974), has bccn thc main sourcc lor this gcncral
approach.
hc structurc o| contcxts cannot and should not bc dcrivcd cntircly
lrom thc logic and morphology o| tcxts. cxt production and contcxt pro-
duction havc di l|crcnt logics and mctapragmatic lcaturcs. Lontcxts arc
produccd in thc complcx imbrication ol discursivc and nondiscursivc prac-
ticcs, and so thc scnsc i n vhich contcxts imply othcr contcxts, so that cach
contcxt implics a global nctvork o| contcxts, i s dil|crcnt lrom thc scnsc i n
vhich tcxts imply othcr tcxts, and cvcntually al l tcxts. lntcrtcxtual rcla-
tions, about vhich vc nov knov a lair amount, arc not likcly to vork i n
thc samc vay as |rt:cert:xto| rclations. Last, and most daunting, i s thc
prospcct that vc shall havc to hnd vays to conncct thcorics ol intcrtcxtu-
ality to thcorics ol i ntcrcontcxtuality. A strong thcory o| globalization
lrom a sociocultural point ol vicv i s likcly to rcquirc somcthing vc ccr-
tainly do not nov havc. a thcory ol i ntcrcontcxtual rclations tlat incorpo-
ratcs our cxisting scnsc o| intcrtcxts. ut that is truly anothcr pro]cct
hc rclationship bctvccn ncighborhood as contcxt and thc contcxt ol
ncighborhoods, mcdiatcd by thc actions ol local historical sub|ccts, ac-
T | : P e J c t e r e} L e c o l t y
I 8 7
quircs ncv complcxitics in thc sort ol vorld in vhich vc nov livc. ln this
ncv sort ol vorld, thc production ol ncighborhoods incrcasingly occurs
undcr conditions vhcrc thc systcm ol nation-statcs is thc normativc hingc
lor thc production ol both local and translocal activitics. Jhis situation, i n
vhich thc povcr rclations that allcct thc production ol locality arc lunda-
mcntally translocal, is thc ccntral conccrn ol thc ncxt sccti on.
1|: |lelo| eJct|e e] lecol|ty
What has bccn discusscd thus lar as a sct ol structural problcms ,locality
and ncighborhoods, tcxt and contcxt, cthnoscapcs and l i lcvorlds) nccds
nov to bc cxplicitly historicizcd. l havc i ndicatcd alrcady that thc rcla-
tionship ol locality ,and ncighborhoods) to contcxts i s historical and di-
alcctical, and that thc contcxtgcncrativc dimcnsion ol placcs ,in thcir ca-
pacity as cthnoscapcs) i s distinct lrom thcir contcxtproviding lcaturcs ,i n
thcir capacity as ncighborhoods) . lov do thcsc claims hcl p to undcrstand
vhat happcns to thc production ol locality i n thc contcmporary vorld
Lontcmporary undcrstandings ol globalization ,bal ibar and Wallcrstcin
I 99 I , cathcrstonc I 990, ling I 99 I , Kobcrtson I 992, Koscnau I 990)
sccm to indicatc a shilt lrom an cmphasis on thc global ] ourncys ol capi -
talist modcs ol thought and organization to a somcvhat dillcrcnt cmpha-
si s on thc sprcad ol thc nation lorm, cspccially as dictatcd by thc con-
currcnt sprcad ol colonialism and print capitalism. ll onc problcm nov
appcars to bc thc dominant conccrn ol thc human scicnccs, it i s that ol na-
tionalism and thc nation-statc ,Andcrson I 99 I , bhabha I 990, Lhattcr]cc
I 98, I 993, Lcllncr I 983, lobsbavm I 990).
Whilc only timc vi l l tcll vhcthcr our currcnt prcoccupations vith thc
nation- statc arc ]ustihcd, thc bcginnings ol an anthropological cngagc-
mcnt vith this issuc arc cvidcnt i n thc incrcasing contribution ol anthro-
pologists to thc problcmatics ol thc nationstatc , borncman I 992, Noorc
I 993, landlcr I 988, lcrzlcld I 982, laplcrcr I 988, Jambiah I 98, Lrban
and Shcrzcr I 99 I , van dcr Vccr I 994) . Somc ol this vork cxplicitly con
sidcrs thc global contcxt ol national cultural lormations ,lanncrz I 992,
basch ct al. I 994, ostcr I 99 I , ricdman I 990, Lupta and crguson I 992,
Kousc I 99 I , Sahlins I 992) . !ct a lramcvork lor rclating thc global, thc
national, and thc local has yct to cmcrgc.
ln this scction, l hopc to cxtcnd my thoughts about local sub|ccts and
localizcd contcxts to skctch thc outlincs ol an argumcnt about thc spccial
problcms that bcsct thc production ol locality i n a vorld that has bccomc
dctcrritorializcd ,Lclcuzc and Luattari I 987), diasporic, and transnational .
T | : P e J c t | c r e } L e c o l t y
I 8 8
hs s a vorld vhcrc clcctronc mcda arc trans|ormng thc rclatonshps
bctvccn n|ormaton and mcdation, and vhcrc naton-statcs arc strug-
glng to rctan control ovcr thcr populatons n thc |acc o| a host o| sub
natonal and transnatonal movcmcnts and organzatons. A |ull consdcra-
ton o| thc challcngcs to thc producton o| localty n such a vorld vould
rcqurc cxtcndcd trcatmcnt bcyond thc scopc o| ths chaptcr. but somc
clcmcnts o| an approach to ths problcm can bc outl ncd.
lut smply, thc task o| producng localty ,as a structurc o| |cclng, a
propcrty o| socal l |c, and an dcology o| stuatcd communty) s ncrcas-
ngly a strugglc. hcrc arc many dmcnsons to ths strugglc, and l shall
|ocus hcrc on thrcc. , I ) thc stcady ncrcasc n thc c||orts o| thc modcrn na-
ton-statc to dchnc all ncghborhoods undcr thc sgn o| ts |orms o| allc
gancc and a|hlaton, ,2) thc grovng ds]uncturc bctvccn tcrrtory, sub
|cctvty, and coll cctvc socal movcmcnt, and , 3) thc stcady croson,
prncpally duc to thc |orcc and |orm o| clcctronc mcdaton, o| thc rcla-
tonshp bctvccn spatal and vrtual ncghborhoods. o makc thngs yct
morc complcx, thcsc thrcc dmcnsons arc thcmsclvcs ntcractvc.
hc naton-statc rclcs |or ts lcgtmacy on thc ntcnsty o| ts mcan-
ng|ul prcscncc n a contnuous body o| boundcd tcrrtory. l t vorks by
polcng ts bordcrs, producng ts pcoplc ,balbar I 99 I ) , constructng ts
ctzcns, dchnng ts captals, monumcnts, ctcs, vatcrs, and sols, and by
constructng ts localcs o| mcmory and commcmoraton, such as gravc-
yards and ccnotaphs, mausolcums and muscums. hc naton-statc conducts
throughout ts tcrrtorcs thc bzarrcly contradctory pro]cct o| crcatng a
Uat, contguous, and homogcncous spacc o| natonncss and smultancously
a sct o| placcs and spaccs (prsons, barracks, arports, rado statons, sccrc-
tarats, parks, marchng grounds, proccssonal routcs) calculatcd to crcatc
thc ntcrnal dstnctons and dvsons ncccssary |or statc ccrcmony, survc l -
lancc, dscplnc, and moblzaton hcsc lattcr arc al so thc spaccs and
placcs that crcatc and pcrpctuatc thc dstnctons bctvccn rulcrs and rulcd,
crmnals and o|hcals, crovds and lcadcrs, actors and obscrvcrs.
hrough apparatuscs as dvcrsc as muscums and vllagc dspcnsarcs,
post o|hccs and polcc statons, tollbooths and tclcphonc booths, thc na-
ton-statc crcatcs a vast nctvork o| |ormal and n|ormal tcchnqucs |or thc
natonalzaton o| all spacc consdcrcd to bc undcr ts sovcrcgn authorty.
Statcs vary, o| coursc, n thcr ablty to pcnctratc thc nooks and cranncs
o| cvcryday l |c. Subvcrson, cvason, and rcsstancc, somctmcs scatolog-
cal (Nbcmbc I 992) , somctmcs ronc (Lomaro|| and Lomaro|| I 992a) ,
somctmcs covcrt ,Scott I 990), somctmcs spontancous and somctmcs
planncd, arc vcry vdcsprcad. l ndccd, thc |alurcs o| naton-statcs to con
T | : P e J c t e r e } L e c o | | t y
I 89
tain and dchnc thc livcs ol thcir citizcns arc vrit l argc in thc grovth ol
shadov cconomics, privatc and quasi- privatc armics and constabularics,
scccssionary nationaisms, and a varicty ol nongovcrnmcntal organiza-
tions that providc al tcrnativcs to thc national control ol thc mcans ol sub-
sistcncc and ]usticc.
Statcs vary as vcll i n thc naturc and cxtcnt ol thcir intcrcst i n local l i lc
and thc cutural lorms in vhich thcy invcst thcir dccpcst paranoias ol sov-
crcignty and control . Spitting on thc strcct i s vcry dangcrous i n Si ngaporc
and Fapua lcv Luinca, public gathcrings arc a problcm in laiti and
Lamcroon, disrcspcct to thc cmpcror is not good i n |apan, and inciting
pro-Nuslim scntimcnts is bad ncvs i n contcmporary lndia. Jhc list could
bc multiplicd. nationstatcs havc thcir spccia sitcs ol sacrcdncss, thcir spc-
cial tcsts ol loyalty and trcachcry, thcir spccial mcasurcs ol compliancc
and disordcr. Jhcsc arc l i nkcd to rca and pcrccivcd probcms ol lavlcss-
ncss, rcigning idcologics ol ibcralization or its oppositc, rclativc commit-
mcnts to intcrnational rcspcctabi l i ty, variably dccp rcvulsions about immc-
diatc prcdcccssor rcgimcs, and spccial historics ol cthnic antagonism or
collaboration. Whatcvcr clsc i s truc ol thc vorld altcr I 989, thcrc do not
sccm to bc any vcry rcliablc i nks bctvccn statc idcoogics ol vcllarc, mar-
kct cconomics, mi litary povcr, and cthnic purity 1ct vhcthcr onc consid-
crs thc turbulcnt postLommunist socictics ol lastcrn luropc, thc aggrcs-
sivc city-statcs ol thc ar last (such as Jaivan, Si ngaporc, and long
long), thc complcx postmilitary poitics ol latin Amcrica, thc bankrupt
statc cconomics ol much ol sub-Saharan Alrica, or thc turbucnt lunda-
mcntalist statcs ol much ol thc Niddc last and South Asia, thcy appcar to
posc a rathcr similar sct ol challcngcs to thc production ol ncighborhood
by local sub]ccts.
rom thc point ol vicv ol modcrn nationalism, ncighborhoods cxist
principally to incubatc and rcproducc compliant national ci tizcns-and
not lor thc production ol local sub]ccts. local i ty lor thc modcrn nation-
statc i s cithcr a sitc ol nationaly appropriatcd nostagias, cclcbrations, and
commcmorations or a ncccssary condition ol thc production ol nationals.
lcighborhoods as social lormations rcprcscnt anxictics lor thc nation-
statc, as thcy usually contain l argc or rcsi dua spaccs vhcrc thc tcchniqucs
ol nationhood ,birth control, l i nguistic uni lormi ty, cconomic disciplinc,
communications clhcicncy, and poitica oyaty) arc l ikcly to bc cithcr
vcak or contcstcd. At thc samc timc, ncighborhoods arc thc sourcc ol po-
l itical vorkcrs and party olhcials, tcachcrs and soldicrs, tclcvision tcchni -
cians and productivc larmcrs. lcighborhoods arc not dispcnsablc, cvcn i l
thcy arc potcntialy trcachcrous or thc pro]cct ol thc nation statc, ncigh
T | : P e J c t c r e) L e c o l t y
" I 0 =
borhoods rcprcscnt a pcrcnnal sourcc o| cntropy and slppagc. hcy nccd
to bc polccd almost as thoroughly as bordcrs.
hc work o| producng ncghborhoodsl|c-worlds consttutcd by
rclatvcly stablc assocatons, by rclatvcly known and sharcd hstorcs,
and by collcctvcly travcrscd and lcgblc spaccs and placcss o|tcn at
odds wth thc pro]ccts o| thc naton-statc ` hs s partly bccausc thc com-
mtmcnts and attachmcnts ,somctmcs mslabclcd prmordal) that char-
actcrzc local sub]cctvtcs arc morc prcssng, morc contnuous, and somc-
tmcs morc dstractng than thc naton-statc can a||ord. lt s also bccausc
thc mcmorcs and attachmcnts that local sub]ccts havc o| and to thcr shop
sgns and strcct namcs, thcr |avortc walkways and strcctscapcs, thcr
tmcs and placcs |or congrcgatng and cscapng arc o|tcn at odds wth thc
nccds o| thc natonstatc |or rcgulatcd publc l |c. lurthcr, t s thc naturc
o| local l |c to dcvclop partly n contrast to othcr ncghborhoods, by pro-
ducng ts own contcxts o| altcrty (spatal, socal, and tcchncal ), contcxts
that may not mcct thc nccds |or spatal and socal standardzaton that s
prcrcqustc |or thc dscplncd natonal ctzcn.
lcghborhoods arc dcally stagcs |or thcr own scl|-rcproducton, a
proccss that s |undamcntally opposcd to thc magnary o| thc naton-
statc, whcrc ncghborhoods arc dcsgncd to bc nstanccs and cxcmplars o|
a gcncral zablc modc o| bclongng to a wdcr tcrrtoral magnary. hc
modcs o| localzaton most congcnal to thc naton-statc havc a dscpl -
nary qualty about thcm. n santaton and strcct clcanng, n prsons and
slum clcarancc, n rc|ugcc camps and o|hccs o| cvcry knd, thc naton- statc
local zcs by hat, by dccrcc, and somctmcs by thc ovcrt usc o| |orcc. hs
sort o| localzaton crcatcs scvcrc constrants, cvcn drcct obstaclcs, to thc
survval o| localty as a contcxtgcncratvc rathcr than a contcxt- drvcn
proccss.
!ct thc somorphsm o| pcoplc, tcrrtory, and lcgtmatc sovcrcgnty
that consttutcs thc normatvc chartcr o| the modcrn naton-statc s tscl|
undcr thrcat |rom thc |orms o| crculaton o| pcoplc charactcrstc o| thc
contcmporary world. l t s now wdcly conccdcd that human moton s dc-
hntvc o| socal l|c morc o|tcn than t s cxccptonal n our contcmporary
world. Work, both o| thc most sophstcatcd ntcllcctual sort and o| thc
most humblc prolctaran sort, drvcs pcoplc to mgratc, o|tcn morc than
oncc n thcr l |ctmcs. hc polccs o| natonstatcs, partcularly toward
populatons rcgardcd as potcntally subvcrsvc, crcatc a pcrpctual moton
machnc, whcrc rc|ugccs |rom onc naton movc to anothcr, crcatng ncw
nstabltcs thcrc that causc |urthcr socal unrcst and thus |urthcr socal
cxts. hus, thc pcoplc producton nccds o| onc naton-statc can mcan
T | : P t e J c t i e r e} L e c o l t y
I I
cthnic and social unrcst lor its ncighbors, crcating opcn-cndcd cyclcs ol
cthnic clcansing, lorccd migration, xcnophobia, statc paranoia, and lur-
thcr cthnic clcansing. lastcrn luropc in gcncral and bosnia- lcrzcgovina
i n particular arc pcrhaps thc most tragic and complcx cxamplcs ol such
statc-rclugcc domino proccsscs. |n many such cascs, pcoplc and vholc
communitics arc turncd into ghcttos, rclugcc camps, conccntration camps,
or rcscrvations, somctimcs vithout anyonc moving at al l .
Cthcr lorms ol human movcmcnt arc crcatcd by thc rcality or lurc ol
cconomic opportunity, this i s truc ol much Asian migration to thc oil -rich
parts ol thc Niddlc last. !ct othcr lorms ol movcmcnt arc crcatcd by pcr-
mancntly mobilc groups ol spccializcd vorkcrs ,Lni tcd lations soldicrs,
oil tcchnologists, dcvclopmcnt spccialists, and agricultural l aborcrs) . Still
othcr lorms ol movcmcnt, particularly i n sub-Saharan Alrica, i nvolvc
ma]or droughts and lamincs, oltcn ticd to disastrous allianccs bctvccn cor-
rupt statcs and opportunistic i ntcrnational and global agcncics. ln yct
othcr communitics, thc logic ol movcmcnt i s providcd by thc l cisurc i n-
dustrics, vhich crcatc tourisi sitcs and locations around thc vorld. Jhc
cthnography ol thcsc tourist locations i s ]ust bcginning to bc vrittcn i n
dctail, but vhat l i ttlc vc do knov suggcsts that many such locations crcatc
complcx conditions lor thc production and rcproduction ol local ity, in
vhich tics ol marriagc, vork, busincss, and lcisurc vcavc togcthcr various
circulating populations vith kinds ol locals to crcatc ncighborhoods that
bclong in onc scnsc to particular nation statcs, but that arc lrom anothcr
point ol vicv vhat vc might call |ors |eco||t|:s hc challcngc to producing
a ncighborhood i n thcsc scttings dcrivcs lrom thc i nhcrcnt instability ol
social rclationships, thc povcrlul tcndcncy lor local sub]cctivity itscll to
bc commoditizcd, and thc tcndcncics lor nation- statcs, vhich somctimcs
obtain signihcant rcvcnucs lrom such sitcs, to crasc intcrnal, local dynam
ics ihrough cxtcrnally imposcd modcs ol rcgulation, crcdcntialization, and
imagc producti on.
A much darkcr vcrsion ol thc problcm ol producing a ncighborhood
can bc sccn i n thc quasi-pcrmancnt rclugcc camps that nov charactcrizc
many cmbattlcd parts ol thc vorld, such as thc Cccupicd Jcrritorics i n
lalcstinc, thc camps on thc hai| andLambodia bordcr, thc many Lnitcd
lations organizcd camps i n Somalia, and thc Alghan rclugcc camps i n
lorthvcst lakistan. Lombining thc vorst lcaturcs ol urban slums, con-
ccntration camps, prisons, and ghcttos, thcsc arc placcs vhcrc, noncthc-
lcss, marriagcs arc contractcd and cclcbratcd, livcs arc bcgun and cndcd,
social contracts madc and honorcd, carccrs launchcd and brokcn, moncy
madc and spcnt, goods produccd and cxchangcd. Such rclugcc camps arc
T | : P t e J c t c r e } L e c o l | t y
\ J
thc starkcst cxamplcs o| thc conditions o| unccrtainty, povcrty, displacc-
mcnt, and dcspair undcr vhich locality can bc produccd. hcsc arc thc cx-
trcmc cxamplcs o| ncighborhoods that arc contcxt-produccd rathcr than
contcxt-gcncrativc. hcsc arc ncighborhoods vhosc l i |cvorlds arc pro-
duccd in thc darkcst circumstanccs, vith prisons and conccntration camps
bcing thcir most barbaric cxamplcs.
!ct cvcn thcsc brutal cxamplcs only push to an cxtrcmc thc quotidian
cthos o| many citics. ln thc conditions o| cthnic unrcst and urban var|arc
that charactcrizc citics such as cl |ast and los Angclcs, Ahmcdabad and
Sara]cvo, Nogadishu and }ohanncsburg, urban zoncs arc bccoming armcd
camps, drivcn vholly by |j|es|o: |orccs ,chap. 7) that |old into ncighbor-
hoods thc most violcnt and problcmatic rcpcrcussions o| vidcr rcgional,
national, and global proccsscs. hcrc arc, o| coursc, many important di|-
|crcnccs bctvccn thcsc citics, thcir historics, thcir populations, and thcir
cultural politics. !ct togcthcr thcy rcprcscnt a ncv phasc i n thc l i |c o|
citics, vhcrc thc conccntration o| cthnic populations, thc availabi l i ty o|
hcavy vcaponry, and thc crovdcd conditions o| civic l i |c crcatc |uturist
|orms o| var|arc (rcminisccnt o| hlms likc keoJ wo|e, 3|oJ: krr:, and
many othcrs), and vhcrc a gcncral dcsolation o| thc national and global
landscapc has transposcd many bizarrc racial , rcligious, and l i nguistic cn-
mitics i nto sccnarios o| unrclicvcd urban tcrror.
hcsc ncv urban vars havc bccomc to somc cxtcnt divorccd |rom thcir
rcgional and national ccologics and turncd into scl|- propcl ling, implosivc
vars bctvccn criminal, parami l itary, and civilian mi litias, ticd in obscurc
vays to transnational rcligious, cconomic, and political |orccs. hcrc arc,
o| coursc, many causcs |or thcsc |orms o| urban brcakdovn in thc irst and
hird Worlds, but i n part thcy arc duc to thc stcady crosion o| thc capa-
bi l i ty o| such citics to control thc mcans o| thcir ovn scl|-rcproduction. l t
i s di|hcult not to associatc a signihcant part o| thcsc problcms vith thc
shccr circulation o| pcrsons, o|tcn as a rcsult o| var|arc, starvation, and
cthnic clcansing, that drivcs pcoplc into such citics i n thc hrst placc. hc
production o| locality i n thcsc urban |ormations |accs thc rclatcd problcms
o| displaccd and dctcrritorializcd populations, o| statc policics that rcstrict
ncighborhoods as contcxt produccrs, and o| local sub]ccts vho cannot bc
anything othcr than national citizcns. |n thc most harsh cascs, such ncigh-
borhoods hardly dcscrvc thc namc anymorc, givcn that thcy arc barcly
morc than stagcs, holding companics, sitcs, and barracks |or populations
vith a dangcrously thin commitmcnt to thc production o| locality.
Lcst this sccm too dark a vision, it might bc notcd that thc vcry naturc
o| thcsc lcss plcasant urban dramas drivcs individuals and groups to morc
T | e P xJ c t :x r x) Lxc 1::y
= ( 9 3 =
pcacc|ul locations vhcrc thcy arc villing to bring thcir vit, ski l l s, and pas-
sion |or pcacc. Jhc bcst momcnts o| urban l i |c i n thc Lni tcd Statcs and
luropc arc ovcd to thcsc migrants vho arc ||ccing placcs |ar vorsc than
Lhicago, Lctroit, los Angclcs, and Niami . !ct vc knov that thc produc-
tion o| local ity i n South-Lcntral los Angclcs, on Lhicagos Wcst Sidc, and
i n similar parts o| l argc Amcrican citics is a highly cmbattlcd proccss.
Jhc third and hnal |actor to bc addrcsscd hcrc is thc rolc o| mass
mcdia, cspccially in its clcctronic |orms, in crcating ncv sorts o| dis]unc-
iurc bctvccn spatial and virtual ncighborhoods. Jhis dis]uncturc has both
utopian and dystopian potcniials, and thcrc is no casy vay to tcll hov
thcsc might play thcmsclvcs out in rcgard to thc |uturc o| thc production
o| locality. or onc thing, thc clcctronic mcdia thcmsclvcs nov vary intcr-
nally and constitutc a complcx |amily o| tcchnological mcans |or produc-
ing and disscminating ncvs and cntcrtainmcnt. i l m tcnds to bc domi -
natcd by ma]or commcrcial intcrcsts i n a |cv vorld ccntcrs ( lollyvood,
lcv !ork, long ong, ombay), although ma]or sccondary sitcs |or com-
mcrcial cincma arc cmcrging in othcr parts o| luropc, Asia, and A|rica
(such as Ncxico Li ty, angkok, and Nadras) . Art ci ncma ,partly built on a
groving transnational nctvork o| hl m |cstivals, cxhibitions, and commcr-
cial auctions) is sprcad both morc broadly and morc thinly across thc
vorld, but crossovcr hlms (such as k:s:oe| Dejs, T|: Cy|rj Co:, as vcll as
So|oo 3elo, and | Mo|oc||) arc on thc incrcasc.
Jclcvision, both i n its convcntional broadcast |orms as vcll as through
ncv |orms o| satcllitc hookup, incrcasingly lcap|rogs thc public spaccs o|
ci ncma vicving and comcs into |orcsts o| antcnnac, o|tcn i n thc poorcst
slums o| thc vorld, such as thosc o| Kio dc }anciro and So laulo. Jhc
rclationship bctvccn hlm vicving in thcatcrs and on vidcocasscttcs in
domcstic scttings itscl| crcatcs vcry important changcs, vhich havc bccn
argucd to signal thc cnd o| cincma vicving as a cassical |orm o| spcciator-
ship ( lanscn l 99 l ) . At thc samc timc, thc avai l ability o| vidcoproduction
tcchnologics to small communitics, somctimcs i n thc ourth World, has
madc i t possiblc |or thcsc communitics to crcatc morc c||cctivc national
and global stratcgics o| scl |rcprcscntation and cultural survival ,Li nsburg
I 993, Jurncr I 992). ax machincs, clcctronic mai l , and othcr |orms o|
computcr-mcdiatcd communication havc crcatcd ncv possibilitics |or
transnational |orms o| communication, o|tcn bypassing thc intcrmcdiatc
survci llancc o| thc nation- statc and o| ma]or mcdia conglomcratcs. lach o|
thcsc dcvclopmcnts, o| coursc, i ntcracts vith thc othcrs, crcating compl i -
catcd ncv conncctions bctvccn produccrs, audicnccs, and publicslocal
and national, stablc and diaspori c
T | : P t e J c t c r e} L e c o | t y
^ } 94 =
lt s mpossblc to sort through ths bcvldcrng plcthora o| changcs n
thc mcda cnvronmcnts that surround thc producton o| ncghborhoods.
but thcrc arc numcrous ncv |orms o| communty and communcaton that
currcntly a||cct thc capablty o| ncghborhoods to bc contcxt-producng
rathcr than largcly contcxtdrvcn. hc much- dscusscd mpact o| ncvs
|rom CMM and othcr smlar global and nstantancous |orms o| mcdaton,
as vcll as thc rolc o| |ax tcchnologcs n thc dcmocratc uphcavals n
Lhna, lastcrn luropc, and thc Sovct Lnon n I 989 ,and sncc) havc
madc t possblc both |or lcadcrs and naton-statcs, as vcll as thcr varous
oppostonal |orccs, to communcatc vcry rapdly across local and cvcn na-
tonal lncs. hc spccd o| such communcaton s |urthcr complcatcd by
thc grovth o| clcctronc bllboard communtcs, such as thosc cnablcd
by thc lntcrnct, vhch allov dcbatc, daloguc, and rclatonshp buldng
among varous tcrrtorally dvdcd ndvduals, vho ncvcrthclcss arc |orm-
ng communtcs o| magnaton and ntcrcst that arc gcarcd to thcr das-
porc postons and voccs.
hcsc ncv |orms o| clcctroncally mcdatcd communcaton arc bcg n-
n ng to crcatc o|to| r:|j|le|eeJ, no longcr boundcd by tcrrtory, pass-
ports, taxcs, clcctons, and othcr convcntonal poltcal dacrtcs, but by
acccss to both thc so|tvarc and hardvarc that arc rcqurcd to conncct to
thcsc largc ntcrnatonal computcr nctvorks. hus |ar, acccss to thcsc vr-
tual (clcctronc) ncghborhoods tcnds to bc conhncd to mcmbcrs o| thc
transnatonal ntcllgcntsa, vho, through thcr acccss to computcr tcch-
nologcs at unvcrstcs, labs, and lbrarcs, can basc socal and poltcal
pro|ccts on tcchnologcs constructcd to solvc n|ormaton-hov problcms.
l n|ormaton and opnon llov concurrcntly through thcsc crcuts, and
vhlc thc socal morphology o| thcsc clcctronc ncghborhoods s hard to
class|y and thcr longcvty d|hcult to prcdct, clcarly thcy arc commun -
tcs o| somc sort, tradng n|ormaton and buldng lnks that a||cct many
arcas o| l |c, |rom phlanthropy to marragc.
hcsc vrtual ncghborhoods sccm on thc |acc o| t to rcprcscnt |ust
that abscncc o| |accto-|acc lnks, spatal contguty, and multplcx socal
ntcracton that thc dca o| a ncghborhood sccms ccntrally to mply. !ct
vc must not bc too quck to opposc hghly spatalzcd ncghborhoods to
thcsc vrtual ncghborhoods o| ntcrnatonal clcctronc communcaton.
hc rclatonshp bctvccn thcsc tvo |orms o| ncghborhood s consdcr-
ably morc complcx. ln thc hrst nstancc, thcsc vrtual ncghborhoods arc
ablc to moblzc dcas, opnons, moncys, and socal l nkagcs that o|tcn d -
rcctly llov back nto lvcd ncghborhoods n thc |orm o| currcncy hovs,
arms |or local natonalsms, and support |or varous postons n hghly Io-
T | : P t o J c t e r e} L e c o l | t y
= J 95 =
cali zcd publ i c sphcrcs. Jhus, in thc contcxt ol thc dcstruction ol thc babri
Nas]i d i n Ayodhya by li ndu cxtrcmists on Lcccmbcr I 992, thcrc vas
an intcnsc mobilization ol computcr, lax, and rclatcd clcctronic nctvorks,
vhich crcatcd vcry rapid loops ol dcbatc and i nlormation cxchangc bc-
tvccn i ntcrcstcd pcrsons i n thc Lnitcd Statcs, Lanada, lngland, and vari-
ous parts ol lndi a. Jhcsc clcctronic loops havc bccn cxploitcd cqually by
lndians i n thc Lni tcd Statcs standing on both sidcs ol thc grcat dcbatc
ovcr lundamcntalism and communal harmony in contcmporary lndia.
At thc samc timc, continuing vith thc cxamplc ol thc lndian commu-
ni ty ovcrscas, both thc progrcssivc, sccularist groupi ngs and thcir countcr-
parts on thc li ndu rcvivalist sidc ,mcmbcrs ol thc Vishva li ndu larishad
and sympathizcrs ol thc bharatiya }anata larty and thc ba]rang Lal, somc-
timcs rclcrrcd to as thc Sangh (o|ro or lamily) arc mobilizing thcsc virtual
ncighborhoods i n thc intcrcst ol political pro]ccts that arc intcnscly local-
izing i n lndia. Jhc riots that shook many lndian citics altcr Lcccmbcr
I 992 can no longcr bc vicvcd i n isolation lrom thc clcctronic mobiliza-
tion ol thc lndian diaspora, vhosc mcmbcrs can nov bc involvcd dircctly
in thcsc dcvclopmcnts in lnd| a through clcctronic mcans. Jhis is not cn-
tircly a mattcr ol longdi stancc nationalism ol thc sort that bcncdict An-
dcrson has rcccntly bcmoancd ,Andcrson I 994). lt is part and parccl ol thc
ncv and oltcn con|licting rclations among ncighborhoods, translocal allc-
gianccs, and thc logic ol thc nationstatc.
Jhcsc "ncv patriotisms ,chap 8) arc not |ust thc cxtcnsions ol nation-
alist and countcrnati onalist dcbatcs by othcr mcans, although thcrc is ccr-
tainly a good dcal ol prosthctic nationalism and politics by nostalgia i n
volvcd i n thc dcalings ol cxilcs vith thcir crstvhilc homclands. Jhcy also
involvc various rathcr puzzling ncv lorms ol l i nkagc bctvccn diasporic
nationalisms, dclocalizcd political communications, and rcvitalizcd politi-
cal commitmcnts at both cnds ol thc diasporic proccss.
Jhis last lactor rcUccts thc vays i n vhich diasporas arc changing in
light ol ncv lorms ol clcctronic mcdiation. l ndians i n thc Lnitcd Statcs
arc in dircct contact vith dcvclopmcnts in l ndia that involvc cthnic vio-
lcncc, statc lcgitimacy, and party politics, and thcsc vcry dialogucs crcatc
ncv lorms ol association, convcrsation, and mobil ization i n thcir minori-
tarian politics i n thc Lni tcd Statcs. Jhus, many ol thosc most aggrcs-
sivcly involvcd through clcctronic mcans vi th lndi an politics, arc also
thosc most comm|ttcd to cllorts to rcorganizc various kinds ol diasporic
politics i n thc citics and rcgions ol thc Lnitcd Statcs. urthcr, thc mobi-
l i zation ol lndian vomcn against domcstic abusc, and thc collaboration ol
progrcssivc lndian groups vith thcir countcrparts involvcd vith lalcstinc
T | : P t e J c t e r e } L c c o | t y
\ 9
and South Alrica, suggcst that thcsc virtual clcctronic ncighborhoods ollcr
ncv vays lor lndians to takc part in thc production ol locality i n thc citics
and suburbs i n vhich thcy rcsidc as Amcrican tcachcrs, cabdrivcrs, cngi-
nccrs, and cntrcprcncurs
lndians i n thc Lnitcd Statcs arc nov cngagcd in a varicty ol vays i n thc
politics ol multiculturalism i n thc Lnitcd Statcs , bhattachar|cc I 992) . Jhis
cngagcmcnt is dccply i nllcctcd and allcctcd by thcir involvcmcnt i n thc
inccndiary politics ol thcir homcs, citics, and rclativcs i n lndia, and also i n
othcr locations vhcrc thcir lndian lricnds and rclativcs livc and vorkin
lngland, Alrica, long long, and thc Niddlc last. Jhus, thc politics ol di-
aspora, at lcast vithin thc past dccadc, havc bccn dccisivcly allcctcd by
global clcctronic translormations Kathcr than a simplc opposition bc-
tvccn spatial and virtual ncighborhoods, vhat has cmcrgcd is a signihcant
ncv clcmcnt i n thc production ol locality. Jhc global llov ol imagcs,
ncvs, and opinion nov providcs part ol thc cngagcd cultural and political
l itcracy that diasporic pcrsons bring to thcir spatial ncighborhoods. ln
somc vays, thcsc global llovs add to thc intcnsc, and implosivc, lorcc
undcr vhich spatial ncighborhoods arc produccd.
Lnl ikc thc l argcly ncgativc prcssurcs that thc nation-statc placcs on
thc production ol contcxt by local sub|ccts, thc clcctronic mcdiation ol
community i n thc diasporic vorld crcatcs a morc complicatcd, dis|unct,
hybrid scnsc ol local sub|cctivity. bccausc thcsc clcctronic communitics
typically involvc thc morc cducatcd and cl i tc mcmbcrs ol diasporic com-
munitics, thcy do not dircctly allcct thc local prcoccupations ol lcss cdu-
catcd and privilcgcd migrants. lcss cnlranchiscd migrants arc gcncrally
prcoccupicd vith thc practicalitics ol livclihood and rcsidcncc i n thcir
ncv scttings, but thcy arc not isolatcd lrom thcsc global llovs. A Sikh cab-
drivcr i n Lhicago may not bc ablc to participatc i n thc politics ol thc lun-
|ab by using thc l ntcrnct, but hc might listcn to casscttcs ol hcry dcvo-
tional songs and scrmons dclivcrcd at thc Loldcn Jcmplc in thc lun|ab.
lis countcrparts lrom laiti, lakistan, and lran can usc thc radio and thc
casscttc playcr to listcn to vhat thcy choosc to pick lrom thc hugc global
llov ol audiocasscttcs, cspccially dcvotcd to popular and dcvotional music
and spccchcs.
Lillcrcnt groups ol lndians i n thc Lnitcd Statcs also hcar spccchcs and
scrmons lrom cvcry knovn varicty ol itincrant politician, acadcmic, holy
man, and cntrcprcncur lrom thc subcontincnt, vhilc thcsc makc thcir
Amcrican tours. Jhcy also rcad |rJ|o w:st. IrJ|o loJ, and othcr ma|or
ncvspapcrs that imbricatc ncvs ol Amcrican and lndian politics i n thc
samc pagcs. Jhcy participatc, through cablc tclcvision, vidco, and othcr
T | : P t e J c t e r e} L e c o l t y
I 97
tcchnologics in thc stcady noisc ol homc cntcrtainmcnt produccd in and
lor thc Lnitcd Statcs. hus thc vork ol thc imagination ,chap. I ) through
vhich local sub]cctivity is produccd and nurturcd is a bcvildcring palimp-
scst ol highly local and highly translocal considcrations.
hc thrcc lactors that most dircctly allcct thc production ol locality in
thc vorld ol thc prcscntthc nation statc, diasporic llovs, and clcctronic
and virtual communiticsarc thcmsclvcs articulatcd i n variablc, puzzling,
somctimcs contradictory vays that dcpcnd on thc cultural, class, histori-
cal, and ccological sctting vithin vhich thcy comc togcthcr. l n part, this
variabi lity i s itscll a product ol thc vay that todays cthnoscapcs intcract ir-
rcgularly vith hnancc, mcdia, and tcchnological imaginarics ,chap. 2) .
lov thcsc lorccs arc articulatcd i n lort Norcsby i s dillcrcnt lrom thcir ar-
ticulation i n lcshavar, and this i n turn lrom bcrlin or Los Angclcs. but
thcsc arc all placcs vhcrc thc battlc bctvccn thc imaginarics ol thc nation-
statc, ol unscttlcd communitics, and ol global clcctronic mcdia i s i n lull
progrcss.
What thcy add up to, vith all thcir con|unctural variations, i s an im-
mcnsc ncv sct ol challcngcs lor thc production ol locality i n all thc scnscs
suggcstcd i n this chaptcr. hc problcms ol cultural rcproduction in a glob-
alizcd vorld arc only partly dcscribablc i n tcrms ol problcms ol racc and
class, gcndcr and povcr, although thcsc arc surcly cruci al ly involvcd. An
cvcn morc lundamcntal lact i s that thc production ol localityalvays, as l
havc argucd, a lragilc and dilhcult achicvcmcntis morc than cvcr shot
through vith contradictions, dcstabi l izcd by human motion, and dis-
placcd by thc lormation ol ncv kinds ol virtual ncighborhoods.
Locality is thus lragil c in tvo scnscs. hc hrst scnsc, vith vhich l
bcgan this chaptcr, lollovs lrom thc lact that thc matcrial rcproduction ol
actual ncighborhoods is invariably up against thc corrosion ol contcxt, i l
nothing clsc, i n thc tcndcncy ol thc matcrial vorld to rcsist thc dclault dc-
signs ol human agcncy. hc sccond scnsc cmcrgcs vhcn ncighborhoods
arc sub|cct to thc contcxt-producing drivcs ol morc complcx hicrarchical
organizations, cspccially thosc ol thc modcrn nation- statc. hc rclation-
ship bctvccn thcsc distinct lorms ol lragility i s itscl l historical, i n that i t
i s thc long tcrm intcraction ol ncighborhoods that crcatcs such complcx
hicrarchical rclations, a proccss vc havc usually discusscd undcr such
rubrics as statc lormati on. his historical dialcctic i s a rcmindcr that local
ity as a dimcnsion ol social l i lc, and as an articulatcd valuc ol particular
ncighborhoods, i s not a transccndcnt standard lrom vhich particular soci-
ctics lall or dcviatc. Kathcr, locality i s alvays cmcrgcnt lrom thc practiccs
ol local sub]ccts i n spccihc ncighborhoods. hc possibilitics lor its rcaliza-
T | : P e J c t c r e} L e c o | | t y
I 98 =
tion as a structurc o| |ccling arc thus as variablc and incomplctc as thc
rclations among thc ncighborhoods that constitutc its practical instanccs.
hc many displaccd, dctcrritorializcd, and transicnt populations that
constitutc todays cthnoscapcs arc cngagcd in thc construction o| locality,
as a structurc o| |ccling, o|tcn in thc |acc o| thc crosion, dispcrsal, and im-
plosion o| ncighborhoods as cohcrcnt social |ormations. his dis]uncturc
bctvccn ncighborhoods as social |ormations and locality as a propcrty o|
social l i |c is not vithout historical prcccdcnt, givcn that long- distancc
tradc, |orccd migrations, and political cxits arc vcry vidcsprcad i n thc his
torical rccord. What is ncv is thc dis]uncturc bctvccn thcsc proccsscs and
thc mass-mcdiatcd discourscs and practiccs ,i ncluding thosc o| cconomic
l ibcralization, multiculturalism, human rights, and rc|ugcc claims) that
nov surround thc nation-statc. his dis]uncturc, likc cvcry othcr onc,
points to somcthing con]unctural . Jhc task o| thcorizing thc rclationship
bctvccn such dis]uncturcs ,chap. 2) and con]uncturcs that account |or thc
globalizcd production o| di||crcncc nov sccms both morc prcssing and
morc daunting. ln such a thcory, it is unlikcly that thcrc vill bc anything
mcrc about thc local.
T | e P e J c t | e r e} L e c o | | t y
= I 99 =
N06S
L!1 J11 1 . !111 1N L NV
hcabscncco|spccihcciIaIionsi nIhc tcxIo|Ihiscssayshouldnotconvcythci m
prcssion Ihat iI was immaculaIcly conccivcd. his inIroducIory chapIcr, likc thc
bookIhaI |ollows iI, builds onmanycurrcnIsinIhc social andhuman scicnccsovcr
IhcpastIwodccadcs. Nanyo|IhcscdcbIswillbcapparcntinIhcnoIcsIoIhcchap
IcrsIhat|ollow.
2 lor a |ullcr IrcaImcnI o| this idca, scc Ihc inIroducIory cssay by ppadurai and
BrcckcnridgconlublicNodcrniIyinlndia nCcnsumin NcJ:tni!. |u|l|c Cul!ut: |n a
5cu!| Asian Wct|J, cd |arol. Brcckcnridgc(Ninncapolis.LnivcrsiIyo|NnncsoIa
lrcss, I 995), I-20. Jhiscollccton olcssays cxcmplihcs oncstratcgy lorcngaging
Ihcglobalmodcrninaspccihcsitc.
L!1 J 1 2 . L1 b J L N LJL11 1N L L1 | | 11N L1 | N J L Lb1L
LL LJ L11L LNTY
Lncma|orcxccpIionislrcdric|amcson,whoscworkonIhcrclaIionshipbcIwccn
posImodcrnismandlaIccapiIalismhasnmanywaysinspircdIhiscssay.hcdcbaIc
bcIwccn|amcson andi)azhmad in5cc|al !:x!, howcvcr, showsIhaIIhccrcaIion
o| a globalizing NarxsI narratvc n cultu:al matIcrs is d|hculI Icrritory indccd
[amcson I 986,hmad I 987). Nyownc||orIinIhisconIcxI isIo bcgin a rcsIruc-
Iuringo|IhcNarxistnarraIivc(bysIrcssinglagsanddis|uncIurcs) IhaImanyNarx
sIsmighIhndabho::cnI SucharcsIrucIuringhasIoavoidIhcdangcrso|obliIcraI
ing di||crcncc within thcJhirdWorld, clding thcsocial rc|crcnI ,as somc rcnch
posImodcrnisIs sccm inclincdIo do), and rcIainingIhc narraIivc auIhoriIy o|Ihc
NarxisIIradiIon,n |avoro|grcaIcraItcnIion Ioglobal|ragmcnIaIion,unccrIainIy,
and d||crcncc.
2 hcidcao|:!|ncscae ismorclullycngagcdnchap. 3.
2
L!1 !11 3 . L Lb1L 1J!^b L11b . ^J1b 1^L L L111 1b |1
1 J11^b ^1 |^1L 1^1!1LLY
Jhcscidcasaboutthcculturalcconomyo|aworldi n motion,aswcllasthclogico|
tcrmssuch ase!|ncscae, arcmorc|ullydcvclopcdinchap. 2.
2 Jhis isnotthc placc |orancxtcndcdrcvicwo|thccmcrgcnthcldo|culturalstudics.
ltsBritishlincagcsarccarc|ullycxplorcdin |all , I 986)and|ohnson , I 986). Butit
isclcarthatthis British tradition, associatcd largclywith thc nowdiasporic Birm-
ingham School, istakingncw |orms in thc LnitcdStatcs,as itcomcs intocontact
withmcricanculturalanthropology, thcncwhistoricism, andlanguagcandmcdia
studicsinthcmcricantradition.
Jhc|ollowingdiscussiondrawshcavilyonppadurai andBrcckcnridgc, I 99 I a).
L!1 J11 5 . L1Y1 ^L V l J! NL11^l JY. J!1 L1LL^1 1J | ^
1 ^Ll 1^ L1l L K1J
Jhcsc matcrials includc thc Narathil anguagc magazincs C|aula, As|!aai|u, Kr|le!
|ata!i, and 5|a!lat, which havc thcir countcrparts in Jamil, |indi, and Bcngali.
Jhcsc magazincs providcgossipon crickctstars,rcvicws o|crickctbooks i nLng-
lish,ncwsandanal,siso|crickcIinLnglandandclscwhcrcinIhcLommonwcal\h,
andsomctimcs alsocovcragc o|othcrsports, aswcll as cincma andothcr|ormso|
popularcntcrtainmcnt. l nthcm, thcrc|orc, both inthctcxts andi nthcadvcrtisc-
mcnts, crickct is tcxtuallysimultancouslyvcrnacularizcdanddrawn intothc glam
ouro|cosmopolitan Ii|c. dctailcdanalysiso|thcscmatcrials warrants a scparatc
study.Jhcsc magazincs, along withbooks by crickctcrssuch as5|a!al aani 5ba!lat
,ghostwrittcn Narathi autobiographics o|Kavi Shastri and Sandip latil), |orm thc
basiso|thclinguisticandrcadcrlydccolonizationo|crickct. lamdccplygratc|ulto
LccSchlcsingcrwhohuntcddownsomco|thcscmatcrials|ormcinthcbookstorcs
andbywayso|loona.
L!1 J11 6 . ^L N b11 1 ^ J! LL^ 1L 1 N1L1 ^1J ^
By!etti!ct|al, l mcan thc conccrn o|thcccnsus with boroughs, countics, andrcgions
( Luddcn I 99 I ) .
2 l owc this contrast bctwccn spccial and limiting cascs to Lipcsh Lhakrabarty, to
whoml also owc thcrcmindcrthat this problcmiscriticaltomyargumcnt.
L!1 J 1 7 . L | |1 1| 1 1| N1L1 1L1 b N
Larlicrvcrsionso|thischaptcrwcrcprcscntcdatthcLcntcr|orl ntcrnational||ars
at |arvard Lnivcrsity, thc lrogram in thc Lomparativc Study o| Social Jrans|or
mationsatthcLnivcrsityo|Nichigan, andthcCcntcr|orsianStudicsatthcLni
vcrsiIyo|mstcrdam. l amgratc|ultothcaudicnccsoncacho|thcscoccasions|or
thcir probing qucstionsandusc|ul criticisms.
2 |crc, am dclightcd to hccd a call by lrcdrik Barth, whosc own work on cthnic
groupsandboundarics, I 969)rcmainsaclassicstudyo|thcsocialcontcxto|cthnic
proccsscs,|ormorcstudicso|thcrclationshipbctwccnglobalizationandthcmobi-
lizationo|cthnicidcntity(Barth I 995). lorancarlyandprcscicntc||orttolinkcth-
nicitytothci ntcrnationalordcr, sccLnloc ! 986.
3 ln many ways, this chaptcr is a dialoguc with thc mportant collccton cditcd by
CliI|ord Lccrtz, C|J 5ccie!ies anJ Nea 5!a!es !|e |ue:! ]ct NcJen|! in Asia anJ A]tica
N e t : s t e C | o ! e t s J 7
202 =
( I 963) . lroduccdundcrthc auspiccs o|thc Committcc|orthcComparativcStudy
o|hcvhationsatthcLnivcrsityo|Chicago, thisvolumccontainscssaysby soci-
ologists, anthropologists, andpoliticalscicntistsandrcprcscntsama]ormomcnto|
cross-discipIinary intcraction on thc sub|cct o|modcrnization. Lccplyin|Iucnccd
bythchcritagco|NaxWcbcrandthcsubscqucntc||ortso|Ldvard ShilsandJal
cottlarsons to intcrprct Wcbcr inthcLnitcdStatcs, thccssays inthccollcction
gcncrallyrcprcscntapositivccnthusiasmaboutmodcrnization thatl do notsharc.
Somc o|thccssays alsosubscribcto thc scnsco|a primordiaIistsubstratc insian
and|ricansocicticsthatisthcdirccttargcto|mycriticalrcmarks |nthischaptcr.
Lthcr contributions, notably thc onc by Cli||ord Lccrtz, arc carc|ul to notc that
vhat appcar to bc thc primordia o| social l i |clanguagc, racc, kinship~arc ;ust
that, appcaranccs. Lccrtzsccsthcmasparto|thcrhctorico|naturc,o|historyand
rootstovhichmanypoliticiansinthcncvstatcs appcaIcd. Jhcprimordialistvicv
still hasvidcsprcadcurrcncy. Lnccxamplc amongmany, morc thantvodccadcs
a|tcrthcappcarancc o|thc Lccrtzvolumc, is!b: |t|mctJia| Cba||:n: L!bnici in !b:
Ccn!:mcta_ Wct|J ( I 986), cditcdby|ohnStack. t shovs thc sturdincsso|thc idca
o|thcprimordialasa|act,not]ustanappcaranccoratropc,inthcsocialli|co|cth-
nicgroups.
4 Jhis thcoryo|thc cxtrcmc violcnccnov |rcqucntlyassociatcdvithcthnicclashcs
isadumbratcdinthcmostprcliminaryo||ormshcrc. ndcvclopingit,l havcrclicd
on a varictyo|sourccsandi ntcrprctations. hotablc amongthcschavcbccn bcnc
dictndcrsonsspccihc|ormulationsaboutracismandviolcnccinImain:J Ccmmun|-
!i:s ( I 983) . Jhc vork o| shis handy and Vccna Las on communal violcncc in
South sia in thc pastdccadc (in Las I 990) and Lass most rcccntvork onSikh
militantdiscoursc in ndiasincc thc latc I 970s ( I 995)havcgivcnmcvaluablci n-
sights intothcvays invhichviolcncci slocalizcd, narrativizcd,andpcrsonalizcd.
inally, a chiIling cssayby LonaldSutton ( I 995)on cannibalism amongcountcr-
rcvoIutionary pcasants in China in I 968 o||crs a povcr|ul glimpsc into thc vays
invhich thc mostcxtrcmc|ormso|political violcncc canbc Iinkcdto statc-lcvcl
politics and policics. Liisa Nalkkis brilliant cthnography about |utu rc|ugccs in
Janzania ( I 995) has bccn a pain|ul inspiration. Jakcn togcthcr, thcscvorks (and
manyothcrs)lcndsupport tothcidcathatbrutaI damagc tothccmbodicd Lthcr
(asinstanccdinthcbodicso|Lthcrs) iscloscIyticdupviththclinkbctvccnindi-
vidual idcntitics andcxtralocal labcls andcatcgorics.Jhc|ull dcvclopmcnto|this
argumcntaboutragc,bctrayal,statcsponsorcdcatcgorics,andintimatcknovlcdgc
o|pcrsonsmustavaitanothcroccasion.Shcrry Lrtncrisrcsponsiblc|orpcrsuading
mcthatthischaptcrasvcllasthisbooknccdcdsomcscriouscngagcmcntvith thc
topico|cthnicviolcncc.
5 l should notc hcrc that my vicv should not bc strictly idcntihcd vith a statc-
ccntcrcd pcrspcctivc on contcmporary cthnic violcncc. l am sympathctic to thc
gcncralargumcnto|KobcrtLcs]arlaisandlbcrtllcinman ( I 994)thatnotallcon
tcmporaryviolcncccanbc attributcdto thcviolcntdisciplinary tcchniqucs o|thc
modcrnnation-statc.Jhcrc isccrtainlya grcatdcalo|unccrtaintyandanomicthat
|ccds thcvorstsccncso|cthnicviolcnccinthcvorld.Jhisnotion o|unccrtainty,
rathcrthanknovlcdgc, ascharactcrizing thc moral cconomy o| violcnccccrtainly
nccdssystcmaticcxploration.orthcmomcnt,itisvorthnotingthatcvcninthosc
situations in vhich moral disordcr, cpistcmoIogical brcakdovn, and social unccr-
N e t : s t e C | o j t : t 7
= 203 =
tainIyarcrampanI,Ihc|acIso|violcncco|Icn shovIhcrcmarkablcsalicncco|sIaIc-
sponsorcdtcchniqucso|idcnIincaIionand poliIically sIagcddramaso|unccrIainty,
scapcgoaIing, and cxposurc (scc, |or cxamplc, dc Waal I 994 on Ihc gcnocidc in
Kvanda)
L M1 J L H O . 1J H |J | bT 1^L | J b L J L H L b
Larlicrvcrsionso | thiscssay vcrcprcscntcdatthcCcntcr|orthcCriccalnalysis
o| ConIcmporary Culturc at KuIgcrs Lnivcrsity, aI Ihc CcnIcr |or Jranscultural
SIudics,Chicago),andaIthcLnivcrsityo|Chicago.
2 Scc Ihc convcrgcncc bctvccn Ihis proposal and thc argumcnI |rom thc Chicago
CulIuralSIudicsLroup, I 992, 537).
l amgraIc|ulIolhilipSchcr,vhoinIroduccd mcIoIhctcrmtransna!|cn.
L |1 J L H 9 . J | L HLL L J ^ | LL1L J Y
Jhcrc is n o idcal vay todcsignaIc localiIicsa s acIual social |orms Jcrms such as
lac:, s|!:, lccal: allhavcthcirsIrcngIhsandvcakncsscs. hcIcrmn:ib|ctbccJ ,aparI
|romiIsuscinavoidi ngIhccon|usionbcIvccnlocaliIyasIhcsingular|ormo|local
iIics andlocaliIy as propcrty or dimcnsiono|socialli|c) also hasthcvirIucIhaIiI
suggcsIs sociality, immcdiacy, and rcproducibility vithouI any ncccssary implica-
tions |or scalc, spccihc modcs o| conncctiviIy, intcrnal homogcncity, or sharp
boundarics. hisscnsco|ncighborhoodcanalsoaccommodaIc imagcssuchascir-
cuiI andbordcrzonc, vhichhavc bccn argucd to bcprc|crablcto such imagcs as
community and ccnIcr-pcriphcry, cspccially vhcrc IransnaIional migraIion is in-
volvcd,Kousc l 99 l ) . hcvcrthclcss, itcarricsthcburdcno|coopIing a colloquial
Icrm|orIcchnicalusc.
2 Jhis criIiquc is cnIirclyconsistcnI vith (and parIly inspircdby)|ohanncslabians
criIiquc o| Ihc dcnial o| cocvaIncss in cthnographyandthc rcsultingcrcation o| a
hctivc timc o|and |orthc Lthcr , I 983) . YcI Ihis cssay docs not takcup Ihc vcxcd
qucsIion o| IhcrcIaIionshipbctvccn IhccoproducIionolspacc and Iimc incthno-
graphic practicc, northc dcbaIc (sccbclov)ovcrvhcIhcrspaccandtimcIcndIo
cannibalizccachothcri nmodcrn, capiIalisIsocictics.Jhc prcscnIargumcnIabouI
localiIy is in part inIcndcd to opcn up Ihc qucstion o| Iimc and tcmporaliIy inIhc
producIion o|locality am graIc|ul Io licIcr lcls |or rcmindingmc IhaI Ihc pro
ducIion o|IcmporaliIy is cqually rclcvanI to hov cthnography and localiIy havc
hisIoricallyproduccdoncanothcr.
3 IIhispoinI,myvicvo|localizaIionconvcrgcsviIhthcgcncraIargumcnIo||cnri
Lc|cbvrc , I 99 I ) , alIhough hcsIrcsscsthcrclaIionship o|capiIalismandmodcrniIy
Io this ncgaiivcscnscollocalizaIion. lc|cbvrcs ovn account o|IhcnaIionstaIc is
bric|andcryptic, alIhoughitisclcarIhaIhcalsosavthc linksbctvccnthcprcsup
posiIionso|Ihcmodcrn naIion-sIatc and IhccapiIalisIproccsso|localizaIionJhc
qucstion o|hovmyargumcnImighIrclaIctothosco|lc|cbvrc, I 99 l ) and|arvcy
I 989), althoughimporIanI, cxcccds Ihc scopco| Ihis chaptcr
N o t : s t o C | o j t : s 8 9
= 20\ =
b0l0f8h
bu-lughod, l. ( I 989):]ct: Lutc:an H::mcn !|: WctlJ 5s!:m AL ! 2 J~t 3. hcv
1ork.Lx|ordLn|vcrsitylrcss.
. ( I 99I ) Wr|tingagainstCu|turc. nK.Iox (Ld.)R:ca!utin An!|tcclc. Wctkin
in !|: |t:s:n!. SantaIc. Schoo|o|mcricanKcscarch.
hmad, . ( I 987)|amcsons Khctoric o|Lthcrncss andthchationall|cgory, 5ccial
!:x! I 7. 325.
l i , S. N. ( I 98 I ) Cticl:! L:li|(jul. Lclhi.Kupa.
l|cn, L. K.( I 985)Cticl:! cn !|: Ait. london. britsh broadcastingCorporation.
mi n, S. ( I 980) Class anJ Na!icn. Hisrcricall anJ in !|: Curr:n! Ctisis. hcv 1ork and
london. NonthlyKcvicvlrcss.
. ( I 984)Landh|asNahatma.LorakhpurListrict,LastcmLl, I 92 I2. lnKana|t
Luha(Ld. )5u|al!:n 5!uJi:s. Wti!ins cn 5cu!| Asian His!c_ anJ 5cci:t, vol. 3. Lc|hiand
london. Lx|ordLnivcrsitylrcss
ndcrson, b. ( I 983) Imain:J Ccmmuni!i:s. R:]:c!icns cn !|: Ctiin anJ 5t:aJ c] Na!icnalism.
london.Vcrso.
( I 99 I ) Ccnsus,Nap, Nuscum. l nhisImain:J Ccmmuni!i:s (rcv. cdition) . hcv
1orkandlondon.Vcrso.
. ( I 994)Lxodus,Cti!ical Inui 20(2). 3 I 427.
ppadura|,. ( I 98 I ) Wcts|i anJ Ccn]ic! unJ:t Cclcnial Rul:. hcv1ork. Cambridgc Lni -
vcrsitylrcss.
. (Ld. ) ( I 986) Commoditics and thc loltics o| Valuc. n his !|: 5ccial Lij: c]
!|ins. CcmmcJi!i:s in Cul!utal |:ts:c!iu:. Cambridgc. CambridgcLn| vcrsitylrcss.
. ( I 988) lutting |icrarchy in lts llacc, Cul!utal An!|tcclc 3 ( I , cbruary).
3750.
. ( I 990) Jopograph|cs o|thcScl|. lraisc andLmotion in|indu lnda. ln C. .
lutzandl.bu-lughod (Lds.) Lanua: anJ !|: |cli!ics c] Lmc!icn. Cambridgc. Cam-
bridgcLn|vcrsitylrcss.
205
ppadurai, P, and L P brcckcnridgc. , I 99 I a)Narriagc,Nigration and Noncy. Nira
hairs Cincmao|Lisplaccmcnt,\isua| An!|tcclc 4 , I , Spring). 95I 02.
. , I 99 I b) Nuscumsrc LoodtoJhink. |critagconVicvi n|ndia. lnl . larp,
S. lcvinc, and 1barra-lrausto ,Lds. ) Nus:ums anJ !|:it Ccmmuni!i:s !|: |cli!ics c]
|u|lic Cu|!ut:. Washington,L. C. Smithsonianl nstitutionlrcss.
. , I 995)lublicNodcrnityinndia ln LP brcckcnridgc,Ld. )Ccnsumin NcJ:t-
ni!. |u|lic Cul!ut: in a 5cu!| Asian Wct|J. Ninncapolis.Lnivcrsityo|Ninncsotalrcss.
ptcr,L. L. , I 965)!|: |c|i!ics c] NcJ:niza!icn Chicago Lnivcrsityo|Chicagolrcss.
rmstrong, h. , I 990) Jhc Lccidcntal licc L([]:t:nc:s. A Jcunal c} I:minis! Cu|!utal
5!uJi:s 2 , 2) . 340.
mason, |. , I 990) hationalism, LlobaIization and Nodcrnity, !|:ct, Cu!ut: anJ
5cci:! 7,23,}unc). 20736.
rnold, L. , I 988)Jouchingthcbody. lcrspcctivcs on thc ndian llaguc. l nK. Luha
and L L Spivak ,Lds ) 5:l:c!:J 5u|al!:n 5!uJi:s. hcv 1ork and Lx|ord. Lx|ord
Lnivcrsitylrcss.
sad, , I 983) hotcsonbody, lain andJruth inNcdicval Christian Kituals, Lccncm
anJ 5cci:! I 2 . 285327.
balibar,L. , I 99I ) Jhchationorm. |i story andIdcology. nL. balibarandI. Wallcr-
stcin,Lds. )Rac:, Na!icn, Class. Am|iucus IJ:r!i!i:s . london and hcv1ork.Vcrso.
balibar, L. , and . Wallcrstcin. ,Lds. ) , I 99 I ) Rac:, Na!icn, Class Am|iucus IJ:n!i!i:s lon-
donandhcv1ork.Vcrso.
barbcr, l. , I 987) lopularrts in |rica, A]tican 5!uJi:s R:ui:a 30 , 3, Scptcmbcr). I -78.
barricr,L h. ,Ld. ), I 98 I ) !|: C:nsus in ti!is| InJia. N:a |:ts:c!iu:s. hcvLclhi. Nanohar.
barth, ,Ld.) , I 969)L!|nic Ctcus anJ cunJati:s. boston. littlc, brovn.
. , I 995) Kcdcnning thc Lomains o|nthropological Liscoursc. lrcscntcd at
thcLnivcrsityo|Chicago, 9Lctobcr.
baruah,S. , I 986,lmmigration,LthnicCon|lictandloliticalJurmoil,ssam I 979-I 985,
Asian 5utu: 26, I I , hovcmbcr). I I 84I 206.
basch, l.,h. LlickSchillcr,L Szantonblanc,ctal . , I 994)Na!icns Un|cunJ. !tansna!icnal
|tc}:c!s, |cs!cc|cnia| |t:Jicam:n!s, anJ L:!:tti!ctializ:J Na!icn-5!a!:s . langhornc, la., and
Kcading,L. l . Lordonandbrcach.
baudrillard_ , I 975)!|: Nittct c] |tcJuc!icn. St. louis.Jcloslrcss.
bauman, K., andC l. briggs. , I 990) loctics and lcr|ormanccas Critical lcrspcctivcs
onlanguagcand Social li|c,Annua| R:ui:a c] An!|tcc|c I 9. 59-88.
bayly, L . ( I 986)JhcLriginso|Svadcshi(|omcl ndustry). CIothandndianSoci
cty, I 700~I 930. lnP ppadurai ,Ld. ) !|: 5ccial L([: c] !|ins. CcmmcJi!i:s in Cu|!uta|
|:ts:ctiu: Cambtidgc. Cambridgc Lnivcrsitylrcss.
. , I 988) InJian 5cci:! anJ !|: Nalin c] !|: ti!is| Lmit:. hcvCambridgcMistory
o|ndia, l , I . Cambridgc. CambridgcLnivcrsitylrcss.
. , I 989)Im:tia| N:tJian. !|: ti!is| Lmit: anJ !|: Wct|J, ! dO! d3O. london and
hcvYork. longman.
bcn|amin, , I 936| I 969)JhcWorko|rtin thcgc o|NcchanicaI Kcproduction.
l n|. rcndt,Ld. )Illum|na!icns |.Zohn,Jrans. )hcv1ork. Schockcnbooks.
bcrlant, L. ( I 99 I ) !|: Anatcm c} NaIicnal anIas. HaaIlctn:, UIcia, anJ Lu:_Ja Li[:.
Chicago andlondon.Lnivcrsityo|Chicagolrcss
bcrlant, l., andL.lrccman, I 992)[uccrhationaIity,cunJa 2 I 9 , I ) . I 4980.
bhabha, |. l. ,Ld ) , I 990)Na!icr anJ Natta!icn londonandhcv1ork. Koutlcdgc.
| | l | c t a n y
= 20 =
. ( I 994)!|: Lcca!icn c] Cu|!ut:. london andhcv1ork. KouIlcdgc.
bhaIIachar|cc, . ( I 992)Jhc |abI o|LxnominaIion. haIion, WomanandIhc |ndian
mmigranIbourgcoisic,|u||ic Cu|!ut: 5 , I ) . I 9-44.
birbalsingh, ( I 986) lndo-Carbbcan JcsI CrickcIcrs, !ctcn!c 5cu!| Asian R:ui:a 5 , )
I 05I 7.
black lublic Sphcrc CollccIivc( I 995)Jhc black lublicSphcrc.lublic CulIurcbook.
Chicago. LnivcrsiIyo|Chicagolrcss.
bloch, N. ( I 986)tcm |:ssin !c \ic|:nc: His!ct anJ IJ:c|c in !|: Citcumcisicn Ri!ua| c] !|:
N:tina c] NaJaascat Cambridgc. CambrdgcLnivcrsiIylrcss
bonduranI,|. V ( I 958)Ccnu:s! c] \ic|:nc: !|: CanJ|ian ||i|csc| c] Ccn]ic!. lrnccIon,
h.|. . lrinccIonLnivcrsiIylrcss.
borncman, |. ( I 992):|cnin in !|: !ac :t|ins. Kin, 5!a!:, Na!icn. Cambridgc. Cambridgc
LnivcrsiIylrcss.
bourdicu,| ( I 977)Cu!|in: c] a !|:ct c] |tac!ic:. Cambridgc.CambridgcLnivcrsiIylrcss.
-. ( 984)Lis!inc!icn. A 5ccia| Cti!iu: c] !|: JuJ:m:n! c]!as!:. Cambridgc, Nass.. |ar
vardLnivcrsiIylrcss
brass,| K. ( I 994)!|: |c|i!ics c] InJia sinc: InJ::nJ:nc:. Cambridgc.CambridgcLnivcrsiIy
lrcss
braudcl, ( I 98 I I 984) Ciui|iza!icn anJ Cai!a|ism, : tb: stb C:n!u (3 Vo|s. ) london.
|ollins.
brcckcnridgc, C. . ,Ld.) ( I 983) humbcrLsc nIhcVi|ayanagaraLra. lrcscnIcdaIIhc
|on|crcncconIhc lingdomo|Vi|ayanagar,IhcSouIhsial nsIiIuIc, LnivcrsIyo|
|cidclbcrg, |cidclbcrg, |uly I 4~I 7, I 983.
. ( I 989) Jhc csIhcIics andloliIics o| Colonial CollccIing. lndia aI World
airs,Ccmata!iu: 5!uJi:s in 5cci:! anJ His!c 3 I ( 2) . ! 952 I 6.
-. ( I 995),Ld. )Ccnsumin NcJ:ni!. |u||ic Cu|!ut: in a 5cu!| Asian Wct|J. Ninncapo
lis. Lnvcrsityo|NinncsoIalrcss.
brcckcnridgc, C. . , andlcIcrvandcrVccr,Lds. ) . ( ! 993) Cti:n!a|ism anJ !|: |cs!cc|cnia|
|t:Jicam:n!. |:ts:c!iu:s cn a 5cu!| Asian Wct|J. lhiladclpha.LnivcrsiIyo|lcnnsylvan a
lrcss.
brcvcr, |. ( I 989) !|: 5in:as c] |ca:t. Wat, Ncn:, anJ !|: Ln|is| 5!a!:, : ss~: s+ hcv
1ork. lnop|.
Calhoun,C. ,Ld.) ( I 992)Ha|:tmas anJ !|: |u||ic 5|:t:. Cambridgc,Nass.,andlondon.
NlJlrcss.
Campbcll, C. ( I 987)!|: Rcman!ic L!|ic anJ !|: 5iti! c] NcJ:n Ccnsum:tism. Lx|ord. basil
blackvcl|.
|anguilhcim,L ( I 989)!|: Nctma| anJ !|: |a!|c|cica| . hcv1ork. Zoncbooks.
CarrIhcrs, N., S. Collins, and S. lukcs ,Lds ) ( I 985) !|: Ca!:ct c] !|: |:tscn. Cam-
bridgc. Cambrdgc Lnvcrsitylrcss
Cashman, K. ( I 980) |a!tcns, ||a:ts anJ !|: CtcaJ. !|: ||:ncm:ncn c] InJian Cticl:!. hcv
Lclhi. LrcnIlongman.
|asIoriadis, C. (I 975| I 987) !|: Imaina ns!i!u!icn c] 5cci:!. Cambridgc,Nass. . N|J
lrcss.
ChakrabarIy, L. ( I 983) CondiIions |or lnovlcdgc o| Working-Class CondiIions.
Lmploycrs,LovcrnmcnIandIhc|uIcWorkcrso|CalcuIIa, I 890-I 940. nK.Luha
and L. C. Spivak ,Lds.) 5:|:c!:J 5u|a|!:n 5!uJi:s . hcv 1ork and Lx|ord. Lx|ord
LnivcrsIy lrcss.
i | | i c t a |
= 207 =
Chattcr|cc, l. ( I 986)Naticna|ist !bcubt anJ tb: Cc|cnia| Wct|J A L:tiuatiu: Lisccuts: Lon-
don.Zcdbooks.
". ( I 993) !b: Naticn anJ Its tam:nts. Cc|cnia| anJ |cstcc|cnia| Histcti:s. lrnccton,
h.|. . lrncctonLnvcrstylrcss.
ChcagoCulturalStudcsLroup ( I 992)CrtcalNultculturalsm,Ctitica| Inui I 8 ( 3) .
530~55.
Clarkc, ., and . Clarkc ( I 982)|ghlghtsandctonKcplays. dcology, Sportand
thcNcda. ln|. |argrcavcs (Ld. )5ctt, Cu|tut: anJ IJ:c|c. London. Koutlcdgc and
lcganlaul .
Cll|ord, |. , andL.L. Narcus(Lds. )( I 986)Wtitin Cu|tut: !b: |c:tics anJ |c|itics c} Ltbnc-
tab. bcrkclcy. Lnvcrstyo|CaI|ornalrcss.
Cohn, b. S. ( ! 969) StructuralChangc nlndanKuralSoccty. ln K. L. Irykcnbcrg(Ld.)
LanJ Ccnttcl anJ 5ccia| 5ttuc!ut: in InJian Histc Nadison.Lnvcrstyo|Wsconsnlrcss
. ( I 987)Jhc Ccnsus, SocialStructurc and Lb|cctincaton n Southsa. nAn
Antbtcc|cist amcn tb: Histctians anJ Ctb:t Lssas. Lclh and London.Lx|ordLnvcr
stylrcss.
Comaro||,}. , and| . L. Comaro|| ( I 992a)JhcNadman andthcNgrant. lnLtbnctab
anJ tb: Histctica| Imainaticn. bouldcr, Col o. . Wcstvcv lrcss.
. ( I 992b)L|JotcmsmandIthncty. nLtbnctab anJ tb: Histctica| Imainaticn.
bouldcr, Colo. . Wcstvicvlrcss.
Coopcr, , and . l. Stolcr ( I 989) Jcnsons o|Lmprc and Vsons o|Kulc,Am:tican
Ltbnc|cist I 6 (4). 609-2I .
Corbn, ( I 986) !b: cu| anJ tb: tatant. CJct anJ tb: t:ncb 5ccia| Imainaticn. Cam
brdgc,Nass. . |arvardLnvcrstylrcss.
Cortazar,|. ( I 984)A C:ttain Lucas. L.Kabassa(Jrans. )hcvYork. lnop|.
Cranc, L. ( I 972)Inuisi||: Cc||::s. Chcago. Lnvcrsityo|Chcagolrcss.
Curtn, | ( I 984)Ctcss-Cu|tura| !taJ: in Wct|J Histct. Cambrdgc. CambrdgcLnvcrsty
lrcss.
Las, Vccna (Ld ) ( I 990) Nittcts c} \ic|:nc: Ccmmuniti:s, Ricts anJ 5utuiucts in 5cutb Asia
Lclh andhcvYork. Lx|ordLnvcrstylrcss.
. ( I 995) Ctitica| Lu:nts. An Antbtcc|cica| |:ts:ctiu: cn Ccnt:mcm_ InJia. Lclh.
Lx|ordLnvcrstylrcss.
dc Ccrtcau, N. ( I 984) !b: Ptactic: c} Lu:Ja L(j:. bcrkclcy andLondon. Lnvcrstyot
Cal|ornalrcss
Lclcuzc, L., and Luattari ( I 987) A !bcusanJ ||at:aus. Caita|ism anJ 5cbizcbt:nia.
b. Nassum (Jrans. )NnncapoIs. Lnvcrstyo|Nnncsotalrcss.
dc Ncllov, N. ( I 979) R:acbin }ct Lxc:||:nc: !b: C|c_ anJ L:ca c} 5ctt in InJia. hcv
Lclh andLudhana. lalyan .
Lcs|arlas,K. ,and. llcnman. ( I 994)VolcnccandLcmoralzaton nthchcvWorld
Lsordcr,Antbtcc|c !cJa I 0 (5). 9I 2
dcWaal, . ( I 994)Lcnocdc n Kvanda,Antbtcc|c !cJa I 0 ( 3) . I 2.
Lavara, N ( I 990) Lnglshncssandblackncss. CrckctasLscoursc onColonalsm,
Ca||a|cc I 3 (2). 83044.
L|rks, h. b. ( I 987)!b: Hc|lca Ctcan Ltbncbistct c} an InJian KinJcm. Cambrdgc. Cam
brdgc Lnvcrstylrcss.
. I 989) Jhc lolcng o|Jraditon n Colonal South nda. lrcscntcd at thc
LthnohstoryWorkshop, Lnvcrstyo|lcnnsylvana, lhladclpha, I 989.
i | l i c t a n
= 208 =
Lockcr, L. ( I 976)H|stc_ c} InJ|an Ct|ck:t. Lclhi. Nacmillan.
Louglas,N. ( I 967)lrimitivcKationing.lnK.lirth,Ld. )!b:m:s |n Lccncm|c Antbtcclc.
London.Javistock.
Louglas,N. , andb. lshcrvood( I 98 I ) !b: WctlJ c} CccJs. hcv1ork. basicbooks.
Luranti, ., and Loodvin, C. ( I 992)Lanua: as an Int:tact|v: |b:ncm:ncn. Cambridgc.
CambridgcLnivcrsitylrcss.
LIias, h. ([ I 939] I 978) !b: Ciuilizin |tcctss, voI. I . L. )ephcott,Jrans. )xord. basiI
blackvcll
Ll|as, h.,andL. Lunning( I 986)[u:st }ct Lxc|t:m:n! 5ctt anJ L:|sut: |n tb: C|v|l|z|n |tcc:ss
Lx|ord. basilblackvcll .
Lnloc, C. ( I 986) Lthnicity, thcStatc, andthc hcv l ntcrnational Lrdcr. l n|. Stack
,Ld. ) !b: |t|mctJ|al Cball:n:. Ltbn|c|t |n tb: Ccnt:mcta_ WctlJ. hcv 1ork. Lrccn-
voodlrcss.
Lvald, ( I 986)LLtat |tcv|J:nc:. laris. b. Lrassct.
lab|an,|. ( I 983) !|m: anJ tb: Cto:t Hca Antbtcclc Nak:s Its C|}:ct. hcv1ork. Colum
biaLnivcrsitylrcss.
lcathcrstonc, N. ( I 990) Clc|al Cultut:. Nat|cnal|sm, Clc|al|zat|cn anJ IJ:nt|t. london and
hcvburylark, Cali|.. Sagc
lcld, S. ( I 988) hotcsonWorldbcat,|u|l|c Cultut: I ( I ) . 3 I 37
lclman, S. ( I 989)harrativcasJcstmony. Camus!b: |lau:. ln| lhcIan ,Ld. )R:aJ|n
Nattat|v:. ctm, Ltb|cs, IJ:clc. Columbus.LhoStatcLnivcrsitylrcss.
lostcr, K |. ( I 99 I ) Naking hationalCulturcsnthc Llobal Lcumcnc,Annual R:v|:a c}
Antbtcclc 20. 23560.
lrascr,h. ( ! 992)Kcthnkingthc lublicSphcrc. ContributiontothcCritiquco|c-
tually Lxisting Lcmocracy. ln C CaIhoun ,Ld )Ha|:tmas anJ tb: |u|l|c 5b:t:. Cam-
brdgc,Nass. ,and london. NlJlrcss.
lrazcr,| L ( I 900) !b: CclJ:n cub A 5tuJ |n Na|c anJ R:l||cn. London. NacmilIan.
lrcitag,S. ( I 989)Ccll:ct|v: Act|cn anJ Ccmmun|t |u|l|c At:nas |n tb: Lm:t:nc: c} Ccmmunal|sm
|n Ncttb InJ|a. bcrkclcy. Lnivcrsityo|Cali |ornialrcss
. ( I 990)Lcttcrtoauthor.
lr|cdman,|. ( I 990) bcinginthcWorld. LlobaIizationandLocalization. lnN. lcathcr-
stonc,Ld. ) Clc|al Cultut: London.Sagc.
lrykcnbcrg,K.L. ( I 977)JhcS|IcntScttlcmcntinSouth lndia, I 793I 853. nnalysis
o|thcKolco|lnams i nthcKisco|thc lndian |mpcrial Systcm. l nKL. lrykcnbcrg
,Ld. )LanJ !:nut: anJ |:asant |n 5cutb As|a. hcvLclhi. Lricnt Longman.
- . ( I 987)Jhc Conccpt o|Na}orityasa Lcvilishlorcc in thclolit|cso|Nod
crn lndia. |istoriographic Commcnt, Jcunal c} tb: Ccmmcna:altb H|stc_ anJ Ccm-
atat|v: |cl|t|cs 25 ( 3, hovcmbcr). 26774.
Lans,L. ( I 985)!b: LnJ c} a Cultut: !caatJ a C:n:tat|v: Antbtcclc. bcrkclcy. Lnivcrsity
o|Cali|ornialrcss.
Lccrtz,C. ( I 963)ClJ 5cc|:t|:s anJ N:a 5tat:s !b: [u:st}ct NcJ:n|! |n As|a anJ A}t|ca. hcv
1ork.lrcclrcss.
( I 973) Kitual and Social Changc |avancsc Lxamplc. |n !b: Int:tttta!|cn c}
Cultut:s. hcv1ork. basicbooks
-. ( I 975)CommonScnscasaCulturalSystcm,Ant|ccb R:v|:a 33. 526.
( I 980) blurrcd Lcnrcs. Jhc Kchguration o|Social Jhought, Am:t|can 5cbclat
49. I 2559.
| l e q o j | y
2(9 =
. ( I 983) Lcca| Knca|:J:. hcw1ork. basicbooks.
. ( I 988) Wcrks anJ Liu:s !b: An!brcc|cis! as Au!bcr. Stan|ord, Cali|. . Stan|ord
Lnivcrsitylrcss.
Lcllncr, L. ( I 983) Na!icns anJ Na!icna|ism. lthaca, h.1. CorncIlLnivcrsitylrcss.
Liddcns, . ( I 979) C:n!ra| |rc||:ms in 5ccia| !b:c_ Ac!icn, 5!ruc!ur: anJ Ccn!raJic!icn in
5ccia| Ana|sis. bcrkclcy. Lnivcrsityo|Calilornialrcss.
Linsburg, ( I 993)boriginalNcdiaandthcustralianlmaginary,|u||ic Cu|!ur: 5 ( 3) .
557-78.
Lo||man, L. ( I 95 I ) Symbols o| Class Status,ri!isb Jcuna| c] 5ccic|c 2 ,Lcccmbcr).
294-304.
Lovcrnmcnto|Naharashtra ( I 975) !b: Jcin! R:cr! c] : s+ N:asur:m:n! anJ C|assiJca!icn
Ru|:s c] !b: L:ccan, Cu:ra!, Kcnkan anJ Kanara 5uru:s hagpur. Lovcrnmcntlrcss.
Luha, K. ( I 983) Jhc lrosc o|Countcr-lnsurgcncy. |n K. Luha (Ld.) 5u|a|!:n 5!uJi:s.
Wri!in cn 5cu!b Asian H|s!cj anJ 5cci:t, vol. 2 hcw Lclhi and london. Lx|ord
Lnivcrsitylrcss.
Lupta,. , and|. crguson( I 992)bcyondCulturc". Spacc, ldcntity, andthclolticso|
Li||crcncc,Cu|!ura| An!brcc|c 7( I , cbruary). 623.
| abcrmas, |. ( I 989) !b: 5!tuclura| !rans}crmal|cn c} lb: |u|lic 5b:r:. Cambridgc, Nass. .
NlJlrcss.
|abib, l. ( I 963) !b: Ararian 5s!:m c] Nuba| InJia : : o. bombay and london.
sialublishing|ousc
. ( I 982) An A!|as c] !b: Nuba| Lmir: |c|i!ical anJ Lccncmic Nas. Lclhi andhcw
1ork. Lx|ordLnivcrsitylrcss.
|ackng, l. ( I 975)!br Lm:rrnc: c} |rc|a|iliI A |bilcscbical 5IuJ 0} Larl J:as a|cuI |rc|-
a|i|i!, InJuc!icn anJ 5!a!is!ica| In]:r:nc:. Cambridgcandhcw1ork.CambridgcLnivcr-
sitylrcss.
-. ( I 982) biopowcrandthcvalanchco|lrintcdhumbcrs,Humani!i:s in 5cci:! 5
3-4, Summcr andall ) . 27995.
~. ( I 986)NakingLp lcoplc. ln C. |cllcr,N. Sosna, andL.L. Willbcry,Lds.)
R:ccns!ruc!in InJiuiJua|ism Au!cncm, InJiuiJua|it, anJ !b: 5:|] in W:s!:n !bcub!. Stan-
|ord, Cali|.. Stan|ordLnivcrsitylrcss.
|albwachs, N. (I 950| I 980)b: Cc||:c!iu: N:mc_ hcw1ork. |arpcr Kow.
|all,S. ( I 986)CulturalStudics.Jwolaradigms. ln K.Collinsctal . (Lds.)N:Jia, Cu|!ur:,
anJ 5cci:t A Cri!ica| R:aJ:r. London. Sagc.
|amclink, C. ( I 983) Cu|!uta| Au!cncm in C|c|a| Ccmmunica!icns . hcw1ork. longman
|andlcr, K. ( I 988) Na!icnalism anJ !b: |c|i!ics c] Cu|!ur: in |u:|:c. Nadison Lnivcrsityo|
Wisconsin lrcss.
|ani|,N. ( I 995)Cityo|Lcath,InJia !cJa, I 5 |uly, 344 I .
|anks,W. ( I 989)JcxtandJcxtuality, Annua| R:ui:a c] An!brcc|c I 8. 95I 27.
|anncrz,L. ( I 987)JhcWorldinCrcolization,A]rica 57(4). 54659.
- . ( I 989)hotcsonthcLlobalLcumcnc,|u||ic Cu|!ur: I ( 2, Spring).6675.
- . ( I 992)Cu|!ura| Ccm|:xi 5!uJi:s in !b: 5ccia| Craniza!icn c] N:anin hcw1ork.
ColumbiaLnivcrsitylrcss.
|anscn, N. ( I 99 I ) a|:| anJ a||cn 5:c!a!crsbi in Am:rican 5i|:n! Ii|m Cambridgc,
Nass. . |arvardLnivcrsitylrcss.
. ( I 993)LnstablcNixturcs, LilatcdSphcrcs. hcgIandllugcs !b: |u||ic 5b:r:
anJ Lx:ri:nc:, Jwcnty1carslatcr,|u||ic Cu|!ur: 5 ( 2, Wintcr) . I 792 I 2.
i | | | e r a b y
= 2 I 0 =
|argrcavcs, ) (Ld. ) I 982) 5cr!, Cu|!ur: anJ IJ:c|c. Iondon. Koutlcdgc and lcgan
laul .
|arvcy, L. I 989)!b: CcnJ|!|cn c} |cs!mcJ:n|t. An Lnu|_ |n!c !b: Cr||ns c} Cu|!ura| Cban:.
Cambridgc, Nass..basilblackwcll.
|asan, N. I 979) Na!|cna||sm anJ Ccmmuna| |c||!|cs |n InJ|a, t 9t t 92d. hcw Lclhi.
Nanohar.
|azarc,V I 97)Cr|ck:! R:|a:J. bombay.Kupa.
- . I 98 I ) A Lcn Inn|ns. bombay. Kupa.
|cbdigc, L I 979) 5u|cu|!ur: !b: N:an|n c} 5|:. London and |cwYork. Koutlcdgc
|cchtcr, N. I 975) In!:na| Cc|cn|a||sm. !b: C:|!|c r|n: |n r|!|sb Na!|cna| L:v:|cm:n!,
! J19. bcrkclcy. Lnivcrsityo|Cali|ornialrcss.
|clms, N. W. I 988) U|ss:s 5a||. An L!bncrab|c CJss: c} |ca:r, Knca|:J:, anJ C:c-
rab|ca| L|s!anc:. lrinccton, h.) . . lrincctonLnivcrsitylrcss.
|crz|cld, N. I 982) Curs Cnc: Ncr: c|k|cr:, IJ:c|c anJ !b: Nak|n c} NcJ:m Cr::c:.
ustin. Lnivcrsityo|Jcxaslrcss.
|inkson, |. I 990) lostmodcrnism andStructural Changc,|u|||c Cu|!ur: 2 2, Spring).
82I 0 I .
|irschman, .| . I 9Z0)Lx|r, \c|c: anJ Lca|g R:scns:s rc L:c||n: |n |tws, Cran|zar|cns
anJ 5!a!:s. Cambridgc, Nass..|arvardLnivcrsitylrcss.
|obsbawm,L. I 992)LthnicityandhationalisminLuropcJoday,An!brcc|c !cJa 8
I ) J-8.
. I 990)Na!|cns anJ Na!|cna||sm s|nc: ! dO. |rcramm:, N!b anJ R:a||!. Cambridgc.
CambridgcLnivcrsitylrcss.
|obsbawm, L. , andJ Kangcr(Lds.) I 98J) !b: Inv:n!|cn c} !raJ|!|cn. hcwYork. Colum-
biaLnivcrsitylrcss.
|odgson, N. I 974) !b: \:n!ur: c} ls|am, Ccnsc|:nc: anJ H|s!ct |n a Wcr|J C|v|||za!|cn. J
vols. )Chicago. Lnivcrsityo | Chicagolrcss.
|uizinga,|. I 944| I 950)Hcmc LuJens. A 5!uJ c} !b: ||a-L|:m:n! |n Cu|!ur:. hcwYork.Koy.
|utchins, . L. I 97)!b: I||us|cn c} |:rman:nc: r|!|sb Im:r|a||sm |n InJ|a. lrinccton, h.). .
lrincctonLnivcrsitylrcss.
|ymcs,L. |. I 99)R:|nv:n!|n An!brcc|c. hcwYork. lanthcon.
". I 974)cunJa!|cns |n 5cc|c||nu|s!|cs. An L!bncrab|c |:rs:c!|v:. lhiladclphia. Lni-
vcrsityo|lcnnsylvanialrcss.
lndcn, K. b. I 990)lma|n|n InJ|a. |x|ordandCambridgc,Nass . basil blackwcll .
lsaacs, |. I 975)IJc|s c}!b: !r||:. Crcu IJ:n!|! anJ |c||!|ca| Cban:. hcwYork. |arpcr
Kow.
|y, N. I 988) JraditionandLi||crcnccinthc|apancscNassNcdia,|u|||c Cu|!ur: I I ) .
2 I -29.
- . I 989)CriticalJcxts,Nassrti|acts.JhcConsumptiono|lnowlcdgcinlost-
modcrn|apan.| nN.Niyoshiand |. L. |arootunian(Lds. )|cs!mcJ:n|sm anJ Jaan.
Lurham, h. C. . LukcLnivcrsitylrcss.
- . I 995)L|sccurs:s c} !b: \an|sb|n NcJ:n|t, |ban!asm, Jaan. Chicago. Lnivcrsity
o|Chicago lrcss.
lycr, I 988) \|J:c N|br |n KarbmanJu. ^cw1ork. lnop.
}amcs,L. l.K. I 9J) :cnJ a cunJat. london. Stanlcylau|.
|amcson, I 98 3 ) lostmodcrnismandConsumcrSocicty. ln |.!ostcr(Ld. ) !b: An!|-
A:s!b:!|c. Lssas cn |cs!mcJ:rn Cu|!ur:. lortJownscnd,Wash. bay lrcss, I I I 25.
| | | | e r a b
= 2 I \ =
". I 98)JhrdWorld Ltcraturc n thc Lrao|Nult-ational Laptalsm,5ccia|
:xt I 5 all ) . 588.
". I 989)ostalga|orthclrcscnt,5cutb Atlan|ic |uatt:t| 88 2, Sprng).5 I 7J7.
- . I 979| I 990)KchcatonandLtopanNassLulturc ln5inatut:s c] tb: \isi||:.
cvYorkandLondon. Koutlcdgc.
}ohnson,K. I 98)WhatlsLultural StudicsAnyvay5ccia| :xt I . J880.
lang, S. -Y. , NacAloon, and K LaNatta ,Lds. ) I 988) br C|mics auJ C|turol
Lxcban:. Scoul. lanyangLnvcrsty, lnsttutc|orLthnologcalStudcs.
laplcrcr, b. I 988) L::nJs c] |:c|:, Ntbs c] 5tat:. Washngton,L. L Smthsonan lnst-
tutonlrcss.
lavira|, S. I 994) Ln thc Lonstructon o|Lolonal lovcr ln L. Lngcls and S. Narks
Lds. )Ccnt:stin Cclcnia| H::mcn 5tat: anJ 5cci:t in A]tica anJ InJia Londonandcv
York. l b. Jaurs
lclly,W. I 990)}apancscooh.JhcLrosstalko|lublcLulturcnaKuralcstvty,
Pu||ic Cu|tut: 2 2) . 58 l .
lcohanc, K. Ld. ) I 98) N:c-R:a|ism anJ Its Ctitics. cv York. Lolumba Lnvcrsty
lrcss.
lng, P I 99 I ) Cultut:, Clc|alizaticn anJ tb: WctlJ-5st:m Ccnt:mctai CcnJiticns ]ct tb:
R:r:s:ntaticn c] IJ:nti|. basngstokc. NacmlanLducaton.
lopyto||, l. I 98)JhcLulturalbographyo|Jhngs. Lommodtzatonaslroccss.ln
A.Appadura Ld. )b: 5ccial L(j: c] bins. Lambrdgc.LambrdgcLnvcrstylrcss.
lotha:,K. I 989a)Lommunalsm. Jhccvacco|lndanLcmocracy. In5tat: aains|
L:mcctac. In 5:atcb c]Human: Cct:nanc:. Lclh. A|antalublcatons,cvYork.cv
lorzon lrcss.
- . I 989b)Lthncty. lnR:tbinkin L:t:|cm:nt. In 5:arcb c] Human: A|t:natiu:s. Lclh.
A;antalublicatons,cvYork.cvlorzonlrcss.
- . I 989c)5tat: aainst L:mcctac In 5:atcb c] Human: Ccu:nanc:. cv York. cv
lorzons.
lotn, |. I 99J) ti|:s Hca Rac:, R:|iicn, anJ lJ:nti| L:t:tmin: 5ucc:ss in tb: N:a Clc|al
Lccncm. cvYork.Kandomlousc.
Laclau, L., andL Nou||c I 985)H::mcn anJ 5ccialist 5ttat:. London.Vcrso.
Lako||,(, andN. }ohnson I 980)N:tabcts W: Lit: . LhcagoandLondon.Lnvcrsty
o|Lhcagolrcss
Lash, S. , and }. Lrry I 987) b: LnJ c] Ctaniz:J Caita|ism. Nadson. Lnvcrsty of
Wsconsnlrcss
Lavton, K. Ld. ) I 978) b: C:nsus anJ 5ccial 5ttuctut:. An Int:tt:tit: CuiJ: tc Nin:t:rntb
C:ntu C:nsus:s ]ct LnlanJ anJ Wal:s London andJotova,.|. . Lass.
Lcc,b. I 99J) Longlublc,|u||ic Cu|tut: 5 2) . I 578.
Lc|cbvrc, l. I 99 I ) b: |tcJucticn c] 5ac:. Lambrdgc, Nass., and Lx|ord, L. l. .
blackvcl l .
Lc|ort,L I 98)b: |c|itical ctms c] NcJ:n 5cci:t ut:auctac, L:mcctac, ctalitatianism.
Lambrdgc, Nass..NlJlrcss.
Lcvs, L I 98)JhcLooko|Nagc,Nan 2 I J) . 4 I 4-J7.
Luddcn, L. L. I 988) Agrarian Lommcrcalsm in Lghtccnth Lcntury South lnda.
Lvdcncc |romthc I 82JJrunclvcl Lcnsus, InJian Lccncmic anJ 5ccia| Histc R:ui:a
254). 49J-5 I 9.
I 99 I ) Lonvcrsaton vthauthor, lhladclpha.
i | l i c t a b
= 2 I 2 =
. , I 99J) Lrcntalst Lmprcsm Jrans|ormatons o| Lolonal lnovlcdgc | n
L. A. brcckcnrdgcand| van dcr Vccr Lds. ) Cti:rtalism arJ tb: |cstcclcrial |t:Jica-
m:r! |:ts:ctiu:s cr 5outb Asia. lhladclpha Lnvcrstyo|lcnnsylvanalrcss.
Lutz, L A., and l Abu-Lughod Lds.) , I 990) Larua: arJ tb: |clitics c] Lmcticr. Lam-
brdgc. LambrdgcLnivcrstylrcss.
NacAloon, }. , I 98 I ) !bis Ct:at 5m|cl |i:tt: J: Ccu|:ttir arJ tb: Ctiirs c] tb: NcJ:n
Clmic Cam:s. Lhcago. LnvcrstyolLhcagolrcss.
. I 984)Rit:, Ltama, :stiual arJ 5:ctacl:. lhladclpha. lnsttutc|orthc Study o|
luman|ssucs.
. I 990)StcrodsandthcStatc. Lubn,NclodramaandthcAccomplshmcnto|
l nnoccncc,|u|lic Cultut: 2 2). 4 I -4.
Nalnovsk, b. I 922| I 950)Atcrauts c] tb: W:st:n |acic. cvYork. L. F Lutton.
Nalkk, L. l. I 995)|uti( arJ Lxil: \icl:rc:, N:mc arJ Naticral Ccsmclc amcr Hutu
R:]u::s ir !arzaria. Lhcago. Lnvcrstyo|Lhcagolrcss.
Nandcl , L I 978)Lat: Caitalism. London. Vcrso.
Nan, L. I 990) Lontcntous Jradtons. Jhc Lcbatc on 5ati n Lolonal lndia. ln
l. Sangar and S. Vad Lds.) R:castir Wcm:r. Lssas ir Cclcrial Histc. cvLclh.
lal|orWomcn
Narcus, L. , andN. lischcr, I 98)Artbtcclc as Cultutal Ctitiu:. Ar Lx:timertal Ncm:rt
ir tb: Humar 5ci:rc:s. Lhcago Lnvcrstyo|Lhcagolrcss.
Narshall , , I 987)| ts ovLrckcttollaylardball,!bis WctlJ ovcmbcr22.
Nartn,L I 992)JhcLndo|thcbodyAm:ticar Ltbrclcist I 9, I ) . I 2 I -40.
Nattclart,A. I 98J) !tarsraticrals arJ tb: !bitJ WctlJ !b: 5ttul: ]ct Cultut:. South ladlcy,
Nass..bcrgnandLarvcy.
Nauss, N. , I 97J)Jcchnqucso|thcbody,Lccrcm arJ 5cci:! 2 I ) . 70-85.
. I 92J| I 97) !b: CiJt cvYork.orton.
Nbcmbc,A. I 992)Jhc banaltyo|lovcrandthcAcsthctcso|Vulgartynthclost-
colony,|u|lic Cultut: 4 2) . I -J0.
Nbcmbc,A. , ctal . I 992)bclly-up.Norconthclostcolony,|u|lic Cultut: 5 , I , Spccal
Sccton). 4- I 45.
NcLrackcn,L.L. I 988) Cultut: arJ Ccrsumticr N:a Atcacb:s t c tb: 5m|clic Cbatact:t c]
Ccrsum:t CccJs arJ Actiuiti:s. bloomngton.|ndanaLnvcrstylrcss
Nclcndrck, . , . } brcvcr,and}. l. llumb I 982) !b: ittb c] a Ccrsum:t 5cci:! !b:
Ccmm:tcializat|cr c] L|bt::rtb-C:rtu LrlarJ. bloomngton. lndanaLnvcrstylrcss.
NcLuhan N., and b. K. lovcrs. , I 989)!b: Clc|al \illa: !tars]ctmaticrs ir WctlJ. LiJ: arJ
N:Jia ir tb: z : :t C:rtu cvYork. Lx|ordLnvcrstylrcss.
Ncuccn, l. , I 988) Jhc Australan Stamp. lmagc, Lcsgn and | dcology, At:ra 84
Sprng). 789.
Ncyrovtz,}. I 985)Nc 5:rs: c] |lac:. !b: Imact c] Ll:cttcric N:Jia cr 5ccial :bauct. cv
York. LxlordLnvcrstylrcss.
Nllcr, L. , I 987)Nat:tial Cultut: arJ Nass Ccrsumticr. London. basl blackvcll.
Nllcr, N. , I 98 I ) !b: cr Natcb:. cut:cis Cultut: arJ tb: L:attm:nt 5tct:, : se-: zo.
lrnccton, .}. . lrncctonLnvcrstylrcss.
Nntz, b. I 985)5ae:tr:ss arJ |ca:t. cv1ork. Vkng- lcnguin.
Ntra,A. I 98)LrckctlrcnzyLntcsaLshcvcllcdSubcontncnt,at Last:n Lccrcmic
R:ui:a }uly I 0) . 48~49.
Noncy, |. I 989) Jcachng n thc Narkctplacc, orLacsarAdsum }amlortc lompcy
| | l | c t a b
= 2 I 3 =
Adcrat Jhc Kctalng o| lnovlcdgc n lrovncal Lngland. lrcscntcd at Llark
Lbrary, LLLA,Narch4.
Noorc, S. I 99J) Ncra|izin 5!a!:s anJ !b: L!bnctab c} !b: Pt:s:n!. Arlngton,Va. . Amcr-
canAnthropologcalAssocaton.
Nukcr| , L I 98 J ) tcm Ctat:n Ima:s Pa!!:ns c} NcJ:m Na!:tia|ism. cvYork. Lolumba
Lnvcrsitylrcss.
Nulvcy, L. I 975)Vsualllcasurcandarratvc Lincma, 5ct::n I J) . -I 8.
Nunn, . L. I 98) !|:: am: c} Caaa A 5m|c|ic 5!uJ c} \a|u: !tans}cma!icn in a Nassim
Paua N:u CuiH:a} 5cci:t Lambridgc. LambridgcLnvcrstylrcss.
andy, A. I 98J) !b: In!ima!: Ln:m Lcss anJ R:cct:i c} 5:|J unJ:t Cc|cnia|ism. Lclh.
Lx|ordLnvcrstylrcss.
I 987)!taJi!icns, !tann anJ Utcias . Lclhi. Lx|ordLnvcrstylrcss.
. I 989a)Jhc loltcalLulturco|thclndan Statc,La:Ja|us I I 8 4) I 2.
. I 989b)!b: !ac c} Ctick:! Cn Cam:s c} L:s!in anJ !b: L:s!in c} Cam:s. cvYork
Vkng.
calc, W. L. I 99) Land ls to Kulc. ln K. L. rykcnbcrg Ld. ) LanJ Ccn!tc| anJ 5ccia|
5!tuc!ut: in InJian His!c_. Nadson.Lnvcrstyo|Wsconsnlrcss.
coll, I 989)NyJrptoAlcc, Cti!icism, H:t:s anJ In!:tt:!a!icn J. 2 I ~J2
gam,S. I 990)LiscipliningandlolcingthcLrimnalsbybirth,lart2. JhcLcvcl-
opmcnto|aLscplnary Systcm, I 87 I I 900,InJian Lccncm|c anJ 5ccia| His!ct R:ti:a
27 J, }ulyScptcmbcr). 257~87.
Lrtncr, S. b. I 99 I ) KcadngAmcrica. lrclimnary otcs on Llass and Lulturc. ln
K.oxLd )R:ca!utin An!btcc|c. Wctkin in tb: Pt:s:n!. Santac, . N. . School o|
AmcricanKcscarch.
landcy, L. I 990) !b: Ccns!tuc!icn c} Ccmmuna|ism in Cc|cnia| Nct!b InJia. cvLclhiand
London. LxlordLnivcrstylrcss.
lant, K. I 987)Jhc Logntvc Status o|Lastc n Lolonal Lthnography. AKcvicvo|
Somc Ltcraturc o|thc orth Wcst lrovnccs andLudh, InJian Lccncmic anJ 5ccia|
His!ct R:ti:a 24 2) . I 45-2.
larht, L. I 98)R:ascns anJ P:tscns. Lx|ord.Llarcndonlrcss.
larkn, L. I 978)!b: Cu|!uta| L:|ni!icn c} Pc|i!ica| R:scns:. London.Acadcmiclrcss.
lcrln, I 98J) lroto-lndustrializatonandlrc-LolonialSouthAsa,Pas! anJ Pt:s:n! 98
J0) . 94.
- . I 987) Noncy-Lsc nLatc lrc-Lolonal lndaandthc lntcrnatonal Jradc in
Lurrcncy Ncda. ln | . KchardsLd. )!b: Im:tia| Ncn:!at 5s!:m c} Nuba| InJia.
Lclhi . Lx|ordLnivcrstylrcss.
ltkn, l. I 97) !b: Ccnc:! c} R:t:s:n!a!icn. bcrkclcyandLos Angclcs. Lnvcrsityo|
Lal|ornalrcss.
lrakash,L. I 990)bondcdlstorcs. Lcncalogcso|LaborScrvitudcinLolonial|nda.
5cu!b Asian 5!uJi:s 44 LambrdgcandcvYork. LambrdgcLnvcrstylrcss.
lrcslcr, A. l 987)R:|iicn unJ:t ut:auctac. Pc|ic anJ AJminis!ta!icn }ct HinJu :m|:s in
5cu!b InJia. Lambridgc andcvYork. LambrdgcLnivcrstylrcss.
lrcston, L. W. I 989)1l:D:ra|C:rcraaA l.r:a:arat|:Stat:ir^abatasbIta. Lambridgc
and cvYork. LambrdgcLnvcrstylrcss.
luri, . I 982) Sportsvcrsus Lrickct.InJia In!:na!icna| C:n!t: |uat!:t| 9 2) . I 4-54.
Kabnov, I 98)Kcprcscntatonsarc Socalacts. Nodcrntyandlostmodcrnityin
i | | i c t a n
= 2 ( 4 =
Anthropology. ln}. Ll||ordandL.Narcus Lds ) Wt|t|n Cultut: !b: |c:t|cs anJ |cl|-
t|cs c] Ltbncrab. bcrkclcy. Lnvcrstyo|Lal|ornalrcss.
. I 989)t:ncb NcJ:n. Nctms anJ ctms c] tb: 5cc|al Lnu|tcnm:nt Lambrdgc,Nass .
NIJlrcss.
Ka|,V I 976)L. P Ja|. N:mct|:s c] a Ct:at atsman. bombay. Jycby.
Kobbns,b. ,Ld. ) I 993) !b: |bantcm |u|l|c 5b:t:. Nnncapols.Lnvcrstyo|Nnncsota
lrcss.
Kobcrts, N. I 985) Lthncty n Kpostcata Lrckct Natch. Jhc last |orthc lrcscnt,
Ccmatat|u: 5tuJ|:s |n 5cc|:t anJ H|stc 27.40 I 29.
Kobcrtson, K. I 990) Nappng thc Llobal Londton. Llobalizaton as thc Lcntral
Lonccpt, !b:c, Cultut: anJ 5cc|:t 723,}unc). I 5-30
. I 992) Clc|al|zat|cn. 5cc|al !b:c anJ Clc|al Cultut:. cvbury lark, Lali|. , and
London. Sagc.
Kobnson, I 974) 5:atat|sm amcn nJ|an Nusl|ms !b: |cl|t|cs c] tb: Un|t:J |tcu|nc:s
Nusl|ms, ! 5~! 92J. London andcvYork. Lambrdgc Lnvcrstylrcss.
Ko|ck,L. I 987)Ca|tal|sm anJ L:|sut: !b:c. London.Javstock
Kosaldo, K. I 989)Cultut: anJ !tutb. !b: R:mak|n c] 5cc|al Anals|s. boston. bcacon lrcss.
Koscnau,}. I 990)!ut|ul:nc: in WcrlJ |cliric:. A !b:c c] Cban: anJ Ccn|inui. lrnccton,
.|. . lrncctonLnivcrstylrcss.
Kousc,K. I 99 I ) NcxcanNgratonandthcSocalSpacco|lostmodcrnsm,L|ascta 2
2, Sprng). 82 3 .
Sahlns,N. I 972)5tcn: A: Lccncm|cs. cvYork.Aldnc
I 98 I ) H|stct|cal N:tabcts anJ Ntb|cal R:al|t|:s 5ttuctut: |n tb: Latl H|stc c] tb:
5anJa|cb IslanJs K|nJcm. AnnArbor.Lnvcrstyo|Nchganlrcss.
. I 985)IslanJs c] H|stct. Lhcago. Lnvcrstyo|Lhcago lrcss.
-. I 992) Loodbyc to Jrstcs Jropcs. Lthnography n thc Lontcxt o| Nodcrn
World lstory, Jhc I 992 Kycrson Lccturc Aprl 29), Lnvcrsty o|Lhcago. !b:
Un|u:ts|t c] Cb|cac R:cctJ. lcbruary 4, I 993 .
Sad, L. W. I 978)Ct|:ntal|sm. cvYork Vintagc books.
Salvc,. l.| I 987)!b: 5tc c] tb: R:l|anc: Cu. cvLclh.Vkas.
Sarasvath,S. I 974)N|nct|t|:s |n NaJtas 5tat: Crcu Int:t:st |n NcJ:n |cl|t|cs. Lclh.|mpcx
lndia.
Savchuk, l. I 988) A Jalc o| lnscrpton/lashon Statcmcnts. ln A. and N. lrokcr
Lds.)cJ InuaJ:ts. |an|c 5:x |n Am:t|ca. basngstokc.NacmllanLducaton.
Scha|cr, L. I 963) CclJ:n |:acb:s c] 5amatkanJ. A 5tuJ c] Tan Lxct|cs. bcrkclcy. Lnvcr-
styo|Lal|ornalrcss.
Schc||cln, L. I 985) lcr|ormancc and thc Lultural Lonstructon o| Kcalty. Sprt
ScanccsamongacvLuncalcoplc,Am:t|can Ltbnclc|st I 2 4). 70724.
Schllcr, l. I 976) Ccmmun|cat|cn anJ Cultutal Lcm|nat|cn. Whtc llans, `. lntcrna
tonalArtsandSccnccs.
Schudson,N. I 984)AJu:tt|s|n, tb: Un:as |:tsuas|cn. cvYork. bascbooks.
Scott, }. L. I 985) W:acns c] tb: W:ak. Lu:Ja crms c] |:asant R:s|stanc:. cv lavcn,
Lonn..YalcLnvcrstylrcss
. I 990)Lcm|nat|cn anJ tb: Atts c] R:s|stanc:. H|JJ:n !tansct|ts. cvlavcn, Lonn. .
YalcLnvcrstylrcss.
Shah, A.N. I 989)Lastcandthclntcllgcntsa,H|nJustan `m:s Narch24.
Shastr, K. , andS. lat|, I 982)5batak 5batkat ,nNarathi ). bombay. Aditya lrakashan.
| | l i e j t a n
= 2 I 5 =
Shls, L. I 957)lrmordal , lcrsonal, Sacrcd, and Lvl Jcs, t|!|:b Jcuna| c}5cc|c|c 8
, 2). I J045.
Smmcl, L. (I 904| I 957)ashon,Am:t|can Jcuna| c} 5cc|c|c 2 ,). 54 I 58.
Smth, | , I 988) Vstngthcbanana Kcpublc. | nA. Koss ,Ld. ) Un|u:t:a| A|anJcn !b:
|c||!|c: c} |c:!mcJ:n|:m. Nnncapols.Lnvcrstyo|Nnncsotalrcss.
Smth, K. S. I 985)Kulc-by-KccordsandKulc-by-Kcports. LomplcmcntaryAspcctsol
thcbrtsh|mpcralKulco|Lav, Ccn!t||u!|cn: !c InJ|an 5cc|c|c I 9 I ) . I 5 J7.
Stack,}. }r. ,Ld. ), I 98)!b: |t|mctJ|a| Cba||:n:. L!bn|c|! |n !b: Ccn!:mctat Wct|J. hcv
1ork. Lrccnvoodlrcss
Stcvart, S. , I 984)Cn Lcn|n. Natta!|u:: c} !b: N|n|a!ut:, !b: C|an!|c, !b: 5cuu:n|t, !b: Cc||:c-
!|cn. baltmorc.}ohnslopknsLnvcrstylrcss.
Sutton, L. S. I 995) LonsumngLountcrrcvoluton.JhcKtual andLulturco|Lann
balsm nWuxuan, Luangx,Lhna, Nay to}uly I 98, Ccmata!|u: 5!uJ|:: |n 5cc|:!
anJ H|:!ct J7 , l ) I J72.
Jambah, S. ). I 98)5t| Iunka. L!bn|c ta!t|c|J: anJ !b: L|:man!||n c} L:mcctac Lhcago.
Lnvcrstyo|Lhcagolrcss.
- . , I 990)lrcsdcntalAddrcss.Kc|lcctonsonLommunalVolcnccnSouthAsia,
!b: Jcuna| c} A:|an 5!uJ|:: 494,hovcmbcr) . 74 I 0.
Jhapar, K. I 989) lmagncdKclgousLommuntcsAnccntlstoryandthcNodcrn
Scarch|ora lndu l dcntty, NcJ:n A:|an 5!uJ|:: 2 J . 209-J2.
Jhomas, l. I 987) humcracy in Nodcrn Lngland, !tan:ac!|cn: c} !b: Rca| H|:!ct|ca|
5cc|:! J7 ,5thScrcs). I 0J-J2.
Jhompson, L. l. I 97) Jmc, Work-Lsciplnc and lndustral Laptalsm, |a:! anJ
|t:::n! J8. 597.
Jhornton, K. , I 988) Jhc Khctorc o| Lthnographc lolsm, Cu|!uta| An!btcc|c J
J, August). 285J0J.
Jripath,S. I 990)Shar|ah.ALrassLarnval,lnJ|a !cJa NayJ I . 889 I
Jroullot,N . - K. I 99 I ) AnthropologyandthcSavagcSlot.Jhcloctcsandloltcso|
Lthcrncss. | n K. ox ,Ld. )R:ca!ut|n An!btcc|c. Wctk|n |n !b: |t:::n! Santa c,
h. N. . Schoolo|AmcrcanKcscarch.
Jurncr, J , I 992) Lchant|magcs. Jhc lapayo Appropraton o|Vdco, An!btcc|c
!cJa 8 ). 5~ I .
Lrban, L., and }. Shcrzcr ,Lds. ) I 99 I ) Na!icn:-5!a!:: anJ InJ|an: |n La!|n Am:t|ca. Austn.
Lnvcrstyo|Jcxas lrcss.
Vachan, L. I 989)harratvc, llcasurcandldcology nthc lnd lm. An Analysso|
thc Lutsdcr ormula. N. A. Jhcss, AnncnbcrgSchoolo|Lommuncaton, Ln-
vcrstyo|lcnnsylvana.
vandcrVccr, | I 989)Jhclovcro|Lctachmcnt.Lsciplncso|bodyandNndnthc
KamanandiLrdcr,Am:t|can L!bnc|c|:! I . 458~70.
-. , I 994) R:|||cu: Na!|cna||m. H|nJu: anJ Nu:||m: |n lnJ|a. bcrkclcy and London.
Lnvcrstyo|Lal|ornalrcss.
vanLcnncp, A. [I 908| I 95)!b: R|!:: c} |a::a:. London. lcganlaul.
Vcblcn,J I 9 I 2 ) !b: !b:c_ c} !b: L:|:ut: C|a::. hcv1ork.Nacmllan
Wallcrstcn, |. I 974)!b: NcJ:n Wct|J 5:!:m. 2Vol s. ) hcv1orkandLondonAcadc-
miclrcss.
Warncr, N. , I 990) !b: L:!!:t: c} !b: R:u|||c. |u|||ca!|cn anJ !b: |u|||c 5b:t: |n L|b!::n!b-
C:n!u_ Am:t|ca. Lambrdgc, Nass. . larvardLnvcrstylrcss.
| | | | c t a b
= 2 I =
. , I 992) Jhc Nass lublc andthc Nass Sub|cct. ln L Lalhoun ,Ld. ,Ha|:rmas
anJ !b: |u|l|c 5b:r:. Lambrdgc,Nass..NlJlrcss.
Washbrook, L. P , l 97) !b: Lm:r:nc: c} |rct|nc|al |cl|!|cs !b: NaJtas |r:s|J:nc,
157192. LambrdgcandcvYork. LambrdgcLnvcrstylrcss.
Wllams,K. , I 97)K:acrJs. cvYork. Lx|ordLnvcrstylrcss.
Wllams, K. l. , I 982) Lr:am WcrlJs Nass Ccnsum!|cn |n La!: N|n:!::n!b-C:n!u ranc:.
bcrkclcy. Lnvcrstyo|Lal|orna lrcss.
Wol|, L. , I 982)Lurc: anJ !b: |:cl: a|!bcv! H|s!c_. bcrkclcy. Lnvcrsty o| Lal|orna
lrcss
Yoshmoto, N. , I 989)Jhc lostmodcrnandNass lmagcs n}apan, |u|l|c Cul!ur: I , 2) .
825.
Zarll, | , I 995) Kcpostonng thc body. An |ndan Nartal Art and ts lanAsan
lublcs.lnL P brcckcnrdgcLd. ) Ccnsum|n NcJ:n|t |u|l|c Cul!ur: |n a 5cu!b As|an
WcrlJ. Nnncapols.Lnvcrstyo|Nnncsota lrcss.
Zolbcrg, P K. , P Suhrkc, and S. Aguayo. , I 989) Lsca: }rcm \|cl:nc:. cv York and
Lx|ord. Lx|ordL nvcrstylrcss.
| | l | e q o j | y
= 2 ( 7 =
006X
Lompilcd by Latrin lynch
AbuLughod, L. , 27, 0, I 47
advcrtsng, 72, 78, 84, I 0, I 07, I I 2,
captalstrcalsm n,5J, global,42,
mcdascapcsand,42,rolcnconsump-
ton,77, socal, I 05
a||cct, poltcso|, I 4449, I 5J, I 57
agcncy, I 2, 45, 52, I 78, I 98,colonal-
smand, I 27, I J4,consumptonand,
7, 42, 70,crckctand, I 05, I I J, group
moblzatonand, I 45, I J, magna-
tonand, J I , I , J, I 45,nltcrary
|antascs, 58,plcasurcand,7, I I I , rc-
alsmand, J,rclatonto hstory, I 57
Ahmad, P, 52, 20I
^| [,50, I
Allcn, L. K. , 9 I
Amcrca, as|rcctradczonc, I 74-75
Amcrcanzaton, I 7, 29, J2
Amcrcanncss, I 70-7J
Amn,S , JJ, I J4
Andcrson, b. , JJ, I 45, I 55, I 88, I 9,
20J,ccnsusquanthcatonand, I I 5,
magncdcommunticsand, 28, J I , 54,
2 I 9
I I 2, I 59,prntcaptalsmand, 8, 2 I ,
22, 28, I I 2, I I
Ann:s 5ccic g|u:s, 5
anthropology, 5, I 2 , I , I 8, 4, 48, 7,
7 I , I J9, 202,asarchvc, I I ,o|thc
body, I 47, I 48,contcxtn, I 87, co-
productono|ndgcnouscatcgorcs
n, I 82, o|cosmopolitansm,49,cul
turalstudcsand, 50, 5,202,cthncty
n, I 40,cvolutonconccptsn, 52,
hstoryand, 4,o|ltcraturc, 58, I ,
localtyand, I 78, I 80,natonstatcn,
I 88
Appadura, P, 8, 7,98, I 0J, I 79, 20 I ,
202
Aptcr, L. L., I J9
arca studcs, 2, I I , I , I 7, I 8
Armstrong, . , I I 8
Aason, }. l. , I 50
Arnold, L. , 5 I , I 07, I I , I J4
art,mcchancal, 4J, 45
Asad,J, 7, I 47
Ayodhya, Lttar lradcsh, I I 4, I J5, I 9
balbar, L. , I I 9, I 59, I 88, I 89
barbcr, l. , J2
barrcr, L. . , I I
barth, , I 40,202
baruah, S., J9
basch, L. , I 88
baudrillard, , J0, 42, 7, 8 I
bauman, K. , I 87
bayly, L. P, 28, 7J, I 2 5
bcll,K. ,
bcn|amn,V. , 4J
bcrlant, L. , I 9, I 70, I 74, I 7
bhabha, l. l. , 94, I 59, I 88
bhattachar|cc, A., I 97
brbalsngh, , 9 I
brmnghamSchool, I 45
black lublc Sphcrc Lollcctvc, I 9
bloch,N. , I 8 J
body.colonalcontrolo | lndan, I 20,
I 24, I 25, I J0, I J2, consumptonand,
78, 74, 8J-85,cmbodcdcxpcr
cnccso|groupdcntty, I 57,cnumcra-
tono|colonal, I J2 , I JJ, n|ndan
crckct, I 0J, I 04, I I 2, I I J, nscrption
o|localtyonto, I 4, 7, I I 2, I 79,
manpulaton,84, I 20,rcvolto|thc
lndan, I JJ, I J4,as stco|languagc
uscandcxpcrcncc, I 0J, tcchnqucso|
s:: tcchnqucs, bodIy)
bondurant, |. V, I J4
borgcs, |. L. , I 22
borncman,|. , I 88
bosnaall acy, 2 I
bourdcu, l, 5 I , 7,bodlyhcxsand,
I I I , dstnctonand, 75,cmbodmcnt
and, I 48,habtusand,44, 55,mprov
satonand,55,8
brass, K , I 4 I
braudcl,, 27
brcak,thcoryo|(s:: a|sc rupturc), J , 9
brcckcnrdgc, L. P, 57, 77, 94, I 0J ,
I 29, 20 I , 202
brcvcr, |. , , I I 5, I I 7, I 25
brggs, L. L. , I 87
cadastral poltcs, I 2 I , I 24, I 25, I 27,
I 29
Lalhoun, L., I I
Lampbcll,L. , 8, 72,8 J
Langulhcm,L . , I I 8
captalsm, , 27, J2, 7J, I 75, 204,con-
sumptonand, 7, 72,85, dsorga-
nzcd, J J , 40, 52, I 50,clcctronc, 8,
I I , nostalgiaand, J0-J I , 85, print,8,
28, I I 2 , I I , I 88
Larrthcrs, N. , 52
Lashman,K. , 9J, 94, I 00, I 0 I
castc, I 29, I J2, I 4J, I 4,classhcaton
and, I I 9, nlndanccnsus, I I 8,
I 2728, I J I , I 2, andpoltcso|
grouprcprcscntaton, I I 4, I J0
Lastorads,L. , I 45
ccnsus, I 8, I I 8, I 2 I , I 2, I J0, I 57,
202, AlllndaLcnsus, I 2729, brtsh
vs. lndan, I I 7,andcastc, I 27, I 29,
I 2, communaldcnttynlndaand,
98, I I 4, I 2829, I J I , crcatono|
dcntty nlndaand, I I , I 25, I 29
Lhakrabarty, L. , I I , 202
chaosthcory,447, I 50, I
Lhattcr|cc, , 28, J9, I J2 , I 59, I 88
cncmas:: a|sc hlm,mcda,mcda,mass,
tclcvson),4,5J, 4,77, I 5J, art, I 94,
dsplaccmcntn, I , J, asclcctronc
captalsm, I I , magnaton and,5J,
lndan, J, 40, 2J, I 0 I 2 , I I 0, 202,
mcdascapcsand, 40,nostalgan,77,
aspublcspacc, J, I 0 I
Llarkc,P, 94
Llarkc, } , 94
class, I 98,nccnsuscs, I I 8,n |ndan
crckct,9 I 92, 949, I 05, nVcto-
rancrckct, 9 I , 94, 9
classhcaton, I I 9, I 2 J , I 2
Ll||ord,|. , 58
Lohn,b. S. , 98, I I , I 20, I 2
Lollns,S. , 52
colonalsms:: a|sc dccolonzaton),28,
I 88, constructcdcthnctcsand,28,
98,crckctnLnglsh,9J94, I 09,
cxotcizaton n, I I 5, I I 8, I 2 J , I 28,
mcasurcmcntandclasshcatonn,
I 2 J, I J2, nostalga|or, 78,orcntalsm
and, I I 8, I I 9, I J JJ4,quanthcaton
I n J : x
~ 220 =
n, I I 5, I I 8, I J2,rcproducton o|
localtyn, I 8 I
Lomaro||, |. , I 40, I I , I 89
Lomaro||, | . L. , I 40, I I , I 89
commodtzaton,, 2 I , I I 0, I 8 I , cul-
turalhomogcnzatonand, J2,o|
lndancrckct, I 0, I 09
communal dcntty n lnda.ccnsus and,
98, I I 4, I 28-29, I J I , crckct and, 97,
98
communtcs, magncds:: alsc magna-
ton,vorko|magnaton,vorlds,
magncd), J I , J2, 54, I I I I 2 , I 59,
I 95, colonalsmand, 28, 99,cnumcr-
atcdcommuntics and, I J2, vs.mag-
ncdvorIds,JJ, natonalsmand, 28,
o|scntmcnt, 8,scparatsttransnatonal
movcmcntsas, J9
Lomtc,A. , J
con|uncturcs. 5:: ds|uncturcsandcon-
|uncturcs
consumcr.borrovng, 8082,|ctshsm
o|,4 I , 42,rcvolutons, 7274, 79,
8 I -82
consumpton s:: alsc |ashon, nostalga),
, 7J, 77, I 02 , bodyand, 78, 74,
8J~85,crcatono|tmcby,70,78-79,
8 I -82, 8485,drudgcryo|,7, 84,g|t
gvngand,89,hstorcsandgc
ncalogcs n, 75, 8J, ntcrdcton and,
7I -72,aslcsurc,7980, 8J, plcasurc
o|,7, 8, 8J, rclatonto sumptuary
lav, 7 I , 84,asrcpctton, 78, 78,
rcvoIutono|, 82,rtcso|passagcand,
8~70, 84,asvork,828J
contcxt, I 8 J88, I 9J, I 95, I 98
Loopcr,!, 94
Lorbn, A., 74
corporatons,multnatonal, I 78
Lortazar,|. , 58I
cosmopoItansm,2, J, 5,57, I 04, I I 2,
cthnographc, 4952, transnatonal
cultural|lovsand, 4
Lranc, L. , 8
crckct, I 4, I 8, I 48,class andpatronagc
n, 9 I 92, 949, I 05, I I 0I 2,
communalsmn lndan,9J, 9798,
dccolonizationand, 89, 9 I , I 05, I 07,
202, dasporcnatonalismo|, I 0, as
hardcultural|orm,90, I I 0, I I I , dca
o|lndan natonand,9799, I 0, ln-
danprinccsn,9497,ndgcnzaton
o|, 90, 94, I 00, I I 0,masculntyand
croticso|natonhoodn,9J, I I I ~ I 2,
mcans o|modcrnty and, I I 2,and
statccultural polcy, 9J, vcrnacularza-
tono|, I 004, I I 2, 202,Vctoran
valucs n, 9 I -9J, I 07-8, I I 0
cultural. nanthropology, I I , I ,bog-
raphyo|thngs, 7,chaos, 447,
vs. culturc, I 2 I 4, 0,dmcnsonso|
globalzaton, I 2, hardandso|t|orms,
90, I I 0, I I I ,hctcrogcnzaton, J2,
homogcnzaton s:: homogcnzation,
cultural),rcproduction,mrcproduc-
ton,culturaI), studics, 50, 5 I , 58, 5,
I 59,trans|crandmtaton,0
cultural |lovs,globals:: alsc global,ho-
mogcnzaton,cultural ) , J I , J7,4, 5,
causalhstorcalrclatonshpamong,
47,chaosthcoryapplcdto,447,
I 50, I ,ds|uncturcs n, J7, I 50,|vc
dmcnsonso|, JJ, J9, roncs o|, J0,
localtyn, I 78, I 97,samcncssandd|-
|crcnccn,4J,thcoryo|, 4547
culturc. anthropologcal conccpt o|, 50,
boundarymantcnanccand, I J,d||cr
cnccand, I 2, I 4 I , 0,habi tus
and, 44, poltcso| global, J7,post-
structuralstconccptso|,5 I , raccand,
I 2, rclationtocultural sm, I J I , I 47,
rcproductono|s:: rcproducton,
cultural), asasubstancc, I 2 , 50, 0,
J,transmssono|, 4J,vrtngand,
58, 0
Lurtn, |, 27, 7 I
LaNatta,K . , I 7
Las, V, I 55, 20J
dcLcrtcau, N. , I 45, I 8 J
dccolonzatons:: a|sc colonalsm) , I 09,
I I 2, asdalogucvthcolonalpast, 89,
throughmagincdcommunitcs, I I 2,
o| lndancrckct, 899 I , I 057,202
I n d t X
= 2 2 I =
Lclcuzc,L. , 29, I 88
dcNcllov,N. , 9
dcmocracy, I 42, I , I 72, I 7475, cnd
o|naton-statc and, I 9, dcao|rcprc-
scntaton n, I 3 I , dcoscapcsand,
337, 40,lnksvthdvcrstyand
prospcrty, I 7 I , modcrnzatonthcory
and, 9, I 4 I , prmordalstthcorcs and,
I 44,racal, 22,transnatonalmcanngs
o|, J 7
Lcrrda,} . , I 2, 5 I
Lcs)arlas,K . , 203
dctcrrtoralzaton s:: a| sc globalzaton,
tcrrtory), I 8, 44, 52, 53, ascontcxt
|orcthnc volcncc, 38, 49, I ,cul-
turalpoltcso|, 3739,o|moncyand
hnancc,49,rcproducton n, 37-38,
4345, 48, 49, nsmallspaccs,\
dcWaal,P, 204
daspora(s:: a|sc dsplaccmcnt,mgra-
ton) , , I 8, I 9, 40, 49, l 73, I 75, I 97,
clcctroncmoblzatono|lndan, I 9,
|orccd, I ,o|dcoscapctcrmsand
magcs, 3, o|ntcllcctuals, 37, I 5,o|
kcyvords, 3,labor, 37-38,44,n
N|ss|ss|i Nasa|a, I 0,natonalismand,
I0,40, I 72, I 9,poltcsand, I I ,40,
I 9,publcsphcrcsand,4, I 0, 2 I -22,
I 47,rclatontorcproducton, I 7 I
Lavara, N. , 9 I
d||crcncc, 20 I , culturcand, I 2, I 4 I ,
0,group dcntty and, I 3, naton-
statccontrol ovcr, 39, 42, I 30, I 77,
rcpatratono|,42
Lrks,. b. , 98, I I , I 20, I 2
dscoursc studcs, I 59
ds|uncturcs and con|uncturcs, I I 2, I 44,
I I , I 85,colonalsmand, I 27, I 30,
I 32, consumptonand,7274, 83, o|
dsorganzcdcaptal, 33, 40,nglobal
culturalcconomy, 37, 39, 43, I 50, 20 I ,
naton-statcand, 39, bctvccnspatal
andvirtualncghborhoods, I 89,
I 9497,thcoryo|, I 99
dsplaccmcnts:: a|sc dctcrrtoralzaton,
mgraton,placc), 22, 38, 45, 58, I 70,
cncmaand, \ , 3, natonstatcand,
39, I 5, I 7,productono|local-
tyand, I 93, I 9899,socologyo|, 39
Lockcr,L. , 93, 94
Louglas, N., 7 I , 80
Lunnng,L. , I I 0
Lurant, P, I 87
Lurkhcm, L. , 3 , 5, 3 I , 83, I 79
Llas,. , , 8 I , 8 3 , I I 0, I 48
cmprcsm,orcntalsts:: a|sc orcntal-
sm), I I 5, I 2 3
cnculturaton,4 3
Lnloc,L, 202
cnumcratons:: a|sc numbcr), I I 4 I 8,
I 2 3, I 27-30, I 3 334, brtsh vs.
Nughal, I 29,ncolonalpol cy, I I 5,
I I 9, I 23, o|human communtcs, I 25,
I 27-29, I 52, lnksvthclasshcaton,
I I 4, astcchnquco|socalcontrol,
I I 7, I I 8
cphcmcralty, acsthctco|,8385
cthncty(s:: a|sc mploson,prmordal-
sm,volcncc,cthnc), I I I , I 7 I , bus-
ncsssucccssand, I 70,culturald||cr-
cnccand, I 3, I 47,asglobal |orcc, 4 l ,
202,nstrumcntalconccptono|, I 4,
nvcntono|,44,localtyand, 4 I ,
modcrntyo|, I 39, I 44, I 57,natonal-
smand, I 39, I 2
cthnodrama, I , 2
cthnographys:: a|sc cthnoscapcs,local
ty), 58,4,204,cosmopoltan,4952,
ndctcrrtoralzcdvorld, 52, 3,
magncdlvcsn,5455,o|ltcraturc,
I , macrocthnography, 52, o| thc
modcrn, I 82,o|spcakng, I 87, o|
tourststcs, I 92
cthnonatonalsm,20, I 3, I 4
cthnoscapcs, 35, 37, 40, 4 I , 45, 47, dch-
ntono|, 3 334,cthnography and, 48,
52,gcncalogcsandhstorcso|,
4-5,magnatonand, 59,localty
and, I 9899, ncghborhoodsand, I 83,
l 84, I 8, I 88
cvcntcascadcs, I 5054, I 5, I 4
Lvald, , I I 8
l n J : x
= 222 =
aban, |. , 3 I , 204
|antasys:: a|sc magnaton,nostalga),
39, 43, I , I 7 I , magnatonand,,
7, 3 I , 58, 82, natonal,o|Amcrca,
I 70,asrcsdualpractcc,53, rolcn
|ndancrckct, I I 0, I I I , assocalprac
tcc,54
|ashons:: a|sc consumpton,nostalga).
consumptonand,78,7I -72,75,
8 I , 8485,g|tgvngand,70,ntcr-
natonal, I 7,nostalgaand,7,77,
patnaand,75, 78, 82
cathcrstonc, N., I 88
|cclng,structurcso|, I 53, I 5, I 8 I ,
I 82, I 89, I 99
cld, S. , 32
clman,S. , 58
crguson, } . , I 88
|ctshsm,consumcr, 4 I , 42
hlm s:: a|sc cncma,mcda,mcda,clcc-
tronc,mcda,mass,tclcvson), I 93,
I 94,ascthnodrama,2, cthnography
and,4,gcndcrpoltcs n, 4 I , 45,
lndan, 38, 2, I 08, markcts|or, 38,
49, mcdascapcsand, 35, 40,modcr-
ntyand, I , 2, I 0, nostalga n, 77
hnanccscapcs, 3 3 , 34, 37, 40, 45
schcr, N , 4, 58
|ocalzaton, I 5054, I 5
ostcr,K.|. , I 88
oucault,N. , 5 I , I 2,bopoltcsand,
I 20, I 48, crtquc o|Wcstcrnhuman-
smand, 52,knovlcdgcandpovcr
and, I 47
rank|urtSchool, , 3 I
rascr,. , I 9
razcr, | . L. , I 80
rccman,L. , I 9, I 74
rctag,S , 98, I 29
rcud, S. , 7
ricdman,|. , I 88
rykcnbcrg,K. L. , I 2, I 3 I
|undamcntalsm,42,global, 38, organ-
zatonso|, I 8,racal,rclgous,and
cultural , I 4,rclgous, 38, I 40, I 5,
I 74, I 9
Lans,L. , 32
Lccrtz, L. , 50, 5 I , 58, 9, I 40, I 8 I ,
202-3
Lcllncr,L. , I 88
gcndcrs:: a|sc vomcn).colonalsmand,
I 34,culturalrcproductonand, I 98,
ndctcrrtoralzaton, 39, n|ndan
crckct,93, I I 0 I I , I I 2,ntrans-
natonalhImndustry, 4 I , 45,volcncc
and, 45
gcncalogy, I 7- I 8, 4~5, 74
Liddcns,P , 52
Lnsburg,, I 94
global s:: a|sc cultural hovs, global,cul-
turc,homogcnzaton,cultural,local-
ty).culturalcconomy, 32, 4 I , I 50,
culturco|thchypcrrcal,29,dcvclop-
mcnt,Narxstthcorcsor, 33, asmod-
crn, I 0, I I , 2 I , tcnsonvththclocal,
3, 4, I 84,vllagc,29
globalzatons:: a|sc dctcrrtoralzaton,
homogcnzaton,cultural,localty), I 0,
I , I 8, I 50, I 87, I 88,homogcnzaton
and, I I , I 7, 32, 42,o|lndusm,57,
aslocalzngproccss, I 7, thcmodcrn
and, 4, naton |orm and, I 88,spacc
and, 9
Lo||man, L. , 75
Loodvn,L. , I 87
Lould, S. |. , 52
Lramsc,P, I 45
Luattar, , 29, I 88
Luha, K. , I I , I 2 I , I 2
Lupta, P, I 88
labcrmas, |. , I I
labb,I . , I 29
habtus, 44, 9, 74, I I 3, mprovsaton
and,, 555,localtyas, I 85,tcch-
nqucso|bodyand, 7
lackng, I . , I I I 8, I 25
lalbvachs,N. , 74,77
lall, S. , 202
lamclnk, L., 32
landlcr,K. , 39, I 88
lan|,N. , I 52
lanks, W , I 87
l r J t X
= 2 2 3 =
lanncrz, L. , J2, 4, J, I 88
lanscn,N. , I 9, I 94
largrcavcs,). , II 0
larris,^ . , 52
larvcy, L. , 85, 204
lasan,N. , I J0
lcbdgc, L. , I 45
lcchtcr, N. , J8, I 4
lclms, ^ , 27, 7 I
lcrdcr, |. L. , I I
hcrtagcpolticss:: alsc rcproducton,
cultural), J9,42, 4445, I 4
lcrz|cld, N. , J9, I 88
lnkson,], 47
lrschman,P L. , , I 45, I 49
history, 20, I 5, I 82, agcncyand, I 57,
anthropologyand, 4, consumpton
and,7 I , 78, gcncalogyand, I 7 I 8,
4~5, 74,hstorcalsub;ccts and, I 85,
localsmand, I 7
lobsbavm,L. , 4 I , I 45, I 4, I 88
lodgson,N , 27, 7 I
homclands,nvcntcd, J8, 45, 49
homogcnzation, cultural.globalzaton
and, I I , I 7, J2, 42,naton-statcsand,
J2, J9, 42, I 4, I 77, I 89
luzinga, | , I I 0
lutchns, L. , 9, I 20
lymcs, L. , 58, I 87
dcnttypoltcs, I 5, I 45, I 5
i dcoscapcs, JJ, J5~J8, 40, 45, 47
imainair:, J0, J I
magnary, J I , I 45, I I , I 9 I
magnaton ::: alsc communtcs,mag-
ncd,|antasy,vorko|magnaton,
vorlds,magncd),49,0, I 85, I 95, in
colonalsm, I I 5, I I 7,communtyo|
scntmcntand, 8, dalogucvithrtual,
5, , 57,cthnicvolcnccand, I 49, I 5J,
cthnographyand, 5J, 58,|antasyand,
, 7, J I , 58, 82, natonstatcand, J9,
I I , ncvncsso|,5,n poltcs, I 45,
rolcinsocall|c, J I , 52, 5J, 54, 55, I ,
assocal |actandpracticc,5 , J I , 5 J
mploson,9, I 49, I 5 I , I 5~57, I 4~5,
I 9J
mprovsaton,, 55, 8
lndcn,K. b. , I I
InJ|a Ca|at:t, J8, I , J
ndgcnzaton s:: alsc dccolonzaton,
globalzaton,homogcnzation,cul-
tural ). Amcrcanzatonand, J2,o|
crckct,90,94, I 00, I I 0,dccoloniza-
tonand, I 0 l , I 0,modcrntyand,90
lnkclcs, P,
lsaacs, , I J9
lshcrvood, b. , 7 I
lvy,N . , J2, 7J, I 4
lycr,l. , 29, J 2
|amcs,L . L . R, 90,9 I
|amcson,l, 29,52, 20 I , consumption
andrcpcttonand, 7,poltcso|nos-
talgaand, J0, 77
|ohnson,N. , J
|ohnson,K., 202
Jcin! R:ct! c] 1 1 , t, I 2 I 24
lang, S. -1 , I 7
lap|crcr, b. , I 8 8
larach,9 , I 5052, I 54
lavra|,5. , I I 5, I J I
lclly,W., I 4
lcohanc, R, I 49
lcrkcgaard, 5. , 7
lng, P, I 88
llcnman, P, 20J
knovlcdgc,|ocal, I 8 I
lopyto||,| . , 7
lothar, K. , 40, I I 4, I J I , I 4 I
lotkn,|. , I 70
lrocbcr, P, I 2
Lacan, |. , 5 I
Laclau,L. , I 45
Lako||, L. , J
Lash, S , J J , 40, 52, I 50
Lavton, K, I I 7
Lc bon, L. , I 48
Lcc, b. , I I
Lc|cbvrc, , I 78, 204
Lc|ort, L. , I 45
Lcrncr, L. ,
I r J : x
= 224 =
Lcvs, L. , I 80
localty,s:: alsc cthnography,ncghbor
hoods,producton,sub|ccts,local),
9, i i , I 78, I 94, I 97, 204, bodly n-
scrptonand, I 4, 7, I I 2, I 79,con-
tcxtand, I 8, I 88, I 9 I , I 9 J , I 95, I 98,
ndctcrrtoralzcdvorld, 52, I 88-89,
asdsgusco|transnatonalproccsscs,
42, cthnctyand,4 I , cthnography

and, 52, 55, J, I 79~82, I 84,|raglty

o|, I 79, I 82, I 84, I 98, ashstorcal
product, I 8, naton-statcand, I 90,
ncghborhoodsand, I 79, I 82, I 99,
204,aspropcrtyo|socal h|c, I 82,
I 99,rtualso|, I 8084,structurcso|
|cclngand, I 5J, I 5, I 8 I , I 82, I 89,
I 99
Luddcn, L. L. , I I 5, I I . I I 7, I 28, 202
Lukcs, S , 52
Lutz,L. A., I 47
Lyotard, |. -l., J I
NacAloon, | , 0, I I 0, I 7
magcalrcalsm, 5J, 5859, I
Nalnovsk, b. , 9, I 80
Nalkk, L. l. , I 55, 20J
NandalLommssonKcport, I I 4, I J5,
I 4J, I 4, I 2
Nandcl,L. , J J
Nan,L., I 20
mappng, I 2 I 22, I 80
Narcus, L. , 4, 58
Narshal l , , I 07
Nartn, L. , 85
Narx, l., J, 47, 52, 79, I 44, I 57, I 8 I ,
alcnatonand,42,dctatorshpo|
prolctaratand, I 42, |ctshsmo|com-
modtyand,4 I
Nattclart,A. , J 2
Nauss,N. , 7,bodlytcchnqucsand,
9, I 47,collcctvcconscousncssand,
8J,g|tgvngand,8
Nazzn, L., I I
Nbcmbc,A. , I 59, I 89
NcLrackcn,L. L , 75
NcLonaldzaton, 29
Nclcndrick,. , , 72
NcLuhan,N. , 29
Ncuccn, l. , J9
mcasurcmcnt, andcolonalpolcy, I 2 J
mcda ,s:: a|sc cncma,hlm,mcda,clcc-
tronc,mcda,mass,mcdascapcs,tclc-
vson).nndgcnzatono|crckct,
9 I , I 00, I 02, I 04, I 07, I I 2,moblza-
tono|dcnttyby, I 55, I 5,modcr-
nityand, J, placcand, 29,producton
o|localty n, I 8 I , rolcncrcatng
magncdvorlds, J, JJ, J5, 45
mcda,clcctronc, ,s:: a|sc ncghbor
hoods),9, I 74, I 89,consumcrnagc
o|,,dasporaand, I 9-98,diasporic
publcsphcrcsand, I 0, 22, ncghbor
hoodsand, I 89, I 9497, ncvpatrot
smsand, I 9,asopumo|masscs, 7,
scI|magnngand,4, tradtonal
mcdaand, J
mcda,mass,s:: alsc mgraton), J, I 8 I ,
I 94,agcncyand, 7,communtcso|
scntmcntand, 8,consumptonand,
84,culturalrcproductonthrough,45,
ndctcrrtoralzcdcontcxt, J8, 45,
55,magnatonand, 5J~55,mgraton
and, 2, , I 0, 2 I , I 5,naton-statc
and, 202 I , I 5
mcdascapcs, J J , J5~40, 47,cultural
poltcso|, 45, dchntono|, J5, |an-
tasy, magnaton and, J, |ctshismo|
consumcrand,42,nvcntcdhomc-
landsand, J8, 45
NccnaksJcmplc,5~57
mcltngpot, I 7 I , I 72
Ncyrovtz, |. , 29
mgraton,s:: a|sc dctcrrtoralzaton,
daspora,dsplaccmcnt,mcda, mass),
9, 28, J2, I 75, I 8, I 92 , I 99, as cha-
lcngctonaton-statc, 4, I 5, I 57, I 9 I ,
culturalrcproductonand, 4J-44,cul-
turalstmovcmcntsand, I 5, I 47, I 5,
dctcrrtoralzatonand, 4,dcao|
homclandand, I 7,magnatonand,
,massmcdaand, 2, , I 0, 2 I , I 5,
modcrntyo|, J, rcpcat, I 72
Nllcr,L. , 75
Nillcr,N. , 7J
l d t X
= 225 =
Nntz, S. W. , 7 I
Ntra,P, I I I
modcrntys:: a|sc modcrnzaton), I 3,
I 7, I 42, 204,atlargc, I 9, 23, o|cth-
ncty, I 39, I 44, I 57,ndgcnizaton
and,90,mcanso|, I I 2, I I 3, mgraton
and, 3, naton-statcand, I 9, rcproduc-
tono|localtyn, I 8 I , asthcory,2,
thcoryo|rupturc in,2, 3, 9,asvcrnacu-
larglobalzaton, I 0,vorkolmagna-
tonand, 3
modcrnzaton ,s:: a|sc modcrnity),203,
dcmocracyand, I 4 I , dcvclopmcnt
and, I 0,20, I 44,naton-statcand,2,
9, I 0, thcory, 2, 3, , 9, I I , I 9, 3 I , I 40
Noncy,}. , I I 7
Noorc, S. , I 88
Nou||c,L. , \ 45
movcmcnts,culturalsts:: alsc rcproduc-
ton,cultural ) , I 5, I 57, culturc, cul-
turalsmand, I 3 I , natonstatcand,
I 5, I 4, I 47
Nukcr|,L. , 72
multculturalsm, I 5, 22, I 99,nLng
land, I 43, I 4,nLntcdStatcs, I 9,
I 7 I , I 97
Nulvcy, l. , 84
Nunn,. L., I 80
ar,N. , I 0, 38, I , 3
andy, P , 39, 52, 90,92, 9, I 0, I 4 I ,
203
natonalsm s:: a|sc cthncty,naton
statc,patrotsm,trbalsm), 20, I 58,
I 7 I , I 88, I 90,crickctnatonalsm,9 I ,
99, I 07, I 09, I I 2, dasporc, I 0, 40,
I 72, I 9,asdscasc, I 9,clcctroncmc
datonand,9, I 9,cthnctyand, I 39,
I 2, magncdcommuntcsand, 28,
long-dstancc, 22, I 9,patrotsmand,
I 59-0, poltcso|mcmoryn, I 55,
I 5,asprmordalsm,2 I , tcrrtory
and, I I , I 5, I 7 I , tro|an, I 5
natonalty,quccr, I 59, I 74, I 7
naton-statcs:: alsc communtcs,mag
ncd,natonalsm). controlovcrd||cr-
cncc, 39, 42, I 30, I 77,crsso|, I 9,
39, I 57, I 58, I 0 I , I 9, I 79,cul-
turalsmo|, I 4, I 47, I 5, I 57,das-
porcpublcsphcrcsand,4,cndo|, I 8,
I 9, I 9, I 7,globalculturalcconomy
and, 39,hcrtagcpoltcsand, 39, 42,
I 4,homogcnzatonand, 32, 39, 42,
I 4, I 77, I 89,humanmotonand,4,
I 5, I 57, I 9 I , hyphcnn, I 9, 3940,
I 59, I 7,magnatonand, 39, I I , as
localty, 42,moblzatono|dcntty
by, I 555, I 3, monopolyovcrmod-
crnzaton, I 0,ncghborhoodsand,
I 9093, I 98,prmordalsmand, I 4,
I 2,productono|localtyby, I 87,
I 909 I , productono|pcoplcand,
I I 9, I 59, I 7, I 89, I 9 I , spaccand,
I 89,tcrrtoryand, I I , I 89, I 9 I , trans-
national dcstablzatono|, \ 78, \ 89
calc, W.L. , I 25
ncghborhoods ,s:: a|sc localty,tcrr-
tory), I 4, I 80,colonzatonand, I 84,
I 8,contcxtand, I 8388, I 93, I 95,
l 98,culturalrcproducton n, 44,dch
ntono|, I 78, I 79,cthncvolcnccn,
I 93, cthnoscapcsand, I 8 3, I 84, I 8,
magnatonand, 7, local, I 8 I , loca|ty
and, I 79, I 82, I 99, 204,natonstatc
and, I 9093, I 98, rtualso|, I 8 384,
socal, 53, spatalandvrtual, I 89,
I 94~98,astranslocaltcs, I 92,
Yanomamvllagcsas, I 85~8
icoll,, 32
igam,S. , I I 8
nomnalsm,dynamc, I I , I 25
nongovcrnmcntalorganzatons,NCOs),
I 8, I 90
nostalga ,s:: a|sc consumpton,|antasy,
|ashon, patina), I 5, I 9,armchar,
78, andcatalogs,7, 78, consumpton
and, 85,|antasyand,7778,8 I 82,
83, |ashonand,7, 77,vthoutmcm-
ory, 30,77, 82,|orthcprcscnt, 30, 77,
rcrunsand, 30
numbcrs:: a|sc cnumcraton) . nbrtsh
poltical magnaton, I I 7,ncadastral
poltcs, I 2 I , I 25, ncolonalmagna
ton, I I 7,|orcolonalandsocalcon-
I r d : x
= 2 2 =
trol, I I 7, I 25, I 29, dynamc nomnal
ismo|, I 25, I 32, as|orm o|translaton,
I 2,|ustihcatoryanddsciplnaryrolc
o|, I I 92 I , I 25~2,nrccordsand
rcports, I 2
Llympic Lamcs, 4, 8, 0, I 7
orcntalsm ,s:: a|sc cmpircsm,orcntal-
st). colonalsmand, I I 8, I I 9,
I 3 334,crtiqucso|arcastudcsand,
I ,cnumcratonn, I I 5, I 29,magna-
tonand, iI 5
Lrtncr,S . b. , 55, 203
landcy, L , 98, I 27, I 28, I 30
lant, K., I 2728
larht, L. , 52
larkn, L , 48
larsons, J, , 203
latl,S. , I 04
patna (s:: a|sc |ashion,nostalga), 757,
78, 82
patrotsm ,sccalsonationalsm,naton-
statc,trbalsm,violcncc,cthnc), I 24,
I 7,dctachcd|rom tcrrtory, 2 I , lnks
vithbiculturalism, I 70, mcdiaand,
I 9,natonalism and, I 590, socal
sccnccand, I 8-23
lcls, |, 204
lcrln, , 7 I , I 29
licrcc, L. , 9
ltkn, l. , I 3 I
placcs:: alsc displaccmcnt,localty,
mcda). magnatonand, 53, 58,
mcdaand,29,natonalsmand, I I ,
I ,naton-statcand, I 89, I 9 I , ncigh-
borhoodand, I 8 38, I 88,pcoplc,
hcrtagcand,4,ritualand, I 8 385
plcasurc.agcncyand, 7, | i i ,agonstic
sportand, I I 0 I I , o|consumpton, 7,
8, 83, o|cosmopoltansm,2, I I 2, o|
cphcmcralty, 8384,lashionand,8,
o|thcgazc,84,massmcdaand,8
llumb,}. l ,
poltcalcorrcctncss, I 7 I
postnatonal(s:: alsc transnaton,
transnatonal ) , 9, I 58-59, I 47 I ,
I 7377,cthncmoblzatons, I 4,
|ormso|allcgancc, I ,hcicrogcnc
tyand, 23, imagnaton,2 I 22, I 77,
vs. multnatonalandntcrnatonal,
I 78, nctvorko|dasporas, I 7 I ,
politcalvorId, 2223, poltcs, I 73,
socal |orms, I 58, I 7,sodaltics, 8
lovcrs, b. K., 29
lrakash, L. , 98, I I , I 2
lrcslcr, l A. , I 20
lrcston, L.W , I 2
prmordalsm,s:: a|sc cthnicty), I 3942,
203, cthncvolcnccand, 2 I , I 404 I ,
I 44, I 49, I 53, I 557,globalzaton
o|,4 I , modcrnityand, I 40, I 44,para
doxo|constructcd, 28, poltcso|
a||cctand, I 4447, I 53, tribalsmand,
I 70
producton.andconsumcr |ctishsm,4 I ,
42,o|localsub|ccts, I 798 I , I 85,
I 87, I 90,o|localty, I 52, I 80-82,
I 85, I 89, I 9294,oInatvcs, I 79, o|
pcoplc, I I 9, I 59, I 7, I 89, I 9 I , o|
spacc, I 78
lroust,N. , 7
uri, l , 90
quccrnatonalty, I 59, I 74, I 7
[uctclct, A., I 30
Kabinov, l.,49, I I 8
Ka| , V, 93
Kangcr, J, 4 I , I 45
Kan;, 9597
Kan|itsnh|.5:: Kan|
rc|ugccs,43, I I , I , I 99,camps and,
, I 7, I 9 I , I 9293, culturalpoltcs
o|,45,culturalsmand, I 5,cthno-
scapcsand, 33, mplosonand, I 49,
naton-statcpolccson, 34, I 9 I , n
postnatonalordcr, 22, I 78,in
transnaton, I 72-73
rcligon, 7, 8, 20,27, I 43, nccnsuscs,
I I 8, rolcnnatonalsm, I I
rcproducton,cultural s:: alsc movc-
mcnts,culturalst), I 7 I , I 85, dctcrrto-
ralzationand, 3738, 43-45, 48, 49,
l r J : X
= 2 2 7 =
globalzcdrclatonso|, 5 I , I 98,|or
lndusabroad, J8, 57,motonand,
4J-44,standard, 54,tcnsionbctvccn
local andglobal n,J
rcsstancc, 29,J, 84, I J J, I 89,cultural
transactonsand, 27,mass mcdaand,
7,tomodcrnzaton, I 40,prmordal
smand, I 40, I 45
rtcso|passagc, 870, 84, I 79~80
rtual,9,dalogucvthmagnaton, 5,
, 57, local sub|cctsand, I 8 I , I 85,rolc
nlocalty, I 80~84
Kobbns, b. , I 9
Kobcrts,N. , 9 I
Kobcrtson,K., I 50, I 88
Kobnson, , I J0
Ko|ck, L. , 79, 8 J
Kosaldo, K. ,58
Koscnau, ). , I 50, I 5 I , I 4, I , I 88
Kousc, K., I 88, 204
rupturc (::: a|:c brcak,thcoryo|), I 2 I ,
rclatontonostalga, 7, thcoryo|, 2,
J, 9
Kushdic,S. , 8, 5J, 58
Sahlns,N. , 9, 72, I 85, I 88
Sad,L. , I , I I 4-I 5
Salvc, . l.l.,99, I 09
Sarasvath,S. , I J I
5a!anic \:r:::, !b:, 8, 5J, 58, 59
Saussurcanlngustcs, I 2
Savchuk, l. , 84
Scha|cr, L. , 27,7 I
Schcr,l. , 204
Schc||cl n, L., I 80
Schllcr, l. , J2
Schlcsingcr, L. , 202
Schudson, N., 5J
Scott, ). L. , I 45, I 49, I 89
Shah,A.N. , I I 4, I J I
Shastri, K. , I 04
Shcrzcr,|. , I 88
Shls,L. , , I J9, 20J
Smmcl,L , 50,75
Smth,l. ,78
Smth,K. S., I I 7, I I 9, I 20~2 I , I 2,
I 27, I 28
socolngustcs, I 87
socology. colonal,9J, 98,cu!turccon
ccptn,5 I , o|dsplaccmcnt, J9
spacc.gobalzatonand, 9, naton-statc
and, I 89,productono|, I 78,timc
and, I 80, I 8, 204
Stack,). l )r., 20J
Stcvart,S . , 77
Stolcr,A. L., 94
subaltcrnstudcs, I 45
sub|ccts, local.localtyand, I 7980,
I 88, naton-statc and, I 909 I , I 9J,
I 97,ncghborhoodsand, I 8 I , I 85,
I 87, I 90, I 98, rtualand, I 8 I , I 85
supcrorganc, I 2
Sutton,L . S. , I 55, 20J
Jambah, S. |. , I 4 I , I 49, I 505I , I 5J, I 88
tcchnqucs,bodly,::: a|:c body), 9, 8J,
consumptonand,7-8, 74,
cphcmcraltyand, 84,rclatontodsc
plnc, I 4748
tcchnoscapcs, J J , J4, J5, J7, 40, 45
tclcvson(::: a|:c cncma,hlm,mcdia,
mcda,clcctronic,mcda,mass).advcr-
tsngandconsumpton, 7J, 77, 84,
cncmaand, I 94,asclcctronccaptal-
sm, I I , thcgazcand,84,nl ndian
crckct, I 0 I , I 02, I 04, I 0, I I 2,
mcdascapcsand, J5, mgratonand,,
npostnatonalpoltcalordcr, I ,
rolcnmagnaton,5 J
tcrrtory(::: a|:c dctcrrtoralzaton,
naton-statc,ncighborhoods),70,98,
I 25, I 8,asal b |ornatonalsm, I 5,
ncountcrnatonalsms,2 I , nation-
statcand, I I , I 89, I 9 I , ncghbor-
hoodsand, I 95,poltcso|culturalrc
producton n, 44
Jhapar, K., I I 4
Jhomas, l. , I I 7
Jhompson, L. I, I 7, 79, 82, I 45
Jhornton, K., 4
tmc.commodhcatono|,79, 82,con
sumptonand,70,7,7879, 85,
spaccand, I 80, I 8,204
Jocnncs, l, J, I 79
I r J r X
= 2 2 8 =
tradton,nvcntono|,4 I , 44, I 45
trans|oca|proccsscs, 27
trans|oca|tcs, I92
transnaton, I 7273, I 7677, 204
transnaIona| ,s::olsepostnatona|), I 5,
I 7, 3 I , I 65, I 70, I 76, I 77, I 93, I 94,
a||cganccanda|h|aton,20, I 67,
a||anccsandmob|zaton, 8, I 0, 43,
I 47,cu|tura||lows,49,64, dcstab|za-
tono|naton-statc, I 78,gcnca|ogcs,
64,dcasanddcoscapcs,37,5960,
ntc||cctua|s, I 6 I , I 95,mcdaand
mgraton,9, 35, 40,44,204,ph|an-
thropcmovcmcnts, I 67,rc|atonso|
producton,42, scparatstmovcmcnts,
22, 39, 40,sprcado|dscasc, 50, I 66
transva|uaton, I 5054, I 56
trtbatsm(s::a/socthntcity, prmordtaI-
sm), I 5, I 4 I , I 73, mcrcanracsm
and, I 707I , natona|smand, I 5,
202 I , I 6264
rpath,S. , I 09
rou||ot,N. -R, 65
urncr,, I 94
y|or, L. b. , 50
Lrban, L., I 88
Lrry, |. , 33, 40, 52, I 50
Vachan, L., 40
vandcr Vccr, |, I 47, I 56, I 88
van Lcnncp,P, 68, 69, I 80
Vcb|cn,, 66, 68
vo|cncc,cthnc,s::olsecthncty, pr-
mordalsm,cthncvo|cnccand),203,
bctraya|andtrcachcryn, I 54, I 55,
203, cu|tura|smand, I 5, I 56,dctcrr-
tora|zatonand, 38, 49, I 66,cvcnt
cascadcs and, I 50-54, I 56, I 64,
dcoscapcsn, 38,magnatonand,
I 49, I 53, mp|oson,cxp|osonand,
I 49, I 5 I , I 54, I 56~57, I 64~65, I 93,
strucIurcso||cc|ngn, I 53, I 56
Wa||crstcn,| . , 27, 33, I 88
Warncr, N. , 36, I 6 I
wars,urban, I 52, I 93
Washbrook, L. P, I 3 I
Wcbcr, N. , 3, 6, 83, I 70, I 79, 203,cth-
nctyand, I 4,dco|ogy npo|tca|||c
and, I 45, rsco|capta|smand,72,
o:st:|:rand,50
whtcncss, I 59, I 7 I
Witams,R , J6, I 45, I 5J
W||ams,K. l. , 72, 73
Wo||,L. , 27, 33, 46, 7I
womcn,s::olsegcndcr),honoro|,45,
|ndancrckctand, 93, ! ! ! , vo|cncc
aganst,44,45, I 96
worko|magnaton,s::olsemagna-
ton),9, 83, I 98, mcda,mgraton,
and, 3, I 0, 63, I 5,naton-statcand, I 0,
22, I 46,asspacco|contcstaton,4,54
wor|dsystcmsthcory,27
wor|ds, magncd,5, 4I , dchntono|,
33,ro|co|mcdan, 3, 33, 35, 45
1anomam, I 85~86
1oshmoto,N., 32
Zar| | , l. , 40
Zo|bcrg,P K., I 49
| n d f X
= 229 =
11JL^ 11LL111 is prolcssor ol anthropology and ol South Asian languagcs
and civilizations at thc Lnivcrsity ol Lhicago, vhcrc hc vas prcviously
dircctor ol thc Lhicago lumanitics lnstitutc. li s many publications i n-
cludc wets|j orJ Cer|ct rJ:t Celerol kl: ,Lambridgc, I 98 I ) , T|: Sec|ol
L(j: e) T||rjs ,as cditor, Lambridgc Lnivcrsity lrcss, I 98), and C:rJ:t,
C:rt: orJ Pem:t ,as cocditor, Lnivcrsity ol lcnnsylvania lrcss, I 99 I ) . lc i s
thc dircctor ol thc Llobalization lro|cct at thc Lnivcrsity ol Lhicago and
i s currcntly rcscarching thc rclation bctvccn cthnic violcncc and imagcs
ol tcrritory in modcrn nation-statcs.