Environmental engineering-I

UNIT-I PLANNING FOR WATER SUPPLY SYSTEM

Introduction to Environmental Engineering
What is Environmental Engineering?
It is the application of scientific and engineering principles to the environmental issues and their solutions.
Generally, it includes supply of water, disposal and recycling of wastes, drainage of communities, control
of water, soil, atmospheric pollution and environmental impacts of different activities carried out on earth.
The practice and application of engineering laws in compliance with the safety of environment and the
code of ethics prescribed as standards. Some of those are as below
Environmental engineering is the application of science and engineering principles to improve
the natural environment (air, water, and/or land resources), to provide healthy water, air, and
land for human habitation and for other organisms, and to remediate polluted sites. It involves
waste water management and air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, radiation
protection, industrial hygiene, environmental sustainability, and public health issues as well as a
knowledge of environmental engineering law. It also includes studies on the environmental
impact of proposed construction projects.
Environmental engineers conduct haardous!waste management studies to evaluate the
significance of such haards, advise on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to
prevent mishaps. Environmental engineers also design municipal water supply and industrial
wastewater treatment systems
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as well as address local and worldwide environmental issues
such as the effects of acid rain, global warming, oone depletion, water pollution and air
pollution from automobile e&hausts and industrial sources.
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+t many universities,
Environmental Engineering programs follow either the ,epartment of -ivil Engineering or .he
,epartment of -hemical Engineering at Engineering faculties. Environmental /civil/ engineers
focus on hydrology, water resources management, bioremediation, and water treatment plant
design. Environmental /chemical/ engineers, on the other hand, focus on environmental
chemistry, advanced air and water treatment technologies and separation processes
Development o environmental engineering
Ever since people first recognied that their health and well!being were related to the 0uality of
their environment, they have applied thoughtful principles to attempt to improve the 0uality of
their environment. .he ancient 1arappan civiliation utilied early sewers in some cities. .he
2omans constructed a0ueducts to prevent drought and to create a clean, healthful water supply
for the metropolis of 2ome. In the #)th century, 3avaria created laws restricting the development
and degradation of alpine country that constituted the region4s water supply.
.he field emerged as a separate environmental discipline during the middle third of the %5th
century in response to widespread public concern about water and pollution and increasingly
e&tensive environmental 0uality degradation. 1owever, its roots e&tend back to early efforts in
public health engineering.
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7odern environmental engineering began in 8ondon in the mid!#9th
century when :oseph 3aalgette designed the first major sewerage system that reduced the
incidence of waterborne diseases such as cholera. .he introduction of drinking water treatment
and sewage treatment in industrialied countries reduced waterborne diseases from leading
causes of death to rarities.
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In many cases, as societies grew, actions that were intended to achieve benefits for those
societies had longer!term impacts which reduced other environmental 0ualities. <ne e&ample is
the widespread application of ,,. to control agricultural pests in the years following =orld
=ar II. =hile the agricultural benefits were outstanding and crop yields increased dramatically,
thus reducing world hunger substantially, and malaria was controlled better than it ever had been,
numerous species were brought to the verge of e&tinction due to the impact of the ,,. on their
reproductive cycles. .he story of ,,. as vividly told in 2achel -arson4s />ilent >pring/ is
considered to be the birth of the modern environmental movement and the development of the
modern field of /environmental engineering./
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-onservation movements and laws restricting public actions that would harm the environment
have been developed by various societies for millennia. ?otable e&amples are the laws decreeing
the construction of sewers in 8ondon and @aris in the #9th century and the creation of the A.>.
national park system in the early %5th century.
S!ope o Environmental Engineering
3riefly speaking, the main task of environmental engineers is to protect public health by
protecting (from further degradation), preserving (the present condition of), and enhancing the
environment. Environmental engineering is the application of science and engineering principles
to the environment. >ome consider environmental engineering to include the development of
sustainable processes. .here are several divisions of the field of environmental engineering.
Environmental impa!t a""e""ment an# mitigation
In this division, engineers and scientists use a systemic identification and evaluation process to
assess the potential impacts of a proposed project , plans, programs, policies, or legislative
actions upon the physical!chemical, biological, cultural, and socioeconomic components on
environmental conditions.
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.hey apply scientific and engineering principles to evaluate if there
are likely to be any adverse impacts to water 0uality, air 0uality, habitat 0uality, flora and fauna,
agricultural capacity, traffic impacts, social impacts, ecological impacts, noise impacts, visual
(landscape) impacts, etc. If impacts are e&pected, they then develop mitigation measures to limit
or prevent such impacts. +n e&ample of a mitigation measure would be the creation of wetlands
in a nearby location to mitigate the filling in of wetlands necessary for a road development if it is
not possible to reroute the road.
.he practice of environmental assessment was intitiated on :anuary #, #965, the effective date of
the ?ational Environmental @olicy +ct (?E@+) in the Anited >tates. >ince that time, more than
#55 developing and developed nations either have planned specific analogous laws or have
adopted procedure used elsewhere. ?E@+ is applicable to all federal agencies in the Anited
>tates.
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Water "$ppl% an# treatment
Engineers and scientists work to secure water supplies for potable and agricultural use. .hey
evaluate the water balance within a watershed and determine the available water supply, the
water needed for various needs in that watershed, the seasonal cycles of water movement
through the watershed and they develop systems to store, treat, and convey water for various
uses. =ater is treated to achieve water 0uality objectives for the end uses. In the case of potable
water supply, water is treated to minimie the risk of infectious disease transmission, the risk of
non!infectious illness, and to create a palatable water flavor. =ater distribution systems are
designed and built to provide ade0uate water pressure and flow rates to meet various end!user
needs such as domestic use, fire suppression, and irrigation.
Wa"te&ater !onve%an!e an# treatment
=ater pollution
7ost urban and many rural areas no longer discharge human waste directly to the land through
outhouse, septic, and/or honey bucket systems, but rather deposit such waste into water and
convey it from households via sewer systems. Engineers and scientists develop collection and
treatment systems to carry this waste material away from where people live and produce the
waste and discharge it into the environment. In developed countries, substantial resources are
applied to the treatment and deto&ification of this waste before it is discharged into a river, lake,
or ocean system. ,eveloping nations are striving to obtain the resources to develop such systems
so that they can improve water 0uality in their surface waters and reduce the risk of water!borne
infectious disease.
>ewage treatment plant, +ustralia.
.here are numerous wastewater treatment technologies. + wastewater treatment train can consist
of a primary clarifier system to remove solid and floating materials, a secondary treatment
system consisting of an aeration basin followed by flocculation and sedimentation or an activated
sludge system and a secondary clarifier, a tertiary biological nitrogen removal system, and a final
disinfection process. .he aeration basin/activated sludge system removes organic material by
growing bacteria (activated sludge). .he secondary clarifier removes the activated sludge from
the water. .he tertiary system, although not always included due to costs, is becoming more
prevalent to remove nitrogen and phosphorus and to disinfect the water before discharge to a
surface water stream or ocean outfall.
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Air '$alit% management
Engineers apply scientific and engineering principles to the design of manufacturing and
combustion processes to reduce air pollutant emissions to acceptable levels. >crubbers,
electrostatic precipitators, catalytic converters, and various other processes are utilied to remove
particulate matter, nitrogen o&ides, sulfur o&ides, volatile organic compounds (B<-), reactive
organic gases (2<C) and other air pollutants from flue gases and other sources prior to allowing
their emission to the atmosphere.
>cientists have developed air pollution dispersion models to evaluate the concentration of a
pollutant at a receptor or the impact on overall air 0uality from vehicle e&hausts and industrial
flue gas stack emissions. .o some e&tent, this field overlaps the desire to decrease carbon
dio&ide and other greenhouse gas emissions from combustion processes(
Ot)er appli!ation"
Environmental policy and regulation development
-ontaminated land management and site remediation
Environment, 1ealth and >afety
1aardous waste management
?atural resource management
?oise pollution
2isk assessment
>olid waste management
Water suppy and santaton n Inda
Water "$ppl% an# "anitation in In#ia continue to be inade0uate, despite longstanding efforts
by the various levels of government and communities at improving coverage. .he level of
investment in water and sanitation, albeit low by international standards, has increased during the
%555s. +ccess has also increased significantly. Dor e&ample, in #9;5 rural sanitation coverage
was estimated at #E and reached %#E in %55;.
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+lso, the share of Indians with access to
improved sources of water has increased significantly from 6%E in #995 to ;;E in %55;.
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the same time, local government institutions in charge of operating and maintaining the
infrastructure are seen as weak and lack the financial resources to carry out their functions. In
addition, no major city in India is known to have a continuous water supply
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and an estimated
6%E of Indians still lack access to improved sanitation facilities.
+ number of innovative approaches to improve water supply and sanitation have been tested in
India, in particular in the early %555s. .hese include demand!driven approaches in rural water
supply since #999, community!led total sanitation, a public!private partnerships to improve the
continuity of urban water supply in Farnataka, and the use of micro!credit to women in order to
improve access to water
In %55;, ;;E of the population in India had access to an improved water source, but only '#E
had access to improved sanitation. In rural areas, where 6%E of IndiaGs population lives, the
respective shares are ;(E for water and only %#E for sanitation. In urban areas, 9*E had access
to an improved water source and )(E to improved sanitation. +ccess has improved substantially
since #995 when it was estimated to stand at 6%E for water and #;E for sanitation.
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+ccording to Indian norms, access to improved water supply e&ists if at least (5 liters/capita/day
of safe drinking water are provided within a distance of #.* km or #55 meter of elevation
difference, to be rela&ed as per field conditions. .here should be at least one pump per %)5
persons.
Servi!e '$alit%
=ater and sanitation service 0uality in India is generally poor, although there has been some
limited progress concerning continuity of supply in urban areas and access to sanitation in rural
areas.
Water "$ppl%
Dour girls carrying water in India.
*)allenge". ?one of the ') Indian cities with a population of more than one million distribute
water for more than a few hours per day, despite generally sufficient infrastructure. <wing to
inade0uate pressure people struggle to collect water even when it is available. +ccording to the
=orld 3ank, none have performance indicators that compare with average international
standards.
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+ %556 study by the +sian ,evelopment 3ank showed that in %5 cities the average
duration of supply was only (.' hours per day. ?o city had continuous supply. .he longest
duration of supply was #% hours per day in -handigarh, and the lowest was 5.' hours per day in
2ajkot.
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In ,elhi residents receive water only a few hours per day because of inade0uate
management of the distribution system. .his results in contaminated water and forces households
to complement a deficient public water service at prohibitive 4coping4 costsH the poor suffer most
from this situation. Dor e&ample, according to a #99* survey households in ,elhi spent an
average of %,#;% (A>I(;.() per year in time and money to cope with poor service levels.
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.his
is more than three times as much as the %55# water bill of about A>I#; per year of a ,elhi
household that uses %5 cubic meters per month.
A!)ievement". :amshedpur, a city in :harkhand with )6',555 inhabitants, provided %)E of its
residents with continuous water supply in %559.
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?avi 7umbai, a planned city with more than
#m inhabitants, has achieved continuous supply for about half its population as of :anuary %559.
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3adlapur, another city in the 7umbai -onurbation with a population of #(5,555, has achieved
continuous supply in ' out of #5 operating ones, covering '5E of its population.
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.hiruvananthapuram, the capital of Ferala state with a population of 6(),555 in %55#, is
probably the largest Indian city that enjoys continuous water supply.
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Sanitation
7ost Indians depend on on!site sanitation facilities. 2ecently, access to on!site sanitation have
increased in both rural and urban areas. In rural areas, total sanitation has been successful (see
below). In urban areas, a good practice is the >lum >anitation @rogram in 7umbai that has
provided access to sanitation for a 0uarter million slum dwellers.
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>ewerage, where available,
is often in a bad state. In ,elhi the sewerage network has lacked maintenance over the years and
overflow of raw sewage in open drains is common, due to blockage, settlements and inade0uate
pumping capacities. .he capacity of the #6 e&isting wastewater treatment plants in ,elhi is
ade0uate to cater a daily production of waste water of less than )5E of the drinking water
produced.
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<f the %.) 3illion people in the world that defecate openly, some **) million live in
India. .his is of greater concern as ;;E of deaths from diarrhea occur because of unsafe water,
inade0uate sanitation and poor hygiene.
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Environment
7illions depend on the polluted Canges river.
See also: Environment of India
+s of %55', it was estimated that only %6E of India4s wastewater was being treated, with the
remainder flowing into rivers, canals, groundwater or the sea.,
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Dor e&ample, the sacred
Canges river is infested with diseases and in some places /the Canges becomes black and septic.
-orpses, of semi!cremated adults or enshrouded babies, drift slowly by./.
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?ews=eek
describes ,elhi4s sacred Jamuna 2iver as /a putrid ribbon of black sludge/ where fecal bacteria
is #5,555 over safety limits despite a #)!year program to address the problem.
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-holera
epidemics are not unknown.
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+ealt) impa!t
.he lack of ade0uate sanitation and safe water has significant negative health impacts including
diarrhea, referred to by travelers as the /,elhi 3elly/,
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and e&perienced by about #5 million
visitors annually.
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=hile most visitors to India recover 0uickly and otherwise receive proper
care, the =orld 1ealth <rganisation estimated that around 655,555 Indians die each year from
diarrhea.
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.he dismal working conditions of sewer workers are another concern. + survey of
the working conditions of sewage workers in ,elhi showed that most of them suffer from
chronic diseases, respiratory problems, skin disorders, allergies, headaches and eye infections.
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Water "$ppl% an# &ater re"o$r!e"
,epleting ground water table and deteriorating ground water 0uality are threatening the
sustainability of both urban and rural water supply in many parts of India. .he supply of cities
that depend on surface water is threatened by pollution, increasing water scarcity and conflicts
among users. Dor e&ample, 3angalore depends to a large e&tent on water pumped since #96(
from the Faveri river, whose waters are disputed between the states of Farnataka and .amil
?adu. +s in other Indian cities, the response to water scarcity is to transfer more water over large
distances at high costs. In the case of 3angalore, the ',';( crore (A>I6)#.% million) Faveri
>tage IB project, @hase II, includes the supply of )55,555 cubic meter of water per day over a
distance of #55 km, thus increasing the city4s supply by two thirds.
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Re"pon"i,ilit% or &ater "$ppl% an# "anitation
=ater supply and sanitation is a >tate responsibility under the Indian -onstitution. >tates may
give the responsibility to the @anchayati 2aj Institutions (@2I) in rural areas or municipalities in
urban areas, called Arban 8ocal 3odies (A83). +t present, states generally plan, design and
e&ecute water supply schemes (and often operate them) through their >tate ,epartments (of
@ublic 1ealth Engineering or 2ural ,evelopment Engineering) or >tate =ater 3oards.
1ighly centralied decision!making and approvals at the state level, which are characteristic of
the Indian civil service, affect the management of water supply and sanitation services. Dor
e&ample, according to the =orld 3ank in the state of @unjab the process of approving designs is
centralied with even minor technical approvals reaching the office of chief engineers. +
majority of decisions are made in a very centralied manner at the head0uarters.
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In #99' the
Indian constitution and relevant state legislations were amended in order to decentralie certain
responsibilities, including water supply and sanitation, to municipalities. >ince the assignment of
responsibilities to municipalities is a state responsibility, different states have followed different
approaches. +ccording to a @lanning -ommission report of %55' there is a trend to decentralie
capital investment to engineering departments at the district level and operation and maintenance
to district and gram panchayat levels.
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Poli!% an# reg$lation
.he responsibility for water supply and sanitation at the central and state level is shared by
various 7inistries. +t the central level, .he 7inistry of 2ural ,evelopment is responsible for
rural water supply through its ,epartment of ,rinking =ater >upply (,,=>) and the 7inistry
of 1ousing and Arban @overty +lleviation is responsible for urban water supply. 1owever,
e&cept for the ?ational -apital .erritory of ,elhi and other Anion .erritories, the central
7inistries only have an advisory capacity and a very limited role in funding. >ector policy thus
is a prerogative of state governments.
Servi!e provi"ion
Ur,an area". Institutional arrangements for water supply and sanitation in Indian cities vary
greatly. .ypically, a state!level agency is in charge of planning and investment, while the local
government (Arban 8ocal 3odies) is in charge of operation and maintenance.
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>ome of the
largest cities have created municipal water and sanitation utilities that are legally and financially
separated from the local government. 1owever, these utilities remain weak in terms of financial
capacity. In spite of decentraliation, A83s remain dependent on capital subsidies from state
governments. .ariffs are also set by state governments, which often even subsidie operating
costs.
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Durthermore, when no separate utility e&ists there is no separation of accounts for
different activities within a municipality. >ome states and cities have non!typical institutional
arrangements. Dor e&ample, in 2ajasthan the sector is more centralied and the state government
is also in charge of operation and maintenance, while in 7umbai the sector is more decentralied
and local government is also in charge of planning and investment.
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Private "e!tor parti!ipation( .he private sector plays a limited, albeit recently increasing role in
operating and maintaining urban water systems on behalf of A83s. Dor e&ample, the :amshedpur
Atilities K >ervices -ompany (:usco), a subsidiary of .ata >teel, has a lease contract for
:amshedpur(:harkhand), a management contract in 1aldia(=est 3engal), another contract in
7ysore(Farnataka) and since %556 a contract for the reduction of non!revenue water in parts of
3hopal (7adhya @radhesh).
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.he Drench water company Beolia won a management contract in
three cities in Farnataka in %55).
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In %55% a consortium including .hames =ater won a
pilot contract covering (5,555 households to reduce non!revenue water in parts of 3angalore,
funded by the :apan 3ank for International -ooperation. .he contract was scaled up in %55(.
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.he -ypriot company 1ydro!-omp, together with two Indian companies, won a #5!year
concession contract for the city of 8atur -ity (7aharashtra) in %556 and an operator!consultant
contract in 7adurai (.amil ?adu).
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Durthermore, the private Indian infrastructure development
company >@78 is engaged in 3uild!<perate!.ransfer (3<.) projects, such as a bulk water
supply project for 3hiwandi (7aharashtra).
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R$ral area". .here are about a #55,555 rural water supply systems in India. +t least in some
states responsibility for service provision is in the process of being partially transferred from
>tate =ater 3oards and district governments to @anchayati 2aj Institutions (@2I) at the block or
village level (there were about *5( districts and %)*,555 villages in India in %55%, according to
>ubdivisions of India. 3locks are an intermediate level between districts and villages). =here
this transfer has been initiated, it seems to be more advanced for single!village water schemes
than for more comple& multi!village water schemes. ,espite their professed role @anchayati 2aj
Institutions currently play only a limited role in provision of rural water supply and sanitation.
.here has been limited success in implementing decentraliation, partly due to low priority by
some state governments.
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2ural sanitation is typically provided by households themselves in
the form of latrines.
Innovative approa!)e"
+ number of innovative approaches to improve water supply and sanitation have been tested in
India, in particular in the early %555s. .hese include community!led total sanitation, demand!
driven approaches in rural water supply, a public!private partnerships to improve the continuity
of urban water supply in Farnataka, and the use of micro!credit to women in order to improve
access to water.
*omm$nit%-le# total "anitation
In #999 a demand!driven and people!centered sanitation program was initiated under the name
.otal >anitation -ampaign (.>-) or -ommunity!led total sanitation. It evolved from the limited
achievements of the first structured programme for rural sanitation in India, the -entral 2ural
>anitation @rogramme, which had minimal community participation. -ommunity!led total
sanitation is not focused on building infrastructure, but on preventing open defecation through
peer pressure and shame. In 7aharashtra where the program started more than %555 Cram
@anchayats have achieved /open defecation free/ status. Billages that achieve this status receive
monetary rewards and high publicity under a program called ?irmal Cram @uraskar.
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Deman#-#riven approa!)e" in r$ral &ater "$ppl%
7ost rural water supply schemes in India use a centralied, supply!driven approach, i.e. a
government institution designs a project and has it built with little community consultation and
no capacity building for the community, often re0uiring no water fees to be paid for its
subse0uent operation. >ince %55% the Covernment of India has rolled out at the national level a
program to change the way in which water and sanitation services are supported in rural areas.
.he program, called Swajaldhara, decentralies service delivery responsibility to rural local
governments and user groups. Ander the new approach communities are being consulted and
trained, and users agree up!front to pay a tariff that is set at a level sufficiently high to cover
operation and maintenance costs. It also includes measures to promote sanitation and to improve
hygiene behavior. .he national program follows a pilot program launched in #999.
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+ccording to a %55; =orld 3ank study in #5 Indian states, Swajaldhara results in lower capital
costs, lower administrative costs and better service 0uality compared to the supply!driven
approach. In particular, the study found that the average full cost of supply!driven schemes is ';
(A>I5.;) per cubic meter, while it is only %* (A>I5.*) per cubic meter for demand!driven
schemes. .hese costs include capital, operation and maintenance costs, administrative costs and
coping costs incurred by users of malfunctioning systems. -oping costs include traveling long
distances to obtain water, standing in long 0ueues, storing water and repairing failed systems.
+mong the surveyed systems that were built using supply!driven approach system breakdowns
were common, the 0uantity and 0uality of water supply were less than foreseen in designs, and
'5E of households did not get daily supply in summer. .he poor functioning of one system
sometimes leads to the construction of another system, so that about '5E of households
surveyed were served by several systems. -urrently only about #5E of rural water schemes built
in India use a demand!driven approach. >ince water users have to pay lower or no tariffs under
the supply!driven approach, this discourages them to opt for a demand!driven approach, even if
the likelihood of the systems operating on a sustainable basis is higher under a demand!driven
approach.
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A!)ieving !ontin$o$" &ater "$ppl% &it) t)e )elp o a private operator in
-arnata.a
In the cities of 1ubli, 3elgaum and Culbarga in the state of Farnataka, the private operator
Beolia increased water supply from once every %L#) days for #L% hours, to %( hours per day for
#;5,555 people (#%E of the population of the ' cities) within % years (%55*L%55;). .his was
achieved by carefully selecting and ring!fencing demonstration ones (one in each city),
renovating the distribution network, installing meters, introducing a well!functioning commercial
system, and effective grass!roots social intermediation by an ?C<, all without increasing the
amount of bulk water supplied. .he project, known by its acronym as FA=+>I@ (Farnataka
Arban =ater >ector Improvement @roject), was supported by a A>I'9.) million loan from the
=orld 3ank. It constitutes a milestone for India, where no large city so far has achieved
continuous water supply. .he project is e&pected to be scaled!up to cover the entire area of the
three cities.
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Mi!ro-!re#it or &ater !onne!tion" in Tamil Na#$
In .iruchirapalli in .amil ?adu, the ?C< Cramalaya, established in #9;6, and women self!help
groups promote access to water supply and sanitation by the poor through micro!credit. +mong
the benefits are that women can spend more time with their children, earn additional income, and
sell surplus water to neighbors. .his money contributes to her repayment of the =ater-redit
loan. .he initiative is supported by the A>!based non!profit =ater @artners International.
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T)e /am")e#p$r Utilitie" an# Servi!e" *ompan%
.he :amshedpur Atilities and >ervices -ompany (:A>-<) provides water and sanitation services
in :amshedpur, a major industrial center in East India that is home to .ata >teel. Antil %55( a
division of .ata >teel provided water to the cityGs residents. 1owever, service 0uality was poor
with intermittent supply, high water losses and no metering.
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.o improve this situation and to
establish good practices that could be replicated in other Indian cities, :A>-< was set up as a
wholly owned subsidiary of .ata >teel in %55(.
Efficiency and service 0uality improved substantially over the following years. .he level on non!
revenue water decreased from an estimated '*E in %55) to #5E in %559H one 0uarter of residents
received continuous water supply (although the average supply remained at only 6 hours per day)
in %559H the share of metered connections increased from %E in %556 to %*E in %559H the
number of customers increasedH and the company recovered its operating costs plus a portion of
capital costs. Identifying and legaliing illegal connections was an important element in the
reduction of non!revenue water. .he utility prides itself today of the good drinking water 0uality
provided and encourages its customers to drink from the tap. .he utility also operates a
wastewater treatment plant that meets discharge standards. .he private utility pays salaries that
are higher than civil service salaries and conducts e&tensive training programs for its staff. It has
also installed a modern system to track and resolve customer complaints. Durthermore, it
conducts independent annual customer satisfaction surveys. :A>-<Gs vision is to be the
preferred provider of water supply and other urban services throughout India. .ogether with
2anhill 7alaysia it won a %)!year concession contract for providing the water supply in 1aldia
-ity, =est 3engal.
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Ei!ien!%
.here are only limited data on the operating efficiency of utilities in India, and even fewer data
on the efficiency of investments.
-oncerning operating efficiency, a study of %5 cities by the :awaharlal ?ehru ?ational Arban
2enewal 7ission with the support of the +sian ,evelopment 3ank showed an average level of
non!revenue water (?2=) of '%E. 1owever, ) out of the %5 cities did not provide any data. Dor
those that provided data there probably is a large margin of error, since only %)E of connections
are metered, which makes it very difficult to estimate non!revenue water. +lso, three utilities
show ?2= levels of less than %5E, two of which have practically no metering, which indicates
that the numbers are not reliable and actual values are likely to be higher.
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In ,elhi, which was
not included in the +,3 study, non!revenue water stood at )'E and there were about %5
employees per #555 connections. Durthermore, only 65E of revenue billed was actually
collected.
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-oncerning labor productivity, the %5 utilities in the sample had on average 6.( employees per
#,555 connections, which is much higher than the estimated level for an efficient utility.
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+
survey of a larger sample of Indian utilities showed an average ratio of #5.9 employees per #,555
connections.
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Tari"0 !o"t re!over% an# "$,"i#ie"
=ater and sewer tariffs in India are low in both urban and rural areas. In urban areas they were
set at the e0uivalent of about A>I5.#5 per cubic meter in %556 and recovered about *5E of
operating and maintenance costs, with large differences between cities. >ome cities such as
Folkata do not bill residential users at all. In rural areas the level of cost recovery often is even
lower than in urban areas and was estaimated at only %5E in rural @unjab. >ubsidies were
estimated at A>I#.# billion per year in the mid!#995s, accounting to (E of all government
subsidies in India. 65E of those benefiting from the subsidies are not poor.
Ur,an area"
Metering( =ater metering is the precondition for billing water users on the basis of volume
consumed. +ccording to a #999 survey of '55 cities about *%E of urban water customers in
metropolitan areas and )5E in smaller cities are metered (average ))E). 1owever, meters often
do not work so that many /metered/ customers are charged flat rates. 3angalore and @une are
among the few Indian cities that meter all their customers. 7any other cities have no metering at
all or meter only commercial customers.
"%$
Asers of standposts receive water free of charge. +
%556 study of %5 cities by the :awaharlal ?ehru ?ational Arban 2enewal 7ission with the
support of the +sian ,evelopment 3ank (+,3) showed that only %)E of customers of these
utilities were metered. 7ost other customers paid a flat tariff independent of consumption. >ome
utilities, such as the one serving Folkata, actually do not bill residential users at all.
"('$
Tari level". +ccording to the same +,3 study the average tariff for all customers ! including
industrial, commercial and public customers ! is (.9 (A>I5.#) per cubic meter.
"'$
+ccording to a
%556 global water tariff survey by the <E-, the residential water tariff for a consumption of
#) mM was e0uivalent to A>I5.#) per m' in 3angalore, A>I5.#% per m' in -alcutta, A>I5.##
per m' in ?ew ,elhi and A>I5.59 per m' in 7umbai. <nly 3angalore had a sewer tariff of
A>I5.5% per m'. .he other three cities did not charge for sewerage, although the better!off tend
to be the ones with access to sewers.
"(($
Tari "tr$!t$re( .he tariff for customers that are effectively metered is typically a uniform
linear tariff, although some cities apply increasing!block tariffs.
"%$
Aor#a,ilit%( Arban water tariffs were highly affordable according to data from the year %555.
+ family of five living on the poverty line which uses %5 cubic meter of water per month would
spend less than #.%E of its budget on its water bill if it had a water meter. If it did not have a
water meter and was charged a flat rate, it would pay %.5E of its budget. .his percentage lies
below the often used affordability threshold of )E. 1owever, at that time the average metered
tariff was estimated at only A>I5.5' per m', or less than three times what it was estimated to be
in %556.
"()$
+pparently no more up!to!date estimates on the share of the average water bill in the
budget of the poor are available.
*o"t re!over%( +ccording to a %556 study of %5 cities the average rate of cost recovery for
operating and maintenance costs of utilities in these cities was *5E. >even of the %5 utilities
generated a cash surplus to partially finance investments. -hennai generated the highest relative
surplus. .he lowest cost recovery ratio was found in Indore in 7adhya @radesh, which recovered
less than %5E of its operating and maintenance costs.
"'$
Del)i e1ample. In ,elhi revenues were just sufficient to cover about *5E of operating costs of
the cityGs utility in %55(H maintenance has, as a result, been minimal. In the past, the ,elhi utility
has relied heavily on government financial support for recurrent and capital e&penditures in the
magnitude of ' billion (A>I**.* million) per year and 6 billion (A>I#)).( million) respectively.
+s financial support for both capital and recurrent e&penditures has been passed on as loans by
the Covernment of the ?ational -apital .erritory of ,elhi, the utilityGs balance sheet is loaded
with a huge debt totaling about )5 billion (A>I#.# billion) that it is unlikely to be able to
service. +ccounts receivable represent more than #% months of billing, part of it being non
recoverable.
";$
.he average tariff was estimated at A>I5.56(/mM in %55#, compared to production
costs of A>I5.5;)/mM, the latter probably being a very conservative estimate that does not take
into account capital costs.
"(*$
*)allenge" a!e# in attempting to in!rea"e tari"( Even if users are willing to pay more for
better services, political interests often prevent tariffs from being increased even to a small
e&tent. +n e&ample is the city of :abalpur where the central government and the state
government financed a #'5 million (A>I%.9 million) water supply project from %555!%55( to be
operated by the :abalpur 7unicipal -orporation, an entity that collected only less than half of its
operational costs in revenues even before this major investment. Even so the municipal
corporation initially refused to increase tariffs. <nly following pressure from the state
government it reluctantly agreed to increase commercial tariffs, but not residential tariffs.
"(6$
R$ral area"
-ost recovery in rural areas is low and a majority of the rural water systems are defunct for lack
of maintenance. >ome state governments subsidie rural water systems, but funds are scarce and
insufficient.
"(;$
In rural areas in @unjab, operation and maintenance cost recovery is only about
%5E. <n one hand, e&penditures are high due to high salary levels, high power tariff and a high
number of operating staff. <n the other hand, revenue is paid only by the #5E of the households
who have private connections. .hose drawing water from public stand posts do not pay any
water charges at all, although the official tariff for public stand post users is #) (A>I5.') per
month per household.
"%*$
S$,"i#ie" an# targeting o "$,"i#ie"
.here are no accurate recent estimates of the level of subsidies for water and sanitation in India.
It has been estimated that transfers to the water sector in India amounted to ),(65.; crore
(A>I#.% billion) per year in the mid!#995s, accounting for (E of all government subsidies in
India. +bout 9;E of this subsidy is said to come from >tate rather than -entral budgets.
"(9$
.his
figure may only cover recurrent cost subsidies and not investment subsidies, which are even
higher (see below). .here is little targeting of subsidies. +ccording to the =orld 3ank, 65E of
those benefiting from subsidies for public water supply are not poor, while (5E of the poor are
e&cluded because they do not have access to public water services.
"()$
Inve"tment an# inan!ing
Investment in urban water supply and sanitation has increased during the first decade of the %#st
century, not least thanks to increased central government grants made available under :awaharlal
?ehru ?ational Arban 2enewal 7ission alongside with loans from the 1ousing and Arban
,evelopment -orporation.
Inve"tment
.he Eleventh Dive!Jear @lan (%556L%5#%) foresees investments of #%6,5%) crore (A>I%;.%
billion) for urban water supply and sanitation, including urban (stormwater) drainage and solid
waste management.
")$
Finan!ing
))E of the investments foreseen under the ##th @lan are to be financed by the central
government, %;E by state governments, ;E by /institutional financing/ such as 1A,-<, ;E by
e&ternal agencies and #.)E by the private sector. 8ocal governments are not e&pected to
contribute to the investments. .he volume of investments is e&pected to double to reach 5.6E of
C,@. +lso, it implies a shift in financing from state governments to the central government.
")$

,uring the 9th @lan only %(E of investments were financed by the central government and 6*E
by state governments. -entral government financing was heavily focused on water supply in
rural areas.
")5$
In"tit$tion"
>tate Dinancing -orporations (>D-) play an important role in making recommendations
regarding the allocation of state ta& revenues between states and municipalities, criteria for
grants, and measures to improve the financial position of municipalities. +ccording to the
@lanning -ommission, >D-s are in some cases not sufficiently transparent and/or competent,
have high transactions costs, and their recommendations are sometimes not being implemented.
")#$
+n important source of financing are loans from 1ousing and Arban ,evelopment
-orporation 8td (1A,-<), a -entral government financial undertaking. 1A,-< loans to
municipal corporations need to be guaranteed by state governments. 1A,-< also on!lends loans
from foreign aid, including :apanese aid, to states. .he :awaharlal ?ehru ?ational Arban
2enewal 7ission initiated in %55) also plays an increasingly important role in financing urban
water supply and sanitation through central government grants.
.he current system of financing water supply and sanitation is fragmented through a number of
different national and state programs. .his results in simultaneous implementation with different
and conflicting rules in neighboring areas. In rural areas different programs undermine each
other, adversely affecting demand driven approaches re0uiring cost sharing by users.
E1ternal !ooperation
In absolute terms India receives almost twice as much development assistance for water,
sanitation and water resources management as any other country, according to data from the
<rganisation for Economic -o!operation and ,evelopment. India accounts for #' per cent of
commitments in global water aid for %55*!56, receiving an annual average of about
A>I;'5 million (N*%5 million), more than double the amount provided to -hina. India4s biggest
water and sanitation donor is :apan, which provided A>I*') million, followed by the =orld
3ank with A>I#'5 million.
")%$")'$
.he annual average for %55(!5*, however, was about half as
much at A>I((; million, of which :apan provided A>I%9' million and the =orld 3ank
A>I;6 million.
")($
.he +sian ,evelopment 3ank and Cermany are other important e&ternal
partners in water supply and sanitation.
In %55' the Indian government decided it would only accept bilateral aid from five countries (the
Anited Fingdom, the Anited >tates, 2ussia, Cermany and :apan). + further %% bilateral donors
were asked to channel aid through nongovernmental organisations, Anited ?ations agencies or
multilateral institutions such as the European Anion, the +sian ,evelopment 3ank or the =orld
3ank.
"))$
A"ian Development 2an.
India has increased its loans from the +sian ,evelopment 3ank (+,3) since %55) after the
introduction of new financing modalities, such as the multitranche financing facility (7DD)
which features a framework agreement with the national government under which financing is
provided in fle&ible tranches for subprojects that meet established selection criteria. In %55; four
7DDs for urban development investment programs were under way in ?orth Farnataka
(A>I;*% million), :ammu and Fashmir (A>I#,%*5 million), 2ajasthan (A>I()5 million), and
Attarakhand (A>I#,);9 million). Included in these 7DDs are major investments for the
development of urban water supply and sanitation services.
")*$
German%
Cermany supports access to water and sanitation in India through financial cooperation by Ff=
development bank and technical cooperation by C.O. >ince the early #995s both institutions
have supported watershed management in rural 7aharashtra, using a participatory approach first
piloted by the >ocial -enter in +hmednagar and that constituted a fundamental break with the
previous top!down, technical approach to watershed management that had yielded little results.
")6$
.he involvement of women in decision!making is an essential part of the project. =hile the
benefits are mostly in terms of increased agricultural production, the project also increases
availability of water resources for rural water supply.
");$
In addition, C.O actively supports the
introduction of ecological sanitation concepts in India, including community toilets and
decentralied wastewater systems for schools as well as small and medium enterprises. 7any of
these systems produce biogas from wastewater, provide fertilier and irrigation water.
")9$
/apan
+s India4s largest donor in the sector the :apan International -ooperation +gency (:I-+)
finances a multitude of projects with a focus on capital!intensive urban water supply and
sanitation projects, often involving follow!up projects in the same locations.
*$rrent pro3e!t"( @rojects approved between %55* and %559 include the Cuwahati =ater
>upply @roject (@hases I and II) in +ssam, the Ferala =ater >upply @roject (@hased II and III),
the 1ogenakkal =ater >upply and Dluorosis 7itigation @roject (@hases I and II) in .amil ?adu,
the Coa =ater >upply and >ewerage @roject, the +gra =ater >upply @roject, the +mritsar
>ewerage @roject in @unjab, the <rissa Integrated >anitation Improvement @roject, and the
3angalore =ater >upply and >ewerage @roject (@hase II).
"*5$
Eval$ation o pa"t pro3e!t". +n e&!post evaluation of one large program, the Arban =ater
>upply and >anitation Improvement @rogram, showed that /some *5E!65E of the goals were
achieved/ and that /results were moderate/. .he program was implemented by the 1ousing and
Arban ,evelopment -orporation, 8td. (1A,-<) from #99* to %55' in %* cities. .he evaluation
says that /state government plans were not based on sufficient demand research, including the
research for residentsG willingness to pay for services/, so that demand for connections was
overestimated. +lso fees (water tariffs) were rarely increased despite recommendations to
increase them. .he evaluation concludes that /1A,-< was not able to make significant
contributions to the effectiveness, sustainability, or overall 0uality of individual projects. <ne of
the reasons that not much attention was given to this problem is probably that there was little risk
of default on the loans thanks to state government guarantees./
"*#$
Worl# 2an.
*$rrent pro3e!t". .he =orld 3ank finances a number of projects in urban and rural areas that
are fully or partly dedicated to water supply and sanitation.
"*%$
In urban areas the =orld 3ank
supports the +ndhra @radesh 7unicipal ,evelopment @roject (approved in %559,
A>I'55 million loan), the Farnataka 7unicipal 2eform @roject (approved in %55*,
A>I%#* million loan), the .hird .amil ?adu Arban ,evelopment @roject (approved in %55),
A>I'55 million loan) and the Farnataka Arban =ater >ector Improvement @roject (approved in
%55(, A>I'9.) million loan). In rural areas it supports the +ndhra @radesh 2ural =ater >upply
and >anitation (A>I#)5 million loan, approved in %559), the >econd Farnataka 2ural =ater
>upply and >anitation @roject (approved in %55#, A>I#)#.* million loan), the Attaranchal 2ural
=ater >upply and >anitation @roject (approved in %55*, A>I#%5 million loan) and the @unjab
2ural =ater >upply and >anitation @roject (approved in %55*, A>I#)( million loan).
Eval$ation o pa"t pro3e!t". + study by the =orld 3ank4s independent evaluation department
evaluated the impact of the =orld 3ank!supported interventions in the provision of urban water
supply and wastewater services in 7umbai between #96' and #995. It concluded that water
supply and sewerage planning, construction and operations in 3ombay posed daunting
challenges to those who planned and implemented the investment program. +t the outset, there
was a huge backlog of unmet demand because of underinvestment. @opulation and economic
growth accelerated in the following decades and the proportion of the poor increased as did the
slums which they occupied. .he intended impacts of the program have not been realied.
>hortcomings include that /water is not safe to drinkH water service, especially to the poor, is
difficult to access and is provided at inconvenient hours of the dayH industrial water needs are not
fully metH sanitary facilities are too few in number and often unusableH and urban drains, creeks
and coastal waters are polluted with sanitary and industrial wastes./
"*'$
1. (a) Name any four mportant waterborne dseases. What are the sources, symptoms,
sgncance and
methods of preventon and (or) contro of these dseases.
(b) Gve the Process ow dagram of a typca Protected Water Suppy Scheme for a
Town of popu-
aton 1 akh usng Rver Water as ts source. |8+8|
2. (a) Dstngush between a Reservor Intake and a Portabe Intake.
(b) Dscuss the Crtera for Locaton of Intakes. |16|
3. Dscuss n deta, wth the hep of sketches, the roe of foowng desgn
consderatons whe desgnng
a Settng/Sedmentaton system ke a carer.
(a) Surface oadng
(b) Detenton Tme
(c) Shape of the Reactor
(d) Depth
(e) Types of Sedmentaton. |16|
4. (a) Descrbe the workng of a Pressure Fter wth the hep of a sketch.
(b) A private estate uses a Pressure lter to treat 500 cu.m./day of turbid water. If lter operates
from 04.00 pm to 08.00 am every day, nd the size of pressure lter. Also nd the approximate
HP of the pump that supplies water to pressure lter under pressure. |16|
5. (a) Expan the genera methods of dstrbuton of water empoyed n muncpa water
suppy schemes.
(b) Iustrate wth sketch the Grd ron type of ayout of ppe system n dstrbutng
water, and
compare ts merts and demerts. |6+10|
6. (a) Name the two factors used as crtera for seecton of ppe dameter and sope n
desgn of sewer.
(b) Cacuate the rato of dscharge of a sewer when owng at fu depth to that when
owng at 3/4
depth. |8+8|
7. Wrte short notes on the foowng"
(a) Humus tank
(b) Contact bed
(c) Dunbar ter
(d) Bo-ter. |4+4+4+4|
8. (a) Desgn a septc tank for 100 users n a hoste. Assume per capta water demand
as 150 tres.
(b) Wrte a note on soak pt. |8+8|
@opulation Dorecasting Met)o#"
Population is one of the most important factors for design of the
water systems, so it should be estimated, so as to know the
increasing demand and ensure continuous supply to them.
Population data is obtained by previous records and the rate of
increase is found out and this used for further analysis, which may
be by using the methods described below
#. Arithmetic growth method
%. Geometric growth method
'. Curvilinear method
(. Logistic method
5. Decline growth method
*. Ratio growth
+rithmetic growth methodP
It is based on the assumption that the rate of growth of population
is constant. It means that the each year population increase by
the same increment.
Mathematically
dp / dt !a
Where!
dp / dt is the rate of change of population
!a the constant arithmetic increment
!a can be determined by finding the slop of the graph of
population against time. The population in the future is thus
estimated.
Ceometric methodP
It is based on the hypothesis that rate of change of population is proportional to the population. "ccording
to this, method it is assumed that the rate of increase of population growth in a community is proportional
to the present population.
Mathematically:
dP /dt P # dp / dt !g where !g
Geometric Growth constant.
If P$ is the population at any time t$ and Pf is
the population at time tf then
"Pf P$ dp/p !g % tf t$ dt &n 'Pf/P$ !g 'tf/t$(
# &n 'Pf/P$ !g )t
# 'Pf/P$ 'e( !g )t and Pf P$ 'e( !g )t
This method gives somewhat larger value as compared to arithmetic method and can be used for new
cities with rapid growth. In normal practice, arithmetic and geometric growth average is taken.
-urvilinear methodP
In this it is assumed that the population of a city will grow, in the same manner as in other cities in the
past. This similarity between the cities includes geographical pro*imity, similarity of economic base,
access to similar transportation system etc. #n $ractice it is di%%icult to %ind similar cities.
8ogistic methodP
+hen the growth rate of population due to birth, death and migration are under normal situation and not
sub,ected to e*traordinary changes due to unusual situation like war, epidemics earth -uakes and
refugees etc. Then this method is used.
"ccording to this method
P P sat / '/0 e
a
0 b)t(, where P sat is the saturation population, of the community and a, & are constants.
' sat, a and & can be determined from three successive census populations and the e-uations are
Psat 1 P$ P/P1 2 P/
1
'P$ 0 P1( / 'P$ P1 2 P/
1
(
,ecline growth metho#4
This method like, logistic, assumes that the city has some limiting saturation population and that its rate of
growth is a function of population deficit3
2atio methodP
4atio method of fore casting is based on the assumption that the population of a certain area or a city will
increase in the same manner to a larger entity like a province, or a country. It re-uires calculation of ratio
of locals to re-uired population in a series of census years.
Pro,ection of the trend line using any of the techni-ue and application of pro,ected ratio to the estimated
re-uired population of pro,ected ratio to the estimated re-uired population in the year of interest. This
method of forecasting does not take into account some special calculations in certain area but have the
following advantages.
-onsumption of water
Ases
"dvertisements
/. 5omestic use
1. 6ommercial use
7. Public use
8. &oss and waste
,omestic use of waterP
5omestic uses of water include the consumption of water for drinking,
washing, cooking, toilets, livestock etc. the domestic average use per
capita per day is 9$ : ;$ gallons '<$ : 7=$ liters per capita per day(. This
use is increasing by $.9> 2 /.$> per year and at this time comprises
9$> of all the uses of water.
+ater uses are for drinking, cooking, meeting of sanitary needs in houses
and hotels, irrigating lawns etc. 4esidential water use rates fluctuate
regularly.
"verage daily winter consumption is less than annual daily average, whereas summer consumption
averages are greater. Similarly, peak hourly demand, is higher than ma*imum. ?o universally applied rule
for prediction
*ommer!ial an# in#$"trial4
This is the amount of water used by the shops, markets, industries, factories etc. It contributes /9 : 18>
of total use of water.
It includes factories, offices and commercial places demand. It is based on either having a separate or
combined water supply system. Demand of water based on unit production. ?o. of persons working and
floor area
@ublic useP
The public use of water is that one which is used by city halls, ,ails, hospitals, offices, schools etc. This
consumes ;> of total use of water. Its water demand is 9$ : <9 liters per capita per day. @ire protectionAs
need of water is also fulfilled by this sector. The fire demand does not greatly affect the average
consumption but has a considerable effect on peak rates. Schools, hospitals, fire fighting etc
Lo"" an# &a"te"4
. BnauthoriCed, connections3 leakage in distribution system, Dydrant flushing, ma,or line breakage and
cleaning of streets, irrigating parks. Total consumption is sum of the above demands. The water which is
not intended for specific purpose or use is also called EBn2accounted forE. &oss and wastage of water is
due to.
/. Frrors in measurements
1. &eakages, evaporation or overflow
7. Bn2metered uses e.g. fire fighting, main flushing
8. Bn2authoriCed connections
(actors a%%ecting the use o% water
SiCe of the city
Industry and commerce
6limate
Time of the day
5ay of the week or month
E"timation o Water Deman#
+hile estimating the water demand, the above factors should be considered e.g. the siCe of the city3 its
population does matter when estimating the water demand. The more the siCe of population, more will be
the demand. Estimation o% water demand is necessary to)
Calculate design %low
Determine the $um$ing $ower o% machines to &e used
Reservoir ca$acity
'i$e ca$acity
To estimate water demand, following parameters must be determined or calculated.
1. Average daily water consum$tion) It is based on complete one year supply of water. It
is the total consumption during one year, divided by the population.
- 'G / P * 7H9( l$cd 'liters per capita per day(
2. Ma*imum daily consum$tion) It is the ma*imum amount of water used during one day
in the year. This amount is /=$> of the average daily consumption
I56 /.= * "vg. daily consumption. It is usually a working day 'Ionday( of summer
season.
3. Ma*imum wee+ly demand) The amount of water used by a population during a whole
single week in a study span of / year.
Ia*imum weekly demand /.8= * "vg. 5. 6
Ia*imum monthly demand /.1= * "vg. 5. 6
Ia*imum hourly demand /.9 * "vg. 5. 6
Ia*imum daily demand /.= * "vg. 5. 6
4. (ire water demand , (ire Demand) Theamount of water usedfor fire fighting is termed
as fire demand. "lthough, the amount of water used in fire fighting is a negligible part of
the combine uses of water but the rate of flow and the volume re-uired may be so high
during fire that it is a deciding factor for pumps, reservoirs and distribution mains.
Iinimum fire flow should be 9$$ gpm '/=;$ &/m(
Iinimum fire flow should be =$$$ gpm '71, 8$$ &/m(
"dditional flow may be re-uired to protect ad,acent buildings.
So$r!e" o Fre") &ater
Do!$mentar% 5i#eo on *on!rete
(lowchart o% the sources o% clean drin+ing water
WasteWater -reatment Dis$osal . Management
The -uantity of water re-uired for a community depends upon.
/. @orecasted population
1. Types and variation in demand 'e.g. seasonal variation(
7. Ia*imum demand 'Per day/Per month(
8. @ire demand
9. 4ural demand and supplies
H. "ppropriate / "vailable technology
Main sources o% water are
/ur%ace water sources. &akes impounding reservoirs, streams, seas, irrigation canals
Ground water sources) Springs, wells, infiltration wells
"bove are the common sources of clean drinking water, other different sources of drinking water are
7erits of surface sources
7erits of ground water sources
/. Jeing underground, the ground water supply has less chance of being contaminated by
atmospheric pollution.
1. The water -uality is good and better than surface source.
7. Prevention of water through evaporation is ensured and thus loss of water is reduced.
8. Ground water supply is available and can even be maintained in deserted areas.
9. The land above ground water source can be used for other purposes and has less environmental
impacts.
,emerits of ground water source
/. The water obtained from ground water source is always pressure less. " mump is re-uired to
take the water out and is then again pumped for daily use.
1. The transport / transmission of ground water is a problem and an e*pensive work. The water has
to be surfaced or underground conduits are re-uired.
7. Joring and e*cavation for finding and using ground water is e*pensive work.
8. The modeling, analysis and calculation of ground water is less reliable and based on the past
e*perience, thus posing high risk of uncertainty.
,emerits of surface source
-hemical -haracteristics of water
"dvertisements
A!i#it%
Al.alinit%
+ar#ne""
T$r,i#it%
Acidity)
"cidity or alkalinity is measured by pD. PD measures the
concentration of Dydrogen ions in water. IoniCation of water is
DKD D0 0 KD2
In neutral solutions LKDM LDM hence pD <
If acidity is increased, LDM increases and pD reduces from < 'because
D is log of LDM(. The value of pD of water is important in the operations
of many water and waste water treatment processes and in the
control of corrosion.
Al+alinity)
The values of pD higher than <, shows alkalinity. The alkaline species in water can
neutraliCe acids. The ma,or constituents of alkalinity 'or causticity( are KD2, 6K712 and
bicarbonates D6K7 ions. "lkalinity in water is usually caused by bicarbonate ions.
+ar#ne"" o &ater4 Deinition o )ar# &ater
Dardness is the property that makes water to re-uire more soap to produce a foam or
lather. 0ardness o% water is not harmful for human health but can be precipitated by
heating so can produce damaging effects in boilers, hot pipes etc by depositing the
material and reducing the water storage and carriage capacity.
A&solute so%t water on the other hand is not acceptable for humans because it may
cause ailments, especially to heart patients.
Dardness in water is commonly classified in terms of the amount of 6a6K7 '6alcium
6arbonate( in it.
Concentration o% CaC12
Degree o% hardness
$ : <9 mg / & Soft
<9 : /9$ mg / & Ioderately hard
/9$ : 7$$ mg / & Dard
7$$ up mg / & Nery Dard
-a&le 3 4 Degree o% 0ardness
&ow level of hardness can be removed ,ust by boiling but high degree of hardness can
be removed by addition of lime. This method has also the benefit that iron and
manganese contents are removed and suspended particles including micro2organisms
are reduced .
Reservoir
+ re"ervoir (etymology from Drench rservoir a /storehouse
"#$
) or an artii!ial la.e is used to
store water. 2eservoirs may be created in river valleys by the construction of a dam or may be
built by e&cavation in the ground or by conventional construction techni0ues such as brickwork
or cast concrete.
.he term reservoir may also be used to describe underground reservoirs such as an oil or water
well.
A dam is any barrier that holds back water; dams are primarily used to save, manage, and/or prevent
the flow of excess water into specific regions. In addition, some dams are used to generate
hydropower. This article examines manmade dams but dams can also be created by natural causes
like mass wasting events or even animals like the beaver.
Another term often used when discussing dams is reservoir. A reservoir is a manmade lake that is
primarily used for storing water. They can also be defined as the specific bodies of water formed by
the construction of a dam. !or example, the "etch "etchy #eservoir in $alifornia%s &osemite 'ational
(ark is the body of water created and held back by the )%*haughnessy +am.
Types of Dams
Today, there are several different types of dams and the manmade ones are classified by their si,e
and structure. Typically a large dam is classified as being higher than -./- feet 01-2. meters3 while
ma4or dams are those over 56272. feet 01-.2-. meters3.
)ne of the most common types of ma4or dams is the arch dam. These masonry or concrete dams are
ideal for narrow and/or rocky locations because their curved shape easily holds back water via gravity
without the need for a lot of construction materials. Arch dams can have one large single arch or they
can have multiple small arches separated by concrete buttresses. The "oover +am which is on the
border of the 8.*. stateAnother type of dam is the buttress dam. These can have multiple arches, but
unlike a traditional arch dam, they can be flat as well. 'ormally buttress dams are made of concrete
and feature a series braces called buttresses along the downstream side of the dam to prevent the
natural flow of water. The +aniel9ohnson +am in :uebec, $anada is a multiple arch buttress dam.
In the 8.*., the most common type of dam is the embankment dam. These are large dams made out
of soil and rock which use their weight to hold back water. To prevent water from moving through
them, embankment dams also have a thick waterproof core. The Tarbela +am in (akistan is the
world%s largest embankment dam.
!inally, gravity dams are huge dams that are constructed to hold back water using only their own
weight. To do this, they are constructed using extensive amounts of concrete, making them difficult
and expensive to build. The ;rand $oulee +am in the 8.*. state of <ashington is a gravity dam.
Types of Reservoirs and Construction
=ike dams, there are different types of reservoirs as well but they are classified based on their use.
The three types are called> a valley dammed reservoir, a bankside reservoir, and a service reservoir.
?ankside reservoirs are those formed when water is taken from an existing stream or river and
stored in a nearby reservoir. *ervice reservoirs are mainly constructed to store water for later use.
They often appear as water towers and other elevated structures.
The first and usually largest type of reservoir is called a valley dammed reservoir. These are reservoirs
that are located in narrow valley areas where tremendous amounts of water can be held in by the
valley%s sides and a dam. The best location for a dam in these types of reservoirs is where it can be
built into the valley wall most effectively to form a water tight seal.
To construct a valley dammed reservoir, the river must be diverted, usually through a tunnel, at the
start of work. The first step in creating this type of reservoir is the pouring of a strong foundation for
the dam, after which construction on the dam itself can begin. These steps can take months to years
to complete, depending on the si,e and complexity of the pro4ect. )nce finished, the diversion is
removed and the river is able to flow freely toward the dam until it gradually fills the reservoir.
Dam Controversy
In addition to the high cost of construction and river diversion, dams and reservoirs are often
controversial pro4ects because of their social and environmental impacts. +ams themselves affect
many different ecological components of rivers such as fish migrations, erosion, changes in water
temperature and therefore changes in oxygen levels, creating inhospitable environments for many
species.
In addition, the creation of a reservoir re@uires the flooding of large areas of land, at the expense of
the natural environment and sometimes villages, towns and small cities. The construction of $hina%s
Three ;orges +am, for example, re@uired the relocation of over one million people and flooded many
different archaeological and cultural sites.
Main Uses of Dams and Reservoirs
+espite their controversy, dams and reservoirs serve a number of different functions but one of the
largest is to maintain an area%s water supply. Aany of the world%s largest urban areas are supplied
with water from rivers that are blocked via dams. *an !rancisco, $alifornia for example, gets the
ma4ority of its water supply from the "etch "etchy #eservoir via the "etch "etchy A@ueduct running
from &osemite to the *an !rancisco ?ay Area.
Another ma4or use of dams is power generation as hydroelectric power is one of the world%s ma4or
sources of electricity. "ydropower is generated when the potential energy of the water on the dam
drives a water turbine which in then turns a generator and creates electricity. To best make use of the
water%s power, a common type of hydroelectric dam uses reservoirs with different levels to ad4ust the
amount of energy generated as it is needed. <hen demand is low for instance, water is held in an
upper reservoir and as demand increases, the water is released into a lower reservoir where it spins a
turbine.
*ome other important uses of dams and reservoirs include a stabili,ation of water flow and irrigation,
flood prevention, water diversion and recreation.
Water '$alit%
Water '$alit% is the physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water.
"#$
It is a measure
of the condition of water relative to the re0uirements of one or more biotic species and or to any
human need or purpose.
"%$
It is most fre0uently used by reference to a set of standards against
which compliance can be assessed. .he most common standards used to assess water 0uality
relate to drinking water, safety of human contact and for the health of ecosystems.
Standards
In the setting of standards, agencies make political and technical/scientific decisions about how
the water will be used.
"'$
In the case of natural water bodies, they also make some reasonable
estimate of pristine conditions. ,ifferent uses raise different concerns and therefore different
standards are considered. ?atural water bodies will vary in response to environmental conditions.
Environmental scientists work to understand how these systems function which in turn helps to
identify the sources and fates of contaminants. Environmental lawyers and policy makers work
to define legislation that ensure that water is maintained at an appropriate 0uality for its
identified use.
.he vast majority of surface water on the planet is neither potable nor to&ic. .his remains true
even if sea water in the oceans (which is too salty to drink) is not counted. +nother general
perception of water quality is that of a simple property that tells whether water is polluted or not.
In fact, water 0uality is a very comple& subject, in part because water is a comple& medium
intrinsically tied to the ecology of the Earth. Industrial pollution is a major cause of water
pollution, as well as runoff from agricultural areas, urban stormwater runoff and discharge of
treated and untreated sewage (especially in developing countries).
*ategorie"
.he parameters for water 0uality are determined by the intended use. =ork in the area of water
0uality tends to be focused on water that is treated for human consumption or in the
environment.
+$man !on"$mption
-ontaminants that may be in untreated water include microorganisms such as viruses and
bacteriaH inorganic contaminants such as salts and metalsH organic chemical contaminants from
industrial processes and petroleum useH pesticides and herbicidesH and radioactive contaminants.
=ater 0uality depends on the local geology and ecosystem, as well as human uses such as
sewage dispersion, industrial pollution, use of water bodies as a heat sink, and overuse (which
may lower the level of the water).
In the Anited >tates, the A.>. Environmental @rotection +gency (E@+) limits the amounts of
certain contaminants in tap water provided by public water systems. .he >afe ,rinking =ater
+ct authories E@+ to issue two types of standardsP primary standards regulate substances that
potentially affect human health, and secondary standards prescribe aesthetic 0ualities, those that
affect taste, odor, or appearance. .he A.>. Dood and ,rug +dministration (D,+) regulations
establish limits for contaminants in bottled water that must provide the same protection for
public health. ,rinking water, including bottled water, may reasonably be e&pected to contain at
least small amounts of some contaminants. .he presence of these contaminants does not
necessarily indicate that the water poses a health risk.
>ome people use water purification technology to remove contaminants from the municipal
water supply they get in their homes, or from local pumps or bodies of water. Dor people who get
water from a local stream, lake, or a0uifer (well), their drinking water is not filtered by the local
government.
Environmental &ater '$alit%
Water runoff
Environmental water 0uality, also called am,ient &ater '$alit%0 relates to water bodies such as
lakes, rivers, and oceans. =ater 0uality standards vary significantly due to different
environmental conditions, ecosystems, and intended human uses. .o&ic substances and high
populations of certain microorganisms can present a health haard for non!drinking purposes
such as irrigation, swimming, fishing, rafting, boating, and industrial uses. .hese conditions may
also affect wildlife which use the water for drinking or as a habitat. 7odern water 0uality laws
general specify protection of fisheries and recreational use and re0uire as a minimum,retention of
current 0uality standards.
.here is some desire among the public to return water bodies to pristine, or pre!industrial
conditions. 7ost current environmental laws focus of the designation of uses. In some countries
these allow for some water contamination as long as the particular type of contamination is not
harmful to the designated uses. Civen the landscape changes in the watersheds of many
freshwater bodies, returning to pristine conditions would be a significant challenge. In these
cases, environmental scientists focus on achieving goals for maintaining healthy eco!systems and
may concentrate on the protection of populations of endangered species and protecting human
health.
Mea"$rement
.he comple&ity of water 0uality as a subject is reflected in the many types of measurements of
water 0uality indicators. >ome of the simple measurements listed below can be made on siteQ
temperature, p1, dissolved o&ygen, conductivity, <&ygen 2eduction potential (<2@), turbidity,
>ecchi disk depthQin direct contact with the water source in 0uestion. 7ore comple&
measurements that must be made in a lab setting re0uire a water sample to be collected,
preserved, and analyed at another location. 7aking these comple& measurements can be
e&pensive. 3ecause direct measurements of water 0uality can be e&pensive, ongoing monitoring
programs are typically conducted by government agencies. 1owever, there are local volunteer
programs and resources available for some general assessment. .ools available to the general
public are on!site test kits commonly used for home fish tanks and biological assessments.
Te"ting in re"pon"e to nat$ral #i"a"ter" an# ot)er emergen!ie"
Inevitably after events such as earth0uakes and .sunamis, there is an immediate response by the
aid agencies as relief operations get underway to try and restore basic infrastructure and provide
the basic fundamental items that are necessary for survival and subse0uent recovery. +ccess to
clean drinking water and ade0uate sanitation is a priority at times like this. .he threat of disease
increases hugely due to the large numbers of people living close together, often in s0ualid
conditions, and without proper sanitation.
+fter a natural disaster, as far as water 0uality testing is concerned there are widespread views on
the best course of action to take and a variety of methods can be employed. .he key basic water
0uality parameters that need to be addressed in an emergency are bacteriological indicators of
fecal contamination, Dree -hlorine 2esidual, p1, turbidity and possibly -onductivity/.,>.
.here are a number of portable water test kits on the market widely used by aid and relief
agencies for carrying out such testing.
.he following is a list of indicators often measured by situational categoryP
Drin.ing &ater
Fterng water
Akanty
Coor of water
pH
Taste and odor (geosmn, 2-methysoborneo (MIB), etc)
Dssoved metas and sats (sodum, chorde, potassum, cacum,
manganese, magnesum)
Mcroorgansms such as feca coform bactera (Escherichia coli),
Cryptospordum, and Garda amba
Dssoved metas and metaods (ead, mercury, arsenc, etc.)
Dssoved organcs: coored dssoved organc matter (CDOM), dssoved
organc carbon (DOC)
Radon
Heavy metas
Pharmaceutcas
Hormone anaogs
Environmental
Chemical assessment
(aso see santy)
Dssoved Oxygen (DO)
ntrate -N
orthophosphates
Chemca oxygen demand (COD)
Bochemca oxygen demand (BOD)
Pestcdes
Physical assessment
pH
Temperature
Tota suspended sods (TSS)
Turbdty
Biological assessment
3iological monitoring metrics have been developed in many places, and one widely used
measure is the presence and abundance of members of the insect orders Ephemeroptera,
@lecoptera and .richoptera. (-ommon names are, respectively, 7ayfly, >tonefly and -addisfly.)
E@. inde&es will naturally vary from region to region, but generally, within a region, the greater
the number of ta&a from these orders, the better the water 0uality. E@+ and other organiations
in the Anited >tates offer guidance on developing a monitoring program and identifying
members of these and other a0uatic insect orders.
WA-ER 56AL#-7 'ARAME-ER/ A8D DR#89#8G
WA-ER /-A8DARD/

/L.
81.
'ARAME-ER/
68#-
/
DR#89#8G WA-ER #/) 3:5:: 4
3;;3
DE/#RA<LE MA=#M6M
/.
6olour DaCen
units
5 >5
1.
Kdour
2
6no&?ectiona&l
e
4
7. Taste 2 Agreea&le 4
8. Turbidity ?TB 5 3:
9.
pD value
2 @.5 to A.5
8o
rela*ation
H.
Total hardness 'as
6a6K7(
mg/l 2:: @::
<. Iron mg/l :.2 3.:
=. 6hlorides mg/l >5: 3:::
;.
4esidual, free
6hlorine
mg/l :.> 4
/$. 5issolved Solids mg/l 5:: >:::
//. 6alcium mg/l B5 >::
/1. 6opper mg/l :.:5 3.5
/7. Ianganese mg/l :.3 :.2
/8. Sulphate mg/l >:: C::
/9.
?itrate
mg/l 5:
8o
rela*ation
/H. @luoride mg/l 3.: 3.5
/<.
Phenolic compounds
mg/l :.::3 :.::>
/=.
Iercury
mg/l :.::3
8o
rela*ation
/;.
6admium
mg/l :.:3
8o
rela*ation
1$.
Selenium
mg/l :.:3
8o
rela*ation
1/.
"rsenic
mg/l :.:5
8o
rela*ation
11.
6yanide
mg/l :.:5
8o
rela*ation
17.
&ead
mg/l :.:5
8o
rela*ation
18. Oinc mg/l 5 35
19. "nionic detergents mg/l :.> 3.:
1H.
6hromium
mg/l :.:5
8o
rela*ation
1<.
Polynuclear aromatic
Dydrocarbons
mg/l 4 4
1=. Iineral oil mg/l :.:3 :.:2
1;. Pesticides mg/l A&sent :.::3
7$.
4adioactive
materials
'a( "lpha emitters
'b( Jeta emitters
J-/l
Pci/l
4
4
:.3
:.:2B
7/. "lkalinity mg/l >:: @::
71. "luminlum mg/l :.:2 :.>
UNIT-II *ON5EYAN*E SYSTEM
=ater supply network
+ &ater "$ppl% "%"tem or &ater "$ppl% net&or. is a system of engineered hydrologic and
hydraulic components which provide water supply. + water supply system typically includesP
1. A dranage basn (see water purfcaton - sources of drnkng water);
2. A raw (untreated) water coecton pont (above or beow ground) where the
water accumuates, such as a ake, a rver, or groundwater from an
underground aqufer. Untreated drnkng water (usuay water beng
transferred to the water purfcaton factes) may be transferred usng
uncovered ground-eve aqueducts, covered tunnes or underground water
ppes.
3. Water purfcaton factes. Treated water s transferred usng water ppes
(usuay underground).
4. Water storage factes such as reservors, water tanks, or watertowers.
Smaer water systems may store the water n csterns or pressure vesses.
(Ta budngs may aso need to store water ocay n pressure vesses n
order for the water to reach the upper foors.)
5. Addtona water pressurzng components such as pumpng statons may
need to be stuated at the outet of underground or above ground reservors
or csterns (f gravty fow s mpractca)
6. A ppe network for dstrbuton of water to the consumers (whch may be
prvate houses or ndustra, commerca or nsttuton estabshments) and
other usage ponts (such as fre hydrants)
7. Connectons to the sewers (underground ppes, or aboveground dtches n
some deveopng countres) are generay found downstream of the water
consumers, but the sewer system s consdered to be a separate system,
rather than part of the water suppy system
=ater abstraction and raw water transfer
2aw water (untreated) is collected from a surface water source (such as an intake on a lake or a
river) or from a groundwater source (such as a water well drawing from an underground a0uifer)
within the watershed that provides the water resource.
>hallow dams and reservoirs are susceptible to outbreaks of to&ic algae, especially if the water is
warmed by a hot sun. .he bacteria grow from stormwater runoff carrying fertilier into the river
where it acts as a nutrient for the algae. >uch outbreaks render the water unfit for human
consumption.
.he raw water is transferred to the water purification facilities using uncovered a0ueducts,
covered tunnels or underground water pipes.
Water treatment
/L.
81.
'ARAME-ER/
68#-
/
DR#89#8G WA-ER #/) 3:5:: 4
3;;3
DE/#RA<LE MA=#M6M
/.
6olour DaCen
units
5 >5
1.
Kdour
2
6no&?ectiona&l
e
4
7. Taste 2 Agreea&le 4
8. Turbidity ?TB 5 3:
9.
pD value
2 @.5 to A.5
8o
rela*ation
H.
Total hardness 'as
6a6K7(
mg/l 2:: @::
<. Iron mg/l :.2 3.:
=. 6hlorides mg/l >5: 3:::
;.
4esidual, free
6hlorine
mg/l :.> 4
/$. 5issolved Solids mg/l 5:: >:::
//. 6alcium mg/l B5 >::
/1. 6opper mg/l :.:5 3.5
/7. Ianganese mg/l :.3 :.2
/8. Sulphate mg/l >:: C::
/9.
?itrate
mg/l 5:
8o
rela*ation
/H. @luoride mg/l 3.: 3.5
/<.
Phenolic compounds
mg/l :.::3 :.::>
/=.
Iercury
mg/l :.::3
8o
rela*ation
/;.
6admium
mg/l :.:3
8o
rela*ation
1$.
Selenium
mg/l :.:3
8o
rela*ation
1/.
"rsenic
mg/l :.:5
8o
rela*ation
11.
6yanide
mg/l :.:5
8o
rela*ation
17.
&ead
mg/l :.:5
8o
rela*ation
18. Oinc mg/l 5 35
19. "nionic detergents mg/l :.> 3.:
1H.
6hromium
mg/l :.:5
8o
rela*ation
1<.
Polynuclear aromatic
Dydrocarbons
mg/l 4 4
1=. Iineral oil mg/l :.:3 :.:2
1;. Pesticides mg/l A&sent :.::3
7$.
4adioactive
materials
'a( "lpha emitters
'b( Jeta emitters
J-/l
Pci/l
4
4
:.3
:.:2B
7/. "lkalinity mg/l >:: @::
71. "luminlum mg/l :.:2 :.>
Birtually all large systems must treat the waterH a fact that is tightly regulated by global, state and
federal agencies, such as the =orld 1ealth <rganiation (=1<) or the Anited >tates
Environmental @rotection +gency (E@+). =ater treatment must occur before the product reaches
the consumer and afterwards (when it is discharged again). =ater purification usually occurs
close to the final delivery points to reduce pumping costs and the chances of the water becoming
contaminated after treatment.
.raditional surface water treatment plants generally consists of three stepsP clarification,
filtration and disinfection. -larification refers to the separation of particles (dirt, organic matter,
etc.) from the water stream. -hemical addition (i.e. alum, ferric chloride) destabilies the particle
charges and prepares them for clarification either by settling or floating out of the water stream.
>and, anthracite or activated carbon filters refine the water stream, removing smaller particulate
matter. =hile other methods of disinfection e&ist, the preferred method is via chlorine addition.
-hlorine effectively kills bacteria and most viruses and maintains a residual to protect the water
supply through the supply network.
Water #i"tri,$tion net&or.
The Centra Arzona Pro|ect Aqueduct transfers untreated water
Most (treated) water dstrbuton happens through underground ppes
Pressurzng the water s requred between the sma water reserve and the end-
user
.he product, delivered to the point of consumption, is called fresh water if it receives little or no
treatment, or drinking water if the treatment achieves the water 0uality standards re0uired for
human consumption.
<nce treated, chlorine is added to the water and it is distributed by the local supply network.
.oday, water supply systems are typically constructed of plastic, ferrous, or concrete circular
pipe. 1owever, other /pipe/ shapes and material may be used, such as s0uare or rectangular
concrete bo&es, arched brick pipe, or wood. ?ear the end point, the network of pipes through
which the water is delivered is often referred to as the water mains.
.he energy that the system needs to deliver the water is called pressure. .hat energy is
transferred to the water, therefore becoming water pressure, in a number of waysP by a pump, by
gravity feed from a water source (such as a water tower) at a higher elevation, or by compressed
air.
"#$
.he water is often transferred from a water reserve such as a large communal reservoir before
being transported to a more pressurised reserve as a watertower.
In small domestic systems, the water may be pressurised by a pressure vessel or even by an
underground cistern (the latter however does need additional pressuriing). .his eliminates the
need of a water!tower or any other heightened water reserve to supply the water pressure.
.hese systems are usually owned and maintained by local governments, such as cities, or other
public entities, but are occasionally operated by a commercial enterprise (see water
privatiation). =ater supply networks are part of the master planning of communities, counties,
and municipalities. .heir planning and design re0uires the e&pertise of city planners and civil
engineers, who must consider many factors, such as location, current demand, future growth,
leakage, pressure, pipe sie, pressure loss, fire fighting flows, etc. Q using pipe network analysis
and other tools. -onstructioncomparable sewage systems, was one of the great engineering
advances that made urbaniation possible. Improvement in the 0uality of the water has been one
of the great advances in public health.
+s water passes through the distribution system, the water 0uality can degrade by chemical
reactions and biological processes. -orrosion of metal pipe materials in the distribution system
can cause the release of metals into the water with undesirable aesthetic and health effects.
2elease of iron from unlined iron pipes can result in customer reports of /red water/ at the tap .
2elease of copper from copper pipes can result in customer reports of /blue water/ and/or a
metallic taste. 2elease of lead can occur from the solder used to join copper pipe together or
from brass fi&tures. -opper and lead levels at the consumer4s tap are regulated to protect
consumer health.
Atilities will often adjust the chemistry of the water before distribution to minimie its
corrosiveness. .he simplest adjustment involves control of p1 and alkalinity to produce a water
that tends to passivate corrosion by depositing a layer of calcium carbonate. -orrosion inhibitors
are often added to reduce release of metals into the water. -ommon corrosion inhibitors added to
the water are phosphates and silicates.
7aintenance of a biologically safe drinking water is another goal in water distribution.
.ypically, a chlorine based disinfectant, such as sodium hypochlorite or monochloramine is
added to the water as it leaves the treatment plant. 3ooster stations can be placed within the
distribution system to ensure that all areas of the distribution system have ade0uate sustained
levels of disinfection.
Topologie" o &ater #i"tri,$tion net&or."
8ike electric power lines, roads, and microwave radio networks, water systems may have a loop
or branch network topology, or a combination of both. .he piping networks are circular or
rectangular. If any one section of water distribution main fails or needs repair, that section can be
isolated without disrupting all users on the network.
7ost systems are divided into ones. Dactors determining the e&tent or sie of a one can include
hydraulics, telemetry systems, history, and population density. >ometimes systems are designed
for a specific area then are modified to accommodate development. .errain affects hydraulics
and some forms of telemetry. =hile each one may operate as a stand!alone system, there is
usually some arrangement to interconnect ones in order to manage e0uipment failures or system
failures.
Water net&or. maintenan!e
=ater supply networks usually represent the majority of assets of a water utility. >ystematic
documentation of maintenance works using a -omputeried 7aintenance 7anagement >ystem
is a key to a successful operation of a water utility.
=ater pipe
Water pipe" are pipes or tubes, fre0uently made of polyvinyl chloride (@B-/u@B-), ductile
iron, steel, cast iron, polypropylene, polyethylene, or copper, that carry pressuried and treated
fresh water to buildings (as part of a municipal water system), as well as inside the building.
Pipe v"( t$,e
Typca PVC muncpa water man beng nstaed n Ontaro, Canada
A pastc water ppe beng nstaed. Note that the nner tube s actuay transportng
the water, whe the outer tube ony serves as a protectve casng
.he difference between pipe and tube is simply in the way it is sied. @B- pipe for plumbing
applications and galvanied steel pipe for instance, are measured in I@> (iron pipe sie). -opper
tube, -@B-, @eR and other tubing is measured nominally, which is basically an average
diameter. .hese siing schemes allow for universal adaptation of transitional fittings. Dor
instance, #/%/ @eR tubing is the same sie as #/%/ copper tubing. #/%/ @B- on the other hand is
not the same sie as #/%/ tubing, and therefore re0uires either a threaded male or female adapter
to connect them. =hen used in agricultural irrigation, the singular form /pipe/ is often used as a
plural.
@iping is available in rigid /joints/, which come in various lengths depending on the material.
.ubing, in particular copper, comes in rigid hard tempered /joints/ or soft tempered (annealed)
rolls. @eR and -@B- tubing also comes in rigid /joints/ or fle&ible rolls. .he temper of the
copper, that is whether it is a rigid /joint/ or fle&ible roll, does not affect the siing.
.he thicknesses of the water pipe and tube walls can vary. @ipe wall thickness is denoted by
various schedules. @ipe wall thickness increases with schedule, and is available in schedules %5,
(5, ;5, and higher in special cases. .he schedule is largely determined by the operating pressure
of the system, with higher pressures commanding greater thickness. -opper tubing is available in
four wall thicknessesP type ,=B (thinnest wallH only allowed as drain pipe per A@-), type 474
(thinH typically only allowed as drain pipe by I@- code), type 484 (thicker, standard duty for water
lines and water service), and type 4F4 (thickest, typically used underground between the main and
the meter). 3ecause piping and tubing are commodities, having a greater wall thickness implies
higher initial cost. .hicker walled pipe generally implies greater durability and higher pressure
tolerances.
=all thickness does not affect pipe or tubing sie. #/%/ 8 copper has the same outer diameter as
#/%/ F or 7 copper. .he same applies to pipe schedules. +s a result, a slight increase in pressure
losses is realied due to a decrease in flowpath as wall thickness is increased. In other words, #
foot of #/%/ 8 copper has slightly less volume than # foot of #/% 7 copper.
"citation needed$
,emand for copper products have fallen due to the dramatic increase in the price of copper,
resulting in increased demand for alternative products including @ER and stainless steel.
Tap &ater
Tap &ater (running water, city water, municipal water, etc.) is a principal component of /indoor
plumbing/, which became available in urban areas of the developed world during the last 0uarter
of the #9th century, and common during the mid!%5th century. .he application of technologies
involved in providing clean or /potable/ water to homes, businesses and public buildings is a
major subfield of sanitary engineering.
@otable water supply
.his supply may come from several possible sources.
Muncpa water suppy
Water wes
Devered by truck
Processed water from creeks, streams, rvers, akes, ranwater, etc.
,omestic water systems have been evolving since people first located their homes near a running
water supply, e.g., a stream or river. .he water flow also allowed sending waste water away from
the domiciles.
7odern indoor plumbing delivers clean, safe, potable water to each service point in the
distribution system. It is imperative that the clean water not be contaminated by the waste water
(disposal) side of the process system. 1istorically, this contamination of drinking water has been
the largest killer of humans.
"#$
6e#it7 +ot &ater "$ppl%
,omestic hot water is provided by means of water heater appliances, or through district heating.
.he hot water from these units is then piped to the various fi&tures and appliances that re0uire
hot water, such as lavatories, sinks, bathtubs, showers, washing machines, and dishwashers.
6e#it7 Fi1t$re" an# applian!e"
Everything in a building that uses water falls under one of two categoriesH Di&ture or +ppliance.
+s the consumption points above perform their function, most produce waste/sewage
components that will re0uire removal by the waste/sewage side of the system. .he minimum is
an air gap. >ee cross connection control K backflow prevention for an overview of backflow
prevention methods and devices currently in use, both through the use of mechanical and
physical principles.
Di&tures are devices that use water without an additional source of power.
6e#it7 Pipe material"
.he earliest known evidence of drain tile being used for plumbing was found in 7esopotamia
and is estimated to have been made around '555 3-. .he tiles were made from clay mi&ed with
short lengths of straw. 3oth brass and copper pipes have been found in Egypt believed to have
been made close to %)55 3-. .he 2omans made e&tensive use of lead pipe by joining sheets of
lead into piping to carry their water supply and waste. ,uring the ,ark +ges following the fall of
the 2oman Empire, plumbing development virtually ceased for centuries e&cept for isolated
cases of plumbing installed in palaces and castles. In the #'th century, blacksmiths formed sheets
of iron and lap welded the seam to create iron pipe. .hough it is unclear as to when galvanied
iron pipe was first used, a Drench chemist named 7elouin is credited with developing the
process in #6(%. .he earliest known use for cast iron pipe is for the water supply to a fountain in
8angensala,Cermany, built around #)*5. In #;#9 the first cast iron pipe constructed in the A>,
was manufactured in =eymouth, ?ew :ersey. 3efore that time, cast iron pipe and fittings had to
be imported from Europe. It was not until the #9*54s that the hubless cast iron pipe was brought
to the A.>. from Europe by way of -anada. ,uring the early #9554s, heavy!walled copper joined
with threaded fittings was in use, but limited to public buildings because of its4 high cost.
1owever, during the #9'54s light!gauge -opper tube and fittings were developed which made
copper economically feasible and increased it4s popularity. @olyvinyl -hloride(@B-) was
produced e&perimentally in the #9th century but did not become practical to manufacture until
#9%*, when =aldo >emon of 3D Coodrich -o. developed a method to plasticie @B-, making it
easier to process. @B- pipe began to be manufactured in the #9(54s and was in wide use during
the ,=B reconstruction of Cermany and :apan following ==II. In the #9)54s, plastics
manufacturers in =estern Europe and :apan began producing acrylonitrile butadiene
styrene(+3>) pipe. .he methods for producing cross!linked polyethylene(@ER) was also
developed in the #9)54s. @lastic supply pipes have become increasingly common, with a variety
of materials and fittings employed, however plastic water pipes do not keep water as clean as
copper and brass piping does. -opper pipe plumbing is bacteriostatic. .his means that bacteria
can4t grow in the copper pipes. @lumbing codes define which materials may be used, and all
materials must be proven by +>.7, A8, and/or ?D@+ testing.
6e#it7 Steel
Calvanied steel potable water supply and distribution pipes are commonly found with nominal
diameters from '/;/ to %/. It is rarely used today for new construction residential plumbing. >teel
pipe has ?ational @ipe .hread (?@.) standard tapered male threads, which connect with female
tapered threads on elbows, tees, couplers, valves, and other fittings. Calvanied steel (often
known simply as /galv/ or /iron/ in the plumbing trade) is relatively e&pensive, difficult to work
with due to weight and re0uirement of a pipe threader. It remains in common use for repair of
e&isting /galv/ systems and to satisfy building code non!combustibility re0uirements typically
found in hotels, apartment buildings and other commercial applications. It is also e&tremely
durable. 3lack lac0uered steel pipe is the most widely used pipe material for fire sprinklers and
natural gas.
7ost single family homes4 systems typically won4t re0uire supply piping larger than '/(/. In
addition to e&pense, another downside is it suffers from a tendency to obstruction due to internal
rusting and mineral deposits forming on the inside of the pipe over time after the internal
galvaniing inc coating has degraded. In potable water distribution service, galvanied steel
pipe has a service life of about '5 to )5 years, although it is not uncommon for it to be less in
geographic areas with corrosive water contaminants.
6e#it7 *opper
See also Copper tubing
[edit] Sizes
-ommon wall!thicknesses of copper tubing in the A>+ are /.ype F/, /.ype 8/ and /.ype 7/P
"%$
Type K has the thckest wa secton of the three types of pressure rated
tubng and s commony used for deep underground bura such as under
sdewaks and streets, wth a sutabe corroson protecton coatng or
contnuous poyethyene seeve as requred by code.
Type L has a thnner ppe wa secton, and s used n resdenta and
commerca water suppy and pressure appcatons.
Type M has the thnnest wa secton, and s generay sutabe for condensate
and other drans, but sometmes ega for pressure appcatons, dependng
on oca codes.
.ypes F and 8 are generally available in both hard drawn /sticks/ and in rolls of soft annealed
tubing, whereas type 7 is usually only available in hard drawn /sticks/.
In the plumbing trade the sie of copper tubing is measured by its nominal diameter (average
inside diameter). >ome +merican trades, heating and cooling technicians for instance, use the
Copper Tubng Szes (CTS) for Pumbng
Nomin
al
size
Outside
diameter
(OD)
[in (mm)]
Inside diameter (ID)
[in (mm)]
Type K Type L Type M
3

8
1

2
(12.7)
0.402
(10.211)
0.430
(10.922)
0.450
(11.430)
1

2
5

8
(15.875)
0.528
(13.411)
0.545
(13.843)
0.569
(14.453)
5

8
3

4
(19.05)
0.652
(16.561)
0.668
(16.967)
0.690
(17.526)
3

4
7

8
(22.225)
0.745
(18.923)
0.785
(19.939)
0.811
(20.599)
1 1
1

8
(28.575)
0.995
(25.273)
1.025
(26.035)
1.055
(26.797)
1
1

4 1
3

8
(34.925)
1.245
(31.623)
1.265
(32.131)
1.291
(32.791)
1
1

2 1
5

8
(41.275)
1.481
(37.617)
1.505
(38.227)
1.527
(38.786)
2 2
1

8
(53.975)
1.959
(49.759)
1.985
(50.419)
2.009
(51.029)
2
1

2 2
5

8
(66.675)
2.435
(61.849)
2.465
(62.611)
2.495
(63.373)
3 3
1

8
(79.375)
2.907
(73.838)
2.945
(74.803)
2.981
(75.717)
outside diameter (<,) to designate copper tube sies. .he 1B+- tradesman also use this
different measurement to try and not confuse water pipe with copper pipe used for the 1B+-
trade, as pipe used in the air!conditioning trade uses copper pipe that is made at the factory
without processing oils that would be incompatible with the oils used to lubricate the
compressors in the +- system. .he <, of copper tube is
#
S
;
th inch larger than its nominal sie.
.herefore, # inch nominal copper tube and #
#
S
;
th inch +-2 tube are e&actly the same tube with
different sie designations. .he wall thickness of the tube, as mentioned above, never affects the
siing of the tube. .ype F
#
S
%
inch nominal tube, is the same sie as .ype 8
#
S
%
inch nominal tube
(
)
S
;
inch +-2).
-ommon wall!thicknesses in Europe are /.ype R/, /.ype J/ and /.ype O/, defined by the E?
#5)6 standard.
Type X s the most common, and s used n above groundservces ncudng
drnkng water suppy, hot and cod water systems, santaton, centra heatng
and other genera purpose appcatons.
Type Y s a thcker waed ppe, used for underground works and heavy duty
requrements ncudng hot and cod water suppy, gas retcuaton, santary
pumbng, heatng and genera engneerng.
Type Z s a thnner waed ppe, aso used for above groundservces ncudng
drnkng water suppy, hot and cod water systems, santaton, centra heatng
and other genera purpose appcatons.
In the plumbing trade the sie of copper tubing is measured by its outside diameter in
millimetres. -ommon sies are #) mm and %% mm.
"'$
.hin!walled types used to be relatively ine&pensive, but since %55% copper prices have risen
considerably due to rising global demand and a stagnant supply.
[edit] Lead leaching
Cenerally, copper tubes are soldered directly into copper or brass fittings, although compression,
crimp, or flare fittings are also used. Dormerly, concerns with copper supply tubes included the
lead used in the solder at joints ()5E tin and )5E lead). >ome studies have shown significant
/leaching/ of the lead into the potable water stream, particularly after long periods of low usage,
followed by peak demand periods. In hard water applications, shortly after installation, the
interior of the pipes will be coated with the deposited minerals that had been dissolved in the
water, and therefore the vast majority of e&posed lead is prevented from entering the potable
water. 3uilding codes now re0uire lead!free solder. 3uilding -odes throughout the A.>. re0uire
the use of virtually /lead!free/ (T.%E lead) solder or filler metals in plumbing fittings and
appliances as well.
[edit] Corrosion
-opper water tubes are susceptible toP cold water pitting caused by contamination of the pipe
interior typically with soldering flu&H erosion corrosion caused by high speed or turbulent flowH
and stray current corrosion, caused by poor electrical wiring techni0ue, such as improper
grounding and bonding.
[edit] Pin holes due to poor plumbing electrical grounding and/or bonding
@in!hole leaks can occur anytime copper piping is improperly grounded and/or bondedH nonmetal
piping, such as @e& or @B-, does not suffer from this problem. .he phenomenon is known
technically as stray current corrosion or electrolytic pitting. @in!holing due to poor grounding or
poor bonding occurs typically in homes where the original plumbing has been modifiedH
homeowners may find a new plastic water filtration device or plastic repair union has interrupted
the water pipe4s electrical continuity to ground when they start seeing pinhole water leaks after a
recent install. ,amage occurs rapidly, usually being seen about si& months after the ground
interruption. -orrectly installed plumbing appliances will have a copper bonding jumper cable
connecting the interrupted pipe sections. @inhole leaks from stray current corrosion can result in
thousands of dollars in plumbing bills, and sometimes necessitating the replacement of the entire
affected line. .he cause is an electrical problem, not a plumbing problemH once the plumbing
damage is repaired, an electrician should be consulted to evaluate the grounding and bonding of
the entire plumbing system.
.he difference between a ground and a bond is subtle. >ee Cround (electricity), find the heading
A* po&er &iring in"tallation" for a complete description.
>tray current corrosion occurs becauseP #) the piping system is connected accidentally or
intentionally to a ,- voltage sourceH %) the piping does not have metal!to!metal electrical
continuityH ') if the voltage source is +-, one or more naturally occurring minerals coating the
pipe interior act as a rectifier, converting +- current to ,- . .he ,- voltage forces the water
within the piping to act as an electrical conductor (an electrolyte). Electric current leaves the
copper pipe, moves though the water across the nonconductive section (the plastic filter housing
in the e&ample above), and reenters the pipe on the opposite side. @itting occurs at the
electrically negative side (the cathode), which may be upstream or downstream with respect to
the water flow direction. @itting occurs because the electrical voltage ionies the pipe4s interior
copper metal, which reacts chemically with dissolved minerals in the water creating copper saltsH
these copper salts are soluble in water and wash away. @its eventually grow and consolidate to
form pin holes. =here there is one, there are almost certainly more. + complete discussion of
stray current corrosion can be found in chapter ##, section ##.(.', of 1andbook of -orrosion
Engineering, by @ierre 2oberge.
"($
,etecting and eliminating poor bonding is relatively straightforward. ,etection is accomplished
by use of a simple voltmeter set to ,- with the leads placed in various places in the plumbing.
.ypically, a probe on a hot pipe and a probe on a cold pipe will tell you if there is improper
grounding. +nything beyond a few millivolts is important, potentials of %55 mB are common. +
missing bond will show up best in the area of the gap, as potential disperses as the water runs.
>ince the missing bond is usually seen near the water source, as filtration and treatment
e0uipment are added, pinhole leaks can occur anywhere downstream. It is usually the cold water
pipe, as this is the one that gets the treatment devices.
-orrecting the problem is a simple matter of either purchasing a copper bonding jumper kit,
composed of copper cable at least U* +=C in diameter and two brone ground clamps for
affi&ing it the plumbing. >ee ?D@+ 65, the A.>. ?ational Electrical -ode 1andbook (?E-),
section on bonding and ground for details on selecting the correct bonding conductor wire sie.
+ similar bonding jumper wire can also be seen crossing gas meters, but for a different reason.
Note, if homeowners are e&periencing shocks or sparks from plumbing fi&tures or pipes, it is
more than a missing bond, it is likely a live electrical wire is bridging to the plumbing and the
plumbing system is not grounded. .his is an electrical shock haard and potential fire dangerH
consult an electrician immediatelyV
6e#it7 Pla"ti!"
Pastc ppng paced for a snk
@lastic pipe is in wide use for domestic water supply and drainage, waste, and vent (,=B) pipe.
Dor e&ample, polyvinyl chloride (@B-), chlorinated polyvinyl chloride (-@B-), polypropylene
(@@), polybutylene (@3), and polyethylene (@E) may be allowed by code for certain uses. >ome
e&amples of plastics in water supply systems areP
PVC /CPVC - rgd pastc ppes smar to PVC dran ppes but wth thcker was
to dea wth muncpa water pressure, ntroduced around 1970. PVC shoud
be used for cod water ony, or ventng. CPVC can be used for hot and cod
potabe water suppy. Connectons are made wth prmers and sovent
cements as requred by code.
PP - The matera s used prmary n housewares, food packagng, and
cnca equpment,
|5|
but snce the eary 1970s has seen ncreasng use
wordwde for both domestc hot and cod water. PP ppes are heat fused,
preventng the use of gues, sovents, or mechanca fttngs. PP ppe s often
used n green budng pro|ects.
|6||7|

PBT - fexbe (usuay gray or back) pastc ppe whch s attached to barbed
fttngs and secured n pace wth a copper crmp rng. The prmary
manufacturer of PBT tubng and fttngs was drven nto bankruptcy by a
cass-acton awsut over faures of ths system. However, PB and PBT tubng
has returned to the market and codes, typcay frst for 'exposed ocatons'
such as rsers.
PEX - cross nked poyethyene system wth mechancay |oned fttngs
empoyng barbs and crmped stee or copper fttngs.
Poytanks - pastc poyethyene csterns, underground water tanks, above
ground water tanks, are made of near poyethyene sutabe as a potabe
water storage tank, provded n whte, back or green, approved by NSF and
made of FDA approved materas.
Aqua - known as PEX-A-PEX, for ts PEX/aumnum sandwch - aumnum ppe
sandwched between ayers of PEX and connected wth brass compresson
fttngs. In 2005, a arge number of ther fttngs were recaed.
6e#it7 Fitting" an# valve"
@otable water supply systems re0uire not only pipe, but also many fittings and valves which add
considerably to their functionality as well as cost. .he @iping and plumbing fittings and Balves
articles discuss them further.
6e#it7 Reg$lation an# !omplian!e
3efore a water supply system is constructed or modified, the designer and contractor need to
consult the local plumbing code and obtain a building permits prior to construction.
";$"9$
Even
replacing an e&isting water heater may re0uire a permit and inspection of the work. ?>D *# is the
A.>. national standard for potable water piping guidelines. ?ational and local fire codes should
be integrated in the design phase of the water system too to prevent /failure comply with
regulations/ notices. >ome areas of the Anited >tates re0uire on!site water reserves of potable
and fire water by law.
UNIT-III WATER TREATMENT
Water -reatment
Introduction
+ll surface water and some groundwaters re0uire treatment prior to consumption to ensure that
they do not represent a health risk to the user. 1ealth risks to consumers from poor 0uality water
can be due to microbiological, chemical, physical or radioactive contamination.
1owever, microbiological contamination is generally the most important to human health as
this leads to infectious diseases which affect all populations groups, many of which may cause
epidemics and can be fatal. -hemical contamination, with the e&ception of a few substances
such as cyanide and nitrate, tends to represent a more long!term health risk. +n e&ample of this
is nitrate which can cause methaemoglobinaemenia in babies. >ubstances in water which affect
the clarity, colour or taste of water may make water objectionable to consumers and hence
ability to recover costs. +s many microorganisms are found associated with particles in water,
physical contamination may also represent a health risk as it e&tends microbial survival.
7ost treatment systems are designed to remove microbiological contamination and those
physical constituents which affect the acceptability or promote microorganism survival ! largely
related to the suspended solids in the water. + disinfectant is nearly always included in
treatment plants of any sie. .his is done for two main reasonsP firstly it is added to inactivate
any remaining bacteria as the final unit of treatmentH and, more importantly, to provide a
residual disinfectant which will kill any bacteria introduced during storage and/or distribution.
The multiple barrier principle
.reatment processes usually function either through the physical removal of contaminants
through filtration, settling (often aided by some form of chemical addition) or biological
removal of microorganisms. It is usual for treatment to be in a number of stages, with initial
pretreatment by settling or pre!filtration through coarse media, sand filtration (rapid or slow)
followed by chlorination. .his is called the m$ltiple ,arrier prin!iple(
.his is an important concept as it provides the basis of comprehensive treatment of water and
provides a system to prevent complete treatment failure due to a breakdown of a single process.
Dor instance, with a system which comprises addition of coagulation!flocculation!settling,
followed by rapid sand filtration with terminal disinfection, failure of the rapid sand filter does
not mean that untreated water will be supplied. .he coagulation!flocculation!settling process
will remove a great deal of the suspended particles, and therefore many of the microorganisms
in the water, and the terminal disinfection will remove many of the remainder. @rovided the
rapid sand filter is repaired reasonable 0uickly, there should be little decrease in water 0uality.
+ key element in the multiple barrier principle is to ensure that the source of water is protected
and maintained at as high a 0uality as possible. .his is sometimes easier for groundwater
sources on a local scale, although there are obvious difficulties for both ground and surface
water on a larger scale.
54I?!I?G2+"TF4 GB"&ITP
Treatment processes - advantages and disadvantages
.here are many different treatment process available and whose suitability is a function of the
source water 0uality, level of operator training and resources available for operation and
maintenance. It is imperative that the selection of technology for treatment plants is done taking
the above into consideration to ensure that they remain sustainable.
Preiltration
+s many secondary filtration processes, and in particular slow sand filtration, re0uire low
influent turbidities, some form of pretreatment to reduce suspended solids load is re0uired. <ne
way to achieve this is by using prefiltration of water through coarse media, usually gravel or
coarse sand. @refilters can have many different configurationsP horiontalH vertical upflowH and
vertical upflow!downflow. Bertical prefilters have become increasingly popular as they re0uire
far less land than horiontal prefilters and can take faster flow runs through them. +n alternative
are pressure filters, through which water is pumped at pressure to remove the suspended solids
load.
@refilters have an advantage in that they do not re0uire chemicals, have limited working parts
and are robust. .hey do however, re0uire fre0uent cleaning and maintenance and are ineffective
in removing fine particles, thus where the suspended solid load is primarily made up of silt and
clay particles prefiltration is ineffective. @refiltration is a physical process designed to remove
suspended solids and therefore it4s efficiency in removal of microorganisms is a function of the
microbes associated with particles. Birus removal is poor and prefiltration is not effective in the
removal of cysts or bacteria associated with fine particles.
Se#imentation
>edimentation is the removal of suspended solids through the settling of particles moving
through a tank at a slow rate. .here are a number of forms of sedimentation. In water treatment
plants treating source water a high proportion of suspended solids of coarser grades (e.g. sand
and coarse silt) a grit chamber may be used to remove the largest particles through simple
sedimentation. In this process, water is passed through a tank at a slow rate and suspended
solids fall out of suspension. In small supplies, simple sedimentors may also be used, which
functioning in a similar fashion to grit chambers, although with a slower rate of water
throughflow. >imple sedimentation will not remove fine grained particles because the flow rates
remain too high and the retention time is insufficient. + further common fault with simple
sedimenters is that design flow rates are rarely achieved in practice and a certain element of
Wshort!circuitingG can occur unless construction, operation and maintenance is very careful.
+s a result of the drawbacks in simple sedimentation, it is common to find that the
sedimentation process is enhanced through the addition of chemicals ! or coagulation.
-oagulants carry a charge and therefore attract charged clay particles. .he particles begin to
aggregate and form WflocsG. <nce the flocs reach a critical mass, they sink to the bottom of the
settler. .he outlet of the sedimenter is generally around the top of the structure, thus the clear
water is removed by a surface channel. .his system can be further refined with the use of
modular or plate settlers which reduces the time re0uire for settling by providing a wider surface
area for aggregation of particles.
.he most commonly used coagulants is aluminium sulphate, although there are other coagulants
available including ferric salts (sulphates and chlorides) and polyelectrolytes. -oagulants are
dosed in solution at a rate determined by raw water 0uality near the inlet of a mi&ing tank or
flocculator. It is essential that the coagulant is rapidly and thoroughly mi&ed on dosing, this is
may be achieved through the use of a hydraulic jump. .he water then passes into the settler to
allow aggregation of the flocs. Increasing use is now being made of synthetic polymer
compounds or polyelectrolytes. +s these are highly charged, there is a rapid increase in the
formation of flocs, particularly where clay makes up a large proportion of the suspended solid
load.
.he advantages of the coagulation is that it reduces the time re0uired to settle out suspended
solids and is very effective in removing fine particles which are otherwise very difficult to
remove from water. -oagulation can also be effective in removing protooa, bacteria and
viruses, particularly when polyelectrolyte is used, as the highly charged coagulant attracts the
charged microorganisms into the flocs. -oagulation can also be effective in removing by
precipitation certain contaminants such as lead and barium.
.he principle disadvantages of using coagulants are the cost and the need for accurate dosing,
jar testing and dose adjustment and fre0uent monitoring. -oagulants can be e&pensive to buy
(particularly polyelectrolyte) and need accurate dosing e0uipment to function efficiently. >taff
need to be ade0uately trained to carry out jar tests to determine coagulant dosage.
San# Filtration
>and filtration can be either rapid or slow. .he difference between the two is not a simple matter
of the speed of filtration, but in the underlying concept of the treatment process. >low sand
filtration is essentially a biological process whereas rapid sand filtration is a physical treatment
process.
>low sand filters have an advantage over rapid sand filters in that they produce
microbiologically /clean/ water which should not re0uire disinfection to inactivate any bacteria,
although the addition of a disinfectant to provide a residual for the distribution system is still
advisable. 1owever, because of their slow flow rate, slow sand filters re0uire large tracts of land
if they are to supply large populations and can be relatively labour intensive to operate and
maintain. +s the reestablishment of the schumtdecke takes several days, the plant has to have
sufficient capacity to supply the water demand when one or more filters are out of action.
2apid sand filtration is now commonly used worldwide and is far more popular than slow sand
filtration. .he principal factor in this decision has been the smaller land re0uirement for rapid
sand filters and lower labour costs. 1owever, rapid sand filters do not produce water of the same
0uality as slow sand filters and a far greater reliance is placed on disinfection to inactivate
bacteria. It is also worth noting that rapid sand filters are not effective in removing viruses.
Slow sand filters
>low sand filters operate at slow flow rates, 5.# ! 5.' metres per hour. .he top layers of the sand
become biologically active by the establishment of a microbial community on the top layer of
the sand substrate. .hese microbes usually come from the source water and establish a
community within a matter of a few days. .he fine sand and slow filtration rate facilitate the
establishment of this microbial community. .he majority of the community are predatory
bacteria who feed on water!borne microbes passing through the filter.
.he microbial community forms a layer called the schumtdecke and can develop up to %cm
thick before the filter re0uires cleaning. <nce the schumtdecke becomes too thick and the rate
of filtration declines further it is scraped off, a process done every couple of months or so
depending on the source water. <nce this has been carried out, the slow sand filter will not be
fully functional for another ' to ( days until a new schumtdecke has developed, although this
procedure can be speeded up by seeding the filter with bacteria from the removed
schumtdecke. >low sand filtration is e&tremely good at removing microbial contamination and
will usually have no indicator bacteria present at the outlet. >low sand filters are also effective
in removing protooa and viruses.
>low sand filters re0uire low influent turbidity, below %5.A and preferably below #5.A. .his
means that efficient pretreatment is re0uired to ensure that the filters do not become overloaded.
>low sand filters can cope with shock turbidities of up to )5.A, but only for very short periods
of time before they block. .he sand used in slow sand filters is fine, thus high turbidities cause
the bed to block rapidly and necessitates more fre0uent cleaning and therefore greater time out
of action. ?evertheless, slow sand filters are still used in 8ondon and were relatively common in
=estern Europe until comparatively recently and are still common elsewhere in the world. .he
move away from slow sand filtration has largely been a function of rising land prices and labour
costs which increased the cost of slow sand filter produced water, where this is not the case,
slow sand filters still represent a cost!effective method of water treatment.
Rapid sand filters
2apid sand filters work at much higher rates of flow (up to %5 meters per hour) and essentially
rely on physical removal of suspended solids, including any floc carried over from the settlers.
+lthough rapid sand filters achieve some reduction in microbial populations in water as it
removes particles to which bacteria are attached, it is not a biological treatment and the use of a
terminal disinfectant is vital to ensure that bacteria in the water have been inactivated. 2apid
sand filters re0uire fre0uent cleaning (daily or twice daily) which is achieved through
backwashing filters with clean water to re!suspended the sediment. -leaning takes relatively
little time and the filters can be put back into operation immediately.
2apid sand filters are far smaller than slow sand filters and are commonly employed in
WbatteriesG. .he rapid flow rate through these filters means that demand can be more easily met
from smaller plants. 2apid sand filters do not re0uire low influent turbidities, as they are
essentially a physical treatment process, although higher suspended solids loads will result in
more fre0uent cleaning. 3ackwashing is usually rapid and filters are not out of commission for
mare than a matter of minutes. -leaning and operation can be largely mechanised and air scour
is commonly employed to make backwashing more effective. =ith the small land re0uirement,
several rapid sand filters can be accommodated in small area and thus it is easy to maintain
capacity to meet demand when filters are being cleaned.
Di"ine!tion
+ll water supplies should be disinfected in order to protect public health. ,isinfection
inactivates any remaining bacteria in the water after previous treatment steps and provides a
residual disinfectant to inactivate bacteria introduced by any subse0uent ingress of contaminated
water during storage or distribution.
+t present, the principal disinfectant used worldwide is chlorine, although alternatives are being
increasingly investigated and process such as oonation are becoming more important in
industrialied countries. It is important to note that all disinfectants produce by!products and
that the greater knowledge about the by!products formed from the use of chlorine because it is
this most widely used disinfectant should not compromise itGs use. It is also important that
disinfection of water supplies is never compromised because of a risk of potential health effects
from by!products in the final water. +ny health impacts from chemical contamination is likely
to be long!term, whereas the absence of disinfection puts the consumers at risk from infectious
diarrhoeal disease.
Ot)er Treatment Pro!e""e"
.he above treatment process are all designed to make drinking!water safe by the removal of
microorganisms and suspended solids. 1owever, drinking!water, particularly from groundwater
sources, may also contain chemical contaminants which must be removed. Cenerally the
removal of chemicals from water is more difficult and much more e&pensive than removing
microbiological or physical contaminants. 3asic filtration and coagulation techni0ues are not
generally effective for the majority of chemicals.
+s there are many different chemicals which could be dealt with, a few relevant e&amples will
be provided. Iron can be a major constituent of both ground and surface waters (where it is
commonly associated with bacteria and algae). +lthough iron does not represent any health risk,
it causes problems of acceptability of the water as many consumers find the colour off!putting
and because it stains clothes. .he principal method of removing iron from water is through
aeration or o&idation of the De%X to the De'X species. .his is easily achieved by flowing the water
over a simple cascade and followed by sedimentation. ?ote aeration is also used for waters
known to be ano&ic or o&ygen deficient.
+ variety of processes are used for the removal of organic and inorganic contaminants including
ion e&change and precipitation. Dor instance, fluoride may be removed through coagulation with
lime or by ion e&change using calcinated burnt bone or activate alumina. Cranulated activated
carbon (C+-) is commonly used for pesticide removal through adsorption. .his is e&pensive
but unfortunately no other process appears to work effectively and therefore C+- remains the
sole option.
Selecting Technology
=hen selecting technology and systems of treatment it is vital that as full a picture as possible
of the source water 0uality is available. It is important to know what is in the water before trying
to design appropriate treatment systems. It is e0ually important to maintain a thorough
monitoring programme through the plant to ensure that each stage of treatment is working
effectively and efficiently.
+ll waters may need treatment before they are fit for human consumption, although surface
waters tend to be more vulnerable to contamination than groundwater. +ll surface waters will
re0uire treatment prior to consumption. Durthermore, all water supplied through distribution
systems should be disinfected to provide a residual disinfectant which provides ongoing
protection from bacterial growth and survival.
Water -reatment
Presentation Plan
Se!tion -e% point" O+P
Intro#$!tion need to treat all surface waters and some groundwaters
contamination may be microbiological, chemical or physical
microbiological contamination is most important as it causes highly infectious disease with
short!term impacts chemical contamination tends to have longer term effects on health
suspended solids affect microbial survival and the acceptability of water always disinfect water
supplies and maintain a residual in the water for protection against contamination during
distribution and storage
M$ltiple 2arrier Prin!iple
need to have more than a single process during treatment prevents breakdown in one process
leading to complete treatment failure source must be well protected
Treatment pro!e""e"
many processes available, the suitability of each is a function of source 0uality, operator capacity
and financial resources
technology selection must be made on the basis of the above to ensure sustainability
often need to reduce turbidity before treating water as this may interfere with treatment
prefiltration is a physical process which removes suspended solids
prefilters can be horiontal, vertical upflow or vertical upflow!downflow main advantage is
limited working parts and doesn4t use chemicals
disadvantages include poor ability to remove fine material, microbial removal poor and may
need fre0uent cleaning sedimentation is achieved by the settling of particles in
slow moving water
simple sedimenters do not use chemical coagulants and are
not effective in removing fine material
Se!tion -e% Point" O+P
settling is improved through addition of coagulants to form larger aggregates which speeds up
settling and removes fine material
modular and plate settlers improve settling efficiency
alum is the most common coagulant, others include
polyelectrolytes and ferric salts such as sulphate and
chloride
advantages include removal of fine particles, removal of some viruses, 0uick, compact
disadvantages include e&pense, need for good monitoring capacity, need trained operators
Treatment pro!e""e"
sand filtration can be rapid or slow
slow sand filtration is a biological process and rapid sand
filtration a physical process
slow sand filters a biologically active top layer called the schumtdecke which is composed of
predatory bacteria
schumtdecke kills bacteria and viruses
re0uire cleaning Y every % months, take '!( days to recover
rapid sand filters work at much faster rates and remove suspended solids
advantages of slow sand filtration include production of good 0uality water, relatively simple to
operate
disadvantages include large land re0uirement, labour intensive, re0uires low turbidity water
advantages of rapid sand filtration include small land re0uirement
Treatment plant a""e""ment"
assessments of treatment plants may be carried out for a
number of different reasons
routine assessments often carried out by water suppliers to ensure performance is efficient and
optimised
assessments may also be undertaken when there is a failure in water 0uality or a failure to
produce water of ade0uate 0uality
assessments involve the evaluation of each unit process to ensure that it performs efficiently
and to identify any process failures and causes of failures
assessments should also evaluate the suitability of combinations of technologies (e.g.
sometimes find simple sedimenters combined with slow sand filters when turbidity
was relatively high ! led to failure)
assessments should be linked to performance optimisation
Se!tion -e% Point" O+P *on!l$"ion
both surface and groundwater may re0uire treatment before distribution
source water 0uality (and likely variations) should be known before selecting technologies
technologies should be used which reflect capacity to operate the plant and which provide
ade0uate treatment
a multiple barrier principle should always be used when treating water
source protection is also vital
The Iultiple Jarrier Principle of +ater
Treatment
Bpflow25ownflow Prefilter
DoriContal @low Prefilter
@locculator
6oagulant 5osing
Slow Sand @ilter
4apid Sand @ilter
+ater Treatment Plant "ssessments
When and why the should &e carried out)
4outine assessment of operational efficiency and
state of e-uipment
+hen contamination is found
+hen disease outbreaks occur
If disinfection dosing re-uirements suddenly change
+ater Treatment Plant "ssessments
Parameters
Raw Water)
turbidity, pD, alkalinity, coliforms, ma,or ions,
nutrients, known problem substances
Coagulation4%locculation4settling)
turbidity, pD, residual aluminum, residual
acrylamide, coliforms
're%iltration)
turbidity, pD, coliforms
/and %iltration Dra$idEslowF)
turbidity, pD, coliforms
Disin%ection)
4esidual 'usually chlorine(, pD, turbidity, coli forms
'thermotolerant and total(
Principles of Unit operations and processes in
water and wastewater treatment and disposal
Water and waste water dffer ony n the way that sods
concentraton w be more n waste water and whch w be there
n water too f the same s taken from the rver water whch
makes the treatment process to both the same except that
ftraton s on stranng the fner partces n water treatment and
s towards boogca acton of bactera on the trckng fter to
remove organc sods.
Unt operatons are the physca operatons to remove the
mpurtes present n the water and waste water where as the unt
processes are the chemca and boogca converson on the
status of the mpurtes that they w be easy removed by
chemca or boogca processes, both are apped especay to
make the fne cooda partces to coaesce and grow n sze to be
removed from the water or waste water.
Screens are n use from the ntake structure where they prevent
the foatng matter to enter nto the pumpng unts, and fne and
coarse screens are n use to treat waste water to prevent the
entry of foatng wastes and coarse sods nto the treatment.
Sedmentaton s smpy detanng water for a suffcent tme
mosty n stagnant or reatvey stagnant poston to make the
fow veocty of water ess than the settng veocty of the sod
partces that they wthout beng drven by horzonta force settes
down by gravty. The effcency of the process depends on the
detenton tme, how ong the waste water remans wthn the
sedmentaton tank. When apped to ndvdua unts we need not
reduce the fow veocty but make t stagnant as f and draw type
that the effcency w be more. In the contnuous fow type the
fow veocty s reduced to the eve of the mnmum veocty
whch w not carry the partces wth t accordng to stokes aw
that the vertca veocty, whch s the settng veocty of the
partce w be more than the horzonta drag veocty and the
partce settes down. Mosty the tanks w be rectanguar and we
aso have crcuar tanks where the fow w be from centre to
perphery. Whatever may be the shape of the tank, t s the
surface area whch makes the trave of partces ndependent of
others whch makes the settng
effcent that the depth has to be consdered takng nto effect the
sudge accumuaton and to prevent the reentry of partces back
to fow.
Coaguants are added to the water that the foccuent partces
grow bgger n sze whch s by chemca reacton by rapd mxng
and sow mxng and the coaescent partces whch grew n sze
gets removed by settng. The coaguant we add changes the
quaty of water and the sudge voume too, and some of the
coaguants add to bukng of sudge where the remova of
mosture s dffcut. Lme water nstead of me reduces the
voume of sudge whch s to a the sod coaguants. Lqud
coaguants have more nfuence ready on coaguant partces
than the sod coaguants whch tsef w take tme to dssove
and react wth the partces.
Ftraton s to the remova of fne partce sand dssoved sods
where the fne sand ayer and coarse sand ayer beow serves as
the meda to remove cooda sods and the water remans
competey free of sods. In trckng fters the waste water that
trckes down gets oxdzed that the organc matter grows n sze
and retaned over the sand medum and bactera assmate on
the organc matter to form ayer on the surface whch grows
thcker and thcker to gve more bactera mass to act upon the
organc sods. The bottom most ayer becomes deprved of
oxygen n due course of tme that t soughs and the same
reaches the secondary settng tank where the same gets setted
for ts ncreased densty. The actvated sudge process s by
nduced aeraton where the reactor s competey mxed wth
sudge and ar, that there w be compete oxdaton after whch
the waste water enters the secondary settng tank.
When a sods are removed the mneras present n the water
and waste water s removed by reverse osmoss, demnerazaton
process whch s bascay on exchange process.
Odour and coour present n water and waste water are removed
by aeraton and adsorpton process. The odour and coour causng
eements are adsorbed and aerated that the water s free from
mpurtes for use and waste water for reuse and recycng. Toxc
chemcas and metas too get adsorbed wth sutabe meda for
adsorpton.
The waste water f not ntended for recycng or reuse, they can
be atered wth ow cost boogca treatment as septc tank, cess
poos, oxdaton ponds and dtches whch are ong tme process
and adds nutrent vaue to the so and can be used for agrcuture
and ths eads to ot of troubes as so sckness, fy nusance and
skn dseases as the sewage drecty comes nto contact wth the
pants.
The unt operatons and processes can be apped n ndvdua
unts of houses, coones and ndustres that t gves fewer
probems to the envronment and handed wth more effcency.
The entre process of sedmentaton, ftraton and hardness
remova can be done at home, for remova of hardness we need
not go for reverse osmoss whch s much expensve on
nstaaton and mantenance but the smpe me soda process or
bong serve the purpose of both dsnfecton and hardness
remova as the water from the top stratum of aqufer w not be
sane n nature wth chordes and suphates of cacum and
magnesum as s seen common wth rver water dscharged wth
domestc and ndustra wastes.
Appy the ean concepts to treat water and waste water and whch
w ead to a compact cost effectve unt whch s hostc and
benefca n the ong run for whch the perspectves must be n
ne wth the nature, Nature has answers to a n a much smpe
way and we thnk we are superor to nature whch makes us ve a
fe wth compcatons. We cannot put the burden on government
and make them work for us whch are provng fute nether we
nor the government show the ncuson for whch we experence
neffcency a through.
Threads
1. Study the structure of an ntake unt and fnd whether the same
to take water from the bottom of the rver s rght for the purpose
or not. If not from where the water shoud be drawn?
2. Dscuss on the water quaty parameters.
3. Dscuss on the prncpe of sedmentaton and the types of
settng.
4, What do you mean by foccuaton?.What are the ways to
mprove coaguaton?
5. What are the dfferent types of ftraton? Expan the probems
assocated wth ftraton?
7. How coud you combne ftraton wth hardness remova?
8. Narrate an ndvdua water treatment unt for a dweng?
9. Expan how the waste water treatment tran s competey
ncorporated n septc tank and cess poos whch can be
accommodated to any type of actvty.
10. How do you hande the wastes from hosptas and
pharmaceutca wastes.Strptococc group s fesh eatng and heps
n most of the actvtes that hande fesh aden wastes. Comment
and eaborate on ths.
11. Meta eatng bactera are there whch s vewed as due to
mutagenc actvtes. Dscuss on ths and ther effcacy.
12. Grass has a partcuar type of enzyme that promotes bactera
growth that heps n waste assmaton to a great extend for
whch cow and hoarse dung are used as seed. Dscuss on ths.
13. Prebotc and probotcs bactera heps n easy dgeston of
organc wastes whch domnate and adds the toxc wastes
remova too. Comment on ths.
14.Lemon |uce, detoxfyng |uce wth beet root, carrot, cabbage
detox the body whch shows the enzymes present n them are for
the remova of toxns. Dscuss on ths.
15. Human fe system s natura towards eatng raw pant food
and mk. The waste handng became compex wth changed fe
styes on fesh eatng habts. Dscuss on ths.
16. Common effuent treatment s not an effectve waste
treatment method. Dscuss the probems assocated wth the
same.
Settling
*olid li@uid separation process in which a suspension is separated into two
phases B
$larified supernatant leaving the top of the sedimentation tank
0overflow3.
$oncentrated sludge leaving the bottom of the sedimentation tank
0underflow3.
Purpose of Settling
To remove coarse dispersed phase.
To remove coagulated and flocculated impurities.
To remove precipitated impurities after chemical treatment.
To settle the sludge 0biomass3 after activated sludge process / tricking
filters.
Principle of Settling
*uspended solids present in water having specific gravity greater than
that of water tend to settle down by gravity as soon as the turbulence
is retarded by offering storage.
?asin in which the flow is retarded is called settling tank.
Theoretical average time for which the water is detained in the settling
tank is called the detention period.
Types of Settling
Type I> Discrete particle settling (articles settle individually without
interaction with neighboring particles.
Type II> Flocculent Particles B !locculation causes the particles to increase
in mass and settle at a faster rate.
Type III> Hindered or Zone settling BThe mass of particles tends to settle
as a unit with individual particles remaining in fixed positions with respect to
each other.
Type IC> Compression B The concentration of particles is so high that
sedimentation can only occur through compaction of the structure.
Type I Settling
*i,e, shape and specific gravity of the particles do not change with
time.
*ettling velocity remains constant.
If a particle is suspended in water, it initially has two forces acting upon it>
013 force of gravity> !gDpgCp
023 the buoyant force @uantified by Archimedes as> !bDgCp
If the density of the particle differs from that of the water, a net force is
exerted and the particle is accelaratd in the direction of the force>
!netD0p3gCp
This net force becomes the driving force.
)nce the motion has been initiated, a third force is created due to viscous
friction. This force, called the drag force, is @uantified by>
!dD$+Apv
2
/2
$+D drag coefficient.
Ap D pro4ected area of the particle.
?ecause the drag force acts in the opposite direction to the driving force and
increases as the s@uare of the velocity, accelaration occurs at a decreasing
rate until a steady velocity is reached at a point where the drag force e@uals
the driving force>
0p3gCp Z $+Apv
2
/2
!or spherical particles,
CpDd
E
// and ApDd
2
/5
Thus, v
2
D 5g0 p 3d
E $+
Fxpressions for $+ change with characteristics of different flow regimes. !or
laminar, transition, and turbulent flow, the values of $+ are>
$+ D 25 0laminar3
#e
$+D 25 G E G..E5 0transition3
#e #e
1/2
$+D ..5 0turbulent3
where #e is the #eynolds number>
#eD vd

#eynolds number less than 1.. indicate laminar flow, while values greater
than 1. indicate turbulent flow. Intermediate values indicate transitional
flow.
Stokes Flow
!or laminar flow, terminal settling velocity e@uation becomes>
vD 0 p 3gd
2
17
which is known as the stokes euation.
Transition Flow
'eed to solve nonlinear e@uations>
v
2
Z 5g0 p 3d
E $+
$+D 25 G E G..E5
#e #e
1/2
#eD vd

$alculate velocity using *tokes law or turbulent expression.
$alculate and check #eynolds number.
$alculate $+.
8se general formula.
#epeat from step 2 until convergence.
Types of Settling Tanks
*edimentation tanks may function either intermittently or
continuously.The intermittent tanks also called @uiescent type tanks
are those which store water for a certain period and keep it in
complete rest. In a continuous flow type tank, the flow velocity is only
reduced and the water is not brought to complete rest as is done in an
intermittent type.
*ettling basins may be either long rectangular or circular in plan. =ong
narrow rectangular tanks with hori,ontal flow are generally preferred
to the circular tanks with radial or spiral flow.
!ong "ectangular Settling #asin
=ong rectangular basins are hydraulically more stable, and flow control
for large volumes is easier with this configuration.
A typical long rectangular tank have length ranging from 2 to 5 times
their width. The bottom is slightly sloped to facilitate sludge scraping.
A slow moving mechanical sludge scraper continuously pulls the
settled material into a sludge hopper from where it is pumped out
periodically.
A long rectangular settling tank can be divided into four different functional
,ones>
Inlet $one% #egion in which the flow is uniformly distributed over the cross
section such that the flow through settling ,one follows hori,ontal path.
Settling $one% *ettling occurs under @uiescent conditions.
&utlet $one% $larified effluent is collected and discharge through outlet
weir.
Sludge $one% !or collection of sludge below settling ,one.
Inlet and &utlet 'rrangement
Inlet devices% Inlets shall be designed to distribute the water e@ually and
at uniform velocities. A baffle should be constructed across the basin close to
the inlet and should pro4ect several feet below the water surface to dissipate
inlet velocities and provide uniform flow;
&utlet Devices% )utlet weirs or submerged orifices shall be designed to
maintain velocities suitable for settling in the basin and to minimi,e short
circuiting. <eirs shall be ad4ustable, and at least e@uivalent in length to the
perimeter of the tank. "owever, peripheral weirs are not acceptable as they
tend to cause excessive shortcircuiting.
(eir &verflow "ates
=arge weir overflow rates result in excessive velocities at the outlet. These
velocities extend backward into the settling ,one, causing particles and flocs
to be drawn into the outlet. <eir loadings are generally used upto E..
m
E
/d/m. It may be necessary to provide special inboard weir designs as
shown to lower the weir overflow rates.
Inboard (eir 'rrangement to Increase (eir !engt)
Circular #asins
$ircular settling basins have the same functional ,ones as the long
rectangular basin, but the flow regime is different. <hen the flow
enters at the center and is baffled to flow radially towards the
perimeter, the hori,ontal velocity of the water is continuously
decreasing as the distance from the center increases. Thus, the
particle path in a circular basin is a parabola as opposed to the straight
line path in the long rectangular tank.
*ludge removal mechanisms in circular tanks are simpler and
re@uire less maintenance.

Settling &perations
(articles falling through the settling basin have two components of
velocity>
13 Certical component> vtD0 p 3gd
2


17
23 "ori,ontal component> vhD[/+
The path of the particle is given by the vector sum of hori,ontal
velocity vh and vertical settling velocity vt.
Assume that a settling column is suspended in the flow of the settling
,one and that the column travels with the flow across the settling
,one. $onsider the particle in the batch analysis for type1 settling
which was initially at the surface and settled through the depth of the
column H., in the time t.. If t. also corresponds to the time re@uired for
the column to be carried hori,ontally across the settling ,one, then the
particle will fall into the sludge ,one and be removed from the
suspension at the point at which the column reaches the end of the
settling ,one.
All particles with vtIv. will be removed from suspension at some point
along the settling ,one.
'ow consider the particle with settling velocity J v.. If the initial depth
of this particle was such that Hp/vtDt., this particle will also be
removed. Therefore, the removal of suspended particles passing
through the settling ,one will be in proportion to the ratio of the
individual settling velocities to the settling velocity v..
The time t. corresponds to the retention time in the settling ,one. tD C
D =H.<
: :
Also, t
5
D H.
v.
Therefore, H. D =H.< and v.D :
v. : =<
or v.D :
A*
Thus, the depth of the basin is not a factor in determining the si,e particle
that can be removed completely in the settling ,one. The determining factor
is the @uantity :/As, which has the units of velocity and is referred to as the
overflow rate @.. This overflow rate is the design factor for settling basins
and corresponds to the terminal setting velocity of the particle that is 1..K
removed.
Design Details
1. +etention period> for plain sedimentation> E to 5 h, and for coagulated
sedimentation> 2 to 2.- h.
2. Celocity of flow> 'ot greater than E. cm/min 0hori,ontal flow3.
3. Tank dimensions> =>? D E to ->1. ;enerally =D E. m 0common3
maximum 1.. m. ?readthD / m to 1. m. $ircular> +iameter not
greater than /. m. generally 2. to 5. m.
4. +epth 2.- to -.. m 0E m3.
5. *urface )verflow #ate> !or plain sedimentation 12... to 17...
=/d/m2 tank area; for thoroughly flocculated water 25... to E....
=/d/m2 tank area.
/. *lopes> #ectangular 1K towards inlet and circular 7K.
edimentation s a physca water treatment process used to sette out suspended
sods n water under the nfuence of gravty.
|1
2a"i!"
>uspended solids (or >>), is the mass of dry solids retained by a filter of a given porosity related
to the volume of the water sample. .his includes particles of a sie not lower than #5 \m.
-olloids are particles of a sie between 5.55# nm and # nm depending on the method of
0uantification. ,ue to electrostatic forces balancing the gravity, they are not likely to settle
naturally.
.he limit sedimentation velocity of a particle is its theoretical descending speed in clear and still
water. In settling process theory, a particle will settle only ifP
1. In a vertca ascendng fow, the ascendng water veocty s ower than the
mt sedmentaton veocty.
2. In a ongtudna fow, the rato of the ength of the tank to the heght of the
tank s hgher than the rato of the water veocty to the mt sedmentaton
veocty.
.here are four types of sedimentation processesP
Type 1 - Dutes, non-foccuent, free-settng. (Every partce settes
ndependenty.)
Type 2 - Dute, foccuent. (Partces can foccuate as they sette.)
Type 3 - Concentrated Suspensons, Zone Settng (Sudge Thckenng).
Type 4 - Concentrated Suspensons, Compresson (Sudge Thckenng).
Appli!ation"
Pota,le Water Treatment
>edimentation in potable water treatment generally follows a step of chemical coagulation and
flocculation, which allows grouping particles together into flocs of a bigger sie. .his increases
the settling speed of suspended solids and allows settling colloids.
Wa"te Water Treatment
>edimentation is often used as a primary stage in modern waste water treatment plant, reducing
the content of suspended solids as well as the pollutant embedded in the suspended solids.
"%$P)!9

,ue to the large amount of reagent necessary to treat domestic wastewater, preliminary chemical
coagulation and flocculation are generally not used, remaining suspended solids being reduced
by following stages of the system. 1owever, coagulation and flocculation can be used for
building a compact treatment plant (also called a /package treatment plant/), or for further
polishing of the treated water.
"'$
In the +ctivated >ludge treatment process, flocs being created through biological activity are
collected in sedimentation tanks, generally referred to as Secondary Clarifiers or >econdary
>edimentation .anks.
"%$P#'
Te!)nolog%
>edimentation tanks can be of different shapes, often rectangular or circular. .hey are sied in
order to have an optimal sedimentation speed. If sedimentation speed is too high, most particles
will not have sufficient time to settle, and will be carried with the treated water. If the speed is
too low, the tanks will be of an e&cessive sie.
+s turbulence is a damaging factor leading settled particles to go back in suspension, several
devices are used to ensure a 0uiet flow, such as carefully designed water inlet with baffles.
>edimentation may be made more efficient by the use of stacks of flat pieces that slope slightly
upwards in the direction of flow, called lamellar separators. .hey are parallel and separated by a
small distance. .hese structures work in two waysP
1. They provde a very arge surface area onto whch partces may fa and
become stabzed.
2. Because fow s temporary acceerated between the pates and then
mmedatey sows down, ths heps to aggregate very fne partces that can
sette as the fow exts the pates.
.he use of lamellar separators may allow the use of a smaller sedimentation tank and may enable
finer particles to be separated. .ypically such structures are used for difficult!to!treat waters,
especially those containing colloidal materials.
=ater purification
Water p$rii!ation is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, materials, and biological
contaminants from contaminated water. .he goal is to produce water fit for a specific purpose.
7ost water is purified for human consumption (drinking water) but water purification may also
be designed for a variety of other purposes, including meeting the re0uirements of medical,
pharmacology, chemical and industrial applications. In general the methods used include
physical processes such as filtration and sedimentation, biological processes such as slow sand
filters or activated sludge, chemical processes such as flocculation and chlorination and the use
of electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light.
.he purification process of water may reduce the concentration of particulate matter including
suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungiH and a range of dissolved and
particulate material derived from the surfaces that water may have made contact with after
falling as rain.
.he standards for drinking water 0uality are typically set by governments or by international
standards. .hese standards will typically set minimum and ma&imum concentrations of
contaminants for the use that is to be made of the water.
It is not possible to tell whether water is of an appropriate 0uality by visual e&amination. >imple
procedures such as boiling or the use of a household activated carbon filter are not sufficient for
treating all the possible contaminants that may be present in water from an unknown source.
Even natural spring water L considered safe for all practical purposes in the #9th century L must
now be tested before determining what kind of treatment, if any, is needed. -hemical analysis,
while e&pensive, is the only way to obtain the information necessary for deciding on the
appropriate method of purification.
+ccording to a %556 =orld 1ealth <rganiation report, #.# billion people lack access to an
improved drinking water supply, ;;E of the ( billion annual cases of diarrheal disease are
attributed to unsafe water and inade0uate sanitation and hygiene, and #.; million people die from
diarrheal diseases each year. .he =1< estimates that 9(E of these diarrheal cases are
preventable through modifications to the environment, including access to safe water.
"#$
>imple
techni0ues for treating water at home, such as chlorination, filters, and solar disinfection, and
storing it in safe containers could save a huge number of lives each year.
"%$
2educing deaths from
waterborne diseases is a major public health goal in developing countries.
>ources of water
1. Groundwater : The water emergng from some deep ground water may have
faen as ran many tens, hundreds, thousands of years ago. So and rock
ayers naturay fter the ground water to a hgh degree of carty before the
treatment pant. Such water may emerge as sprngs, artesan sprngs, or may
be extracted from borehoes or wes. Deep ground water s generay of very
hgh bacteroogca quaty (.e., pathogenc bactera or the pathogenc
protozoa are typcay absent), but the water typcay s rch n dssoved
sods, especay carbonates and sufates of cacum and magnesum.
Dependng on the strata through whch the water has fowed, other ons may
aso be present ncudng chorde, and bcarbonate. There may be a
requrement to reduce the ron or manganese content of ths water to make t
peasant for drnkng, cookng, and aundry use. Dsnfecton may aso be
requred. Where groundwater recharge s practsed; a process n whch rver
water s n|ected nto an aqufer to store the water n tmes of penty so that t
s avaabe n tmes of drought; t s equvaent to owand surface waters for
treatment purposes.
2. Upand akes and reservors: Typcay ocated n the headwaters of rver
systems, upand reservors are usuay sted above any human habtaton and
may be surrounded by a protectve zone to restrct the opportuntes for
contamnaton. Bactera and pathogen eves are usuay ow, but some
bactera, protozoa or agae w be present. Where upands are forested or
peaty, humc acds can coour the water. Many upand sources have ow pH
whch requre ad|ustment.
3. Rvers , canas and ow and reservors: Low and surface waters w have a
sgnfcant bactera oad and may aso contan agae, suspended sods and a
varety of dssoved consttuents.
4. Atmospherc water generaton s a new technoogy that can provde hgh
quaty drnkng water by extractng water from the ar by coong the ar and
thus condensng water vapor.
5. Ranwater harvestng or fog coecton whch coects water from the
atmosphere can be used especay n areas wth sgnfcant dry seasons and
n areas whch experence fog even when there s tte ran.
6. Desanaton of seawater by dstaton or reverse osmoss.
Treatment
.he processes below are the ones commonly used in water purification plants. >ome or most
may not be used depending on the scale of the plant and 0uality of the water.
Pre-treatment
1. Pumpng and contanment - The ma|orty of water must be pumped from ts
source or drected nto ppes or hodng tanks. To avod addng contamnants
to the water, ths physca nfrastructure must be made from approprate
materas and constructed so that accdenta contamnaton does not occur.
2. Screenng (see also screen filter) - The frst step n purfyng surface water s
to remove arge debrs such as stcks, eaves, trash and other arge partces
whch may nterfere wth subsequent purfcaton steps. Most deep
groundwater does not need screenng before other purfcaton steps.
3. Storage - Water from rvers may aso be stored n banksde reservors for
perods between a few days and many months to aow natura boogca
purfcaton to take pace. Ths s especay mportant f treatment s by sow
sand fters. Storage reservors aso provde a buffer aganst short perods of
drought or to aow water suppy to be mantaned durng transtory pouton
ncdents n the source rver.
4. Pre-condtonng - Water rch n hardness sats s treated wth soda-ash
(sodum carbonate) to precptate cacum carbonate out utsng the
common-on effect.
5. Pre-chornaton - In many pants the ncomng water was chornated to
mnmse the growth of foung organsms on the ppe-work and tanks.
Because of the potenta adverse quaty effects (see chorne beow), ths has
argey been dscontnued.
|citation needed|

=idely varied techni0ues are available to remove the fine solids, micro!organisms and some
dissolved inorganic and organic materials. .he choice of method will depend on the 0uality of
the water being treated, the cost of the treatment process and the 0uality standards e&pected of
the processed water.
p ad!ustment
,istilled water has a p1 of 6 (neither alkaline nor acidic) and sea water has an average p1 of ;.'
(slightly alkaline). If the water is acidic (lower than 6), lime, soda ash, or sodium hydro&ide is
added to raise the p1. Dor somewhat acidic waters (lower than *.))
"citation needed$
, forced draft
degasifiers are the cheapest way to raise the p1, as the process raises the p1 by stripping
dissolved carbon dio&ide (carbonic acid) from the water. 8ime is commonly used for p1
adjustment for municipal water, or at the start of a treatment plant for process water, as it is
cheap, but it also increases the ionic load by raising the water hardness. 7aking the water
slightly alkaline ensures that coagulation and flocculation processes work effectively and also
helps to minimie the risk of lead being dissolved from lead pipes and lead solder in pipe fittings.
+cid (1-l or 1
%
><
(
) may be added to alkaline waters in some circumstances to lower the p1.
1aving alkaline water does not necessarily mean that lead or copper from the plumbing system
will not be dissolved into the water but as a generality, water with a p1 above 6 is much less
likely to dissolve heavy metals than water with a p1 below 6.
foc foatng at the surface of a basn
Mechanca system to push foc out of the water basn
Flo!!$lation
See also: Alum#Industrial
Dlocculation is a process which clarifies the water. -larifying means removing any turbidity or
colour so that the water is clear and colourless. -larification is done by causing a precipitate to
form in the water which can be removed using simple physical methods. Initially the precipitate
forms as very small particles but as the water is gently stirred, these particles stick together to
form bigger particles. 7any of the small particles that were originally present in the raw water
adsorb onto the surface of these small precipitate particles and so get incorporated into the larger
particles that coagulation produces. In this way the coagulated precipitate takes most of the
suspended matter out of the water and is then filtered off, generally by passing the mi&ture
through a coarse sand filter or sometimes through a mi&ture of sand and granulated anthracite
(high carbon and low volatiles coal). -oagulants / flocculating agents that may be used includeP
1. Iron (III) hydroxde . Ths s formed by addng a souton of an ron (III)
compound such as ron(III) chorde to pre-treated water wth a pH of 7 or
greater. Iron (III) hydroxde s extremey nsoube and forms even at a pH as
ow as 7. Commerca formuatons of ron sats were tradtonay marketed n
the UK under the name Cuprus.
2. Aumnum hydroxde s aso wdey used as the foccuatng precptate
athough there have been concerns about possbe heath mpacts and ms-
handng ed to a severe posonng ncdent n 1988 at Cameford n south-
west UK when the coaguant was ntroduced drecty nto the hodng
reservor of fna treated water.
3. PoyDADMAC s an artfcay produced poymer and s one of a cass of
synthetc poymers that are now wdey used. These poymers have a hgh
moecuar weght and form very stabe and ready removed focs, but tend to
be more expensve n use compared to norganc materas. The materas can
aso be bodegradabe.
Se#imentation
=aters e&iting the flocculation basin may enter the sedimentation basin, also called a clarifier or
settling basin. It is a large tank with slow flow, allowing floc to settle to the bottom. .he
sedimentation basin is best located close to the flocculation basin so the transit between does not
permit settlement or floc break up. >edimentation basins may be rectangular, where water flows
from end to end, or circular where flow is from the centre outward. >edimentation basin outflow
is typically over a weir so only a thin top layerQthat furthest from the sedimentQe&its. .he
amount of floc that settles out of the water is dependent on basin retention time and on basin
depth. .he retention time of the water must therefore be balanced against the cost of a larger
basin. .he minimum clarifier retention time is normally ( hours. + deep basin will allow more
floc to settle out than a shallow basin. .his is because large particles settle faster than smaller
ones, so large particles collide with and integrate smaller particles as they settle. In effect, large
particles sweep vertically through the basin and clean out smaller particles on their way to the
bottom.
+s particles settle to the bottom of the basin, a layer of sludge is formed on the floor of the tank.
.his layer of sludge must be removed and treated. .he amount of sludge that is generated is
significant, often ' to ) percent of the total volume of water that is treated. .he cost of treating
and disposing of the sludge can be a significant part of the operating cost of a water treatment
plant. .he tank may be e0uipped with mechanical cleaning devices that continually clean the
bottom of the tank or the tank can be taken out of service when the bottom needs to be cleaned.
Filtration
+fter separating most floc, the water is filtered as the final step to remove remaining suspended
particles and unsettled floc.
"apid sand filters
Cutaway vew of a typca rapd sand fter
.he most common type of filter is a rapid sand filter. =ater moves vertically through sand which
often has a layer of activated carbon or anthracite coal above the sand. .he top layer removes
organic compounds, which contribute to taste and odour. .he space between sand particles is
larger than the smallest suspended particles, so simple filtration is not enough. 7ost particles
pass through surface layers but are trapped in pore spaces or adhere to sand particles. Effective
filtration e&tends into the depth of the filter. .his property of the filter is key to its operationP if
the top layer of sand were to block all the particles, the filter would 0uickly clog.
.o clean the filter, water is passed 0uickly upward through the filter, opposite the normal
direction (called bacflushing or bacwashing) to remove embedded particles. @rior to this,
compressed air may be blown up through the bottom of the filter to break up the compacted filter
media to aid the backwashing processH this is known as air scouring. .his contaminated water
can be disposed of, along with the sludge from the sedimentation basin, or it can be recycled by
mi&ing with the raw water entering the plant although this is often considered poor practice since
it re!introduces an elevated concentration of bacteria into the raw water
>ome water treatment plants employ pressure filters. .hese work on the same principle as rapid
gravity filters, differing in that the filter medium is enclosed in a steel vessel and the water is
forced through it under pressure.
+dvantagesP
Fters out much smaer partces than paper and sand fters can.
Fters out vrtuay a partces arger than ther specfed pore szes.
They are qute thn and so quds fow through them fary rapdy.
They are reasonaby strong and so can wthstand pressure dfferences across
them of typcay 2-5 atmospheres.
Mem,rane iltration
7embrane filters are widely used for filtering both drinking water and sewage. Dor drinking
water, membrane filters can remove virtually all particles larger than 5.% umQincluding giardia
and cryptosporidium! 7embrane filters are an effective form of tertiary treatment when it is
desired to reuse the water for industry, for limited domestic purposes, or before discharging the
water into a river that is used by towns further downstream. .hey are widely used in industry,
particularly for beverage preparation (including bottled water). 1owever no filtration can remove
substances that are actually dissolved in the water such as phosphorus, nitrates and heavy metal
ions.
Slow sand filters
Sow "artfca" ftraton (a varaton of bank ftraton) to the ground, Water
purfcaton pant Kran, Czech Repubc
>low sand filters may be used where there is sufficient land and space as the water must be
passed very slowly through the filters. .hese filters rely on biological treatment processes for
their action rather than physical filtration. .he filters are carefully constructed using graded
layers of sand with the coarsest sand, along with some gravel, at the bottom and finest sand at the
top. ,rains at the base convey treated water away for disinfection. Diltration depends on the
development of a thin biological layer, called the oogleal layer or >chmutdecke, on the surface
of the filter. +n effective slow sand filter may remain in service for many weeks or even months
if the pre!treatment is well designed and produces water with a very low available nutrient level
which physical methods of treatment rarely achieve. Bery low nutrient levels allow water to be
safely sent through distribution system with very low disinfectant levels thereby reducing
consumer irritation over offensive levels of chlorine and chlorine by!products. >low sand filters
are not backwashedH they are maintained by having the top layer of sand scraped off when flow
is eventually obstructed by biological growth.
"citation needed$
+ specific 4large!scale4 form of slow sand filter is the process of bank filtration, in which natural
sediments in a riverbank are used to provide a first stage of contaminant filtration. =hile
typically not clean enough to be used directly for drinking water, the water gained from the
associated e&traction wells is much less problematic than river water taken directly from the
major streams where bank filtration is often used.
"emo#al of ions and other dissol#ed substances
Altrafiltration membranes use polymer membranes with chemically formed microscopic pores
that can be used to filter out dissolved substances avoiding the use of coagulants. .he type of
membrane media determines how much pressure is needed to drive the water through and what
sies of micro!organisms can be filtered out.
Ion e&changeP
"'$"($")$"*$"6$
Ion e&change systems use ion e&change resin! or eolite!packed columns
to replace unwanted ions. .he most common case is water softening consisting of removal of
-a
%X
and 7g
%X
ions replacing them with benign (soap friendly) ?a
X
or F
X
ions. Ion e&change
resins are also used to remove to&ic ions such as nitrate, nitrite, lead, mercury, arsenic and many
others.
ElectrodeioniationP
"6$"'$
=ater is passed between a positive electrode and a negative electrode.
Ion e&change membranes allow only positive ions to migrate from the treated water toward the
negative electrode and only negative ions toward the positive electrode. 1igh purity deionied
water is produced with a little worse degree of purification in comparison with ion e&change
treatment. -omplete removal of ions from water is regarded as electrodialysis. .he water is often
pre!treated with a reverse osmosis unit to remove non!ionic organic contaminants.
$ther mechanical and biological techni%ues
See also: Greywater and Ecological sanitation
In addition to the many techni0ues used in large!scale water treatment, several small!scale, less
(or non)!polluting techni0ues are also being used to treat polluted water. .hese techni0ues
include those based on mechanical and biological processes. +n overviewP
mechanca systems: sand ftraton, ava fter systems and systems based on
UV-radaton)
boogca systems:
o pant systems as constructed wetands and treatment ponds
(sometmes ncorrecty caed reedbeds and vng was) and
o compact systems as actvated sudge systems, borotors, aerobc
bofters and anaerobc bofters, submerged aerated fters, and
boros
|8|

In order to purify the water ade0uately, several of these systems are usually combined to work as
a whole. -ombination of the systems is done in two to three stages, namely primary and
secondary purification. >ometimes tertiary purification is also added.
Di"ine!tion
,isinfection is accomplished both by filtering out harmful microbes and also by adding
disinfectant chemicals in the last step in purifying drinking water. =ater is disinfected to kill any
pathogens which pass through the filters. @ossible pathogens include viruses, bacteria, including
Escherichia coli, Campylobacter and Shigella, and protooa, including "iardia lamblia and
other cryptosporidia. In most developed countries, public water supplies are re0uired to maintain
a residual disinfecting agent throughout the distribution system, in which water may remain for
days before reaching the consumer. Dollowing the introduction of any chemical disinfecting
agent, the water is usually held in temporary storage L often called a contact tank or clear well to
allow the disinfecting action to complete.
Chlorine disinfection
Main article: Chlorination
.he most common disinfection method involves some form of chlorine or its compounds such as
chloramine or chlorine dio&ide. -hlorine is a strong o&idant that rapidly kills many harmful
micro!organisms. 3ecause chlorine is a to&ic gas, there is a danger of a release associated with
its use. .his problem is avoided by the use of sodium hypochlorite, which is a relatively
ine&pensive solution that releases free chlorine when dissolved in water. -hlorine solutions can
be generated on site by electrolying common salt solutions. + solid form, calcium hypochlorite
e&ists that releases chlorine on contact with water. 1andling the solid, however, re0uires greater
routine human contact through opening bags and pouring than the use of gas cylinders or bleach
which are more easily automated. .he generation of li0uid sodium hypochlorite is both
ine&pensive and safer than the use of gas or solid chlorine. +ll forms of chlorine are widely used
despite their respective drawbacks. <ne drawback is that chlorine from any source reacts with
natural organic compounds in the water to form potentially harmful chemical by!products
trihalomethanes (.17s) and haloacetic acids (1++s), both of which are carcinogenic in large
0uantities and regulated by the Anited >tates Environmental @rotection +gency (E@+) and the
,rinking =ater Inspectorate in the AF. .he formation of .17s and haloacetic acids may be
minimied by effective removal of as many organics from the water as possible prior to chlorine
addition. +lthough chlorine is effective in killing bacteria, it has limited effectiveness against
protooa that form cysts in water ("iardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium, both of which are
pathogenic).
*)lorine #io1i#e #i"ine!tion
-hlorine dio&ide is a faster!acting disinfectant than elemental chlorine, however it is relatively
rarely used, because in some circumstances it may create e&cessive amounts of chlorite, which is
a by!product regulated to low allowable levels in the Anited >tates. -hlorine dio&ide is supplied
as an a0ueous solution and added to water to avoid gas handling problemsH chlorine dio&ide gas
accumulations may spontaneously detonate.
*)loramine #i"ine!tion
.he use of chloramine is becoming more common as a disinfectant. +lthough chloramine is not
as strong an o&idant, it does provide a longer!lasting residual than free chlorine and it won4t form
.17s or haloacetic acids. It is possible to convert chlorine to chloramine by adding ammonia to
the water after addition of chlorine. .he chlorine and ammonia react to form chloramine. =ater
distribution systems disinfected with chloramines may e&perience nitrification, as ammonia is a
nutrient for bacterial growth, with nitrates being generated as a by!product.
] $zone disinfection
<
'
is an unstable molecule which readily gives up one atom of o&ygen providing a powerful
o&idiing agent which is to&ic to most waterborne organisms. It is a very strong, broad spectrum
disinfectant that is widely used in Europe. It is an effective method to inactivate harmful
protooa that form cysts. It also works well against almost all other pathogens. <one is made by
passing o&ygen through ultraviolet light or a /cold/ electrical discharge. .o use oone as a
disinfectant, it must be created on!site and added to the water by bubble contact. >ome of the
advantages of oone include the production of fewer dangerous by!products (in comparison to
chlorination) and the lack of taste and odour produced by oonisation. +lthough fewer by!
products are formed by oonation, it has been discovered that the use of oone produces a small
amount of the suspected carcinogen bromate, although little bromine should be present in treated
water. +nother of the main disadvantages of oone is that it leaves no disinfectant residual in the
water. <one has been used in drinking water plants since #95* where the first industrial
oonation plant was built in ?ice, Drance. .he A.>. Dood and ,rug +dministration has accepted
oone as being safeH and it is applied as an anti!microbiological agent for the treatment, storage,
and processing of foods.
Ultra#iolet disinfection
Altraviolet light is very effective at inactivating cysts, in low turbidity water. AB light4s
disinfection effectiveness decreases as turbidity increases, a result of the absorption, scattering,
and shadowing caused by the suspended solids. .he main disadvantage to the use of AB
radiation is that, like oone treatment, it leaves no residual disinfectant in the waterH therefore, it
is sometimes necessary to add a residual disinfectant after the primary disinfection process. .his
is often done through the addition of chloramines, discussed above as a primary disinfectant.
=hen used in this manner, chloramines provide an effective residual disinfectant with very few
of the negative aspects of chlorination.
ydrogen pero&ide disinfection
=orks in a similar way to oone. +ctivators such as formic acid are often added to increase the
efficacy of disinfection. It has the disadvantages that it is slow!working, phytoto&ic in high
dosage, and decreases the p1 of the water it purifies.
'arious portable methods of disinfection
+vailable for disinfection in emergencies or in remote locations. ,isinfection is the primary
goal, since aesthetic considerations such as taste, odour, appearance, and trace chemical
contamination do not affect the short!term safety of drinking water.
Solar water disinfection
<ne low!cost method of disinfecting water that can often be implemented with locally available
materials is solar disinfection (><,I>).
"9$"#5$"##$"#%$
Anlike methods that rely on firewood, it has
low impact on the environment.
<ne recent study has found that the wild >almonella which would reproduce 0uickly during
subse0uent dark storage of solar!disinfected water could be controlled by the addition of just #5
parts per million of hydrogen pero&ide.
"#'$
A##itional treatment option"
1. Water fuordaton : n many areas fuorde s added to water wth the goa of
preventng tooth decay.
|14|
Fuorde s usuay added after the dsnfecton
process. In the U.S., fuordaton s usuay accompshed by the addton of
hexafuoroscc acd,
|15|
whch decomposes n water, yedng fuorde ons.
|16|

2. Water condtonng: Ths s a method of reducng the effects of hard water.
Hardness sats are deposted n water systems sub|ect to heatng because the
decomposton of bcarbonate ons creates carbonate ons that crystase out
of the saturated souton of cacum or magnesum carbonate. Water wth
hgh concentratons of hardness sats can be treated wth soda ash (sodum
carbonate) whch precptates out the excess sats, through the common-on
effect, producng cacum carbonate of very hgh purty. The precptated
cacum carbonate s tradtonay sod to the manufacturers of toothpaste.
Severa other methods of ndustra and resdenta water treatment are
camed (wthout genera scentfc acceptance) to ncude the use of
magnetc or/and eectrca feds reducng the effects of hard water.
|citation needed|

3. Pumbosovency reducton: In areas wth naturay acdc waters of ow
conductvty (.e. surface ranfa n upand mountans of gneous rocks), the
water may be capabe of dssovng ead from any ead ppes that t s carred
n. The addton of sma quanttes of phosphate on and ncreasng the pH
sghty both assst n greaty reducng pumbo-sovency by creatng nsoube
ead sats on the nner surfaces of the ppes.
4. Radum Remova: Some groundwater sources contan radum, a radoactve
chemca eement. Typca sources ncude many groundwater sources north
of the Inos Rver n Inos. Radum can be removed by on exchange, or by
water condtonng. The back fush or sudge that s produced s, however, a
ow-eve radoactve waste.
5. Fuorde Remova: Athough fuorde s added to water n many areas, some
areas of the word have excessve eves of natura fuorde n the source
water. Excessve eves can be toxc or cause undesrabe cosmetc effects
such as stanng of teeth. Methods of reducng fuorde eves s through
treatment wth actvated aumna and bone char fter meda.
Ot)er &ater p$rii!ation te!)ni'$e"
<ther popular methods for purifying water, especially for local private supplies are listed below.
In some countries some of these methods are also used for large scale municipal supplies.
@articularly important are distillation (de!salination of seawater) and reverse osmosis.
1. Bong : Water s heated hot enough and ong enough to nactvate or k
mcro-organsms that normay ve n water at room temperature. Near sea
eve, a vgorous rong bo for at east one mnute s suffcent. At hgh
attudes (greater than two kometres or 5000 feet) three mnutes s
recommended.
|17|
In areas where the water s "hard" (that s, contanng
sgnfcant dssoved cacum sats), bong decomposes the bcarbonate ons,
resutng n parta precptaton as cacum carbonate. Ths s the "fur" that
buds up on kette eements, etc., n hard water areas. Wth the excepton of
cacum, bong does not remove soutes of hgher bong pont than water
and n fact ncreases ther concentraton (due to some water beng ost as
vapour). Bong does not eave a resdua dsnfectant n the water. Therefore,
water that has been boed and then stored for any ength of tme may have
acqured new pathogens.
2. Granuar Actvated Carbon fterng: a form of actvated carbon wth a hgh
surface area, adsorbs many compounds ncudng many toxc compounds.
Water passng through actvated carbon s commony used n muncpa
regons wth organc contamnaton, taste or odors. Many househod water
fters and fsh tanks use actvated carbon fters to further purfy the water.
Househod fters for drnkng water sometmes contan sver as metac
sver nanopartce. f water s hed n the carbon bock for onger perod,
mcroorgansms can grow nsde whch resuts n foung and contamnaton.
Sver nanopartces are exceent ant-bactera matera and they can
decompose toxc hao-organc compounds such as pestcdes nto non-toxc
organc products
|18|
.
3. Dstaton nvoves bong the water to produce water vapour. The vapour
contacts a coo surface where t condenses as a qud. Because the soutes
are not normay vaporsed, they reman n the bong souton. Even
dstaton does not competey purfy water, because of contamnants wth
smar bong ponts and dropets of unvapoursed qud carred wth the
steam. However, 99.9% pure water can be obtaned by dstaton.
4. Reverse osmoss : Mechanca pressure s apped to an mpure souton to
force pure water through a sem-permeabe membrane. Reverse osmoss s
theoretcay the most thorough method of arge scae water purfcaton
avaabe, athough perfect sem-permeabe membranes are dffcut to
create. Uness membranes are we-mantaned, agae and other fe forms
can coonze the membranes.
5. The use of ron n removng arsenc from water. See Arsenc contamnaton of
groundwater.
6. Drect contact membrane dstaton (DCMD). Appcabe to desanaton.
Heated seawater s passed aong the surface of a hydrophobc poymer
membrane. Evaporated water passes from the hot sde through pores n the
membrane nto a stream of cod pure water on the other sde. The dfference
n vapour pressure between the hot and cod sde heps to push water
moecues through.
7. Gas hydrate crystas centrfuge method. If carbon doxde gas s mxed wth
contamnated water at hgh pressure and ow temperature, gas hydrate
crystas w contan ony cean water. Ths s because the water moecues
bnd to the gas moecues at moecuar eve. The contamnated water s n
qud form. A centrfuge may be used to separate the crystas and the
concentrated contamnated water.
8. In Stu Chemca Oxdaton , a form of advanced oxdaton processes and
advanced oxdaton technoogy, s an envronmenta remedaton technque
used for so and/or groundwater remedaton to reduce the concentratons of
targeted envronmenta contamnants to acceptabe eves. ISCO s
accompshed by n|ectng or otherwse ntroducng strong chemca oxdzers
drecty nto the contamnated medum (so or groundwater) to destroy
chemca contamnants n pace. It can be used to remedate a varety of
organc compounds, ncudng some that are resstant to natura degradaton.
+%#rogen pro#$!tion
Dor the small scale production of hydrogen, water purifiers are installed to prevent formation of
minerals on the surface of the electrodes and to remove organics and chlorine from utility water.
Dirst, the water passes through a %5 micrometre interference (mesh or screen filter) filter to
remove sand and dust particles, then a charcoal filter using activated carbon to remove organics
and chlorine and finally a de!ioniing filter to remove metallic ions. .esting can be done before
and after the filter to verify the proper removal of barium, calcium, potassium, magnesium,
sodium and silica.
+nother method that is used is reverse osmosis.
B?IT2 IN "5N"?6F5 +"TF4 T4F"TIF?T
Fnvironmental 6hemistry and "nalysis Prof. I.S.Subramanian
Indian Institute of Technology Iadras
Advanced Waste Water -reatment
Removal 1% /us$ended /olids
3.Iicrostraining
1. 6oagulation and flocculation
7. @iltration
8. Removal o% dissolved solids
5. Ion e*change
H. 4everse osmosis
<. Flectrodialysis
=. 4emoval of nitrogen
;. 'hos$hate removal Dchemical treatmentF
3:. 'hos$hate removal D&iological treatmentF
33. Removal o% dissolved organic com$ounds
3>. "dsorption
/7. Sludge treatment and disposal
/8. 5isinfection.
Fnvironmental 6hemistry and "nalysis Prof. I.S.Subramanian
Advanced Waste Water -reatment
The effluent from a typical secondary treatment plant still contains 1$28$ mg/& JK5
which may be ob,ectionable in some streams. Suspended solids, in addition to
contributing to JK5, may settle on the stream bed and inhibit certain forms of a-uatic
life. The JK5 if discharged into a stream with low flow, can cause damage to a-uatic
life by reducing the dissolved o*ygen content. In addition the secondary effluent
contains significant amounts of plant nutrients and dissolved solids. If the waste water is
of industrial origin, it may also contain traces of organic chemicals, heavy metals and
other contaminants.
5ifferent methods are used in advanced waste treatment to satisfy any of the several
specific goals, which include the removal of '/( suspended solids '1( JK5 '7( plant
nutrients '8( dissolved solids and '9( to*ic substances. These methods may be
introduced at any stage of the total treatment process as in the case of industrial
waterways or may be used for complete removal of pollutants after secondary
treatment.
Removal 1% /us$ended /olids)
This treatment implies the removal of those materials that have been carried over from
a secondary treatment settler. Iany methods were proposed of which two methods
were commonly used. The two methods are microstaining and chemical coagulation
followed by settling and mi*ed media filtration.
Fnvironmental 6hemistry and "nalysis
Microstraining)
It is a special type of filtration procedure which makes use of filters oven from stainless
steel wires with opening only H$2<$ Qm across to remove very small particles. Digh flow
rates and low back pressures are normally achieved.
Coagulation and %locculation)
The ob,ect of coagulation is to alter these particles in such a way as to allow them to
adhere to each other. Iost colloids of interest in water treatment remain suspended in
solution because they have a net negative surface charge that causes the particles to
repel each other. The intended action of the coagulant is to neutralise that charge,
allowing the particles to come together to form larger particles that can be more easily
removed from the raw water.
The usual coagulant is alum L"l1'SK8(1R /=D1K M, though @e6l7, @eSK8 and other
coagulants, such as polyelectrolytes, can be used. "lum when added to water, the
aluminium in this salt hydrolyses by reactions that consume alkalinity in the water such
as.
+-+++71H7711L"l'DK(M7D6K"l'KD('s(76KHDK..............(1)
The gelatinous hydro*ide thus formed carries suspended material with it as it settles. In
addition, however, it is likely that positively charged hydro*yl2bridged dimers such as
%
Fnvironmental 6hemistry and "nalysis
D0>1FCAl0110AlD0>1FCCG
and higher polymers are formed which interact specifically with colloidal particles,
bringing about coagulation. Ietal ions in coagulants also react with virus proteins and
destroy upto ;;> of the virus in water.
"nhydrous ion 'III( sulphate can also act as effective coagulant similar to aluminium
sulfate. "n advantage with iron 'III( sulfate it that it works over a wide range of pD.
(iltration)
If properly formed, the addition of chemicals for promoting coagulation and flocculation
can remove both suspended and colloidal solids. "fter the flocs are formed, the solution
is led to a settling tank where the flocs are allowed to settle. +hile most of the
flocculated material is removed in the settling tank, some floc do not settle. These flocs
are removed by the filtration process, which is usually carried out using beds of porous
media such as sand or coal. The current trend is to use a mi*ed 2media filter which
consists of fine garnet in the bottom layer, silica sand in the middle layer and coarse
coal in the top layer which reduces clogging.
Removal o% dissolved solids)
The dissolved solids are of both organic and inorganic types. " number of methods
have been investigated for the removal of inorganic constituents from
Indian Institute of Technology Iadras
waste water. Three methods which are finding wide application in advanced waste
treatment are ion2e*change, electrodialysis and reverse osmosis. @or the removal of
soluble organics from waste water the most commonly used method is adsorption on
activated carbon. Solvent e*traction is also used to recover certain organic chemicals
like phenol an d amines from industrial waste waters.
#on e*change)
This techni-ue has been used e*tensively to remove hardness, and iron and
manganese salts in drinking water supplies. It has also been used selectively to remove
specific impurities and to recover valuable trace metals like chromium, nickel, copper,
lead and cadmium from industrial waste discharges. The process takes advantage of
the ability of certain natural and synthetic materials to e*change one of their ions.
" number of naturally occuring minerals have ion e*change properties. "mong them the
notable ones are aluminium silicate minerals, which are called Ceolites. Synthetic
Ceolites have been prepared using solutions of sodium silicate and sodium aluminate.
"lternatively synthetic ion2e*change resins composed of organic polymer with attached
functional groups such as 'strongly acidic cation e*change resins(, or 2 6KK272SK D02
D0 'weakly acidic cation e*change resins or 2?0'6D7(7KD2 'strongly basic anion
e*change resins( can be used.
In the water softening process, the hardness producing elements such as calcium and
magnesium are replaced by sodium ions. " cation e*change resin in sodium form is
normally used. The water2softening capability of cation e*change can be seen when
sodium ion in the resin is e*changed for calcium ion in solution.
Fnvironmental 6hemistry and
Indian Institute of Technology Iadras
The product water thus has high sodium content, which is not likely to be troublesome
unless the original water is very hard. +hen the e*changer is saturated, it has to be
regenerated to allow reuse of e*pensive resin. 4egeneration can be achieved by
sodium chloride solution which removes 6a10 and Ig10 ions from the resin.
Since for regeneration large amounts of ?a6l has to be used, appreciable amounts of
sodium chloride can be introduced into sewage by this route. This problem can be
overcome by using weakly acidic cation e*change resin such 4es6KK2D0. These cation
e*changers having 26KKD as functional group are useful for removing alkalinity along
with hardness. "lkalinity is generally manifested by bicarbonate ion. This ion is
sufficiently basic to neutralise the acid of weak cation e*change. "nother advantage
with these resins is that these can be regenerated almost stoichiometrically with dilute
strong acid, thus avoiding pollution problem caused by e*cess ?a6l. This techni-ue has
also been successfully applied to the recovery of chromate from waste water in pigment
manufacturing.
The removal of inorganic solute is essential for complete water recycling. The effluent
from secondary waste treatment contains 7$$28$$ mg/& more dissolved inorganic
material than does municipal water. The removal of these bulk inorganics can be
efficiently done by reverse osmosis and electrodialysis .
Fnvironmental 6hemistry and "nalysis ProfIndian Institute of Technology Iadras
Reverse osmosis)
In the reverse osmosis process, demineralisation water is produced by forcing water
through semipermeable membranes at high pressure. In ordinary osmosis, if a vessel is
divided by a semipermeable membrane 'one that is permeable to water but not the
dissolved material(, and one compartment is filled with water and other with
concentrated salt solution, water diffused through the membrane towards the
compartment containing salt solution until the difference in water levels on the two sides
of the membrane creates a sufficient pressure to counteract the original water flow. The
difference in levels represents the osmotic pressure of the solution 'fig./a(. 'ure
water/altsolution(ig 3a 1smosismem&rane
The process can be reversed by applying sufficient pressure to the concentrated
solution to overcome the osmotic pressure force the net flow of water through the
membrane towards the dilute phase. The solute concentration 'impurity( builds up on
one side of the membrane while relatively pure water passes through the membrane . In
order to obtain ade-uate solvent 'water( flu* through the membrane, pressures of the
order of 8$$$ to <$$$ k?/m1 are re-uired. @ig./b represents the principle of operation of
the reverse osmosis unit.
emistry and "nalysis Prof.Indan Institute of Technology Iadras
'ressure mem&rane 'ure /alt water solution (ig 3& Reverse 1smosis
Electrodialysis)
Flectrodialysis uses ion2selective membranes and an electrical potential difference to
separate anions and cations in solution Electrode mem&rane $asses only ions
mem&rane $asses only ions Electrode deionised water salt solution
Electrodialysis cell
Fnvironmental 6hemistry and "nalysis Prof. I.S.Subramanian
Indian Institute of Technology Iadras
In the past electrodialysis was most often used for purifying brackish water, but it is now
finding a role in haCardous waste treatment. Ietal salts from plating rinses are
sometimes removed in this way.
@ig.1 shows a simple dialysis cell in which waste water may be deionised. "s shown in
the figure two types of membranes 'anionic and cationic( are arranged alternatively to
form many compartments between the electrodes placed at the two ends. +hen the
voltage is applied across the cell containing mineralised water, the anions migrate to the
positive electrode and the cations migrate to the negative electrode. This causes
solution in alternate compartments to become more concentrated while that in the
remaining becomes more dilute. The electric power re-uirement is proportional to the
number of ions removed from the water.
In the electrodialysis process, organic molecules are not removed and they can collect
on and clog the membranes. "nother disadvantage of this method is that it still leaves
concentrated waste water to be disposed of by some appropriate scheme. The process
does not re-uire any chemical additives and has low energy re-uirements and as such
it can be an economically feasible means of demineralisation.
Removal o% nitrogen)
?itrogen compounds may be removed in waste water in two ways. Fven after
secondary treatment, most of nitrogen e*ists as ammonia. Increasing the pD produces
the reaction,
87?DKD?DDK+-++1 ...............................................................() ;
Fnvironmental 6hemistry and "nalysis Prof. I.S.Subramanian
Indian Institute of Technology Iadras
Iuch of the dissolved ammonia gas may then be e*pelled from the water into the
atmosphere. The ammonium ion in the waste water may also be o*idised to nitrate by
bacteria like nitrobacter and nitrosomonas, in a process called nitrification.
nitrosomonas81111?D7K1?K1DK8D+-++++
7 -
1
............................(!)
nitrobacter111?KK1?K-+.......................................... ....... .....(")
These reactions are slow and re-uire long retention times in the aeration tank as well as
sufficient 5K. If the flow rate is too high, the slow2growing microorganisms are washed
out of the aeration tank.
Knce the ammonia has been o*idised to nitrate, it may be reduced by anaerobic
bacteria like pseudomonas. This denitrification re-uires a source of carbon and
methanol is often used for that purpose.
7711H?K16DKDH?K16K8DK--+++..................................(#) .......................($)
17111H?K76DKD7?76K7DKHKD--++++
'hos$hate removal Dchemical treatmentF)
Phosphate may be removed chemically or biologically. The most popular chemical
methods use lime, 6a'KD(1 and alum, "l1'SK8(7.Bnder alkaline conditions, the calcium
will combine with phosphate to form calcium hydro*yapatite, a white insoluble
precipitate that is settled out and removed from waste water. Insoluble calcium
carbonate is also formed and removed.
9
Fnvironmental 6hemistry and "nalysis Prof. I.S.Subramanian
Indian Institute of Technology Iadras
118987196a'KD(7DPK6aKD'PK(7DKHKD--+J++.................(%)
The aluminium ion from alum precipitates as very slightly soluble aluminium phosphate,
778"lPK"lPK+-+ 8J..................................................................(1&)
and also forms aluminium hydro*ide.
77"l7KD"l'KD(+-+ J................................................................(11)
which forms sticky flocs that help to settle out phosphates.
'hos$hate removal D&iological treatmentF
Jiological phosphorous removal does not re-uire the addition of chemicals. In this
process, the aeration tank in the activated sludge system is subdivided into Cones,
some of which are not aerated. In these Cones, the aerobic microorganisms become
solely stressed because of the lack of o*ygen. If these microorganisms are then
transferred to an aerated Cone, they try to make up for lost time and assimilate organic
matter 'as well as phosphorous( at a rate much higher than they ordinarily would. Knce
the microorganisms have adsorbed the phosphorous, they are removed as waste
activated sludge, thus carrying with them high concentrations of phosphorous. Bsing
such se-uencing of nonaerated and aerated Cones, it is possible to remove as much as
;$> of the phosphorous.
Removal o% dissolved organic com$ounds)
Adsor$tion) Kne of the most commonly used techni-ues for removing organics
involves #5
Fnvironmental 6hemistry and "nalysis Prof. I.S.Subramanian
Indian Institute of Technology Iadras
the process of adsorption, which is the physical adhesion of chemicals on to the surface
of the solid. The effectiveness of the adsorbent is directly related to the amount of
surface area available to attract the particles of contaminant. The most commonly used
adsorbent is a very porous matri* of granular activated carbon, which has an enormous
surface area 'S /$$$ m1/g(. "dsorption on activated carbon is perhaps the most
economical and technically attractive method available for removing soluble organics
such as phenols, chlorinated hydrocarbons, surfactants, and colour and odour
producing substances from waste water.
Granular activated carbon treatment systems consist of a series of large vessels
partially filled with adsorbent. 6ontaminated water enters the top of each vessel, trickles
down through granulated activated carbon, and is released at the bottom. "fter a period
of time, the carbon filter becomes clogged with adsorbed contaminants and must be
either replaced or regenerated. 4egeneration of the carbon is accomplished by heating
it to ;9$o6 in a steam air atmosphere. This process o*idises surface, with an
appro*imately /$> loss of carbon.
Synthetic organic polymers such as "mberlite T"528 have hydrophobic surfaces and
are -uite useful in removing relatively insoluble organic compounds such as chlorinated
pesticides. These absorbents are readily regenerated by solvents such as isopropanol
and acetone.
/ludge treatment and dis$osal)
Joth primary and secondary sewage treatments involve settling of particulate matter,
and thus produce sludge. The concentration of solids in the primary sewage sludge is
about 9>3 the activated sludge contains about />3 and the sludge from trickling filters
has about 1> solids. Thus the sludge is ##
Fnvironmental 6hemistry and "nalysis Prof. I.S.Subramanian
Indian Institute of Technology Iadras
composed of almost entirely of water and volume reduction is the key to economic
disposal. In addition to reducing its high water content, the sludge must be stabilised so
that its biological activity and tendency towards putrefaction are reduced drastically.
The sludge is concentrated by gravity settling and floatation. "fter concentration the
sludge is sub,ected to anaerobic digestion in a digester in which the organic content of
the sludge decomposes to give mainly methane and carbondio*ide and at the same
time the bound water is released from the sludge.
The sludge is then conditioned to improve its dewatering characteristics by adding
chemicals like iron salts and polyelectrolytes. These chemicals bind the sludge particles
together and encourage the release of water. The sludge is then heated under pressure
and after a period of time the gel structure of the sludge breaks down so that the water
is released. The thickened sludge is then dewatered for efficient handling and disposal.
The dewatering is accomplished by mechanical methods, the most common being
centrifugation and filtration. The dewatered sludge is then sub,ected to o*idation to
reduce the organic content, with the conse-uent destruction of bacteria and a significant
reduction in their volumes. Incineration and wet o*idation are the two common methods
employed for o*idation.
Several methods are employed for the ultimate disposal of sludge. The wet digested
sludge may be sprayed on to a cropland where it functions as fertiliser. 5ried sludge
may be used a land fill or soil conditioner. +et or partially dewatered sludge or ash from
incineration may be transported from the shore to dumping grounds at sea. The
potential drawback to the use of sewage sludge as fertiliser in agricultural fields is the
presence of both organic and inorganic to*ic #%ian
Indian Institute of Technology Iadras
compounds. The former compounds are o*idation2resistant organic substances, such
as organochlorine species which become bound in the organic matri* of the sludge. The
inorganic to*icants are represented by heavy metals, mainly arsenic, cadmium , lead,
mercury and Cinc. These metals can be taken up by crops and introduced into the food
chains or leached to the ground water.
Disin%ection)
5isinfection, using chemical and physical methods is the final step in drinking water
purification. The finished water is disinfected often with chlorine. It kills the remaining
microorganisms in the water, some of which will be pathogenic. It is a very efficient
o*idising, bleaching and disinfecting agent. In water chlorine reacts as follows.
The hypochlorous acid 'DK6l( is the prime disinfecting agent. Its dissociation in pD
dependent yielding less effective hypochlorite ions 'K6l2( at higher pD values.
Together, DK6l and K6l2 are called the free available chlorine.
" principal advantage of chlorination over other forms of disinfection is that a chlorine
residual is created that can protect the treated water after leaving the treatment plant.
This guards against possible contamination that might occur in water distribution
system. To increase the lifetime of the residual, some systems add ammonia to the
treated water, forming chloramines.
6hloramines, although they are less effective as o*idants than DK6l, are more
persistent. 4esidual chlorine that e*ists as chloramine is referred to as com&ined
availa&le chlorine.
6hlorine may have adverse secondary effects. It has the potential to combine with trace
amounts of organic substances to form trihalomethanes 'TDIs( such as the carcinogen
chloroform. Some studies have shown an association between bladder and rectal
cancer and consumption of chlorinated drinking water. Kne approach to reducing TDIs
is to remove more of the organics before any chlorination takes place, which can be
accomplished by adsorption on activated carbon.
The problem faced with the formation of TDIs has spurred interest in alternatives to
chlorination as the preferred method of disinfection. "lternative disinfectants include
chlorine dio*ide and oCone. 6hlorine dio*ide '6lK1( is a potent bactericide and viricide
and it does not form a residual capable of protecting water in the distribution system.
Dowever, there is concern for certain to*ic chlorate and chlorite substances that it may
create, and it is a very costly method of disinfection. KConation involves the passage of
oCone 'K7( through water.
KCone is a very powerful disinfectant that is even more effective against cysts and
viruses than chlorine, and it has the added advantage of having no Institutaste or odour
problems. Bnfortunately, the disincentive power of oCone is limited by its relatively low
solubility in water.
UNIT-I5 AD5AN*ED WATER TREATMENT
INTRODU*TION
+eration is a unit process in which air and water are brought into intimate contact. .urbulence
increases the aeration of flowing streams (Digure (!#). In industrial processes, water flow is
usually directed countercurrent to atmospheric or forced!draft air flow. .he contact time and the
ratio of air to water must be sufficient for effective removal of the unwanted gas.
+eration as a water treatment practice is used for the following operationsP
carbon dio&ide reduction (decarbonation)
o&idation of iron and manganese found in many well waters (o&idation tower)
ammonia and hydrogen sulfide reduction (stripping)
+eration is also an effective method of bacteria control.

MET+ODS OF AERATION

.wo general methods may be used for the aeration of water. .he most common in industrial use
is the water!fall aerator. .hrough the use of spray noles, the water is broken up into small
droplets or a thin film to enhance countercurrent air contact.
In the air diffusion method of aeration, air is diffused into a receiving vessel containing counter!
current flowing water, creating very small air bubbles. .his ensures good air!water contact for
/scrubbing/ of undesirable gases from the water.
Water-Fall Aerator"
7any variations of the water!fall principle are used for this type of aeration. .he simplest
configuration employs a vertical riser that discharges water by free fall into a basin (Digure (!%).
.he riser usually operates on the available head of water. .he efficiency of aeration is improved
as the fall distance is increased. +lso, steps or shelves may be added to break up the fall and
spread the water into thin sheets or films, which increases contact time and aeration efficiency.
-oke tray and wood or plastic slat water!fall aerators are relatively similar in design and have
the advantage of small space re0uirements.
-oke tray aerators are widely used in iron and manganese o&idation because a catalytic effect is
secured by contact of the iron/manganese!bearing water with fresh precipitates. .hese units
consist of a series of coke!filled trays through which the water percolates, with additional
aeration obtained during the free fall from one tray to the ne&t.
=ood or plastic slat tray aerators are similar to small atmospheric cooling towers. .he tray slats
are staggered to break up the free fall of the water and create thin films before the water finally
drops into the basin.
Dorced draft water!fall aerators (see Digure (!') are used for many industrial water conditioning
purposes. 1oriontal wood or plastic slat trays, or towers filled with packing of various shapes
and materials, are designed to ma&imie disruption of the falling water into small streams for
greater air!water contact. +ir is forced through the unit by a blower which produces uniform air
distribution across the entire cross section, cross current or countercurrent to the fall of the
water. 3ecause of these features, forced draft aerators are more efficient for gas removal and
re0uire less space for a given capacity.
Air Di$"ion Aerator"
+ir diffusion systems aerate by pumping air into water through perforated pipes, strainers,
porous plates, or tubes. +eration by diffusion is theoretically superior to water!fall aeration
because a fine bubble of air rising through water is continually e&posed to fresh li0uid surfaces,
providing ma&imum water surface per unit volume of air. +lso, the velocity of bubbles
ascending through the water is much lower than the velocity of free!falling drops of water,
providing a longer contact time. Createst efficiency is achieved when water flow is
countercurrent to the rising air bubbles.
APPLI*ATIONS

In industrial water conditioning, one of the major objectives of aeration is to remove carbon
dio&ide. +eration is also used to o&idie soluble iron and manganese (found in many well
waters) to insoluble precipitates. +eration is often used to reduce the carbon dio&ide liberated by
a treatment process. Dor e&ample, acid may be fed to the effluent of sodium eolite softeners for
boiler alkalinity control. -arbon dio&ide is produced as a result of the acid treatment, and
aeration is employed to rid the water of this corrosive gas. >imilarly, when the effluents of
hydrogen and sodium eolite units are blended, the carbon dio&ide formed is removed by
aeration.
In the case of cold lime softening, carbon dio&ide may be removed from the water before the
water enters the e0uipment. =hen carbon dio&ide removal is the only objective, economics
usually favor removal of high concentrations of carbon dio&ide by aeration rather than by
chemical precipitation with lime.
+ir stripping may be used to reduce concentrations of volatile organics, such as chloroform, as
well as dissolved gases, such as hydrogen sulfide and ammonia. +ir pollution standards must be
considered when air stripping is used to reduce volatile organic compounds.
Iron an# Mangane"e Removal
Iron and manganese in well waters occur as soluble ferrous and manganous bicarbonates. In the
aeration process, the water is saturated with o&ygen to promote the following reactionsP
(De(1-<
'
)
%
X <
%
X %1
%
< Z (De(<1)
'
!
X ;-<
%
ferrous bicarbonate o&ygen water ferric
hydro&ide
carbon
dio&ide
%7n(1-<
'
)
%
X <
%
Z %7n<
%
X (-<
%

!
X %1
%
<
manganese
bicarbonate
o&ygen manganese
dio&ide
carbon
dio&ide
water
.he o&idation products, ferric hydro&ide and manganese dio&ide, are insoluble. +fter aeration,
they are removed by clarification or filtration.
<ccasionally, strong chemical o&idants such as chlorine (-l
%
) or potassium permanganate
(F7n<
(
) may be used following aeration to ensure complete o&idation.
Di""olve# Ga" Re#$!tion
Cases dissolved in water follow the principle that the solubility of a gas in a li0uid (water) is
directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas above the li0uid at e0uilibrium. .his is
known as 1enry4s 8aw and may be e&pressed as followsP
-
total
Z k@

where

-
total
Z total concentration of the gas in solution
@ Z partial pressure of the gas above the solution
k Z a proportionality constant known as 1enry4s 8aw -onstant
1owever, the gases fre0uently encountered in water treatment (with the e&ception of o&ygen) do
not behave in accordance with 1enry4s 8aw because they ionie when dissolved in water. Dor
e&ampleP
1
%
< X -<
%
] ^ 1
X
X 1-<
'
!
water carbon
dio&ide
hydrogen
ion
bicarbonate ion
1
%
> ] 1
X
X 1>
!
hydrogen
sulfide
hydrogen ion hydrosulfide ion
1
%
< X ?1
'
] ?1
(
X
X <1
!
water ammonia ammonium
ion
hydro&ide
ion
-arbon dio&ide, hydrogen sulfide, and ammonia are soluble in water under certain conditions to
the e&tent of #,655, ',955, and )'#,555 ppm, respectively. 2arely are these concentrations
encountered e&cept in certain process condensates. In a normal atmosphere, the partial pressure
of each of these gases is practically ero. -onse0uently, the establishment of a state of
e0uilibrium between water and air by means of aeration results in saturation of the water with
nitrogen and o&ygen and nearly complete removal of other gases.
+s the e0uations above show, ioniation of the gases in water is a reversible reaction. .he
common ion effect may be used to obtain almost complete removal of these gases by aeration. If
the concentration of one of the ions on the right side of the e0uation is increased, the reaction is
driven to the left, forming the gas. In the case of carbon dio&ide and hydrogen sulfide, hydrogen
ion concentration may be increased by the addition of an acid. 3icarbonate and carbonate ions
in the water will form carbon dio&ide, which can be removed by aeration.
In a similar manner, an increase in hydro&yl ion concentration through the addition of caustic
soda aids in the removal of ammonia.
Digures (!(, (!), and (!* show the percentage of gas removal that may be obtained at various
p1 levels.
Cas removal by aeration is achieved as the level of gas in the water approaches e0uilibrium with
the level of the gas in the surrounding atmosphere. .he process is improved by an increase in
temperature, aeration time, the volume of air in contact with the water, and the surface area of
water e&posed to the air. +s previously indicated, p1 is an important consideration. .he
efficiency of aeration is greater where the concentration of the gas to be removed is high in the
water and low in the atmosphere.
LIMITATIONS

.emperature significantly affects the efficiency of air stripping processes. .herefore, these
processes may not be suitable for use in colder climates. .heoretically, at *;_D the carbon
dio&ide content of the water can be reduced to 5.) ppm by aeration to e0uilibrium conditions.
.his is not always practical from an economic standpoint, and reduction of carbon dio&ide to #5
ppm is normally considered satisfactory.
+lthough removal of free carbon dio&ide increases the p1 of the water and renders it less
corrosive from this standpoint, aeration also results in the saturation of water with dissolved
o&ygen. .his does not generally present a problem when original o&ygen content is already
high. 1owever, in the case of a well water supply that is high in carbon dio&ide but devoid of
o&ygen, aeration simply e&changes one corrosive gas for another.
.he efficiency of aeration increases as the initial concentration of the gas to be removed
increases above its e0uilibrium value. .herefore, with waters containing only a small amount of
carbon dio&ide, neutraliation by alkali addition is usually more cost!effective.
.he complete removal of hydrogen sulfide must be combined with p1 reduction or chemical
o&idation.
?onvolatile organic compounds cannot be removed by air stripping. Dor e&ample, phenols and
creosols are unaffected by the aeration process alone.
>uspended matter in raw water supplies is removed by various methods to provide a water
suitable for domestic purposes and most industrial re0uirements. .he suspended matter can
consist of large solids, settable by gravity alone without any e&ternal aids, and nonsettleable
material, often colloidal in nature. 2emoval is generally accomplished by coagulation,
flocculation, and sedimentation. .he combination of these three processes is referred to as
conventional clarification.
-oagulation is the process of destabiliation by charge neutraliation. <nce neutralied,
particles no longer repel each other and can be brought together. -oagulation is necessary for
the removal of the colloidal!sied suspended matter.
Dlocculation is the process of bringing together the destabilied, or /coagulated,/ particles to
form a larger agglomeration, or /floc./
>edimentation refers to the physical removal from suspension, or settling, that occurs once the
particles have been coagulated and flocculated. >edimentation or subsidence alone, without
prior coagulation, results in the removal of only relatively coarse suspended solids.
Step" o *larii!ation
Dinely divided particles suspended in surface water repel each other because most of the
surfaces are negatively charged. .he following steps in clarification are necessary for particle
agglomerationP
Coagulation. -oagulation can be accomplished through the addition of inorganic salts of
aluminum or iron. .hese inorganic salts neutralie the charge on the particles causing raw
water turbidity, and also hydrolye to form insoluble precipitates, which entrap particles.
-oagulation can also be effected by the addition of water!soluble organic polymers with
numerous ionied sites for particle charge neutraliation.
#locculation. Dlocculation, the agglomeration of destabilied particles into large
particles, can be enhanced by the addition of high!molecular!weight, water!soluble
organic polymers. .hese polymers increase floc sie by charged site binding and by
molecular bridging.
.herefore, coagulation involves neutraliing charged particles to destabilie suspended solids.
In most clarification processes, a flocculation step then follows. Dlocculation starts when
neutralied or entrapped particles begin to collide and fuse to form larger particles. .his process
can occur naturally or can be enhanced by the addition of polymeric flocculant aids.
Inorgani! *oag$lant"
.able )!# lists a number of common inorganic coagulants. .ypical iron and aluminum
coagulants are acid salts that lower the p1 of the treated water by hydrolysis. ,epending on
initial raw water alkalinity and p1, an alkali such as lime or caustic must be added to counteract
the p1 depression of the primary coagulant. Iron and aluminum hydrolysis products play a
significant role in the coagulation process, especially in cases where low!turbidity influent
waters benefit from the presence of additional collision surface areas.
Table 5-1. Common inorganic coagulants
Name
T%pi!al
Form$la
T%pi!al
Strengt)
T%pi!al Form"
U"e# in Water
Treatment Den"it% T%pi!al U"e"
+luminum
sulfate
+l
%
(><
(
)
'
8
#( to #; 1
%
<
#6E +l%<' lump, granular,
or powder
*5!65 lb/ft
'
primary coagulant
+lum ;.%)E +l%<' li0uid ##.# lb/gal
+luminum
chloride
+l-l
'
8*1
%
< ')E +l-l
'
li0uid #%.) lb/gal primary coagulant
Derric
sulfate
De
%
(><
(
)
'
891
%
< *;E
De
%
(><
(
)
'
granular 65!6% lb/ft
'
primary coagulant
Derric!floc De
%
(><
(
)
'
891
%
< (#E
De
%
(><
(
)
'
solution #%.' lb/gal primary coagulant
Derric
chloride
De-l
'
*5E De-l
'
,
')!()E
De-l
'
crystal, solution *5!*( lb/ft
'
##.%!#%.(
lb/gal
primary coagulant
>odium
aluminate
?a
%
+l
%
<
(
';!(*E
?a
%
+l
%
<
(
li0uid #%.'!#%.9
lb/gal
primary coagulantH
cold/hot
precipitation
softening
Bariation in p1 affects particle surface charge and floc precipitation during coagulation. Iron
and aluminum hydro&ide flocs are best precipitated at p1 levels that minimie the coagulant
solubility. 1owever, the best clarification performance may not always coincide with the
optimum p1 for hydro&ide floc formation. +lso, the iron and aluminum hydro&ide flocs
increase volume re0uirements for the disposal of settled sludge.
=ith aluminum sulfate, optimum coagulation efficiency and minimum floc solubility normally
occur at p1 *.5 to 6.5. Iron coagulants can be used successfully over the much broader p1 range
of ).5 to ##.5. If ferrous compounds are used, o&idation to ferric iron is needed for complete
precipitation. .his may re0uire either chlorine addition or p1 adjustment. .he chemical
reactions between the water4s alkalinity (natural or supplemented) and aluminum or iron result
in the formation of the hydro&ide coagulant as in the followingP
+l
%
(><
(
)
'
X *?a1-<
'
Z %+l(<1)
'
!
X '?a
%
><
(
X *-<
%
aluminum
sulfate
sodium
bicarbonate
aluminum
hydro&ide
sodium
sulfate
carbon
dio&ide
De
%
(><
(
)
'
X *?a1-<
'
Z %De(<1)
'
!
X '?a
%
><
(
X *-<
%
ferric
sulfate
sodium
bicarbonate
ferric
hydro&ide
sodium
sulfate
carbon
dio&ide
?a
%
+l
%
<
(
X (1
%
< Z %+l(<1)
'
!
X %?a<1
sodium
aluminate
water
aluminum
hydro&ide
sodium
hydro&ide
Pol%ele!trol%te"
.he term polyelectrolytes refers to all water!soluble organic polymers used for clarification,
whether they function as coagulants or flocculants.
=ater!soluble polymers may be classified as followsP
anionic!ionie in water solution to form negatively charged sites along the polymer chain
cationic!ionie in water solution to form positively charged sites along the polymer chain
nonionic!ionie in water solution to form very slight negatively charged sites along the
polymer chain
@olymeric primary coagulants are cationic materials with relatively low molecular weights
(under )55,555). .he cationic charge density (available positively charged sites) is very high.
@olymeric flocculants or coagulant aids may be anionic, cationic, or nonionic. .heir molecular
weights may be as high as )5,555,555. .able )!% describes some typical organic
polyelectrolytes.
Dor any given particle there is an ideal molecular weight and an ideal charge density for
optimum coagulation. .here is also an optimum charge density and molecular weight for the
most efficient flocculant.
3ecause suspensions are normally nonuniform, specific testing is necessary to find the
coagulants and flocculants with the broadest range of performance.
Primar% *oag$lant Pol%ele!trol%te"
.he cationic polyelectrolytes commonly used as primary coagulants are polyamines and poly!
(,+,7+->). .hey e&hibit strong cationic ioniation and typically have molecular weights of
less than )55,555. =hen used as primary coagulants, they adsorb on particle surfaces, reducing
the repelling negative charges. .hese polymers may also bridge, to some e&tent, from one
particle to another but are not particularly effective flocculants. .he use of polyelectrolytes
permits water clarification without the precipitation of additional hydro&ide solids formed by
inorganic coagulants. .he p1 of the treated water is unaffected.
.he efficiency of primary coagulant poly!electrolytes depends greatly on the nature of the
turbidity particles to be coagulated, the amount of turbidity present, and the mi&ing or reaction
energies available during coagulation. =ith lower influent turbidities, more turbulence or
mi&ing is re0uired to achieve ma&imum charge neutraliation.
2aw waters of less than #5 ?.A (?ephelometric .urbidity Anits) usually cannot be clarified
with a cationic polymer alone. 3est results are obtained by a combination of an inorganic salt
and cationic polymer. In!line clarification should be considered for raw waters with low
turbidities.
Cenerally, waters containing #5 to *5 ?.A are most effectively treated with an inorganic
coagulant and cationic polymer. In most cases, a significant portion of the inorganic coagulant
demand can be met with the cationic polyelectrolyte. =ith turbidity greater than *5 ?.A, a
polymeric primary coagulant alone is normally sufficient.
In low!turbidity waters where it is desirable to avoid using an inorganic coagulant, artificial
turbidity can be added to build floc. 3entonite clay is used to increase surface area for
adsorption and entrapment of finely divided turbidity. + polymeric coagulant is then added to
complete the coagulation process.
.he use of organic polymers offers several advantages over the use of inorganic coagulantsP
$he amount of sludge produced during clarification can be reduced by %&'(&). .he
appro&imate dry weight of solids removed per pound of dry alum and ferric sulfate are
appro&imately 5.%) and 5.) lb, respectively.
$he resulting sludge contains less chemically bound water and can be more easily
dewatered.
*olymeric coagulants do not affect p+. .herefore, the need for supplemental alkalinity,
such as lime, caustic, or soda ash, is reduced or eliminated.
*olymeric coagulants do not add to the total dissolved solids concentration. Dor e&ample,
# ppm of alum adds 5.() ppm of sulfate ion (e&pressed as -a-<'). .he reduction in
sulfate can significantly e&tend the capacity of anion e&change systems.
Soluble iron or aluminum carryover in the clarifier effluent may result from inorganic
coagulant use. .herefore, elimination of the inorganic coagulant can minimie the
deposition of these metals in filters, ion e&change units, and cooling systems.
*oag$lant Ai#" 9Flo!!$lant":
In certain instances, an e&cess of primary coagulant (whether inorganic, polymeric, or a
combination of both) may be fed to promote large floc sie and to increase settling rate.
1owever, in some waters, even high doses of primary coagulant will not produce the desired
effluent clarity. + polymeric coagulant aid added after the primary coagulant may, by
developing a larger floc at low treatment levels, reduce the amount of primary coagulant
re0uired.
Cenerally, very high!molecular!weight, anionic polyacrylamides are the most effective
coagulant aids. ?onionic or cationic types have proven successful in some clarifier systems.
Essentially, the polymer bridges the small floc particles and causes them to agglomerate rapidly
into larger, more cohesive flocs that settle 0uickly. .he higher!molecular!weight polymers
bridge suspended solids most effectively.
-oagulant aids have proven 0uite successful in precipitation softening and clarification to
achieve improved settling rates of precipitates and finished water clarity.
*olor Re#$!tion
Dre0uently, the objective of clarification is the re!duction of color. >wamps and wetlands
introduce color into surface waters, particularly after heavy rainfalls. -olor!causing materials
can cause various problems, such as objectionable taste, increased microbiological content,
fouling of anion e&change resins, and interference with coagulation and stabiliation of silt,
soluble iron, and manganese.
7ost organic color in surface waters is colloidal and negatively charged. -hemically, color!
producing compounds are classified as humic and fulvic acids. -olor can be removed by
chlorination and coagulation with aluminum or iron salts or organic polyelectrolytes. -hlorine
o&idies color compounds, while the inorganic coagulants can physically remove many types of
organic color by neutraliation of surface charges. .he use of chlorine to o&idie organic color
bodies may be limited due to the production of chlorinated organic by!products, such as
trihalomethanes. +dditional color removal is achieved by chemical interaction with aluminum
or iron hydrolysis products. 1ighly charged cationic organic polyelectrolytes can also be used to
coagulate some types of color particles.
-oagulation for color reduction is normally carried out at p1 (.) to ).). <ptimum p1 for
turbidity removal is usually much higher than that for color reduction. .he presence of sulfate
ions can interfere with coagulation for color reduction, whereas calcium and magnesium ions
can improve the process and broaden the p1 range in which color may be reduced effectively.
*onventional *larii!ation E'$ipment
.he coagulation/flocculation and sedimentation process re0uires three distinct unit processesP
high shear, rapid mi& for coagulation
low shear, high retention time, moderate mi&ing for flocculation
li0uid and solids separation
+ori;ontal Flo& *lariier"
<riginally, conventional clarification units consisted of large, rectangular, concrete basins
divided into two or three sections. Each stage of the clarification process occurred in a single
section of the basin. =ater movement was horiontal with plug flow through these systems.
3ecause the design is suited to large!capacity basins, horiontal flow units are still used in some
large industrial plants and for clarifying municipal water. .he retention time is normally long
(up to (!* hr), and is chiefly devoted to settling. 2apid mi& is typically designed for '!) min and
slow mi& for #)!'5 min. .his design affords great fle&ibility in establishing proper chemical
addition points. +lso, such units are relatively insensitive to sudden changes in water
throughput.
.he long retention also allows sufficient reaction time to make necessary adjustments in
chemical and polymer feed if raw water conditions suddenly change. 1owever, for all but very
large treated water demands, horiontal units re0uire high construction costs and more land
space per unit of water capacity.
Uplo& *lariier"
-ompact and relatively economical, upflow clarifiers provide coagulation, flocculation, and
sedimentation in a single (usually circular) steel or concrete tank. .hese clarifiers are termed
/upflow/ because the water flows up toward the effluent launders as the suspended solids settle.
.hey are characteried by increased solids contact through internal sludge recirculation. .his is
a key feature in maintaining a high!clarity effluent and a major difference from horiontal
clarifiers.
3ecause retention time in an upflow unit is appro&imately #!% hr, upflow basins can be much
smaller in sie than horiontal basins of e0ual throughput capacity. + rise rate of 5.65!#.%)
gpm/ft` of surface area is normal for clarification. -ombination softening!clarification units may
operate at up to #.) gpm/ft` of surface area due to particle sie and densities of precipitated
hardness.
In order to achieve high throughput efficiency, upflow units are designed to ma&imie the linear
overflow weir length while minimiing the opportunity for short!circuiting through the settling
one. In addition, the two mi&ing stages for coagulation and flocculation take place within the
same clarification tank.
+lthough upflow units may provide more efficient sedimentation than horiontal designs, many
upflow clarifiers compromise on the rapid and slow mi& se0uences. >ome types provide rapid,
mechanical mi&ing and rely on flow turbulence for flocculationH others eliminate the rapid mi&
stage and provide only moderate turbulence for flocculation. 1owever, in most cases, users can
overcome rapid mi& deficiencies by adding the primary coagulant further upstream of the
clarifier. Digure )!# shows the rapid mi&, slow mi&, and settling ones of a typical upflow,
solids!contact clarifier.
Sl$#ge 2lan.et an# Soli#"-*onta!t *larii!ation
7ost upflow designs are called either /sludge blanket/ or /solids!contact/ clarifiers. +fter
coagulation and/or flocculation in the sludge blanket units, the incoming water passes through
the suspended layer of previously formed floc. Digure )!% shows an upflow sludge blanket
clarifier.
3ecause the centerwell in these units is often shaped like an inverted cone, the rise rate of the
water decreases as it rises through the steadily enlarging cross section. =hen the rise rate
decreases enough to e0ual the settling rate of the suspended floc e&actly, a distinct sludge/li0uid
interface forms.
>ludge blanket efficiency depends on the filtering action as the freshly coagulated or flocculated
water passes through the suspended floc. 1igher sludge levels increase the filtration efficiency.
In practice, the top sludge interface is carried at the highest safe level to prevent upsets that
might result in large amounts of floc carryover into the overflow. E&cessive sludge withdrawal
or blowdown should also be avoided. .he sludge blanket level is often highly sensitive to
changes in throughput, coagulant addition, and changes in raw water chemistry and temperature.
/>olids!contact/ refers to units in which large volumes of sludge are circulated internally. .he
term also describes the sludge blanket unit and simply means that prior to and during
sedimentation the chemically treated water contacts previously coagulated solids. >olids!
contact, slurry pool units do not rely on filtration as in sludge blanket designs.
>olids!contact units often combine clarification and precipitation softening. 3ringing the
incoming raw water into contact with recirculated sludge improves the efficiency of the
softening reactions and increases the sie and density of the floc particles. Digure )!' illustrates
a typical solids!contact unit.
In-Line *larii!ation
In!line clarification is the process of removing raw water turbidity through the addition of
coagulant just prior to filtration. In!line clarification is generally limited to raw waters with
typical turbidities of less than %5 ?.A, although upflow filters may tolerate higher loading.
@olyelectrolytes and/or inorganic coagulants are used to improve filtration efficiency and run
length. @olymers are favored because they do not create additional suspended solids loading,
which can shorten filter run length.
Dilter design may be downflow or upflow, depending on raw water turbidity and particle sie.
.he downflow dual!media unit generally consists of layers of various grades of anthracite and
sand supported on a gravel bed. +fter backwashing, the larger anthracite particles separate to the
top of the bed, while the more dense, smaller sand particles are at the bottom. .he purpose is to
allow bed penetration of the floc, which reduces the potential for e&cessive pressure drops due
to blinding off the top portion of filter media. .hus, higher filtration rates are realied without a
significant loss in effluent 0uality. ?ormal filtration rates are )!* gpm/ft`.
*oag$lant Sele!tion an# Fee#ing or In-Line *larii!ation
.he choice of a polymer coagulant and feed rate depends on e0uipment design and influent
water turbidity. Initially, in!line clarification was used in the treatment of low!turbidity waters,
but it is now being used on many types of surface waters. Dor most waters, the use of a
polymeric cationic coagulant alone is satisfactory. 1owever, the addition of a high!molecular!
weight, anionic polymer may improve filtration efficiency.
@olymer feed rates are usually lower than those used in conventional clarification, given the
same raw water characteristics. -omplete charge neutraliation and bridging are not necessary
and should be avoided, because total coagulation or flocculation may promote e&cessive
entrapment of suspended solids in the first portion of the filter media. .his can cause blinding of
the media, high pressure drops, and short operating runs.
>ufficient polymer is applied only to initiate neutraliation, which allows attraction and
adsorption of particles through the entire bed. <ften, polymer feed rates are regulated by trial
and error on the actual units to minimie effluent turbidity and ma&imie service run length.
3ecause optimum flocculation is undesirable, polymers are injected just upstream of the units.
?ormally, a short mi&ing period is re0uired to achieve the degree of reaction most suitable for
unit operation. ,ilution water may be recommended to disperse the polymer properly
throughout the incoming water. 1owever, it may be necessary to move the polymer injection
point several times to improve turbidity removal. ,ue to the nature of operation, a change of
polymer feed rate will typically show a change in effluent turbidity in a relatively short period
of time.
*oag$lation Te"ting
2aw water analyses alone are not very useful in predicting coagulation conditions. -oagulation
chemicals and appropriate feed rates must be selected according to operating e&perience with a
given raw water or by simulation of the clarification step on a laboratory scale.
:ar testing is the most effective way to simulate clarification chemistry and operation. +
multiple!paddle, beaker arrangement (Digure )!() permits the comparison of various chemical
combinations, all of which are subjected to identical hydraulic conditions. .he effects of rapid
and slow mi& intensity and duration may also be observed.
In addition to determining the optimum chemical program, it is possible to establish the correct
order of addition. .he most critical measurements in the jar test are coagulant and/or flocculant
dosages, p1, floc sie and settling characteristics, floc!forming time, and finished water clarity.
.o simulate sludge circulation, sludge formed in one series of jar tests (or a sludge sample from
an operating clarifier) may be added to the ne&t jar test. 2esults of jar tests are only relative, and
fre0uent adjustments are necessary in full!scale plant operation. 7onitoring and control units,
such as a streaming current detector, can be used for on!line feedback control.
Oeta potential measurements have been used e&perimentally to predict coagulant re0uirements
and optimum p1 levels. 3ecause the measurement techni0ue re0uires special apparatus and a
skilled technician, eta potential has never become practical for controlling industrial water
clarification plants. +lso, because eta potential measures only one aspect of the entire process,
it may not reflect all conditions leading to coagulation efficiency.
*)emi!al A##ition"
.he most efficient method for adding coagulation chemicals varies according to the type of
water and system used, and must be checked by means of jar testing. 1owever, there is a usual
se0uenceP
#. chlorine
%. bentonite (for low!turbidity waters)
'. primary inorganic and/or polymer coagulant
(. p1!adjusting chemicals
). coagulant aid
=aters with a high organic content e&hibit an increased primary coagulant demand. -hlorine
may be used to assist coagulation by o&idiing organic contaminants which have dispersing
properties. -hlorination prior to primary coagulant feed also reduces the coagulant dosage.
=hen an inorganic coagulant is used, the addition of p1!adjusting chemicals prior to the
coagulant establishes the proper p1 environment for the primary coagulant.
+ll treatment chemicals, with the e&ception of coagulant aids, should be added during very
turbulent mi&ing of the influent water. 2apid mi&ing while the aluminum and iron coagulants
are added ensures uniform cation adsorption onto the suspended matter.
1igh shear mi&ing is especially important when cationic polymers are used as primary
coagulants. In general, it is advisable to feed them as far ahead of the clarifier as possible.
1owever, when a coagulant aid is added, high shear mi&ing must be avoided to prevent
interference with the polymer4s bridging function. <nly moderate turbulence is needed to
generate floc growth.
Diltration is used in addition to regular coagulation and sedimentation for removal of solids from
surface water or wastewater. .his prepares the water for use as potable, boiler, or cooling make!
up. =astewater filtration helps users meet more stringent effluent discharge permit
re0uirements.
Diltration, usually considered a simple mechanical process, actually involves the mechanisms of
adsorption (physical and chemical), straining, sedimentation, interception, diffusion, and inertial
compaction.
Diltration does not remove dissolved solids, but may be used together with a softening process,
which does reduce the concentration of dissolved solids. Dor e&ample, anthracite filtration is
used to remove residual precipitated hardness salts remaining after clarification in precipitation
softening.
In most water clarification or softening processes where coagulation and precipitation occur, at
least a portion of the clarified water is filtered. -larifier effluents of %!#5 ?.A may be improved
to 5.#!#.5 ?.A by conventional sand filtration. Diltration ensures acceptable suspended solids
concentrations in the finished water even when upsets occur in the clarification processes.
TYPI*AL *ONSTRU*TION
-onventional gravity and pressure rapid filters operate downflow. .he filter medium is usually a
#)!'5 in. deep bed of sand or anthracite. >ingle or multiple grades of sand or anthracite may be
used.
+ large particle bed supports the filter media to prevent fine sand or anthracite from escaping
into the underdrain system. .he support bed also serves to distribute backwash water. .ypical
support beds consist of # ;!# in. gravel or anthracite in graded layers to a depth of #%!#* in.
TYPES OF MEDIA
[uart sand, silica sand, anthracite coal, garnet, magnetite, and other materials may be used as
filtration media. >ilica sand and anthracite are the most commonly used types. =hen silica is
not suitable (e.g., in filters following a hot process softener where the treated water is intended
for boiler feed), anthracite is usually used.
.he sie and shape of the filter media affect the efficiency of the solids removal. >harp, angular
media form large voids and remove less fine material than rounded media of e0uivalent sie.
.he media must be coarse enough to allow solids to penetrate the bed for %!( in. +lthough most
suspended solids are trapped at the surface or in the first #!% in. of bed depth, some penetration
is essential to prevent a rapid increase in pressure drop.
>and and anthracite for filters are rated by effective particle sie and uniformity. .he effective
sie is such that appro&imately #5E of the total grains by weight are smaller and 95E are larger.
.herefore, the effective sie is the minimum sie of most of the particles. Aniformity is
measured by comparison of effective sie to the sie at which *5E of the grains by weight are
smaller and (5E are larger. .his latter sie, divided by the effective sie, is called the
uniformity coefficient!the smaller the uniformity coefficient, the more uniform the media
particle sies.
Diner sands result in shallower ones for the retention of suspended matter. .he most desirable
media sie depends on the suspended solids characteristics as well as the effluent 0uality
re0uirements and the specific filter design. In general, rapid sand filters use sand with an
effective sie of 5.')!5.*5 mm (5.5#(!5.5%( in.) and a ma&imum uniformity coefficient of #.6.
-oarse media, often 5.*!#.5 mm (5.5%(!5.5( in.), are used for closely controlled coagulation and
sedimentation.
MI<ED MEDIA FILTER 2EDS
.he terms /multilayer,/ /in!depth,/ and /mi&ed media/ apply to a type of filter bed which is
graded by sie and density. -oarse, less dense particles are at the top of the filter bed, and fine,
more dense particles are at the bottom. ,ownflow filtration allows deep, uniform penetration by
particulate matter and permits high filtration rates and long service runs. 3ecause small particles
at the bottom are also more dense (less space between particles), they remain at the bottom.
Even after high!rate backwashing, the layers remain in their proper location in the mi&ed media
filter bed.
.able *!# lists four media that are used in multilayer filtration. >everal other mi&ed media
combinations have also been tested and used effectively. .he use of too many different media
layers can cause severe backwashing difficulties. Dor e&ample, if all four materials listed in
.able *!# were used in the same filter, a wash rate high enough to e&pand the magnetite layer
might wash the anthracite from the filter. 1igh wash water re0uirements would also result.
Table 6-1. ,edia used in multilayer filtration!
Me#ia Ee!tive "i;e0 mm 9in(: Spe!ii! gravit%
+nthracite 5.6!#.6 (5.5'!5.56) #.(
>and 5.'!5.6 (5.5#!5.5') %.*
Carnet 5.(!5.* (5.5#*!5.5%() '.;
7agnetite 5.'!5.) (5.5#!5.5%) (.9
+nthracite/sand filter beds normally provide all of the advantages of single!media filtration but
re0uire less backwash water than sand or anthracite alone. >imilar claims have been made for
anthracite/sand/garnet mi&ed units. .he major advantages of dual!media filtration are higher
rates and longer runs. +nthracite/sand/garnet beds have operated at normal rates of
appro&imately ) gpm/ft` and peak rates as high as ; gpm/ft` without loss of effluent 0uality.
*APPING OF SAND FILTERS
2apid sand filters can be converted for mi&ed media operation to increase capacity by #55E.
.he cost of this conversion is much lower than that of installing additional rapid sand filters.
-apping involves the replacement of a portion of the sand with anthracite. In this conversion, a
%!* in. layer of 5.(!5.* mm (5.5#*!5.5%( in.) sand is removed from the surface of a bed and
replaced with (!; in. of 5.9 mm (5.5') in.) anthracite. If an increase in capacity is desired, a
larger amount of sand is replaced. @ilot tests should be run to ensure that a reduction in the
depth of the finer sand does not reduce the 0uality of the effluent.
GRA5ITY FILTERS
Cravity filters (see Digure *!#) are open vessels that depend on system gravity head for
operation. +part from the filter media, the essential components of a gravity filter include the
followingP
.he filter shell, which is either concrete or steel and can be s0uare, rectangular, or
circular. 2ectangular reinforced concrete units are most widely used.
.he support bed, which prevents loss of fine sand or anthracite through the underdrain
system. .he support bed, usually #!% ft deep, also distributes backwash water.
+n underdrain system, which ensures uniform collection of filtered water and uniform
distribution of backwash water. .he system may consist of a header and laterals, with
perforations or strainers spaced suitably. Dalse tank bottoms with appropriately spaced
strainers are also used for underdrain systems.
=ash water troughs, large enough to collect backwash water without flooding. .he
troughs are spaced so that the horiontal travel of backwash water does not e&ceed '!' ft.
In conventional sand bed units, wash troughs are placed appro&imately % ft above the
filter surface. >ufficient freeboard must be provided to prevent loss of a portion of the
filter media during operation at ma&imum backwash rates.
-ontrol devices that ma&imie filter operation efficiency. Dlow rate controllers, operated
by venturi tubes in the effluent line, automatically maintain uniform delivery of filtered
water. 3ackwash flow rate controllers are also used. Dlow rate and head loss gauges are
essential for efficient operation.
PRESSURE FILTERS
@ressure filters are typically used with hot process softeners to permit high!temperature
operation and to prevent heat loss. .he use of pressure filters eliminates the need for repumping
of filtered water. @ressure filters are similar to gravity filters in that they include filter media,
supporting bed, underdrain system, and control deviceH however, the filter shell has no wash
water troughs.
@ressure filters, designed vertically or horion!tally, have cylindrical steel shells and dished
heads. Bertical pressure filters (see Digure *!%) range in diameter from # to #5 ft with capacities
as great as '55 gpm at filtration rates of ' gpm/ft`. 1oriontal pressure filters, usually ; ft in
diameter, are #5!%) ft long with capacities from %55 to *55 gpm. .hese filters are separated into
compartments to allow individual backwashing. 3ackwash water may be returned to the clarifier
or softener for recovery.
@ressure filters are usually operated at a service flow rate of ' gpm/ft`. ,ual or multimedia
filters are designed for *!; gpm/ft`. +t ambient temperature, the recommended filter backwash
rate is *!; gpm/ft` for anthracite and #'!#) gpm/ft` for sand. +nthracite filters associated with
hot process softeners re0uire a backwash rate of #%!#) gpm/ft` because the water is less dense at
elevated operating temperatures. -old water should not be used to backwash a hot process filter.
.his would cause e&pansion and contraction of the system metallurgy, which would lead to
metal fatigue. +lso, the o&ygen!laden cold water would accelerate corrosion.
UPFLOW FILTERS
Apflow units contain a single filter mediumLusually graded sand. .he finest sand is at the top of
the bed with the coarsest sand below. Cravel is retained by grids in a fi&ed position at the
bottom of the unit. .he function of the gravel is to ensure proper water distribution during the
service cycle. +nother grid above the graded sand prevents fluidiation of the media. +ir
injection during cleaning (not considered backwash because the direction of flow is the same as
when in!service) assists in the removal of solids and the reclassification of the filter media.
,uring operation, the larger, coarse solids are removed at the bottom of the bed, while smaller
solids particles are allowed to penetrate further into the media. .ypical service flow rates are )!
#5 gpm/ft`. +n e&ample of this unit is shown in Digure *!'.
AUTOMATI* GRA5ITY FILTERS
>everal manufacturers have developed gravity filters that are backwashed automatically at a
preset head loss. 1ead loss (water level above the media) actuates a backwash siphon and draws
wash water from storage up through the bed and out through the siphon pipe to waste. + low
level in the backwash storage section breaks the siphon, and the filter returns to service.
+utomatic gravity filters are available in diameters of up to #) ft. =hen e0uipped with a high!
rate, multilayer media, a single large!diameter unit can filter as much as #,555 gpm. +n e&ample
is shown in Digure *!(.
*ONTINUOUS *LEANING FILTERS
-ontinuous cleaning filter systems eliminate off!line backwash periods by backwashing sections
of the filter or portions of the filter media continuously, on!line. Barious designs have been
introduced. +n e&ample is shown in Digure *!).
FILTER WAS+ING-GRA5ITY FILTERS
@eriodic washing of filters is necessary for the removal of accumulated solids. Inade0uate
cleaning permits the formation of permanent clumps, gradually decreasing filter capacity. If
fouling is severe, the media must be cleaned chemically or replaced.
Dor cleaning of rapid downflow filters, clean water is forced back up and through the media. In
conventional gravity units, the backwash water lifts solids from the bed into wash troughs and
carries them to waste. Either of two backwash techni0ues can be used, depending on the design
of the media support structure and the accessory e0uipment availableP
1igh!rate backwash, which e&pands the media by at least #5E. 3ackwash rates of #%!#)
gpm/ft` or higher are common for sand, and rates for anthracite may range from ; to #%
gpm/ft`.
8ow!rate backwash, with no visible bed e&pansion, combined with air scouring.
=here only water is used for backwash, the backwash may be preceded by surface washing. In
surface washing, strong jets of high!pressure water from fi&ed or revolving noles assist in
breaking the filter surface crust. +fter the surface wash (when there is provision for surface
washing), the unit is backwashed for appro&imately )!#5 min. Dollowing backwash, a small
amount of rinse water is filtered to waste, and the filter is returned to service.
1igh!rate backwash can cause the formation of mud balls inside the filter bed. + high backwash
rate and resulting bed e&pansion can produce random currents in which certain ones of the
e&panded bed move upward or downward. Encrusted solids from the surface can be carried
down to form mud balls. Efficient surface washing helps prevent this condition.
+ir scouring with low!rate backwashing can break up the surface crust without producing
random currents, if the underdrain system is de!signed to distribute air uniformly. >olids
removed from the media collect in the layer of water between the media surface and wash
channels. +fter the air is stopped, this dirty water is nor!mally flushed out by increased
backwash water flow rate or by surface draining. =ash water consumption is appro&imately the
same whether water!only or air/water backwashing is employed.
IN-LINE *LARIFI*ATION
In!line clarification is the removal of suspended solids through the addition of in!line coagulant
followed by rapid filtration. .his process is also referred to as in!line filtration, or contact
filtration. .he process removes suspended solids without the use of sedimentation basins.
-oagulation may be achieved in in!line clarification by either of two methodsP
an inorganic aluminum or iron salt used alone or with a high molecular weight polymeric
coagulant
a strongly cationic organic polyelectrolyte
3ecause metal hydro&ides form precipitates, only dual!media filters should be used with
inorganic coagulant programs. Dloc particles must be handled in filters with coarse!to!fine
graded media to prevent rapid blinding of the filter and eliminate backwashing difficulties.
=here a high molecular weight polymeric coagulant is used, feed rates of less than 5.# ppm
ma&imie solids removal by increasing floc sie and promoting particle absorption within the
filter. .his filtration techni0ue readily yields effluent turbidities of less than 5.) ?.A. .he
second method of coagulant pretreatment involves the use of a single chemical, a strongly
charged cationic polyelectrolyte. .his treatment forms no precipitation floc particles, and
usually no floc formation is visible in the filter influent. >olids are removed within the bed by
adsorption and by flocculation of colloidal matter directly onto the surface of the sand or
anthracite media. .he process may be visualied as seeding of the filter bed surfaces with
positive cationic charges to produce a strong pull on the negatively charged particles. 3ecause
gelatinous hydro&ide precipitates are not present in this process, single! media or upflow filters
are suitable for poly!electrolyte clarification.
In!line clarification provides an e&cellent way to improve the efficiency of solids removal from
turbid surface waters. Effluent turbidity levels of less than # ?.A are common with this
method.
PRE*OAT FILTRATION
@recoat filtration is used to remove very small particulate matter, oil particles, and even bacteria
from water. .his method is practical only for relatively small 0uantities of water which contain
low concentrations of contaminants.
@recoat filtration may be used following conventional clarification processes to produce water
of very low suspended solids content for specific application re0uirements. Dor e&ample,
precoat filters are often used to remove oil from contaminated condensate.
In precoat filtration, the precoat media, typically diatomaceous earth, acts as the filter media and
forms a cake on a permeable base or septum. .he base must prevent passage of the precoat
media without restricting the flow of filtered water and must be capable of withstanding high
pressure differentials. Dilter cloths, porous stone tubes, porous paper, wire screens, and wire!
wound tubes are used as base materials.
.he supporting base material is first precoated with a slurry of precoat media. +dditional slurry
(body feed) is usually added during the filter run. =hen the accumulation of matter removed by
filtration generates a high pressure drop across the filter, the filter coating is sloughed off by
backwashing. .he filter bed is then precoated and returned to service. -hemical coagulants are
not usually needed but have been used where an ultrapure effluent is re0uired.
>oftening
@recipitation softening processes are used to reduce raw water hardness, alkalinity, silica, and
other constituents. .his helps prepare water for direct use as cooling tower makeup or as a first!
stage treatment followed by ion e&change for boiler makeup or process use. .he water is treated
with lime or a combination of lime and soda ash (carbonate ion). .hese chemicals react with the
hardness and natural alkalinity in the water to form insoluble compounds. .he compounds
precipitate and are removed from the water by sedimentation and, usually, filtration. =aters
with moderate to high hardness and alkalinity concentrations (#)5!)55 ppm as -a-<
'
) are often
treated in this fashion.
*)emi"tr% o Pre!ipitation Sotening
In almost every raw water supply, hardness is present as calcium and magnesium bicarbonate,
often referred to as carbonate hardness or temporary hardness. .hese compounds result from the
action of acidic, carbon dio&ide laden rain water on naturally occurring minerals in the earth,
such as limestone. Dor e&ampleP
-<
%
X 1
%
< Z 1
%
-<
'
carbon
dio&ide
water
carbonic
acid
1
%
-<
'
X -a-<
'
a Z -a(1-<
'
)
%
carbonic
acid
calcium
carbonate
calcium
bicarbonate
1ardness may also be present as a sulfate or chloride salt, referred to as noncarbonate or
permanent hardness. .hese salts are caused by mineral acids present in rain water or the solution
of naturally occurring acidic minerals.
.he significance of /carbonate/ or /temporary/ hardness as contrasted to /noncarbonate/ or
/permanent/ hardness is that the former may be reduced in concentration simply by heating. In
effect, heating reverses the solution reactionP

-a(1-<
'
)
%
X 1eat Z -a-<
'
a X 1
%
< X -<
%
calcium
bicarbonate
calcium carbonate
wate
r
carbon
dio&ide
2eduction of noncarbonate hardness, by contrast, re0uires chemical addition. + combination of
lime and soda ash, along with coagulant and flocculant chemicals, is added to raw water to
promote a precipitation reaction. .his allows softening to take place.
*ol# Lime Sotening
@recipitation softening accomplished at ambient temperatures is referred to as cold lime
softening. =hen hydrated lime, -a(<1)
%
, is added to the water being treated, the following
reactions occurP
-<
%
X -a(<1)
%
Z -a-<
'
a X 1
%
<
carbon dio&ide
calcium hydro&id
e
calcium carbonate
wate
r
-a(1-<
'
)
%
X -a(<1)
%
Z %-a-<
'
a X %1
%
<
calcium
bicarbonate
calcium hydro&id
e
calcium
carbonate
water
7g(1-<
'
)
%
X %-a(<1)
%
Z 7g(<1)
%
a X %-a-<
'
a X %1
%
<
magnesium
bicarbonate
calcium
hydro&ide
magnesium
hydro&ide
calcium
carbonate
water
If the proper chemical control is maintained on lime feed, the calcium hardness may be reduced
to ')!)5 ppm. 7agnesium reduction is a function of the amount of hydro&yl (<1
!
) alkalinity
e&cess maintained. Digures 6!# and 6!% show these relationships.
?oncarbonate or permanent calcium hardness, if present, is not affected by treatment with lime
alone. If noncarbonate magnesium hardness is present in an amount greater than 65 ppm and an
e&cess hydro&yl alkalinity of about ) ppm is maintained, the magnesium will be reduced to
about 65 ppm, but the calcium will increase in proportion to the magnesium reduction.
Dor e&ample, in cold lime treatment of a water containing ##5 ppm of calcium, 9) ppm of
magnesium, and at least ##5 ppm of alkalinity (all e&pressed as calcium carbonate), calcium
could theoretically be reduced to ') ppm and the magnesium to about 65 ppm. 1owever, an
additional %) ppm of calcium would be e&pected in the treated water due to the following
reactionsP
7g><
(
X -a(<1)
%
Z 7g(<1)
%
a X -a><
(
magnesium
sulfate
calcium
hydro&ide
magnesium
hydro&ide
calcium
sulfate
7g-l
%
X -a(<1)
%
Z 7g(<1)
%
a X -a-l
%
magnesium
chloride
calcium
magnesium
hydro&ide
calcium
chloride
.o improve magnesium reduction, which also improves silica reduction in cold process
softening, sodium aluminate may be used. .he sodium aluminate provides hydro&yl ion (<1
!
)
needed for improved magnesium reduction, without increasing calcium hardness in the treated
water. In addition, the hydrolysis of sodium aluminate results in the formation of aluminum
hydro&ide, which aids in floc formation, sludge blanket conditioning, and silica reduction. .he
reactions are as followsP
?a
%
+l
%
<
(
X (1
%
< Z %+l(<1)
'
a X %?a<1
sodium aluminate water
aluminum
hydro&ide
sodium
hydro&ide
7g "
><
(
$ X %?a<1 Z 7g(<1)%a X "
?a
%
><
(
$
-l
%
%?a-l
magnesium
sulfate/
chloride
sodium
hydro&ide
magnesium
hydro&ide
sodium
sulfate/
chloride
>oda ash (?a
%
-<
'
) may be used to improve hardness reduction. It reacts with noncarbonate
calcium hardness according to the followingP
-a><
(
X ?a
%
-<
'
Z -a-<
'
a X ?a
%
><
(
calcium
sulfate
sodium
carbonate
calcium
carbonate
sodium
sulfate
-a-l
%
X ?a
%
-<
'
Z -a-<
'
a X %?a-l
calcium
chloride
sodium
carbonate
calcium
carbonate
sodium
chloride
1owever, noncarbonate magnesium hardness reduction in cold process softening re0uires added
lime. .he reactions are as followsP
7g><
(
X -a(<1)
%
X ?a
%
-<
'
Z 7g(<1)
%
a X -a-<
'
a X
?a
%
>
<
(
magnesium su
lfate
calcium hydro
&ide
sodium carbo
nate
magnesium hydr
o&ide
calcium carbo
nate
sodiu
m
sulfat
e
7g-l
%
X -a(<1)
%
X ?a
%
-<
'
Z 7g(<1)
%
a X -a-<
'
a X
%?a-
l
magnesium chl
oride
calcium hydro
&ide
sodium carbo
nate
magnesium hydr
o&ide
calcium carbo
nate
sodiu
m
chlori
de
In these reactions, dissolved solids are not reduced because a solution reaction product (sodium
sulfate or sodium chloride) is formed.
Warm Lime Sotening
.he warm lime softening process operates in the temperature range of #%5!#(5_D ((9!*5_-).
.he solubilities of calcium, magnesium, and silica are reduced by increased temperature.
.herefore, they are more effectively removed by warm lime softening than by cold lime
softening. .his process is used for the following purposesP
$o recover waste heat as an energy conservation measure. .he water to be treated is
heated by a waste stream, such as boiler blowdown or low!pressure e&haust steam, to
recover the heat content.
$o prepare feed to a deminerali-ation system. .he lower levels of calcium, magnesium,
and especially silica reduce the ionic loading on the demineralier when warm lime!
softened water is used rather than cold lime!softened water. .his may reduce both the
capital and operating costs of the demineralier. 1owever, most strong base anion resins
have a temperature limitation of #(5_D (*5_-)H therefore, additional increases in
temperature are not acceptable for increasing the effectiveness of contaminant reduction.
$o lower the blowdown discharge from cooling systems. -ooling tower blowdown may
be treated with lime and soda ash or caustic to reduce calcium and magnesium levels so
that much of the blowdown may be returned to the cooling system. >ilica levels in the
recirculating cooling water are also controlled in this manner.
In any warm lime or warm lime!soda ash process, temperature control is critical because
temperature variations of as little as (_D/hr (%_-/hr) can cause gross carryover of the softener
pricipitates.
+ot Pro!e"" Sotening
1ot process softening is usually carried out under pressure at temperatures of %%6!%(5_D (#5;!
##*_-). +t the operating temperature, hot process softening reactions go essentially to
completion. .his treatment method involves the same reactions described above, e&cept that raw
water -<
%
is vented and does not participate in the lime reaction. .he use of lime and soda ash
permits hardness reduction down to 5.) gr/gal, or about ; ppm, as calcium carbonate.
7agnesium is reduced to %!) ppm because of the lower solubility of magnesium hydro&ide at
the elevated temperatures.
Sili!a Re#$!tion
1ot process softening can also provide very good silica reduction. .he silica reduction is
accomplished through adsorption of the silica on the magnesium hydro&ide precipitate. If there
is insufficient magnesium present in the raw water to reduce silica to the desired level,
magnesium compounds (such as magnesium o&ide, magnesium sulfate, magnesium carbonate,
or dolomitic lime) may be used. Digure 6!' is a plot of magnesium o&ide vs. raw water silica (in
ppm), which may be used to estimate the 0uantity of magnesium o&ide re0uired to reduce silica
to the levels indicated . 7agnesium o&ide is the preferred chemical because it does not increase
the dissolved solids concentration of the water.
Cood sludge contact enhances silica reduction. .o ensure optimum contact, sludge is fre0uently
recirculated back to the inlet of the unit.
-old or warm process softening is not as effective as hot process softening for silica reduction.
1owever, added magnesium o&ide and good sludge contact will improve results.
@redicted analyses of a typical raw water treated by various lime and lime!soda softening
processes are presented in .able 6!#.
Table 7-1. Typical softener effluent analyses.
Ra& Water
Removal o
*al!i$m
Al.alinit%
*ol#-Lime
Lime-"o#a
Sotening
9*ol#:
Lime-"o#a
Sotening
9+ot:
Lime
Sotening
9+ot:
.otal %)5 #() ;# %5 #%5
1ardness (as
-a-<
'
), ppm
-alcium
1ardness (as
-a-<
'
), ppm
#)5 ;) ') #) ##)
7agnesium
1ardness (as
-a-<
'
), ppm
#55 *5 (* ) )
/@/ +lkalinity
(as -a-<
'
),
ppm
5 %6 '6 %' #;
/7/
+lkalinity (as
-a-<
'
), ppm
#)5 (( )) (5 %;
>ilica (as
>i<
%
), ppm
%5 #9 #; #!% #!%
p1 6.) #5.' #5.* #5.) #5.(
Re#$!tion o Ot)er *ontaminant"
.reatment by lime precipitation reduces alkalinity. 1owever, if the raw water alkalinity e&ceeds
the total hardness, sodium bicarbonate alkalinity is present. In such cases, it is usually necessary
to reduce treated water alkalinity in order to reduce condensate system corrosion or permit
increased cycles of concentration.
.reatment by lime converts the sodium bicarbonate in the raw water to sodium carbonate as
followsP
%?a1-<
'
X -a(<1)
%
Z -a-<
'
a X ?a
%
-<
'
X %1
%
<
sodium
bicarbonate
calcium
hydro&ide
calcium
carbonate
sodium carbonate water
-alcium sulfate (gypsum) may be added to reduce the carbonate to re0uired levels. .he reaction
is as followsP
?a
%
-<
'
X -a><
(
Z -a-<
'
a X ?a
%
><
(
sodium carbonate
calcium
sulfate
calcium
carbonate
sodiumsulfate
.his is the same reaction involved in the reduction of noncarbonate calcium hardness previously
discussed. .able 6!% shows the treated water alkalinity relationships to be e&pected in lime!soda
ash softened water.
Table 7-2. Alkalinity relationships as determined by titrations.
+%#ro1i#e *aro,nate 2i!ar,onate
@ Z < < < 7
@ Z 7 @ < <
%@ Z 7 < %@ <
%@ T 7 < %@ 7 ! %@
%@ b 7 %@ ! 7 %(7 ! @) 7 ! %@
Re#$!tion o Ot)er *ontaminant"
8ime softening processes, with the usual filters, will reduce o&idied iron and manganese to
about 5.5) and 5.5# ppm, respectively. 2aw water organics (color!contributing colloids) are also
reduced.
.urbidity, present in most surface supplies, is reduced to about #.5 ?.A with filtration
following chemical treatment. 2aw water turbidity in e&cess of #55 ?.A may be tolerated in
these systemsH however, it may be necessary to coagulate raw water solids with a cationic
polymer before the water enters the softener vessel to assist li0uid!solids separation.
<il may also be removed by adsorption on the precipitates formed during treatment. 1owever,
oil in concentrations above about '5 ppm should be reduced before lime treatment because
higher concentrations of oil may e&ert a dispersing influence and cause floc carryover.
Pre!ipitation Pro!e"" 9*)emi!al: *ontrol
8ime or lime!soda softener control is usually based on treated water alkalinity and hardness.
>amples are tested to determine the alkalinity to the @ (phenolphthalein, p1 ;.') and 7 (methyl
orange or methyl purple, p1 (.') end points. .he following relationships applyP
@ (ppm as -a-<
'
) Z <1
!
X c -<
'
%!
hydro&yl carbonate
7 (ppm -a-<
'
) Z <1
!
X -<
'
%!
X 1-<
'
!
hydro&yl carbonate bicarbonate
In the presence of hydro&yl ion (<1
!
), bicarbonate concentration is so low that it may be
assumed to be ero.
In the precipitation process, it is advisable to ensure that all of the bicarbonate has been
converted to carbonate (the least soluble form of the calcium)H therefore, a slight e&cess of
hydro&yl ion should be maintained in the treated water. =hen the e0uations above are
combined, it can be shown that when %@ ! 7 is positive, hydro&yl ion is present. .he usual
control range isP
%@ L 7 Z )!#) ppm
.his corresponds to a p1 of appro&imately #5.%.
If soda ash is also used, the control is on the e&cess carbonate ion. +s shown in Digure 6!#
(above), e&cess carbonate will depress the calcium to the level desired. .he usual control range
for hot lime!soda units isP
7 (alkalinity) ! .1 (total hardness) Z %5!(5 ppm
Dor cold lime!soda softening, where effluent magnesium hardness is significantly greater than in
hot lime or soda, the control range above may be inappropriate. Dor cold limeQsoda units, soda
ash can be controlled such thatP
%(7 ! @) ! -alcium hardness Z %5!(5 ppm
-are must be e&ercised in the specification of soda ash control ranges. If the softened water is to
be used as boiler feedwater, hardness removal by the addition of soda ash may not be worth the
cost of the resulting increase in steam condensate system corrosion. .his corrosion is caused by
the higher levels of carbon dio&ide in the steam resulting from the higher carbonate alkalinity of
the feedwater.
*oag$lant"=Flo!!$lant"=Sl$#ge *on#itioner"
<rganic polymer flocculants and coagulants are preferred over inorganic salts of aluminum or
iron. @olymers add minimal dissolved solids to the water and their use results in reduced sludge
0uantity compared to the use of inorganic coagulants. Inorganic coagulants must react with raw
water alkalinity to form the metallic precipitate that aids in clarification and sludge bed
conditioning. Dor e&ample, alum reacts as followsP
'-a(1-<
'
)
%
X +l
%
(><
(
)
'
Z '-a><
(
X %+l(<1)
'
a X *-<
%
calcium bicarbonat
e
aluminum sulfate calciumsulfate aluminum hydro&ide
carbon
dio&ide
.he precipitated aluminum hydro&ide is incorporated within the sludge produced by the
softening reactions. .his increases the fluidity of the softener sludge, which allows for increased
solids contact, improving softening and effluent clarity.
=aters producing high calcium!to!magnesium precipitation ratios usually need sludge bed
conditioning chemical feed for proper operation. >pecialied organic polymers are available for
proper conditioning of the sludge bed without the use of inorganic salts.
Dour potentially adverse effects of using inorganic salts may be notedP
$he inorganic salt reduces the alalinity! .his converts the hardness to noncarbonate
hardness, which is not affected by lime. +s a result, inorganic salts increase hardness in
water that is naturally deficient in bicarbonate alkalinity.
.hen the water is to be treated further by ion e/change0 regenerant consumption is
increased! .his is due to the higher hardness and the added soluble sulfate/chloride load.
$he carbon dio/ide generated by the reaction has a lime demand which is twice that of
the bicarbonate! .herefore, increased chemical addition is re0uired.
Soluble aluminum in the softener effluent interferes with softened water alalinity
titrations0 even when very low levels of soluble aluminum e/ist! .his interference, which
necessitates an increase in lime feed, causes falsely low (%@ ! 7) readings and may be
partly responsible for the additional removal of magnesium seen when aluminum salts are
used.
E'$ipment Emplo%e#

*ol# Pro!e""
.he first cold lime!soda softening was carried out in /batch/ fashion. +n e&cess of treating
chemicals was mi&ed with the water in a large basin. +fter appro&imately ( hr, the treated water
was decanted from the basin, leaving the settled precipitates in the basin.
.oday, continuous sludge!contact softeners (see Digures 6!( and 6!) ) are used to provide a
constant flow with effluent 0uality superior to that obtained through batch treatment. .reating
chemicals are added as a function of flow rate and water 0uality to the rapid mi& one of the
unit. >ludge, recirculated either internally or e&ternally to the unit, may be returned to this rapid
mi& one for improved softening, softened water clarity, and silica reduction.
.he water then flows to the slow mi& one of the unit. 1ere, the precipitation reactions continue
and the precipitates formed become large enough to begin settling. In the sludge!contact unit,
the water flows through a bed of sludge for additional contact. .he sludge level is maintained by
the proper combination of sludge bed conditioning chemicals, mechanical agitation, hydraulic
suspension, and sludge blowdown. + discernible line of separation between clarified water and
slurry pool should e&ist in a properly operated unit. Effluent turbidity is usually less than #5
?.A.
Dlow rate is usually limited to less than #.) gpm/ft% of settling area. + retention time of # hr is
re0uired to allow the softening reactions to come as close to completion as possible.
3ecause the reactions in cold process softening are not complete, the water contaminant levels
leaving the unit are unstable. =ith additional time and/or increased temperature, further
precipitation will occur downstream of the unit. Dre0uently, acid or carbon dio&ide is added to
stabilie the water. .he p1 is reduced from about #5.% to between ;.5 and 9.5, which converts
the carbonate to the more soluble bicarbonate. Ionically, the reaction isP
1
X
X -<
'
%!
Z 1-<
'
!
hydrogen ion carbonateion
bicarbonate
ion
+ typical cold lime softener system is shown in Digure 6!* .

+ot Pro!e""
.wo hot process softener designs are illustrated in Digures 6!6 and 6!; . .he former, the
simplest in design and fabrication, is referred to as a /downflow/ unit. .he latter, which
incorporates additional features, is referred to as an /upflow/ unit. 7any variations in design of
both units e&ist, but the principle of operation is 0uite similar.
In each unit, water is admitted to the top of the vessel designed to operate at )!#) psig saturated
steam pressure (%%6!%(5_D, #5;!##*_-). +n inlet valve is used to control the inlet water flow as
a function of the operating level of the vessel. .he water is sprayed into the steam space of the
unit and is heated to within % or ' degrees of the saturation temperature of the steam. 1eating
reduces the noncondensible gas content of the water. <&ygen and carbon dio&ide are released
and vented to the atmosphere with a controlled loss of heating steam. +lthough they are not
deaerators, hot process units reduce o&ygen to about 5.' ppm (5.%# cmM/8) and carbon dio&ide
to 5.
.his residual o&ygen level in the high!temperature water is aggressive and will attack
downstream e0uipment such as filters and eolites. .herefore, users should consider feeding a
chemical o&ygen scavenger to the effluent of hot process softeners.
.reatment chemicals are introduced into the top of the vessel as a function of flow and raw
water analysis. +lthough the reactions go essentially to completion 0uite rapidly, a minimum of
# hr of retention is designed into the unit. +lso, flow rate through the unit is limited to #.6!%.5
gpm/ft`. Dilter backwash water may be withdrawn from the outlet of the unit, from the filtered
water header, or from internal or e&ternal storage. Internal storage compartments are illustrated
in Digure 6!;. Dilter backwash water is usually returned to the unit for recovery.
In the downflow design, the water leaves the vessel after reversing direction and enters the
internal hood. @recipitates separate from the water at the hood and continue downward into the
cone for removal by blowdown. >ludge blowdown is proportioned to raw water flow. Dor
improved silica reduction, sludge is recirculated from the cone back to the top of the unit.
Dor optimum silica reduction, a sludge!contact unit (shown in Digure 6!;) is used. =ater and
chemicals enter the top of the unit and flow to the bottom of the softener through a downcomer.
.he sludge level is maintained in such a way that the downcomer always discharges into the
sludge bed. .his ensures good contact with the sludge, which is rich in magnesium hydro&ide.
+lso, the sludge bed acts as a filter, entrapping finer solids before the water e&its near the top of
the vessel. >ludge recycle may also be used.
.he upflow design also lends itself to easier incorporation of internal compartments for filter
backwash storage and return, and condensate or treated water deaeration.
Limitation"
Civen proper consideration of raw water 0uality and ultimate end use of the treated water, the
application of precipitation processes has few limitations. 1owever, operational difficulties may
be encountered unless the following factors are controlledP
$emperature. -old and warm units are subject to carryover if the temperature varies more
than (_D/hr (%_-/hr). 1ot process units are less sensitive to slight temperature variations.
1owever, a clogged or improper spray pattern can prevent proper heating of the water,
and carryover can result.
+ydraulics. In any system, steady!state operation within design limits optimies the
performance of the e0uipment. 2apid flow variations can cause severe system upsets.
>uitable treated water storage capacity should be incorporated into the total system
design to minimie load swings on the softener.
Chemical Control. .his should be as precise as possible to prevent poor water 0uality.
3ecause of the comparatively constant 0uality of most well waters, changes in chemical
feed rates are largely a function of flow only. 1owever, surface water 0uality may vary
hourly. .herefore, for proper control, it is imperative that users perform fre0uent testing
of the raw water as well as the treated effluent, and adjust chemical feed accordingly.
Iron E&change
1istory
-lassifications of ion e&change resins
>odium eolite softening
1ot eolite softening
,emineraliation
,ealkaliation
-ounterflow and mi&ed bed deioniation
<ther demineraliation processes
-ondensate polishing
-ommon ion e&change system problems
2esin fouling and degradation
2esin testing and analysis
+ll natural waters contain, in various concentrations, dissolved salts which dissociate in water to
form charged ions. @ositively charged ions are called cationsH negatively charged ions are called
anions. Ionic impurities can seriously affect the reliability and operating efficiency of a boiler or
process system. <verheating caused by the buildup of scale or deposits formed by these
impurities can lead to catastrophic tube failures, costly production losses, and unscheduled
downtime. 1ardness ions, such as calcium and magnesium, must be removed from the water
supply before it can be used as boiler feedwater. Dor high!pressure boiler feedwater systems and
many process systems, nearly complete removal of all ions, including carbon dio&ide and silica,
is re0uired. Ion e&change systems are used for efficient removal of dissolved ions from water.
Ion e&changers e&change one ion for another, hold it temporarily, and then release it to a
regenerant solution. In an ion e&change system, undesirable ions in the water supply are replaced
with more acceptable ions. Dor e&ample, in a sodium eolite softener, scale!forming calcium and
magnesium ions are replaced with sodium ions.
+ISTORY
In #95), Cans, a Cerman chemist, used synthetic aluminosilicate materials known as eolites in
the first ion e&change water softeners. +lthough aluminosilicate materials are rarely used today,
the term /eolite softener/ is commonly used to describe any cation e&change process.
.he synthetic eolite e&change material was soon replaced by a naturally occurring material
called Creensand. Creensand had a lower e&change capacity than the synthetic material, but its
greater physical stability made it more suitable for industrial applications. -apacity is defined as
the amount of e&changeable ions a unit 0uantity of resin will remove from a solution. It is usually
e&pressed in kilograins per cubic foot as calcium carbonate.

Digure ;!#. 7icroscopic view of cellular resin beads (%5!)5 mesh) of a sulfonated styrene!
divinylbenene strong acid cation e&hcanger. (-ourtesy of 2ohm and 1aas -ompany.)

.he development of a sulfonated coal cation e&change medium, referred to as carbonaceous
eolite, e&tended the application of ion e&change to hydrogen cycle operation, allowing for the
reduction of alkalinity as well as hardness. >oon, an anion e&change resin (a condensation
product of polyamines and formaldehyde) was developed. .he new anion resin was used with the
hydrogen cycle cation resin in an attempt to demineralie (remove all dissolved salts from)
water. 1owever, early anion e&changers were unstable and could not remove such weakly
ionied acids as silicic and carbonic acid.
In the middle #9(54s, ion e&change resins were developed based on the copolymeriation of
styrene cross!linked with divinylbenene. .hese resins were very stable and had much greater
e&change capacities than their predecessors. .he polystyrene!divinylbenene!based anion
e&chan!ger could remove all anions, including silicic and carbonic acids. .his innovation made
the complete demineraliation of water possible.
@olystyrene!divinylbenene resins are still used in the majority of ion e&change applications.
+lthough the basic resin components are the same, the resins have been modified in many ways
to meet the re0uirements of specific applications and provide a longer resin life. <ne of the most
significant changes has been the development of the macroreticular, or macroporous, resin
structure.
>tandard gelular resins, such as those shown in Digure ;!#, have a permeable membrane
structure. .his structure meets the chemical and physical re0uirements of most applications.
1owever, in some applications the physical strength and chemical resistance re0uired of the resin
structure is beyond the capabilities of the typical gel structure. 7acroreticular resins feature
discrete pores within a highly cross!linked polystyrene!divinylbenene matri&. .hese resins
possess a higher physical strength than gels, as well as a greater resistance to thermal degradation
and o&idiing agents. 7acroreticular anion resins (Digure ;!%) are also more resistant to organic
fouling due to their more porous structure. In addition to polystyrene!divinylbenene resins
(Digure ;!'), there are newer resins with an acrylic structure, which increases their resistance to
organic fouling.
In addition to a plastic matri&, ion e&change resin contains ioniable functional groups. .hese
functional groups consist of both positively charged cation elements and negatively charged
anion elements. 1owever, only one of the ionic species is mobile. .he other ionic group is
attached to the bead structure. Digure ;!( is a schematic illustration of a strong acid cation
e&change resin bead, which has ionic sites consisting of immobile anionic (><
'
a) radicals and
mobile sodium cations (?a
X
). Ion e&change occurs when raw water ions diffuse into the bead
structure and e&change for the mobile portion of the functional group. Ions displaced from the
bead diffuse back into the water solution.
*LASSIFI*ATIONS OF ION E<*+ANGE RESINS
Ioniable groups attached to the resin bead determine the functional capability of the resin.
Industrial water treatment resins are classified into four basic categoriesP
>trong +cid -ation (>+-)
=eak +cid -ation (=+-)
>trong 3ase +nion (>3+)
=eak 3ase +nion (=3+)
>+- resins can neutralie strong bases and convert neutral salts into their corresponding acids.
>3+ resins can neutralie strong acids and convert neutral salts into their corresponding bases.
.hese resins are utilied in most softening and full demineraliation applications. =+- and
=3+ resins are able to neutralie strong bases and acids, respectively. .hese resins are used for
dealkaliation, partial demineraliation, or (in combination with strong resins) full
demineraliation.
>+- resins derive their functionality from sulfonic acid groups (1><
'
a). =hen used in
demineraliation, >+- resins remove nearly all raw water cations, replacing them with hydrogen
ions, as shown belowP
.he e&change reaction is reversible. =hen its capacity is e&hausted, the resin can be regenerated
with an e&cess of mineral acid.
>trong acid cation e&changers function well at all p1 ranges. .hese resins have found a wide
range of applications. Dor e&ample, they are used in the sodium cycle (sodium as the mobile ion)
for softening and in the hydrogen cycle for decationiation.
=eak acid cation e&change resins derive their e&change activity from a carbo&ylic group (!
-<<1). =hen operated in the hydrogen form, =+- resins remove cations that are associated
with alkalinity, producing carbonic acid as shownP
.hese reactions are also reversible and permit the return of the e&hausted =+- resin to the
regenerated form. =+- resins are not able to remove all of the cations in most water supplies.
.heir primary asset is their high regeneration efficiency in comparison with >+- resins. .his
high efficiency reduces the amount of acid re0uired to regenerate the resin, thereby reducing the
waste acid and minimiing disposal problems.
=eak acid cation resins are used primarily for softening and dealkaliation of high!hardness,
high!alkalinity waters, fre0uently in conjunction with >+- sodium cycle polishing systems. In
full demineraliation systems, the use of =+- and >+- resins in combination provides the
economy of the more efficient =+- resin along with the full e&change capabilities of the >+-
resin.
>3+ resins derive their functionality from 0uaternary ammonium functional groups. .wo types
of 0uaternary ammonium groups, referred to as .ype I and .ype II, are used. .ype I sites have
three methyl groupsP
In a .ype II resin one of the methyl groups is replaced with an ethanol group. .he .ype I resin
has a greater stability than the .ype II resin and is able to remove more of the weakly ionied
acids. .ype II resins provide a greater regeneration efficiency and a greater capacity for the same
amount of regenerant chemical used.
=hen in the hydro&ide form, >3+ resins remove all commonly encountered anions as shown
belowP
+s with the cation resins, these reactions are reversible, allowing for the regeneration of the resin
with a strong alkali, such as caustic soda, to return the resin to the hydro&ide form.
=eak base resin functionality originates in primary (2!?1
%
), secondary (2!?124), or tertiary (2!
?24
%
) amine groups. =3+ resins readily re!move sulfuric, nitric, and hydrochloric acids, as
represented by the following reactionP

SODIUM >EOLITE SOFTENING

>odium eolite softening is the most widely applied use of ion e&change. In eolite softening,
water containing scale!forming ions, such as calcium and magnesium, passes through a resin bed
containing >+- resin in the sodium form. In the resin, the hardness ions are e&changed with the
sodium, and the sodium diffuses into the bulk water solution. .he hardness!free water, termed
soft water, can then be used for low to medium pressure boiler feedwater, reverse osmosis
system makeup, some chemical processes, and commercial applications, such as laundries.
Prin!iple" o >eolite Sotening
.he removal of hardness from water by a eolite softening process is described by the following
reactionP
=ater from a properly operated eolite softener is nearly free from detectable hardness. 1ow!
ever, some small amounts of hardness, known as leakage, are present in the treated water. .he
level of hardness leakage is dependent on the hardness and sodium level in the influent water and
the amount of salt used for regeneration.
Digure ;!) is a typical profile of effluent hardness from a eolite softener during a service cycle.
+fter final rinse, the softener produces a low, nearly constant level of hardness until the ion
e&change resin nears e&haustion. +t e&haustion, the effluent hardness increases sharply, and
regeneration is re0uired.
+s illustrated by the softening reactions, >+- resin readily accepts calcium and magnesium ions
in e&change for sodium ions. =hen e&hausted resin is regenerated, a high concentration of
sodium ions is applied to the resin to replace calcium and magnesium. .he resin is treated with a
#5E sodium chloride solution, and regeneration proceeds according to the following e0uationP
,uring regeneration, a large e&cess of regenerant (appro&imately ' times the amount of calcium
and magnesium in the resin) is used. .he eluted hardness is removed from the softening unit in
the waste brine and by rinsing.
+fter regeneration, small residual amounts of hardness remain in the resin. If resin is allowed to
sit in a stagnant vessel of water, some hardness will diffuse into the bulk water. .herefore, at the
initiation of flow, the water effluent from a eolite softener can contain hardness even if it has
been regenerated recently. +fter a few minutes of flow, the hardness is rinsed from the softener,
and the treated water is soft.
.he duration of a service cycle depends on the rate of softener flow, the hardness level in the
water, and the amount of salt used for regeneration. .able ;!# shows the effect of regenerant
level on the softening capacity of a gelular strong cation resin. ?ote that the capacity of the resin
increases as the regenerant dosage increases, but the increase is not proportional. .he
regeneration is less efficient at the higher regenerant levels. .herefore, softener operating costs
increase as the regenerant level increases. +s shown by the data in .able ;!#, a #)5E increase in
regenerant salt provides only a *6E increase in operating capacity.
.able ;!#. Effect of regenerant salt level on strong acid cation resin softening capacity.
Table 8-1. Effect of regenerant salt level on strong acid cation resin softening capacity.
Salt 9l,=t
?
: *apa!it% 9gr=t
?
:
* #;,555
; %5,555
#5 %(,555
#) '5,555
E'$ipment
.he e0uipment used for sodium eolite softening consists of a softener e&change vessel, control
valves and piping, and a system for brining, or regenerating, the resin. Asually, the softener tank
is a vertical steel pressure vessel with dished heads as shown in Digure ;!*. 7ajor features of the
softening vessel include an inlet distribution system, free!board space, a regenerant distribution
system, ion e&change resin, and a resin!retaining underdrain collection system.
.he inlet distribution system is usually located at the top of the tank. .he inlet system provides
even distribution of influent water. .his prevents the water from hollowing out flow channels in
the resin bed, which would reduce system capacity and effluent 0uality. .he inlet system also
acts as a collector for backwash water.
.he inlet distributor consists of a central header/hub with distributing laterals/radials or simple
baffle plates, which direct the flow of water evenly over the resin bed. If water is not prevented
from flowing directly onto the bed or tank walls, channeling will result.
.he volume between the inlet distributor and the top of the resin bed is called the free!board
space. .he free!board allows for the e&pansion of the resin during the backwash portion of the
regeneration without loss of resin. It should be a minimum of )5E of the resin volume (;5E
preferred).
.he regenerant distributor is usually a header!lateral system that evenly distributes the regenerant
brine during regeneration. .he location of the distributor, * in. above the top of the resin bed,
prevents the dilution of regenerant by water in the free!board space. It also reduces water and
time re0uirements for displacement and fast rinse. .he regenerant distributor should be secured
to the tank structure to prevent breakage and subse0uent channeling of the regenerant.
=ater is softened by the bed of strong acid cation e&change resin in the sodium form. .he
0uantity of resin re0uired depends on the water flow, total hardness, and time desired between
regeneration cycles. + minimum bed depth of %( in. is recommended for all systems.
.he underdrain system, located at the bottom of the vessel, retains ion e&change resin in the tank,
evenly collects the service flow, and evenly distributes the backwash flow. Aneven collection of
water in service or uneven distribution of the backwash water can result in channeling, resin
fouling, or resin loss.
+lthough several underdrain designs are used, there are two primary typesLsubfill and resin!
retaining. + subfill system consists of multiple layers of support media (such as graded gravel or
anthracite) which support the resin, and a collection system incorporating drilled pipes or subfill
strainers. +s long as the support layers remain intact, the resin will remain in place. If the
supporting media becomes disturbed, usually due to improper backwash, the resin can move
through the disrupted layers and e&it the vessel. + resin!retaining collector, such as a screened
lateral or profile wire strainer, is more e&pensive than a subfill system but protects against resin
loss.
.he main valve and piping system directs the flow of water and regenerant to the proper
locations. .he valve system consists of a valve nest or a single multiport valve. + valve nest
includes si& main valvesP service inlet and outlet, backwash inlet and outlet, regenerant inlet, and
regenerant/rinse drain. .he valves may be operated manually, or automatically controlled by air,
electrical impulse, or water pressure. In some systems, a single multiport valve is used in place of
the valve nest. +s the valve rotates through a series of fi&ed positions, ports in the valve direct
flow in the same manner as a valve nest. 7ultiport valves can eliminate operational errors caused
by opening of the incorrect valve but must be properly maintained to avoid leaks through the port
seals.
.he brining system consists of salt dissolving/brine measuring e0uipment, and dilution control
e0uipment to provide the desired regenerant strength. .he dissolving/measuring e0uipment is
designed to provide the correct amount of concentrated brine (appro&imately %*E ?a-l) for each
regeneration, without allowing any undissolved salt into the resin. 7ost systems use a float!
operated valve to control the fill and draw!down of the supply tank, thereby controlling the
amount of salt used in the regeneration. Asually, the concentrated brine is removed from the tank
by means of an eductor system, which also dilutes the brine to the optimum regenerant strength
(;!#5E ?a-l). .he brine can also be pumped from the concentrated salt tank and mi&ed with
dilution water to provide the desired regenerant strength.
Sotener Operation
+ sodium eolite softener operates through two basic cyclesP the service cycle, which produces
soft water for use, and the regeneration cycle, which restores resin capacity at e&haustion.
In the service cycle, water enters the softener through the inlet distribution system and flows
through the bed. .he hardness ions diffuse into the resin and e&change with sodium ions, which
return to the bulk water. >oft water is collected in the underdrain system and discharged. >ervice
water flow to the softener should be as constant as possible to prevent sudden surges and
fre0uent on!off operation.
,ue to resin re0uirements and vessel designs, the softening operation is most efficient when a
service flow rate between * and #% gpm per s0uare foot of resin surface area is maintained. 7ost
e0uipment is designed to operate in this range, but some special designs utilie a deep resin bed
to permit operation at #)!%5 gpm/ft`. -ontinuous operation above the manufacturer4s suggested
limits can lead to bed compaction, channeling, premature hardness breakthrough, and hardness
leakage. <perating well below the manufacturer4s recommended flow rates can also negatively
affect softener performance. +t low flow rates, the water is not sufficiently distributed, and the
optimum resin!water contact cannot take place.
=hen a softener is e&hausted, the resin must be regenerated. 7onitoring of the effluent hardness
reveals resin e&haustion. =hen hardness increases, the unit is e&hausted. +utomatic monitors
pro!vide a more constant indication of the condition of the softener than periodic operator
sampling and testing, but re0uire fre0uent maintenance to ensure accuracy. 7any facilities
regenerate softeners before e&haustion, based on a predetermined time period or number of
gallons processed.
7ost softening systems consist of more than one softener. .hey are often operated so that one
softener is in regeneration or standby while the other units are in service. .his ensures an
uninterrupted flow of soft water. @rior to placing a standby softener into service, the unit should
be rinsed to remove any hardness that has entered the water during the standing time.
Sotener Regeneration
.he regeneration cycle of a sodium eolite softener consists of four stepsP backwash,
regeneration (brining), displacement (slow rinse), and fast rinse.
3ackwash. ,uring the service cycle, the downward flow of water causes suspended material to
accumulate on the resin bed. 2esin is an e&cellent filter and can trap particulate matter that has
passed through upstream filtration e0uipment. .he backwash step removes accumulated material
and reclassifies the resin bed. In the backwash step, water flows from the underdrain distributor
up through the resin bed and out the service distributor to waste. .he upward flow lifts and
e&pands the resin, allowing for removal of particulate material and resin fines and the
classification of the resin. 2esin classification brings the smaller beads to the top of the unit
while the larger beads settle to the bottom. .his enhances the distribution of the regenerant
chemical and service water.
3ackwashing should continue for a minimum of #5 min or until effluent from the backwash
outlet is clear. .he backwash flow should be sufficient to e&pand the resin bed volume by )5E or
more, depending on the available free!board. Insufficient backwash can lead to bed fouling and
channeling. E&cessive backwash flow rates result in the loss of resin. 3ackwash flow rates
usually vary between (!; (ambient temperature) and #%!#) (hot service) gpm per s0uare foot of
bed area, but each manufacturer4s recommendation should be followed. .he ability of water to
e&pand the resin is greatly affected by temperature. 8ess flow is re0uired to e&pand the bed with
cold water than with warm water. 2esin bed e&pansion should be checked regularly and the flow
rate adjusted as needed to maintain proper bed e&pansion.
Asually, the backwash water is filtered raw water. =ater leaving the backwash outlet is
unchanged in chemistry but can contain suspended solids. In order to conserve water, the
backwash effluent can be returned to the clarifier or filter influent for treatment.
2egeneration (3rining). +fter backwash, regenerant brine is applied. .he brine stream enters the
unit through the regenerant distributor and flows down through the resin bed at a slow rate
(usually between 5.) and # gpm per s0uare foot of resin). 3rine flow is collected through the
underdrain and sent to waste. .he slow flow rate increases contact between the brine and resin.
.o achieve optimum efficiency from the brine, the solution strength should be #5E during brine
introduction.
,isplacement (>low 2inse). Dollowing the introduction of regenerant brine, a slow flow of water
continues through the regenerant distribution system. .his water flow displaces the regenerant
through the bed at the desired flow rate. .he displacement step completes the regeneration of the
resin by ensuring proper contact of the regenerant with the bottom of the resin bed. .he flow rate
for the displacement water is usually the same rate used for the dilution of the concentrated brine.
.he duration of the displacement step should be sufficient to allow for appro&imately one resin
bed volume of water to pass through the unit. .his provides a /plug/ of displacement water
which gradually moves the brine completely through the bed.
Dast 2inse. +fter completion of the displacement rinse, water is introduced through the inlet
distributor at a high flow rate. .his rinse water removes the remaining brine as well as any
residual hardness from the resin bed. .he fast rinse flow rate is normally between #.) and % gpm
per s0uare foot of resin. >ometimes it is deter!mined by the service rate for the softener.
Initially, the rinse effluent contains large amounts of hardness and sodium chloride. Asually,
hardness is rinsed from the softener before e&cess sodium chloride. In many operations, the
softener can be returned to service as soon as the hardness reaches a predetermined level, but
some uses re0uire rinsing until the effluent chlorides or conductivity are near influent levels. +n
effective fast rinse is important to ensure high effluent 0uality during the service run. If the
softener has been in standby following a regeneration, a second fast rinse, known as a service
rinse, can be used to remove any hardness that has entered the water during standby.
+OT >EOLITE SOFTENING
Oeolite softeners can be used to remove residual hardness in the effluent from a hot process lime
or lime!soda softener. .he hot process effluent flows through filters and then through a bed of
strong acid cation resin in the sodium form (Digure ;!6). .he e0uipment and operation of a hot
eolite softener is identical to that of an ambient temperature softener, e&cept that the valves,
piping, controllers, and instrumentation must be suitable for the high temperature (%%5!%)5_D).
>tandard strong cation resin can be used at temperatures of up to %65_D, but for a longer service
life a premium gel or macroreticular resin is recommended. =hen operating a eolite system
following a hot process softener, it is important to design the system to eliminate flow surges in
the hot lime unit. -ommon designs include the use of backwash water storage tanks in the hot
lime unit and e&tended slow rinses for the eolite in lieu of a standard fast rinse.
Appli!ation" an# A#vantage"
>cale and deposit buildup in boilers and the formation of insoluble soap curds in washing
operations have created a large demand for softened water. 3ecause sodium eolite softeners are
able to satisfy this demand economically, they are widely used in the preparation of water for
low and medium pressure boilers, laundries, and chemical processes. >odium eolite softening
also offers the following advantages over other softening methodsP
treated water has a very low scaling tendency because eolite softening reduces the
hardness level of most water supplies to less than % ppm
operation is simple and reliableH automatic and semiautomatic regeneration controls are
available at a reasonable cost
salt is ine&pensive and easy to handle
no waste sludge is producedH usually, waste disposal is not a problem
within certain limits, variations in water flow rate have little effect on treated water 0uality
because efficient operation can be obtained in units of almost any sie, sodium eolite
softeners are suitable for both large and small installations
Limitation"
+lthough sodium eolite softeners efficiently re!duce the amount of dissolved hardness in a
water supply, the total solids content, alkalinity, and silica in the water remain unaffected. +
sodium eolite softener is not a direct replacement for a hot lime!soda softener. @lants that have
replaced their hot process softeners with only eolite softeners have e&perienced problems with
silica and alkalinity levels in their boilers.
3ecause the resin is such an efficient filter, sodium eolite softeners do not function efficiently
on turbid waters. -ontinued operation with an influent turbidity in e&cess of #.5 :.A causes bed
fouling, short service runs, and poor effluent 0uality. 7ost city and well waters are suitable, but
many surface supplies must be clarified and filtered before use.
.he resin can be fouled by heavy metal contaminants, such as iron and aluminum, which are not
removed during the course of a normal regeneration. If e&cess iron or manganese is present in the
water supply, the resin must be cleaned periodically. =henever aluminum coagulants are used
ahead of eolite softeners, proper e0uipment operation and close control of clarifier p1 are
essential to good softener performance.
>trong o&idiing agents in the raw water attack and degrade the resin. -hlorine, present in most
municipal supplies, is a strong o&idant and should be removed prior to eolite softening by
activated carbon filtration or reaction with sodium sulfite.
DEMINERALI>ATION
>oftening alone is insufficient for most high!pressure boiler feedwaters and for many process
streams, especially those used in the manufacture of electronics e0uipment. In addition to the
removal of hardness, these processes re0uire removal of all dissolved solids, such as sodium,
silica, alkalinity, and the mineral anions (-la, ><
(
`a, ?<
'
a).
,emineraliation of water is the removal of essentially all inorganic salts by ion e&change. In
this process, strong acid cation resin in the hydrogen form converts dissolved salts into their
corresponding acids, and strong base anion resin in the hydro&ide form removes these acids.
,emineraliation produces water similar in 0uality to distillation at a lower cost for most fresh
waters.
Prin!iple" o Deminerali;ation
+ demineralier system consists of one or more ion e&change resin columns, which include a
strong acid cation unit and a strong base anion unit. .he cation resin e&changes hydrogen for the
raw water cations as shown by the following reactionsP
+ measure of the total concentration of the strong acids in the cation effluent is the free mineral
acidity (D7+). In a typical service run, the D7+ content is stable most of the time, as shown in
Digure ;!;. If cation e&change were #55E efficient, the D7+ from the e&changer would be e0ual
to the theoretical mineral acidity (.7+) of the water. .he D7+ is usually slightly lower than the
.7+ because a small amount of sodium leaks through the cation e&changer. .he amount of
sodium leakage depends on the regenerant level, the flow rate, and the proportion of sodium to
the other cations in the raw water. In general, sodium leakage increases as the ratio of sodium to
total cations increases.
+s a cation e&change unit nears e&haustion, D7+ in the effluent drops sharply, indicating that
the e&changer should be removed from service. +t this time the resin should be regenerated with
an acid solution, which returns the e&change sites to the hydrogen form. >ulfuric acid is normally
used due to its affordable cost and its availability. 1owever, improper use of sulfuric acid can
cause irreversible fouling of the resin with calcium sulfate.
.o prevent this occurrence, the sulfuric acid is usually applied at a high flow rate (# gpm per
s0uare foot of resin) and an initial concentration of %E or less. .he acid concentration is
gradually increased to *!;E to complete regeneration.
>ome installations use hydrochloric acid for regeneration. .his necessitates the use of special
materials of construction in the regenerant system. +s with a sodium eolite unit, an e&cess of
regenerant (sulfuric or hydrochloric acid) is re0uired up to three times the theoretical dose.
.o complete the demineraliation process, water from the cation unit is passed through a strong
base anion e&change resin in the hydro&ide form. .he resin e&changes hydrogen ions for both
highly ionied mineral ions and the more weakly ionied carbonic and silicic acids, as shown
belowP
.he above reactions indicate that demineraliation completely removes the cations and anions
from the water. In reality, because ion e&change reactions are e0uilibrium reactions, some
leakage occurs. 7ost leakage from cation units is sodium. .his sodium leakage is converted to
sodium hydro&ide in the anion units. .here!fore, the effluent p1 of a two bed cation!anion
demineralier system is slightly alkaline. .he caustic produced in the anions causes a small
amount of silica leakage. .he e&tent of leakage from the anions depends on the chemistry of the
water being processed and the regenerant dosage being used.
,emineraliation using strong anion resins removes silica as well as other dissolved solids.
Effluent silica and conductivity are important parameters to monitor during a demineralier
service run. 3oth silica and conductivity are low at the end of the fast rinse, as shown in Digure
;!9.
=hen silica breakthrough occurs at the end of a service run, the treated water silica level
increases sharply. <ften, the conductivity of the water decreases momentarily, then rises rapidly.
.his temporary drop in conductivity is easily e&plained. ,uring the normal service run, most of
the effluent conductivity is attributed to the small level of sodium hydro&ide produced in the
anion e&changer. =hen silica breakthrough occurs, the hydro&ide is no longer available, and the
sodium from the cation e&changer is converted to sodium silicate, which is much less conductive
than sodium hydro&ide. +s anion resin e&haustion progresses, the more conductive mineral ions
break through, causing a subse0uent increase in conductivity.
=hen the end of a demineralier run is detected, the unit must be removed from service
immediately. If the demineralier is allowed to remain in service past the breakpoint, the level of
silica in the treated water can rise above that of the influent water, due to the concentrating of
silica that takes place in the anion resin during the service run.
>trong base anion e&changers are regenerated with a (E sodium hydro&ide solution. +s with
cation regeneration, the relatively high concentration of hydro&ide drives the regeneration
reaction. .o improve the removal of silica from the resin bed, the regenerant caustic is usually
heated to #%5_D or to the temperature specified by the resin manufacturer. >ilica removal is also
enhanced by a resin bed preheat step before the introduction of warm caustic.
E'$ipment an# Operation
.he e0uipment used for cation!anion demineraliation is similar to that used in eolite softening.
.he primary difference is that the vessels, valves, and piping must be made of (or lined with)
corrosion!resistant materials. 2ubber and polyvinyl chloride (@B-) are commonly used for ion
e&change vessel linings. .he controls and regenerant systems for demineraliers are more
comple&, to allow for such enhancements as stepwise acid and warm caustic regenerations.
,emineraliers are similar in operation to eolite softeners. .he service flow rate guidelines for a
demineralier range from * to #5 gpm per s0uare foot of resin. Dlow rates of over #5 gpm per
s0uare foot of resin cause increased sodium and silica leakage with certain waters. +nion resin is
much lighter than cation resin. .herefore, the backwash flow rates for anion e&change resins are
much lower than those for cation resins, and anion resin e&pansion is affected by the temperature
of the water more than cation resin e&pansion. .he water used for each step of anion resin
regeneration should be free from hardness, to prevent precipitation of hardness salts in the
alkaline anion resin bed.
-ontinuous conductivity instruments and silica analyers are commonly used to monitor anion
effluent water 0uality and detect the need for regeneration. In some instances, conductivity
probes are placed in the resin bed above the underdrain collectors to detect resin e&haustion
before silica breakthrough into the treated water occurs.
A#vantage" an# Limitation"
,emineraliers can produce high!purity water for nearly every use. ,emineralied water is
widely used for high pressure boiler feedwater and for many process waters. .he 0uality of water
produced is comparable to distilled water, usually at a fraction of the cost. ,emineraliers come
in a wide variety of sies. >ystems range from laboratory columns that produce only a few
gallons per hour to systems that produce thousands of gallons per minute.
8ike other ion e&change systems, demineraliers re0uire filtered water in order to function
efficiently. 2esin foulants and degrading agents, such as iron and chlorine, should be avoided or
removed prior to demineraliation. +nion resins are very susceptible to fouling and attack from
the organic materials present in many surface water supplies. >ome forms of silica, known as
colloidal, or non!reactive, are not removed by a demineralier. 1ot, alkaline boiler water
dissolves the colloidal material, forming simple silicates that are similar to those that enter the
boiler in a soluble form. +s such, they can form deposits on tube surfaces and volatilie into the
steam.
DEAL-ALI>ATION
<ften, boiler or process operating conditions re0uire the removal of hardness and the reduction
of alkalinity but not the removal of the other solids. Oeolite softening does not reduce alkalinity,
and demineraliation is too costly. Dor these situations, a dealkaliation process is used. >odium
eolite/hydrogen eolite (split stream) dealkaliation, chloride!anion dealkaliation, and weak
acid cation dealkaliation are the most fre0uently used processes.
So#i$m >eolite=+%#rogen >eolite 9Split Stream: Deal.ali;ation
In a split stream dealkalier, a portion of the raw water flows through a sodium eolite softener.
.he remainder flows through a hydrogen!form strong acid cation unit (hydrogen eolite). .he
effluent from the sodium eolite is combined with the hydrogen eolite effluent. .he effluent
from the hydrogen eolite unit contains carbonic acid, produced from the raw water alkalinity,
and free mineral acids. =hen the two streams are combined, free mineral acidity in the hydrogen
eolite effluent converts sodium carbonate and bicarbonate alkalinity in the sodium eolite
effluent to carbonic acid as shown belowP
-arbonic acid is unstable in water. It forms carbon dio&ide gas and water. .he blended effluents
are sent to a decarbonator or degasser, where the carbon dio&ide is stripped from the water by a
countercurrent stream of air. Digure ;!#5 shows a typical split stream dealkaliation system.
.he desired level of blended water alkalinity can be maintained through control of the percentage
of sodium eolite and hydrogen eolite water in the mi&ture. + higher percentage of sodium
eolite water results in higher alkalinity, and an increased percentage of hydrogen eolite water
reduces alkalinity.
In addition to reducing alkalinity, a split stream dealkalier reduces the total dissolved solids of
the water. .his is important in high alkalinity waters, because the conductivity of these waters
affects the process and can limit boiler cycles of concentration.
So#i$m >eolite=*)lori#e Anion Deal.ali;ation
>trong base anion resin in the chloride form can be used to reduce the alkalinity of a water.
=ater flows through a eolite softener and then an anion unit, which replaces the carbonate,
bicarbonate, sulfate, and nitrate ions with chloride ions as shown in these reactionsP
.he chloride anion dealkalier reduces alkalinity by appro&imately 95E but does not reduce total
solids. =hen the resin nears e&haustion, treated water alkalinity increases rapidly, signaling the
need for regeneration.
.he eolite softener is regenerated as previously described. In addition, the anion resin is also
regenerated with a sodium chloride brine that returns the resin to the chloride form. Dre0uently, a
small amount of caustic soda is added to the regenerant brine to enhance alkalinity removal.
Wea. A!i# *ation Deal.ali;ation
+nother method of dealkaliation uses weak acid cation resins. =eak acid resins are similar in
operation to strong acid cation resins, but only e&change for cations that are associated with
alkalinity, as shown by these reactionsP
where O represents the resin. .he carbonic acid (1
%
-<
'
) formed is removed by a decarbonator or
degasser as in a split stream system.
.he ideal influent for a weak acid cation system has a hardness level e0ual to the alkalinity (both
e&pressed in ppm as -a-<
'
). In waters that are higher in alkalinity than hardness, the alkalinity
is not removed to its lowest level. In waters containing more hardness than alkalinity, some
hardness remains after treatment. Asually, these waters must be polished by a sodium eolite
softener to remove hardness. ,uring the initial portion of a weak acid cation service run (the first
(5!*5E) some cations associated with mineral anions e&change, producing small amounts of
mineral acids in the effluent. +s the service cycle progresses, alkalinity appears in the effluent.
=hen the alkalinity in the effluent e&ceeds #5E of the influent alkalinity, the unit is removed
from service and regenerated with a 5.)E sulfuric acid solution. .he concentration of regenerant
acid should be kept below 5.)!5.6E, to prevent calcium sulfate precipitation in the resin. =eak
acid cation resin e&change is very efficient. .herefore, the amount of acid re0uired is virtually
e0ual (chemically) to the amount of cations removed during the service cycle.
If the materials of construction for the down!stream e0uipment or overall process cannot tolerate
the mineral acidity present during the initial portions of the service cycle, a brine solution is
passed through the regenerated weak acid resin prior to the final rinse. .his solution removes the
mineral acidity without a significant impact on the 0uality or length of the subse0uent run.
E0uipment used for a weak acid cation dealkalier is similar to that used for a strong acid cation
e&changer, with the e&ception of the resin. <ne variation of the standard design uses a layer of
weak acid resin on top of strong acid cation resin. 3ecause it is lighter, the weak acid resin
remains on top. .he layered resin system is regenerated with sulfuric acid and then with sodium
chloride brine. .he brine solution converts the strong acid resin to the sodium form. .his resin
then acts as a polishing softener.
Dire!t A!i# In3e!tion
In the process of direct acid injection and decarbonation, acid is used to convert alkalinity to
carbonic acid. .he carbonic acid dissociates to form carbon dio&ide and water and the carbon
dio&ide is removed in a decarbonator. .he use of an acid injection system should be approached
with caution, because an acid overfeed or a breakdown in the p1 control system can produce
acidic feedwater, which corrodes the iron surfaces of feedwater systems and boilers. @roper p1
monitoring and controlled caustic feed after decarbonation are re0uired.
A#vantage" an# Limitation" o Deal.ali;ation S%"tem"
Ion e&change dealkaliation systems produce hardness!free, low!alkalinity water at a reasonable
cost, and with a high degree of reliability. .hey are well suited for processing feedwater for
medium!pressure boilers, and for process water for the beverage industry. >plit stream and weak
acid cation systems also reduce the total dissolved solids. In addition to these advantages, the
following disadvantages must be consideredP
dealkaliers do not remove all of the alkalinity and do not affect the silica content of a
water
dealkaliers re0uire the same influent purity as other ion e&change processesH filtered
water that is low in potential foulants must be used
the water produced by a dealkaliation system using a forced draft decarbonator becomes
saturated with o&ygen, so it is potentially corrosive
*OUNTERFLOW AND MI<ED 2ED DEIONI>ATION
,ue to increasing boiler operating pressures and the manufacture of products re0uiring
contaminant!free water, there is a growing need for higher water 0uality than cation!anion
demineraliers can produce. .herefore, it has become necessary to modify the standard
demineraliation process to increase the purity of the treated water. .he most significant
improvements in demineralied water purity have been produced by counterflow cation
e&changers and mi&ed bed e&changers.
*o$nterlo& *ation E1!)anger"
In a conventional demineralier system, regenerant flow is in the same direction as the service
flow, down through the resin bed. .his scheme is known as co!current operation and is the basis
for most ion e&change system designs. ,uring the regeneration of a co!current unit, the
contaminants are displaced through the resin bed during the regeneration. +t the end of the
regeneration, some ions, predominately sodium ions, remain in the bottom of the resin bed.
3ecause the upper portion of the bed has been e&posed to fresh regenerant, it is highly
regenerated. +s the water flows through the resin during service, cations are e&changed in the
upper portion of the bed first, and then move down through the resin as the bed becomes
e&hausted. >odium ions that remained in the bed during regeneration diffuse into the
decationied water before it leaves the vessel. .his sodium leakage enters the anion unit where
anion e&change produces caustic, raising the p1 and conductivity of the demineralied water.
In a counterflow regenerated cation e&changer, the regenerant flows in the opposite direction of
the service flow. Dor e&ample, if the service flow is downward through the bed, the regenerant
acid flow is up through the bed. +s a result, the most highly regenerated resin is located where
the service water leaves the vessel. .he highly regenerated resin removes the low level of
contaminants that have escaped removal in the top of the bed. .his results in higher water purity
than co!current designs can produce. .o ma&imie contact between the acid and resin and to
keep the most highly regenerated resin from mi&ing with the rest of the bed, the resin bed must
stay compressed during the regenerant introduction. .his compression is usually achieved in one
of two waysP
a blocking flow of water or air is used
the acid flow is split, and acid is introduced at both the top and the bottom of the resin bed
(Digure ;!##)
Mi1e# 2e# E1!)anger"
+ mi&ed bed e&changer has both cation and anion resin mi&ed together in a single vessel. +s
water flows through the resin bed, the ion e&change process is repeated many times, /polishing/
the water to a very high purity. ,uring regeneration, the resin is separated into distinct cation and
anion fractions as shown in Digure ;!#%. .he resin is separated by backwashing, with the lighter
anion resin settling on top of the cation resin. 2egenerant acid is introduced through the bottom
distributor, and caustic is introduced through distributors above the resin bed. .he regenerant
streams meet at the boundary between the cation and anion resin and discharge through a
collector located at the resin interface. Dollowing regenerant introduction and displacement rinse,
air and water are used to mi& the resins. .hen the resins are rinsed, and the unit is ready for
service.
-ounterflow and mi&ed bed systems produce a purer water than conventional cation!anion
demineraliers, but re0uire more sophisticated e0uipment and have a higher initial cost. .he
more complicated regeneration se0uences re0uire closer operator attention than standard
systems. .his is especially true for a mi&ed bed unit.
OT+ER DEMINERALI>ATION PRO*ESSES
.he standard cation!anion process has been modified in many systems to reduce the use of costly
regenerants and the production of waste. 7odifications include the use of decarbonators and
degassers, weak acid and weak base resins, strong base anion caustic waste (to regenerate weak
base anion e&changers), and reclamation of a portion of spent caustic for subse0uent regeneration
cycles. >everal different approaches to demineraliation using these processes are shown in
Digure ;!#'.
De!ar,onator" an# Dega""er"
,ecarbonators and degassers are economically beneficial to many demineraliation systems,
because they reduce the amount of caustic re0uired for regeneration. =ater from a cation
e&changer is broken into small droplets by sprays and trays or packing in a decarbonator. .he
water then flows through a stream of air flowing in the opposite direction. -arbonic acid present
in the cation effluent dissociates into carbon dio&ide and water. .he carbon dio&ide is stripped
from the water by the air, reducing the load to the anion e&changers. .ypical forced draft
decarbonators are capable of removing carbon dio&ide down to #5!#) ppm. 1owever, water
effluent from a decarbonator is saturated with o&ygen.
In a vacuum degasser, water droplets are introduced into a packed column that is operated under
a vacuum. -arbon dio&ide is removed from the water due to its decreased partial pressure in a
vacuum. + vacuum degasser usually reduces carbon dio&ide to less than % ppm and also removes
most of the o&ygen from the water. 1owever, vacuum degassers are more e&pensive to purchase
and operate than forced draft decarbonators.
Wea. A!i# an# Wea. 2a"e Re"in"
=eak functionality resins have a much higher regeneration efficiency than their strong function!
ality counterparts. =eak acid cation resins, as described in the dealkaliation section, e&change
with cations associated with alkalinity. =eak base resins e&change with the mineral acid anions
(><
(
`a, -la, ?<
'
a) in a strong acid solution. .he regeneration efficiency of weak resins is
virtually stoichiometric, the removal of # kgr of ions (as -a-<
'
) re0uires only slightly more than
# kgr of the regenerant ion (as -a-<
'
). >trong resins re0uire three to four times the regenerant
for the same contaminant removal.
=eak base resins are so efficient that it is common practice to regenerate a weak base e&changer
with a portion of the /spent/ caustic from regeneration of the strong base anion resin. .he first
fraction of the caustic from the strong base unit is sent to waste to prevent silica fouling of the
weak base resin. .he remaining caustic is used to regenerate the weak base resin. +n additional
feature of weak base resins is their ability to hold natural organic materials that foul strong base
resins and release them during the regeneration cycle. ,ue to this ability, weak base resins are
commonly used to protect strong base resins from harmful organic fouling.
Regenerant Re$"e
,ue to the high cost of caustic soda and the increasing problems of waste disposal, many
demineraliation systems are now e0uipped with a caustic reclaim feature. .he reclaim system
uses a portion of the spent caustic from the previous regeneration at the beginning of the ne&t
regeneration cycle. .he reused caustic is followed by fresh caustic to complete the regeneration.
.he new caustic is then reclaimed for use in the ne&t regeneration. .ypically, sulfuric acid is not
reclaimed, because it is lower in cost and calcium sulfate precipitation is a potential problem.
*ONDENSATE POLIS+ING
Ion e&change uses are not limited to process and boiler water makeup. Ion e&change can be used
to purify, or polish, returned condensate, removing corrosion products that could cause harmful
deposits in boilers.
.ypically, the contaminants in the condensate system are particulate iron and copper. 8ow levels
of other contaminants may enter the system through condenser and pump seal leaks or carry!over
of boiler water into the steam. -ondensate polishers filter out the particulates and remove soluble
contaminants by ion e&change.
7ost paper mill condensate polishers operate at temperatures approaching %55_D, precluding the
use of anion resin. -ation resin, which is stable up to temperatures of over %65_D, is used for
deep bed condensate polishing in these applications. .he resin is regenerated with sodium
chloride brine, as in a eolite softener. In situations where sodium leakage from the polisher
adversely affects the boiler water internal chemical program or steam attemperating water purity,
the resin can be regenerated with an ionied amine solution to prevent these problems.
.he service flow rate for a deep bed polisher (%5!)5 gpm per s0uare foot of resin surface area) is
very high compared to that of a conventional softener. 1igh flow rates are permissible because
the level of soluble ions in the condensate can be usually very low. @articulate iron and copper
are removed by filtration, while dissolved contaminants are reduced by e&change for the sodium
or amine in the resin.
.he deep bed cation resin condensate polisher is regenerated with #) lb of sodium chloride per
cubic foot of resin, in a manner similar to that used for conventional sodium eolite regeneration.
+ solubiliing or reducing agent is often used to assist in the removal of iron. >ometimes, a
supplemental backwash header is located just below the surface of the resin bed. .his subsurface
distributor, used prior to backwashing, introduces water to break up the crust that forms on the
resin surface between regenerations.
+n important consideration is the selection of a resin for condensate polishing. 3ecause high
pressure drops are generated by the high service flow rates and particulate loadings, and because
many systems operate at high temperatures, considerable stress is imposed on the structure of the
resin. + premium!grade gelular or macroreticular resin should be used in deep bed condensate
polishing applications.
In systems re0uiring total dissolved solids and particulate removal, a mi&ed bed condensate
polisher may be used. .he temperature of the condensate should be below #(5_D, which is the
ma&imum continuous operating temperature for the anion resin. +dditionally, the flow through
the unit is generally reduced to appro&imately %5 gpm/ft`.
Ion e&change resins are also used as part of a precoat filtration system, as shown in Digure ;!#(,
for polishing condensate. .he resin is crushed and mi&ed into a slurry, which is used to coat
individual septums in a filter vessel. .he powdered resin is a very fine filtering medium that traps
particulate matter and removes some soluble contaminants by ion e&change. =hen the filter
media becomes clogged, the precoat material is disposed of, and the septums are coated with a
fresh slurry of powdered resin.
*OMMON ION E<*+ANGE SYSTEM PRO2LEMS
+s in any dynamic operating system incorporating electrical and mechanical e0uipment and
chemical operations, problems do occur in ion e&change systems. .he problems usually result in
poor effluent 0uality, decreased service run lengths, or increased consumption of regenerant. .o
keep the ion e&change system operating efficiently and reliably, changes in water 0uality, run
lengths, or regenerant consumption should be considered whenever problems are detected.
.he cause!effect diagrams for short runs (Digure ;!#)) and poor!0uality effluent (Digure ;!
#*) show that there are many possible causes for reduced performance of a demineraliation
system. >ome of the more common problems are discussed below.
Operational Pro,lem"
-hanges in raw water 0uality have a significant impact on both the run length and the effluent
0uality produced by an ion e&change unit. +lthough most well waters have a consistent 0uality,
most surface water compositions vary widely over time. + #5E increase in the hardness of the
water to a sodium eolite softener causes a #5E decrease in the service run length. +n increase in
the ratio of sodium to total cations causes increased sodium leakage from a demineralier system.
2egular chemical analysis of the influent water to ion e&changers should be performed to reveal
such variations.
<ther causes of ion e&change operational problems includeP
Improper regenerations, caused by incorrect regenerant flows, times, or concentrations.
7anufacturer4s recommendations should be followed when regenerating ion e&change
resins.
-hanneling, resulting from either high or low flow rates, increased suspended solids
loading or poor backwashing. .his causes premature e&haustion even when much of the
bed is in a regenerated state.
2esin fouling or degradation, caused by poor!0uality regenerant.
Dailure to remove silica from the resin, which can result from low regenerant caustic
temperature. .his can lead to increased silica leakage and short service runs.
E&cess contaminants in the resin, due to previous operation past e&haustion loads.
3ecause the resin becomes loaded with more contaminants than a normal regeneration is
designed to remove, a double regeneration is re0uired following an e&tended service run.
Me!)ani!al Pro,lem"
.ypical mechanical problems associated with ion e&change systems includeP
8eaking valves, which cause poor 0uality effluent and prolonged rinses.
3roken or clogged distributor, which leads to channeling.
2esin loss, due to e&cessive backwashing or failure in the underdrain screening or support
media.
-ation resin in the anion unit, causing e&tended rinse times and sodium leakage into the
demineralied water.
Instrumentation problems, such as faulty totaliers or conductivity meters, which may
indicate a problem when none e&ists, or may introduce poor 0uality water to service.
Instrumentation in the demineralier area should be checked regularly.
RESIN FOULING AND DEGRADATION
2esin can become fouled with contaminants that hinder the e&change process.Digure ;!#6 shows
a resin fouled with iron. .he resin can also be attacked by chemicals that cause irreversible
destruction. >ome materials, such as natural organics (Digure ;!#;), foul resins at first and then
degrade the resin as time passes. .his is the most common cause of fouling and degradation in
ion e&change systems, and is discussed under /<rganic Douling,/ later in this chapter.
*a$"e" o Re"in Fo$ling
Iron an# Mangane"e. Iron may e&ist in water as a ferrous or ferric inorganic salt or as a
se0uestered organic comple&. Derrous iron e&changes in resin, but ferric iron is insoluble and
does not. Derric iron coats cation resin, preventing e&change. +n acid or a strong reducing agent
must be used to remove this iron. <rganically bound iron passes through a cation unit and fouls
the anion resin. It must be removed along with the organic material. 7anganese, present in some
well waters, fouls a resin in the same manner as iron.
Al$min$m. +luminum is usually present as aluminum hydro&ide, resulting from alum or sodium
aluminate use in clarification or precipitation softening. +luminum floc, if carried through filters,
coats the resin in a sodium eolite softener. It is removed by cleaning with either acid or caustic.
Asually, aluminum is not a foulant in a demineralier system, because it is removed from the
resin during a normal regeneration.
+ar#ne"" Pre!ipitate". 1ardness precipitates carry through a filter from a precipitation softener
or form after filtration by post!precipitation. .hese precipitates foul resins used for sodium
eolite softening. .hey are removed with acid.
>ulfate @recipitation. -alcium sulfate precipitation can occur in a strong acid cation unit operated
in the hydrogen cycle. +t the end of a service cycle, the top of the resin bed is rich in calcium. If
sulfuric acid is used as the regenerant, and it is introduced at too high a concentration or too low
a flow rate, precipitation of calcium sulfate occurs, fouling the resin. +fter calcium sulfate has
formed, it is very difficult to redissolveH therefore, resin fouled by calcium sulfate is usually
discarded. 7ild cases of calcium sulfate fouling may be reversed with a prolonged soak in
hydrochloric acid.
3arium sulfate is even less soluble than calcium sulfate. If a water source contains measurable
amounts of barium, hydrochloric acid regeneration should be considered.
Oil Fo$ling. <il coats resin, blocking the passage of ions to and from e&change sites. +
surfactant can be used to remove oil. -are must be e&ercised to select a surfactant that does not
foul resin. <il!fouled anion resins should be cleaned with nonionic surfactants only.
7icrobiological Douling. 7icrobiological fouling can occur in resin beds, especially beds that
are allowed to sit without service flow. 7icrobiological fouling can lead to severe plugging of
the resin bed, and even mechanical damage due to an e&cessive pressure drop across the fouled
resin. If microbiological fouling in standby units is a problem, a constant flow of recirculating
water should be used to minimie the problem. >evere conditions may re0uire the application of
suitable steriliation agents and surfactants.
Sili!a Fo$ling. >ilica fouling can occur in strong base anion resins if the regenerant temperature
is too low, or in weak base resins if the effluent caustic from the >3+ unit used to regenerate the
weak base unit contains too much silica. +t low p1 levels, polymeriation of the silica can occur
in a weak base resin. It can also be a problem in an e&hausted strong base anion resin. >ilica
fouling is removed by a prolonged soak in warm (#%5_D) caustic soda.
*a$"e" o Irrever"i,le Re"in Degra#ation
O1i#ation. <&idiing agents, such as chlorine, degrade both cation and anion resins. <&idants
attack the divinylbenene cross!links in a cation resin, reducing the overall strength of the resin
bead. +s the attack continues, the cation resin begins to lose its spherical shape and rigidity,
causing it to compact during service. .his compaction increases the pressure drop across the
resin bed and leads to channeling, which reduces the effective capacity of the unit.
In the case of raw water chlorine, the anion resin is not directly affected, because the chlorine is
consumed by the cation resin. 1owever, downstream strong base anion resins are fouled by
certain degradation products from o&idied cation resin.
If chlorine is present in raw water, it should be removed prior to ion e&change with activated
carbon filtration or sodium sulfite. +ppro&imately #.; ppm of sodium sulfite is re0uired to
consume # ppm of chlorine.
<&ygen!saturated water, such as that found following forced draft decarbonation, accelerates the
destruction of strong base e&change sites that occurs naturally over time. It also accelerates
degradation due to organic fouling.
T)ermal Degra#ation. .hermal degradation occurs if the anion resin becomes overheated
during the service or regeneration cycle. .his is especially true for acrylic resins, which have
temperature limitations as low as #55_D, and .ype II strong base anion resins, which have a
temperature limit of #5)_D when in the hydro&ide form.
Organi! Fo$ling
<rganic fouling is the most common and e&pensive form of resin fouling and degradation.
Asually, only low levels of organic materials are found in well waters. 1owever, surface waters
can contain hundreds of parts per million of natural and man!made organic matter. ?atural
organics are derived from decaying vegetation. .hey are aromatic and acidic in nature, and can
comple& heavy metals, such as iron. .hese contaminants include tannins, tannic acid, humic acid,
and fulvic acid.
Initially, organics block the strong base sites on a resin. .his blockage causes long final rinses
and reduces salt splitting capacity. +s the foulant continues to remain on the resin, it begins to
degrade the strong base sites, reducing the salt splitting capacity of the resin. .he functionality of
the site changes from strong base to weak base, and finally to a nonactive site. .hus, a resin in
the early stages of degradation e&hibits high total capacity, but reduced salt splitting capacity. +t
this stage, cleaning of the resin can still return some, but not all, of the lost operating capacity. +
loss in salt splitting capacity reduces the ability of the resin to remove silica and carbonic acid.
<rganic fouling of anion resin is evidenced by the color of the effluent from the anion unit dur!
ing regeneration, which ranges from tea!colored to dark brown. ,uring operation, the treated
water has higher conductivity and a lower p1.
Prevention. .he following methods are used, either alone or in combination, to reduce organic
foulingP
@rechlorination and clarification. =ater is prechlorinated at the source, and then clarified
with an organic removal aid.
Diltration through activated carbon. It should be noted that a carbon filter has a finite
capacity for removal of organic material and that the removal performance of the carbon
should be monitored fre0uently.
7acroporous and weak base resin ahead of strong base resin. .he weak base or
macroporous resin absorbs the organic material and is eluted during regeneration.
>pecialty resins. +crylic and other specialty resins that are less susceptible to organic
fouling have been developed.
In"pe!tion an# *leaning. In addition to these preventive procedures, a program of regular
inspection and cleaning of the ion e&change system helps to preserve the life of anion resin. 7ost
cleaning procedures use one of the followingP
=arm (#%5_D) brine and caustic. 7ild o&idants or solubiliing agents can be added to
improve the cleaning.
1ydrochloric acid. =hen resins are also fouled with significant amounts of iron,
hydrochloric acids are used.
>olutions of 5.%)!5.)E sodium hypochlorite. .his procedure destroys the organic material
but also significantly degrades the resin. 1ypochlorite cleaning is considered a last resort.
It is important to clean an organically fouled resin before e&cessive permanent degradation of the
strong base sites occurs. -leaning after permanent degradation has occurred removes significant
amounts of organic material but does not improve unit performance. .he condition of the resin
should be closely monitored to identify the optimum schedule for cleaning.
RESIN TESTING AND ANALYSIS
.o track the condition of ion e&change resin and determine the best time for cleaning it, the resin
should be periodically sampled and analyed for physical stability, foulant levels, and the ability
to perform the re0uired ion e&change.
>amples should be representative of the entire resin bed. .herefore, samples should be collected
at different levels within the bed, or a grain thief or hollow pipe should be used to obtain a /core/
sample. ,uring sampling, the inlet and regenerant distributor should be e&amined, and the
condition of the top of the resin bed should be noted. E&cessive hills or valleys in the resin bed
are an indication of flow distribution problems.
.he resin sample should be e&amined microscopically for signs of fouling and cracked or broken
beads.It should also be tested for physical properties, such as density and moisture content
(Digure ;!#9). .he level of organic and inorganic foulants in the resin should be determined and
compared to known standards and the previous condition of the resin. Dinally, the salt splitting
and total capacity should be measured on anion resin samples to evaluate the rate of degradation
or organic fouling.
7embrane systems
7embrane processes
@retreatment
>olids removal
>cale control
7icrobiological fouling
>ince the #9(54s, ion e&change resins have been used to remove dissolved salts from water.
.hese resins e&change ions in the water for ions on the resin e&change sites and hold them until
released by a regeneration solution (see -hapter ; for a more detailed discussion). 7any ion
e&change processes e&ist for a variety of industrial water and wastewater applications. .he ion
e&change process consumes large 0uantities of regeneration chemicals, such as brine, acid, and
caustic materials that can present significant handling and disposal problems.
In recent years, membrane processes have been used increasingly for the production of /pure/
waters from fresh water and seawater. 7embrane processes are also being applied in process and
wastewater systems.
+lthough typically thought to be e&pensive and relatively e&perimental, membrane technology is
advancing 0uickly becoming less e&pensive, improving performance, and e&tending life
e&pectancy.
MEM2RANE PRO*ESSES
-ommon membrane processes include ultrafiltration (AD), reverse osmosis (2<), electrodialysis
(E,), and electrodialysis reversal (E,2). .hese processes (with the e&ception of AD) reduce
most ionsH 2< and AD systems also provide efficient reduction of nonionied organics and
particulates. 3ecause AD membrane porosity is too large for ion rejection, the AD process is used
to reduce contaminants, such as oil and grease, and suspended solids.
Rever"e O"mo"i"
<smosis is the flow of solvent through a semi!permeable membrane, from a dilute solution to a
concentrated solution. .his flow results from the driving force created by the difference in
pressure between the two solutions. <smotic pressure is the pressure that must be added to the
concentrated solution side in order to stop the solvent flow through the membrane. 2everse
osmosis is the process of reversing the flow, forcing water through a membrane from a
concentrated solution to a dilute solution to produce filtered water. Digure 9!# illustrates the
processes of osmosis and reverse osmosis.
2everse osmosis is created when sufficient pressure is applied to the concentrated solution to
overcome the osmotic pressure. .his pressure is provided by feedwater pumps. -oncentrated
contaminants (brine) are reduced from the high!pressure side of the 2< membrane, and filtered
water (permeate) is reduced from the low!pressure side. Digure 9!% is a simplified schematic of
an 2< process. 7embrane modules may be staged in various design configurations, producing
the highest!0uality permeate with the least amount of waste. +n e&ample of a multistage 2<
configuration is shown in Digure 9!'.
.ypically, 9)E of dissolved salts are reduced from the brine. +ll particulates are removed.
1owever, due to their molecular porosity, 2< membranes do not remove dissolved gases, such
as -l
%
, -<
%
, and <
%
.
2< 7embranes. .he two most common 2< membranes used in industrial water treatment are
cellulose acetate (-+) and polyamide (@+) composite. -urrently, most membranes are spiral
woundH however, hollow fiber configurations are available. In the spiral wound configuration, a
flat sheet membrane and spacers are wound around the permeate collection tube to produce flow
channels for permeate and feed water. .his design ma&imies flow while minimiing the
membrane module sie.
1ollow fiber systems are bundles of tiny, hair!like membrane tubes. Ions are rejected when the
feedwater permeates the walls of these tubes, and permeate is collected through the hollow center
of the fibers. -oncentrated brine is produced on the outside of the fibers contained by the module
housing.
Digure 9!( shows the construction and flow patterns in a spiral wound membrane
configuration.Digure 9!) shows the construction and flow patterns in a hollow fiber membrane
system.
Ele!tro#ial%"i"
Electrodialysis (E,) processes transfer ions of dissolved salts across membranes, leaving
purified water behind. Ion movement is induced by direct current electrical fields. + negative
elec!trode (cathode) attracts cations, and a positive electrode (anode) attracts anions. >ystems are
compartmentalied in stacks by alternating cation and anion transfer membranes. +lternating
compartments carry concentrated brine and filtered permeate. .ypically, (5!*5E of dissolved
ions are removed or rejected. Durther improvement in water 0uality is obtained by staging
(operation of stacks in series). E, processes do not remove particulate contaminants or weakly
ionied contaminants, such as silica. Digure 9!* is a simplified schematic of an E, process.
Ele!tro#ial%"i" Rever"al
Electrodialysis reversal (E,2) processes operate on the same principles as E,H however, E,2
operation reverses system polarity (typically '!( times per hour). .his reversal stops the buildup
of concentrated solutions on the membrane and thereby reduces the accumulation of inorganic
and organic deposition on the membrane surface. E,2 systems are similar to E, systems,
designed with ade0uate chamber area to collect both product water and brine. E,2 produces
water of the same 0uality as E,.
Ultrailtration
In many process and wastewater applications, reduction of dissolved ions is not re0uired but
efficient reduction of colloidal inorganic or organic molecules is. Altrafiltration (AD) membrane
configurations and system designs are similar to those used in the single!stage 2< process.
3ecause the large molecules removed by AD e&hibit negligible osmotic pressure, operating
pressures are usually much lower than in 2< systems. Digure 9!6 illustrates the performance of
ultrafiltration membranes. .ypical applications include reduction of oil and grease and recovery
of valuable contaminants in process waste streams.
PRETREATMENT
@rocesses that rely on microporous membranes must be protected from fouling. 7embrane foul!
ing causes a loss of water production (flu&), reduced permeate 0uality, and increased trans!
membrane pressure drop.
7embrane fouling is typically caused by precipitation of inorganic salts, particulates of metal
o&ides, colloidal silt, and the accumulation or growth of microbiological organisms on the
membrane surface. .hese fouling problems can lead to serious damage and necessitate more
fre0uent replacement of membranes.
SOLIDS REDU*TION
7embrane feedwater should be relatively free from colloidal particulates. .he most common
particulates encountered in industrial membrane systems are silt, iron o&ides, and manganese
o&ides.
>ilt ,ensity Inde& (>,I) testing should be used to confirm sufficient water 0uality for the
specific membrane system employed. >,I evaluates the potential of feedwater to foul a 5.() dm
filter. Anacceptable >,I measurements can be produced even when water 0uality is relatively
high by most industrial water treatment standards. =here pretreatment is inade0uate or
ineffective, chemical dispersants may be used to permit operation at higher!than!recommended
>,I values. 2< systems are highly susceptible to particulate fouling, E, and E,2 systems are
more forgiving, and AD systems are designed to handle dirty waters.
S*ALE *ONTROL
7embrane processes produce a concentration gradient of dissolved salts approaching the
membrane surfaces. .he concentration at the membrane may e&ceed the solubility limits of
certain species. -alcium carbonate (-a-<
'
) and calcium sulfate (-a><
(
) are typical precipitates
formed. >ilica, barium, and strontium salts are also fre0uently identified in membrane deposits.
3ecause of their low solubility, very low levels of feedwater barium or strontium can cause
membrane fouling.
Barious saturation inde&es, such as the >tiff!,avis and 8angelier, should be maintained below
precipitating values in the brine (through p1 control or deposit control agents) to prevent calcium
carbonate fouling. <ther precipitates may be controlled by the proper application of deposit
control agents.
MI*RO2IOLOGI*AL FOULING
-ellulose acetate membranes can be degraded by microbiological activity. @roper maintenance of
chlorine residuals can prevent microbiological attack of these membranes.
@olyacrylamide membranes are resistant to microbiological degradationH however, they are
susceptible to chemical o&idation. .herefore, chlorination is not an acceptable treatment. If
inoculation occurs, microbiological fouling can become a problem. ?ono&idiing antimicrobials
and biodispersants should be used if serious microbiological fouling potential e&ists.
UNIT-5 WATER DISTRI2UTION AND SUPPLY TO 2UILDINGS
+ &ater "$ppl% "%"tem or &ater "$ppl% net&or. is a system of
engineered hydrologic and hydraulic components which provide water supply. + water supply
system typically includesP
1. + dranage basn (see water purfcaton - sources of drnkng water)H
2. + raw (untreated) water collection point (above or below ground) where the water
accumulates, such as a ake, a rver, or groundwater from an underground aqufer.
Antreateddrnkng water (usually water being transferred to the water purification
facilities) may be transferred using uncovered ground!level aqueducts,
covered tunnes or underground water ppes.
3. Water purfcaton facilities. .reated water is transferred using water
ppes (usually underground).
4. =ater storage facilities such as reservors, water tanks, or watertowers. >maller
water systems may store the water in csterns or pressure vesses. (.all buildings
may also need to store water locally in pressure vesses in order for the water to
reach the upper floors.)
5. +dditional water pressuriing components such as pumpng statons may need to be
situated at the outlet of underground or above ground reservoirs or cisterns (if gravity
flow is impractical)
6. + pipe network for distribution of water to the consumers (which may be private houses
or industrial, commercial or institution establishments) and other usage points (such
as fre hydrants)
7. -onnections to the sewers (underground pipes, or aboveground dtches in some
developing countries) are generally found downstream of the water consumers, but the
sewer system is considered to be a separate system, rather than part of the water supply
system
Water #i"tri,$tion net&or.
.he Centra Arzona Pro|ect Aqueduct transfers untreated water
7ost (treated) water distribution happens through underground pipes
@ressuriing the water is re0uired between the small water reserve and the end!user
.he product, delivered to the point of consumption, is called fresh water if it receives little or no
treatment, or drinking water if the treatment achieves thewater 0uality standards re0uired for
human consumption.
<nce treated, chlorine is added to the water and it is distributed by the local supply network.
.oday, water supply systems are typically constructed of plastic, ferrous, or concrete circular
pipe. 1owever, other /pipe/ shapes and material may be used, such as s0uare or
rectangular concrete bo&es, archedbrick pipe, or wood. ?ear the end point, the network of pipes
through which the water is delivered is often referred to as the water mains.
.he energy that the system needs to deliver the water is called pressure. .hat energy is
transferred to the water, therefore becoming water pressure, in a number of waysP by a pump, by
gravity feed from a water source (such as a water tower) at a higher elevation, or by compressed
air.
"#$
.he water is often transferred from a water reserve such as a large communal reservoir before
being transported to a more pressurised reserve as a watertower.
In small domestic systems, the water may be pressurised by a pressure vessel or even by
an underground cistern (the latter however does need additional pressuriing). .his eliminates
the need of a water!tower or any other heightened water reserve to supply the water pressure.
.hese systems are usually owned and maintained by local governments, such as cities, or other
public entities, but are occasionally operated by a commercial enterprise (see water
privatiation). =ater supply networks are part of the master planning of communities, counties,
and municipalities. .heir planning and design re0uires the e&pertise of city planners and civil
engineers, who must consider many factors, such as location, current demand, future growth,
leakage, pressure, pipe sie, pressure loss, fire fighting flows, etc. Q using pipe network
analysis and other tools. -onstructioncomparable sewage systems, was one of the
great engineering advances that made urbaniation possible. Improvement in the 0uality of the
water has been one of the great advances in public health.
+s water passes through the distribution system, the water 0uality can degrade by chemical
reactions and biological processes. -orrosion of metal pipe materials in the distribution system
can cause the release of metals into the water with undesirable aesthetic and health effects.
2elease of iron from unlined iron pipes can result in customer reports of /red water/ at the tap .
2elease of copper from copper pipes can result in customer reports of /blue water/ and/or a
metallic taste. 2elease of lead can occur from the solder used to join copper pipe together or
from brass fi&tures. -opper and lead levels at the consumer4s tap are regulated to protect
consumer health.
Atilities will often adjust the chemistry of the water before distribution to minimie its
corrosiveness. .he simplest adjustment involves control of p1 andalkalinity to produce a water
that tends to passivate corrosion by depositing a layer of calcium carbonate. -orrosion
inhibitors are often added to reduce release of metals into the water. -ommon corrosion
inhibitors added to the water are phosphates and silicates.
7aintenance of a biologically safe drinking water is another goal in water distribution.
.ypically, a chlorine based disinfectant, such as sodium hypochloriteor monochloramine is
added to the water as it leaves the treatment plant. 3ooster stations can be placed within the
distribution system to ensure that all areas of the distribution system have ade0uate sustained
levels of disinfection.
Topologie" o &ater #i"tri,$tion net&or."
8ike electric power lines, roads, and microwave radio networks, water systems may have
a loop or branch network topology, or a combination of both. .he piping networks are circular or
rectangular. If any one section of water distribution main fails or needs repair, that section can be
isolated without disrupting all users on the network.
7ost systems are divided into ones. Dactors determining the e&tent or sie of a one can include
hydraulics, telemetry systems, history, and population density. >ometimes systems are designed
for a specific area then are modified to accommodate development. .errain affects hydraulics
and some forms of telemetry. =hile each one may operate as a stand!alone system, there is
usually some arrangement to interconnect ones in order to manage e0uipment failures or system
failures.
-<7@<?E?.> <D =+.E2 ,I>.2I3A.I<? >J>.E7
,rainage basin
Drom =ikipedia, the free encyclopedia
E&ample of a drainage basin. .he dashed line is the main water divide of the hydrographic basin
+ #rainage ,a"in is an e&tent or an area of land where surface water from rain and melting
snow or ice converges to a single point, usually the e&it of the basin, where the waters join
another waterbody, such as a river, lake, reservoir, estuary, wetland,sea, or ocean. In closed
drainage basins the water converges to a single point inside the basin, known as a sink, which
may be a permanent lake, dry lake, or a point where surface water is lost underground.
"#$
.he
drainage basin includes both the streams and rivers that convey the water as well as the land
surfaces from which water drains into those channels, and is separated from adjacent basins by
a drainage divide.
"%$
.he drainage basin acts as a funnel by collecting all the water within the area covered by the
basin and channelling it to a single point. Each drainage basin is separated topographically from
adjacent basins by a geographical barrier such as a ridge, hill ormountain.
<ther terms that are used to describe a drainage basin are !at!)ment, !at!)ment
area, !at!)ment ,a"in, #rainage area,river ,a"in, &ater ,a"in and &ater")e#.
"'$
In the
technical sense, a watershed refers to a divide that separates one drainage area from another
drainage area.
"($
1owever, in the Anited >tates and -anada, the term is often used to mean a
drainage basin or catchment area itself. ,rainage basins drain into other drainage basins in
a hierarchical pattern, with smaller "$,-#rainage ,a"in" combining into larger drainage basins.
")$
,rainage basins are similar but not identical to hydrologic units, which are drainage areas
delineated so as to nest into a multi!level hierarchical drainage system. 1ydrologic units are
designed to allow multiple inlets, outlets, or sinks. In a strict sense, all drainage basins are
hydrologic units but not all hydrologic units are drainage basins.
"#$
.he Anited >tates Environmental @rotection +gency launched the website =atershed -entral for
the A> public to e&change information and locate resources needed to restore local drainage
basins in that country.
#m$ortance o% drainage &asins
Geo$olitical &oundaries
5rainage basins have been historically important for determining territorial boundaries, particularly in
regions where trade by water has been important. @or e*ample, the Fnglish crown gave the DudsonAs
Jay 6ompany a monopoly on the fur trade in the entire Dudson Jay basin, an area called 4upertAs &and.
Today, bioregional democracy can include agreements of states in a particular drainage basin to defend
it. Kne e*ample of this is the Great &akes 6ommission.
0ydrology
5rainage basin of the Khio 4iver, part of the Iississippi 4iver drainage basin.
In hydrology, the drainage basin is a logical unit of focus for studying the movement of water within
the hydrological cycle, because the ma,ority of water that discharges from the basin outlet originated
as precipitation falling on the basin. " portion of the water that enters thegroundwater system beneath the
drainage basin may flow towards the outlet of another drainage basin because groundwater flow
directions do not always match those of their overlying drainage network. Ieasurement of the discharge
of water from a basin may be made by a stream gauge located at the basinAs outlet.
4ain gauge data is used to measure total precipitation over a drainage basin, and there are different ways
to interpret that data. If the gauges are many and evenly distributed over an area of uniform precipitation,
using the arithmetic mean method will give good results. In the Thiessen polygon method, the watershed
is divided into polygons with the rain gauge in the middle of each polygon assumed to be representative
for the rainfall on the area of land included in its polygon. These polygons are made by drawing lines
between gauges, then making perpendicular bisectors of those lines form the polygons.
The isohyetal method involves contours of e-ual precipitation are drawn over the gauges on a map.
6alculating the area between these curves and adding up the volume of water is time consuming.
Geomor$hology
5rainage basins are the principal hydrologic unit considered in fluvial geomorphology. " drainage basin is
the source for water and sedimentthat moves through the river system and reshapes the channel.
Ecology
The Iississippi 4iver drains the largest area of any B.S.river, much of it agricultural regions. "gricultural runoff and other
water pollution that flows to the outlet is the cause of the dead Cone in the Gulf of Ie*ico.
5rainage basins are important elements to consider also in ecology. "s water flows over the ground and
along rivers it can pick up nutrients, sediment, and pollutants. &ike the water, they get transported towards
the outlet of the basin, and can affect the ecological processes along the way as well as in the receiving
water source.
Iodern usage of artificial fertiliCers, containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium, has affected the
mouths of watersheds. The minerals will be carried by the watershed to the mouth and accumulate there,
disturbing the natural mineral balance. This can cause eutrophication where plant growth is accelerated
by the additional material.
Resource management
Further information: Watershed management
Jecause drainage basins are coherent entities in a hydrological sense, it has become common to
manage water resources on the basis of individual basins. In the B.S. state of Iinnesota, governmental
entities that perform this function are calledwatershed districts. In ?ew Oealand, they are called
catchment boards. 6omparable community groups based in Kntario, 6anada, are called conservation
authorities. In ?orth "merica this function is referred to as watershed management. In JraCil, the ?ational
Policy of +ater 4esources, regulated by "ct nU ;.877 of /;;<, establishes the drainage basin as territorial
division of JraCilian water management.
Catchment %actors
The catchment is the most significant factor determining the amount or likelihood of flooding.
6atchment factors are. topography, shape, siCe, soil type and land use 'paved or roofed areas(.
6atchment topography and shape determine the time taken for rain to reach the river, while catchment
siCe, soil type and development determine the amount of water to reach the river.
-o$ogra$hy
Topography determines the speed with which the runoff will reach a river. 6learly rain that falls in
steep mountainous areas will reach the river faster than flat or gently sloping areas.
/ha$e
Shape will contribute to the speed with which the runoff reaches a river. " long thin catchment will take
longer to drain than a circular catchment.
/iHe
SiCe will help determine the amount of water reaching the river, as the larger the catchment the greater
the potential for flooding.
/oil ty$e
Soil type will help determine how much water reaches the river. 6ertain soil types such as sandy soils are
very free draining and rainfall on sandy soil is likely to be absorbed by the ground. Dowever, soils
containing clay can be almost impermeable and therefore rainfall on clay soils will run off and contribute
to flood volumes. "fter prolonged rainfall even free draining soils can become saturated, meaning that
any further rainfall will reach the river rather than being absorbed by the ground.
Land use
&and use can contribute to the volume of water reaching the river, in a similar way to clay soils. @or
e*ample, rainfall on roofs, pavements and roads will be collected by rivers with almost no absorption into
the groundwater.
4eservoir
@rom +ikipedia, the free encyclopedia
'4edirected from 4eservoirs(
This article is about an artificial body of water. For other uses, see Reservoir (disambiguation).
The Vhonghua 5am on the 5ahan 4iver inTaoyuan 6ounty, Taiwan.
" reservoir 'etymology from @rench rservoir a Estorehouse
L/M
( or an arti%icial la+e is used to store water.
4eservoirs may be created in river valleys by the construction of a dam or may be built by e*cavation in the
ground or by conventional construction techni-ues such as brickwork or cast concrete.
The term reservoir may also be used to describe underground reservoirs such as an oil or water well.
-y$es
Ialley dammed reservoir
&ake Nyrnwy 4eservoir. The dam spans the Nyrnwy Nalley and was the first large stone dam built in the Bnited !ingdom.
Stocks 4eservoir in &ancashire, Fngland.
" dam constructed in a valley relies on the natural topography to provide most of the basin of the
reservoir. 5ams are typically located at a narrow part of a valley downstream of a natural basin.
The valley sides act as natural walls with the dam located at the narrowest practical point to provide
strength and the lowest practical cost of construction. In many reservoir construction pro,ects people have
to be moved and re2housed, historical artifacts moved or rare environments relocated. F*amples include
the temples of "bu Simbel
L1M
' which were moved before the construction of the "swan 5am to
create &ake ?asser from the ?ile in Fgypt ( and the re2location of the village of 6apel 6elyn during the
construction of &lyn 6elyn.
L7M
6onstruction of a reservoir in a valley will usually necessitate the diversion of the river during part of the
build often through a temporary tunnelor by2pass channel.
L8M
In hilly regions reservoirs are often constructed by enlarging e*isting lakes. Sometimes in such reservoirs
the new top water level e*ceeds the watershed height on one or more of the feeder streams such as
at &lyn 6lywedog in Iid +ales.
L9M
In such cases additional side dams are re-uired to contain the reservoir.
+here the topography is poorly suited to a single large reservoir, a number of smaller reservoirs may be
constructed in a chain such as in the4iver Taff valley where the three reservoirs &lwyn2on
4eservoir, 6antref 4eservoir and Jeacons 4eservoir form a chain up the valley.
LHM
<an+4side reservoir
+here water is taken from a river of variable -uality or -uantity, bank2side reservoirs may be constructed
to store the water pumped orsiphoned from the river. Such reservoirs are usually built partly by
e*cavation and partly by the construction of a complete encircling bund orembankment which may
e*ceed H km in circumference.
L<M
Joth the floor of the reservoir and the bund must have an impermeable
lining or core, often made of puddled clay. The water stored in such reservoirs may have a residence time
of several months during which time normal biological processes are able to substantially reduce many
contaminants and almost eliminate any turbidity. The use of bank2side reservoirs also allows a water
abstraction to be closed down for e*tended period at times when the river is unacceptably polluted or
when flow conditions are very low due to drought. The &ondon water supply system is one e*ample of the
use of bank2side storage for all the water taken from the4iver Thames and 4iver &ee with many large
reservoirs such as Gueen Iary 4eservoir visible along the approach to &ondon Deathrow "irport.
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/ervice reservoir
Service reservoirs
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store fully treated potable water close to the point of distribution. Iany service
reservoirs are constructed as water towers, often as elevated structures on concrete pillars where the
landscape is relatively flat. Kther service reservoirs are entirely underground, especially in more hilly or
mountainous country. In the Bnited !ingdom, Thames +ater has many underground reservoirs built in
the /=$$s by the Nictorians, most of which are lined with brick. Donor Kak 4eservoir, which was
completed in /;$;, is believed to one of the largest of this type in Furope. The roof is supported on large
brick pillars and arches and the outside surface is grassed over.
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Service reservoirs perform several functions including ensuring sufficient head of water in the water
distribution system and providing hydraulic capacitance in the system to even out peak demand from
consumers enabling the treatment plant to run at optimum efficiency. &arge service reservoirs can also be
managed to so that energy costs in pumping are reduced by concentrating refilling activity at times of day
when power costs are low.
0istory
@ive thousand years ago, the craters of e*tinct volcanoes in "rabia were used as reservoirs by farmers
for their irrigation water.
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5ry climate and water scarcity in India led to early development of water management techni-ues,
including the building of a reservoir at Girnar in 7$$$ J6.
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"rtificial lakes dating to the 9th century J6
have been found in ancient Greece.
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"n artificial lake in present2day Iadhya Pradesh province of India,
constructed in the //th century, covered H9$ s-uare metres '<,$$$ s- ft(.
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In Sri &anka large reservoirs have been created by ancient Sinhalese kings in order to save the water for
irrigation. The famous Sri &ankan king ParWkramabWhu I of Sri &anka stated E do not let a drop of water
seep into the ocean without benefiting mankind E. De created the reservoir named Parakrama
Samudra'sea of !ing Parakrama(,
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which has astonished archaeologists.
6ses
Direct water su$$ly
Gibson 4eservoir, Iontana
Iany dammed river reservoirs and most bank2side reservoirs are used to provide the raw water feed to
a water treatment plant which deliversdrinking water through water mains. The reservoir does not simply
hold water until it is needed3 it can also be the first part of the water treatment process. The time the water
is held for before it is released is known as the retention time. This is a design feature that allows particles
and silts to settle out, as well as time for natural biological treatment
using algae, bacteria and Cooplankton that naturally live within the water. Dowever natural limnological
processes in temperate climate lakes produces temperature stratification in the water body which tends to
partition some elements such as manganese and phosphorus into deep, cold ano*ic water during the
summer months. In the autumn and winter the lake becomes fully mi*ed again. 5uring drought conditions,
it is sometimes necessary to draw down the cold bottom water and the elevated levels of manganese in
particular can cause problems in water treatment plants.
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0ydroelectricity
Dydroelectric dam in cross section.
" reservoir generating hydroelectric includes turbines connected to the retained water body by large
diameter pipes. These generating sets may be at the base of the dam or some distance away. Some
reservoirs generating hydro2electricity use pumped re2charge in which a high level reservoir is filled with
water using high performance electric pumps at times when electricity demand is low and then uses this
stored water to generate electricity by releasing the stored water into a low level reservoir when electricity
demand is high. Such systems are calledpump storage schemes.
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Controlling watercourses
4eservoirs can be used in a number of ways to control how water flows through downstream waterways.
Downstream water su$$ly : water may be released from an upland reservoir so that it can be
abstracted for drinking water lower down the system, sometimes hundred of miles further down
downstream
#rrigation : water in an irrigation reservoir may be released into networks of canals for use
in farmlands or secondary water systems. Irrigation may also be supported by reservoirs which
maintain river flows allowing water to be abstracted for irrigation lower down the river.
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(lood control : also known as an EattenuationE or EbalancingE reservoir, flood control reservoirs
collect water at times of very high rainfall, then release it slowly over the course of the following
weeks or months. Some of these reservoirs are constructed across the river line with the onward
flow controlled by an orifice plate. +hen river flow e*ceeds the capacity of the orifice plate water
builds behind the dam but as soon as the flow rate reduces the water behind the dam slowly
releases until the reservoir is empty again. In some cases such reservoirs only function a few
times in a decade and the land behind the reservoir may be developed as community or
recreational land. " new generation of balancing dams are being developed to combat the
climatic conse-uences of climate change. They are called E@lood 5etention 4eservoirsE. Jecause
these reservoirs will remain dry for long periods, there may be a risk of the clay core drying out
reducing its structural stability. 4ecent developments include the use of composite core fill made
from recycled materials as an alternative to clay.
Canals : +here a natural watercourseAs water is not available to be diverted into a canal, a
reservoir may be built to guarantee the water level in the canal3 for e*ample, where a canal
climbs to cross a range of hills through locks.
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4ecreational2only !upferbach reservoir near "achen/Germany.
Recreation : water may be released from a reservoir to artificially create or supplement white2
water conditions for kayaking and other white2water sports.
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Kn salmonid rivers special releases
'in Jritain called freshets( are made to encourage natural migration behaviours in fish and to
provide a variety of fishing conditions for anglers.
(low &alancing
4eservoirs can be used to balance the flow in highly managed systems, taking
in water during high flows and releasing it again during low flows. In order for
this to work without pumping re-uires careful control of water levels using
ad,ustable sluices. "ccurate weather forecasts are essential so that dam
operators can plan drawdowns prior to a high rainfall or snowmelt event. 5am
operators blamed a faulty weather forecast on the 1$/$:1$// Gueensland
floods. F*amples of highly managed 4eservoirs are JurrendongX5am in
"ustralia and &lyn Tegid in ?orth +ales. &lyn Tegid is a natural lake whose
level was raised by a low dam and into which the 4iver 5ee flows or
discharges depending upon flow conditions at the time as part of the 4iver
5ee regulation system. This mode of operation is a form of
hydraulic capacitance in the river system.
Recreation
The water bodies provided by many reservoirs often allow
some recreational uses such as fishing, boating, and other activities. Special
rules may apply for the safety of the public and to protect the -uality of the
water and the ecology of the surrounding area. Iany reservoirs now support
and encourage less informal and less structured recreation such as natural
history,bird watching, landscape painting, walking and hiking and often provide
information boards and interpretation material to encourage responsible use.
1$eration
+ater falling as rain upstream of the reservoir together with
any groundwater emerging as springs is stored in the reservoir. "ny e*cess
water can be spilled via a specifically designed spillway. Stored water may be
piped by gravity for use as drinking water, to generate hydro2electricity or to
maintain river flows to support downstream uses. Kccasionally reservoirs can
be managed to retain high rain2fall events to prevent or reduce downstream
flooding. Some reservoirs support several uses and the operating rules may
be comple*.
Spillway of &lyn Jrianne dam in+ales.
Iost modern reservoirs have a specially designed draw2off tower that can
discharge water from the reservoir at different levels both to access water as
the reservoir draws down but also to allow water of a specific -uality to be
discharged into the downstream river as compensation water.
The operators of many upland or in2river reservoirs have obligations to release
water into the downstream river to maintain river -uality, support fisheries,
maintain downstream industrial uses. maintain recreational use or for a range
of other re-uirements. Such releases are known as com!ensation water.
-erminology
The terminology for reservoirs varies from country to country. In most of the
world reservoir areas are e*pressed in km
1
whilst in the BS" acres are
commonly used. @or volume either m
7
or km
7
are widely used with acre feet
used in the BS".
The capacity, volume or storage of a reservoir is usually divided into
distinguishable areas. Dead or inactive storage refers to water in a reservoir
that cannot be drained by gravity through a damAs outlet works, spillway or
power plant intake and can only be pumped out. 5ead storage allows
sediments to settle which improves water -uality and also creates hydraulic
head along with an area for fish during low levels. "ctive or live storage is the
portion of the reservoir that can be utiliCed for flood control, power
production, navigation and downstream releases. In addition, a
reservoirAs flood control ca!acity is the amount of water it can regulate during
flooding. The surcharge ca!acity is the capacity of the reservoir above the
spillway crest that cannot be regulated.
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In the Bnited States the water below the normal ma*imum level of a reservoir
is called the conservation !ool.
L1$M
In the B! to! water level describes the reservoir full state whist fully drawn
down describes the minimum retained volume.
Modelling reservoir management
There is a wide variety of software for modelling reservoirs, from the specialist
5am Safety Program Ianagement Tools '5SPIT( to the relatively
simple +"@&FT, to integrated models like the +ater Fvaluation "nd Planning
system '+F"P( that place reservoir operations in the conte*t of system2wide
demands and supplies.
/a%ety
In many countries large reservoirs are closely regulated to try to prevent or
minimise failures of containment.
L1/ML11M
+hilst much of the effort is directed at the dam and its associated structures
as the weakest part of the overall structure, the aim of such controls is to
prevent an uncontrolled release of water from the reservoir. 4eservoir failures
can generate huge increases in flow down a river valley with the potential to
wash away towns and villages and cause considerable loss of life such as the
devastation following the failure of containment at &lyn Figiau which killed /<
people.
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'see also &ist of dam failures(
" notable case of reservoirs being used as an instrument of +ar involved
the Jritish 4oyal "ir @orce 5ambusters raid on Germany in +orld +ar
II 'codenamed EKperation 6hastiseE
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(, in which three German reservoir
dams were selected to be breached in order to impact on German
infrastructure and manufacturing and power capabilities deriving from
the 4uhr and Fderrivers. The economic and social impact was derived from
the enormous volumes of previously stored water that swept down the valleys
wreaking destruction. This raid later became the basis for several films.
Environmental im$act
Whole li%e environmental im$act
"ll reservoirs will have a monetary cost/benefit assessment made before
construction to see if the pro,ect is worth proceeding with.
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Dowever, such
analysis can often omit the environmental impacts of dams and the reservoirs
that they contain. Some impacts such as the greenhouse gas production
associated with concrete manufacture are relatively easy to estimate. Kther
impact on the natural environment and social and cultural effects can be more
difficult to assess and to weigh in the balance but identification and
-uantification of these issues are now commonly re-uired in ma,or
construction pro,ects in the developed world
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Climate change
5epending upon the circumstances, a reservoir built for hydro2electricity
generation can either reduce or increase the net production of greenhouse
gases. "n increase can occur if plant material in the flooded areas decays in
an anaerobic environment releasing 'methane and carbon dio*ide(. This
apparently counterintuitive position arises because much carbon is released
as methane which is appro*imately = time more potent as a greenhouse gas
than carbon dio*ide
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" study for the ?ational Institute for 4esearch in the "maCon found that
Dydroelectric reservoirs release a large pulse of carbon dio*ide from above2
water decay of trees left standing in the reservoirs, especially during the first
decade after closing.
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This elevates the global warming impact of the dams
to levels much higher than would occur by generating the same power from
fossil fuels.
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"ccording to the +orld 6ommission on 5ams report '5ams "nd
5evelopment(, when the reservoir is relatively large and no prior clearing of
forest in the flooded area was undertaken, greenhouse gas emissions from the
reservoir could be higher than those of a conventional oil2fired thermal
generation plant.
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@or instance, In /;;$, the impoundment behind
the Jalbina 5am in JraCil 'inaugurated in /;=<( had over 1$ times the impact
on global warming than would generating the same power from fossil fuels,
due to the large area flooded per unit of electricity generated.
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" decrease can occur if the dam is used in place of traditional power
generation, since electricity produced from hydroelectric generation does not
give rise to any flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion 'including sulfur
dio*ide, nitric o*ide and carbon mono*ide from coal(. The Tucurui dam in
JraCil 'closed in /;=8( had only $.8 times the impact on global warming than
would generating the same power from fossil fuels.
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<iology
5ams can produce a block for migrating fish, trapping them in one area,
producing food and a habitat for various water2birds. They can also flood
various ecosystems on land and may cause e*tinctions.
0uman #m$act
5ams can severely reduce the amount of water reaching countries
downstream of them, causing water stress between the countries, e.g.
the Sudan and Fgypt, which damages farming businesses in the downstream
countries, and reduces drinking water.
@arms and villages, e.g. "shopton can be flooded by the creation of
reservoirs, ruining many livelihoods. @or this very reason, worldwide =$ million
people have had to be forcibly relocated due to dam construction.
Limnology
The limnology of reservoirs has many similarities to that of lakes of e-uivalent
siCe. There are however significant differences.
L7$M
Iany reservoirs e*perience
considerable variations in level producing significant areas that are
intermittently underwater or dried out. This greatly limits the productivity or the
water margins and limits the number of species able to survive in these
conditions.
Bpland reservoirs tend to have a much shorter residence time than natural
lakes and this can lead to more rapid cycling of nutrients through the water
body so that they are more -uickly lost to the system. This may be seen as a
mismatch between water chemistry and water biology with a tendency for the
biological component to be more oligotrophic than the chemistry would
suggest.
6onversely, lowland reservoirs drawing water from nutrient rich rivers, may
show e*aggerated eutrophic characteristics because the residence time in the
reservoir is much greater than in the river and the biological systems have a
much greater opportunity to utilise the available nutrients.
5eep reservoirs with multiple level draw off towers can discharge deep cold
water into the downstream river greatly reducing the siCe of any hypolimnion.
This in turn can reduce the concentrations of phosphorus released during any
annual mi*ing event and may therefore reduce productivity.
The 5ams in front of reservoirs act as knickpoints2the energy of the water
falling from them reduces and deposition is a result below the 5ams.
/eismicity
The filling 'impounding( of reservoirs has often been attributed to reservoir2
triggered seismicity '4TS( as seismic events have occurred near large dams
or within their reservoirs in the past. These events may have been triggered by
the filling or operation of the reservoir and are on a small scale when
compared to the amount of reservoirs worldwide. Kf over /$$ recorded
events, early e*amples include the H$ m '/;< ft( tall Iarathon
5am in Greece '/;1;(, the 11/ m '<19 ft( tall Doover 5am in the B.S. '/;79(.
Iost events involve large dams and small amounts of seismicity. The only four
recorded events above a H.$2 magnitude 'Iw( are the /$7 m '77= ft( tall !oyna
5am in India which registered a Iw of H.7 along with the /1$ m
'7;8 ft( !remasta 5am in Greece which registered a H.72Iw as well. @ollowing
those two, the ne*t largest were the /11 m '8$$ ft( high !ariba
5am in Oambia at H.192Iw and the /$9 m '788 ft( Tinfeng,iang 5am in 6hina
at H./2Iw. 5isputes occur over when 4TS has occurred due to a lack of
hydrogeological knowledge at the time of the event. It is accepted though that
the infiltration of water into pores and the weight of the reservoir do contribute
to 4TS patterns. @or 4TS to occur, there must be a seismic structure near the
dam or its reservoir and the seismic structure must be close to failure.
"dditionally, water must be able to infiltrate the deep rock stratum as the
weight of a /$$ m '71= ft( deep reservoir will have little impact when compared
the deadweight of rock on a crustal stress field which may be located at a
depth of /$ km 'H mi( or more.
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Micro climate
4eservoirs may change the local micro2climate increasing humidity and
reducing e*tremes of temperature. Such effects are claimed by some South
"ustralian winerys as increasing the -uality of the wine production.
List o% reservoirs
#ain article: $ist of reservoirs
List o% reservoirs &y area
&ake Nolta from space '"pril /;;7(.
The following are the worldAs ten largest reservoirs by surface area.
1. &ake Nolta '=,8=1 km
1
or 7,1<9 s- mi3 Ghana(
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2. Smallwood 4eservoir 'H,91< km
1
or 1,91$ s- mi3 6anada(
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3. !uybyshev 4eservoir 'H,89$ km
1
or 1,8;$ s- mi3 4ussia(
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4. &ake !ariba '9,9=$ km
1
or 1,/9$ s- mi3 Oimbabwe, Oambia(
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5. Jukhtarma 4eservoir '9,8;$ km
1
or 1,/1$ s- mi3 !aCakhstan(
6. Jratsk 4eservoir '9,81H km
1
or 1,$;9 s- mi3 4ussia(
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7. &ake ?asser '9,18= km
1
or 1,$1H s- mi3 Fgypt, Sudan(
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8. 4ybinsk 4eservoir '8,9=$ km
1
or /,<<$ s- mi3 4ussia(
9. 6aniapiscau 4eservoir '8,7/= km
1
or /,HH< s- mi3 6anada(
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10.&ake Guri '8,19$ km
1
or /,H8$ s- mi3 NeneCuela(
&ist of reservoirs by volume
&ake !ariba from space.
#ain article: $ist of reservoirs by volume
1. &ake !ariba '/=$ km
7
or 87 cu mi 3 Oimbabwe, Oambia(
2. Jratsk 4eservoir '/H; km
7
or 8/ cu mi3 4ussia(
3. &ake ?asser '/9< km
7
or 7= cu mi3 Fgypt, Sudan(
4. &ake Nolta '/8= km
7
or 7H cu mi3 Ghana(
5. Ianicouagan 4eservoir '/81 km
7
or 78 cu mi3 6anada(
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6. &ake Guri '/79 km
7
or 71 cu mi3 NeneCuela(
7. +illiston &ake '<8 km
7
or /= cu mi3 6anada(
L8$M
8. !rasnoyarsk 4eservoir '<7 km
7
or /= cu mi3 4ussia(
9. Oeya 4eservoir 'H= km
7
or /H cu mi3 4ussia(
WA-ER /6''L7 /7/-EM
5epartments ## Kperation Y Iaintenance
3. DEIEL1'ME8- 1( WA-ER /6''L7 /7/-EM -1 C0E88A# C#-7 )
Early Water su$$ly source to Chennai DMadrasF )
Till about /=<$, the people of 6hennai 'Iadras( were dependent on shallow wells situated in their own houses or on public wells and tanks in the neighbourhood
for their water supply needs. There was no protected water supply at that time and these sources were not satisfactory.
Develo$ment o% organised water su$$ly system )
The organised water supply to 6hennai was commenced in /=<1 which is the nucleus of the protected surface water supply system now in e*istence in 6hennai
" masonry "nicut 'weir( of /.= m height was constructed, across the !osathalaiyar 4iver at Tamaraipakkam about 1= km. north2west of 6hennai.
unfiltered water from this "nicut was brought to !ilpauk through 4edhills &ake by an open channel by gravity and distributed through 6ast Iron '6I( pipes to the
This initial gravity system consisted of Tamaraipakkam "nicut, Bpper Supply 6hannel of /7 km. length to convey the diverted water from the "nicut
to 6holavaram Tank, &ower Supply 6hannel of 8 km. length to convey water from 6holavaram to 4edhills &ake, an open channel of // km. length to convey water
from 4edhills &ake to masonry Shaft at !ilpauk and cast iron mains to distribute the unfiltered water to the city.
<eginning o% $rotected water su$$ly system )
The first ma,or milestone towards protected water supply using of filtration and pumping was achieved during the year /;/8. "n improved intake tower, named as
Vones Tower, was constructed in /==/ at the deepest point in the 4edhills &ake. "n underground masonry conduit of siCe /.91m * /./1m and // km. long was
constructed to convey raw water from 4edhills to !ilpauk, in the place of the open earthern channel, with conveying capacity of raw water at the rate of /$8 I&5
Slow sand filters to purify the water 'H$ to <$ I&5(, four underground pure water storage tanks '1;.9$ I& capacity(, steam engine driven pumps, an
elevated steel overhead tank 'H.<9 I& capacity( and 8=E dia steel pumping main from !ilpauk Pumping Station to Shaft were installed. Subse-uently the
distribution system was remodelled and e*tended to all areas of the city.
Develo$ment o% new sources )
Poondi 4eservoir 'later named as Sathyamoorthy Sagar( was constructed in /;88 across the !osathalaiyar 4iver with a capacity of 19<7 Icft and placed in service
for intercepting and storing !osathalaiyar 4iver water. Surplus water flows down the river which is again intercepted by Tamaraipakkam "nicut and diverted to
6holavaram &ake. '" lined canal known as Poondi 6anal was later constructed in /;<1 to convey water from Poondi 4eservoir to 6holavaram &ake(.
combined storage of three lakes viC. Poondi, 6holavaram and 4edhills was 99;H Icft 'Poondi. 19<7 0 6holavaram. 9=7 4edhills. 188$(. The system was
then designed for a supply of //9 lpcd for an estimated population of $.HH million e*pected in /;H/.
#m$rovement wor+s carried out during 3;C@ to 3;@@ )
To meet the immediate needs, various works for conveyance, treatment and distribution were carried out between /;8H and /;HH. 4apid gravity sand filter
treatment facilities with 89 I&5 capacity were completed in /;9;. 6onstruction of a second underground masonry conduit 'siCe /.;=m * /.11m( to convey
additional -uantity of /8H I&5 of raw water '71 Iillion Gallon per day( from 4edhills to !ilpauk, installations of Flectrical pumping units at !ilpauk replacing the 7
steam engine driven pumpsets, second 8=E pumping main from !ilpauk Pumping Station to Shaft, 81E Trunk Iain to serve South 6hennai, 1 additional
underground filtered water tanks of ; I& capacity '1 Iillion Gallons( each at !ilpauk and e*pansion and improvement to distribution system are important works
/ource Augmentation wor+s )
Simultaneously, action was taken to augment the sources and improve the treatment and storage facilities. The construction of a lined channel from Poondi to
Tamaraipakkam for a length of /9 km. to convey water from Poondi to Tamaraipakkam was completed in /;<1 to reduce the transmission loss. The combined
capacities of 6holavaram and 4edhills lakes were increased by <$$ Icft by raising the lake bunds. Thus, the combined storage capacity of Poondi, 6holavaram
and 4edhills was increased to H1;H Icft 'Poondi. 19<7 0 6holavaram. ==/ 0 4edhills. 1=81(. The irrigation rights of 6holavaram lake and 4edhills lake were
ac-uired in /;H1 and the entire storage was made available for the 6ity supply.
Additional wor+s carried out during 3;@A to 3;BA )
"dditional /79 I&5 capacity 4apid sand filter treatment facility was commissioned in /;H; at !ilpauk. " prestressed concrete overhead tank of H.= million litres
capacity and the <
th
underground clear water storage tank with /$ million litre capacity was constructed at !ilpauk +ater +orks. The city distribution system was
divided into /1 Cones, each Cone to feed by a separate trunk main radially from !ilpauk +ater 5istribution Station. 5uring /;H1, a separate water distribution
station was constructed at "nna Poonga to serve the northern portion of the city and at Thiyagaraya ?agar, the Southern Dead +orks during /;<7 to serve the
southern Cones. The e*isting !ilpauk +ater 5istribution Station was serving the central portion of the ctiy.
A&straction o% Ground water )
Jased on the B?5P studies carried out during /;HH to /;H;, ground water a-uifer was identified at Tamaraipakkam, Pan,etty and Iin,ur in the "raniar2
!osathalaiyar Jasin '".!. Jasin( located north of 6hennai. These three +ell fields were developed for abstracting water at an estimated yield of /19 I&5.
water abstracted through bore wells from these well fields was supplied to Industries in Ianali from /;H; by the P+5 Ground +ater +ing, later on, after taking
over by 6I+SSJ in /;<=, this water was partly diverted to 6ityAs water supply system from /;=/.
>. MA/-ER 'LA8 (1R MA8AGEME8- 1( WA-ER /6''L7 )
1./. To augment water supply to 6hennai with conse-uential improvement and e*pansion of the e*isting water distribution system, a Iaster Plan was formulated in
This Iaster Plan identified river !rishna as one of the viable sources for the 6hennai Ietropolitan "rea. 6I+SSJ implemented the improvement works in
a limited way till /;;/ depending upon the funds availability.
The following are the important works e*ecuted .2
6onstruction of =
th
underground clear water storage tank of /$ I& capacity at !ilpauk.
4enewal of old and choked up water mains for a length of 87 km.
5evelopment of new water distribution Cone '/7
th
Cone( with 78 km. long pipeline network.
6onstruction of third masonry conduit of siCe 1./7m * /.7<m with a conveying capacity of /;$ I&5 for a length of // km. completed in /;=H.
!alaignar !arunanithi ?agar +ater 5istribution Station '!.!. ?agar(.
The !.!. ?agar +ater Treatment Plant was constructed by T?DJ during the year /;<$ with a treatment capacity of 8.9 I&5 '/ IG5(. The source of
water supply was from 8 ?os. of infiltration wells at Porur &ake and 9 ?os. of infiltration wells at Nirugambakkam &ake. +ater from these infiltration wells
has been conveyed through 89$mm dia ".6. pipes by gravity and supplied to !.!. ?agar after necessary treatment. This system was taken over by
6I+SS Joard in the year /;<=. Till /;;1, water supply to !.!. ?agar has been made from the above said sources. "fter failure of infiltration wells at
Porur and Nirugambakkam, the water from Porur &ake alone at 1.< I&5 is drawn, treated at !.!. ?agar water treatment plant and distributed in addition to
the supply received from 4edhills/Neeranam sources to the locations such as !.!. ?agar Fast Y +est, "shok ?agar, IG4 ?agar Fast Y +est, +est
Iambalam 'part(, ?esapakkam and Vai Jala,i ?agar.
5istribution system provided to unserved areas for a length of <$ km.
The /1 Panchayats around the periphery of the city i.e. !odungaiyur, Nyasarpadi, Frukkanchery, !olathur, Nillivakkam, Thirumangalam, Nirugambakkam,
Saligramam, !.!. ?agar, Nelachery, Tharamani and Thiruvanmiyur were added to 6ity limits in /;<= and 6I+SSJ took action to provide water supply and
sewerage services to these areas.
Southern 6oastal "-uifer was developed along the coast of Jay of Jengal during /;<72<8 and e*tended for about 1$ km. between Thiruvanmiyur and
Iuttukad during the year /;<92<< by T+"5 Joard. This was taken over by 6I+SSJ in Vune /;=8. The safe yield of this a-uifer is /$ I&5 and supplied
to part of Thiruvanmiyur area, T?S6J tenements at Kkkium Thuraipakkam and "avin at Sholinganallur. Dowever, in order to avoid sea water intrusion due
to depletion in water level, the present drawal has been restricted to only /.9 I&5.
5uring /;=1 to /;=9, an B?5P/B?T"65 "ided Dydrogeological and "rtificial 4echarge studies were carried out which identified the potential for
developing three additional well fields 'Poondi, !osathalaiyar @lood Plains and !annigaiper( to abstract about 99 million litres per day of ground water in
".!. Jasin and transfer of flood water from "raniar river to !osathalaiyar river to realise 1< I&5 of water. These two schemes were completed under @irst
6hennai +orld Jank "ided Pro,ect in /;=<.
@rom the three surface sources 'Poondi, 6holavaram and 4edhills( and H ground water well fields 'Iin,ur, Pan,etty, Tamaraipakkam, Poondi, @lood Plains
and !annigaiper(, about 7/= I&5 of water was abstracted of which 1<7 I&5 was supplied to 6hennai 6ity at an average of <$ lpcd and 89 I&5 supplied
to Industries in Ianali area till September 1=, /;;H. +ater distribution to the city from the 8 Dead works viC. !ilpauk, "nna Poonga, Southern Dead +orks
Y !.!. ?agar through the radial Conal trunk main/distribution mains were continued.
6hennai 6ity +ater Supply Source Iap '6lick here(
Construction o% ;: MLD -reatment lant )
In order to supplement the mechanical treatment capacity at !ilpauk +ater +orks, an additional module of ;$ I&5 capacity was sanctioned by the Government for
4s.1;9 lakhs in the year /;=7. The works of construction of @ilter Douse, 6larifiers, 6hemical Douse and ;
th
filtered water underground tank were completed and
commissioned on /8
th
"pril /;;$. +ith this additional capacity, the total treatment capacity by Iechanical @ilters increased to 1<$ I&5 at !ilpauk which helped to
treat the water at uniform standards before distribution.
2. 9R#/08A WA-ER /6''L7 /C0EME )
7./. "n agreement was signed ,ointly by Governments of Iaharashtra, !arnataka and "ndhra Pradesh on "pril /8, /;<H to spare /9 thousand million cubic feet
'TI6( of !rishna water to 6hennai city. @ollowing this, an accord between "ndhra Pradesh Government and Tamil ?adu Government was signed on "pril /=,
/;=7 for drawing /9 TI6 of !rishna water to 6hennai 6ity from Sri Sailam 4eservoir to be conveyed through Somaseela and !andaleru 4eservoirs and ultimately
a net -uantity of /1 TI6 'after loss of 7 TI6 enroute in evaporation and seepage( will reach the Tamil ?adu border.
7.1. Initial works for supplying water under this scheme were completed in /;;H and from September /;;H, water is received at Poondi 4eservoir from !andaleru
4eservoir in "ndhra Pradesh through /91 km. long open canal upto Tamil ?adu Jorder near Bthukottai. Then, the water is conveyed through 19 km. long open
canal to Poondi 4eservoir. @rom Poondi 4eservoir, water is transferred to 4edhills and 6hembarambakkam &akes through &ink/@eeder canals and supplied to city
after treatment.
C. 6'DA-ED MA/-ER 'LA8 )
8./. The Iaster Plan for water supply to 6hennai formulated in /;<=, was subse-uently updated in /;;/ on the following basis .2
+ater supply to be augmented by a -uantity of ;7$ I&5 from !rishna 4iver.
+ater demand for pro,ected population in 1$1/ and apportion the available -uantity among the beneficiaries.
To design the system components and install progressively, step by step, with augmentable -uantity so that allocated water could be supplied with facility
to reinforce the system to distribute 1$1/ water demand if additional sources could be identified.
The Iaster Plan to be implemented in two stages. In Stage I, infrastructure re-uirements for supply of 8$$ I&5 of !rishna water would be created.
Stage II, infrastructures would be strengthened and e*panded to supply additional 97$ I&5 of !rishna water.
The @irst stage Iaster Plan was taken up for implementation in phases using available sources of funds and also under +orld Jank "ided @irst 6hennai +ater
Supply and Sanitation Pro,ect. This Pro,ect was implemented from 5ec. /;=< to Iarch /;;H. ?ew +ell @ields 'Poondi, !osathalaiyar @lood Plains and
!annigaiper( to e*tract additional 99 I&5 of water from "! Jasin was developed in /;=<. 6onstruction of 7$$ I&5 capacity water treatment plant at 4edhills
was completed and commissioned in /;;H. The transmission mains were laid from the treatment plant to ?orth 6hennai, 6entral 6hennai and South 6hennai for
conveying treated water to 6ity 5istribution Station. "lso, old and choked up distribution mains were renewed.
#ncrease in the storage ca$acity o% the La+es )
The Public +orks 5epartment e*ecuted the works for increasing the storage capacity of the Poondi, 4edhills and 6hembarambakkam &akes under the !rishna
+ater Supply Pro,ect during /;;/2;1.
The 6hembarambakkam &ake water is being used for the city water supply from the year 1$$$ during scarcity periods by conveying water to Porur &ake through an
open channel and then by reverse pumping to conduit near 4edhills for onward transmission to !ilpauk +ater Treatment Plant for treatment and supply to the city.
The present capacity of the &akes is as follows .
La+e
Ca$acity D#n Mc%t.F
Poondi
7,17/
6holavaram
==/
4edhills
7,7$$
-otal
B!C3>
6hembarambakkam
7,H89
Grand -otal
33!:5B
5. REI#/#18 1( MA/-ER 'LA8 )
9./. The Iaster Plan updated in /;;/ was revised in "ugust /;;< based on the updated water re-uirement and water allocation for each beneficiary as per the
actual census figure of /;;/. The updated '/;;H2;<( water re-uirement and water allocation for each beneficiary were assessed as follows .
AREA
WA-ER RE56#REME8-
D#8 MLDF
WA-ER ALL1CA-#18
D#8 MLDF
>::3 >:>3 9R#/08A /-AGE # 9R#/08A /-AGE ##
/. 6hennai 6ity
</$ ;81 919 <H$
1. Spl. Industries in Ianali
/<$ 77$ /8$ 7$$
7. "d,acent Brbanised "reas
777 9// /7$ 11=
8. 5istant Brbanised "reas
//8 /;< 71Z H;
-otal
32>B 3;A: A>B 325B
Z @rom &ocal Sources
9.1. "s per the 4evised Iaster Plan proposals, 6hennai 6ity water distribution system has been divided into /H Oones. @or this, /1 +ater distribution stations
were newly constructed and improvements to the // water distribution systems were completed. &eak detection and rectification works were carried out as water
conservation measures by replacing the old and choked up water mains for a length of about 9=9 km. and /.;9 lakh house service connections were renewed.
Transmission mains for a length of 7H km. were laid to convey water to various water distribution stations. The !ilpauk water treatment plant has been refurbished
for treating 1<$ million litres of water daily. "lso, bulk meters were fi*ed in the water treatment plants and water distribution stations.
Geographical Information System 'GIS( was developed in a pilot area. Information System Technology Planning 'ISTP( was implemented as a pilot pro,ect.
detailed study on the potential of "raniar2!osathalaiyar 4iver Jasin for the e*traction of ground water has been carried out during 1$$121$$8 and assessed that
/$$ mcm per year during normal years and <$ mcm per year during drought years can be e*tracted from these a-uifers. These /H +ater 5istribution Oones are
provided with a separate water distribution station which is fed by a dedicated transmission main from the treatment plant.
6hennai 6ity +ater 5istribution ?et +ork '6lick here(
@. IEERA8AM WA-ER /6''L7 'R1JEC- )
6hennai +ater Supply "ugmentation Pro,ect Source Iap '6lick here(
The Neeranam +ater Supply Pro,ect was implemented as additional source of water to 6hennai 6ity. The Pro,ect was commissioned in the year 1$$8 to supply
/=$ I&5 of water to 6hennai 6ity by drawing water from Neeranam &ake. This lake receives water from 6auvery 4iver system through !ollidam, &ower "nicut
and Nadavar 6anal besides rainwater from its own catchment area. The capacity of the lake is /8H9 Icft. The lake water is treated at Nadakuthu +ater Treatment
Plant by pumping raw water at a distance of 1$ km. from Sethiathope to Nadakuthu through /<<9 mm dia mild steel pipe. The treated water is then pumped at a
distance of = km. to Jreak Pressure Tank at !adampuliyur through /<9$ mm dia mild steel pipe and from there the water is conveyed to a distance of about 1$$
km. through the mild steel pipe of /=<9 mm and /9$$ mm dia by gravity to Porur +ater 5istribution Station near 6hennai. @rom this 5istribution Station, water is
pumped to a distance of /.1 km. and distributed to 6hennai 6ity through Trunk mains and +ater 5istribution Stations.
B. 0#R#8G 1( 'R#IA-E AGR#C6L-6RAL WELL/ )
Ietrowater also purchased water from the private agricultural wells in the "raniar2!osathalaiyar Jasin to augment the source. The water from the private
agricultural wells conveyed through the +ell @ields pipeline network to the 6hennai 6ity and other consumers. Till Van 1$$=. 5uring poor storage in the lakes, the
water from these wells may be drawn based on the boards re-uirements.
A. 52: MLD WA-ER -REA-ME8- 'LA8- A- C0EM<ARAM<A99AM )
&ayout of 97$ I&5 +ater Treatment Plant at 6hembarambakkam '6lick here(
To treat the water received from !rishna water source under the Telugu Ganga Pro,ect, construction of a 97$ I&5 water treatment plant at 6hembarambakkam
near 6hennai and transmission line was sanctioned by the Government during "ugust /;;H with an estimated cost of 4s.1;H.$$ crore. ?ow, the construction of
the Plant has been completed by the 6I+SS Joard. The trial operation of the plant began on =.8.1$$<. The plant has been inaugurated on /;.<.1$$<.
;. /6RA'E- W-' )
The surapet water treatment plant of /8 mld capacity was taken over from T+"5 Joard from $/.$=.1$$; for further Kperation and maintenance.
3:. DE/AL#8A-#18 'LA8- )
" 5esalination plant of /$$mld capacity has been commissioned on 7/.$<.1$/$ at !attupalli Nillage near Iin,ur. The plant was constructed by 5JKKT '5esign,
Juild, Kwn, Kperate Y transfer( basis by I/s. 6hennai +ater 5esalination ltd '6+5&( and metro water has entered bulk water purchase arrangements with the
firm for 19 years.
Presently the total water treatment capacity for 6hennai 6ity is as follows .
WA-ER -REA-ME8- 'LA8- CA'AC#-7 D#8 MLDF
!ilpauk '/;/8 / 1$$9(
1<$
PuChal '/;;H(
7$$
Nadakuthu 'Neeranam &ake Source( '1$$8(
/=$
6hemabarambakkam'1$$<(
97$
!.!.?agar'/;<1(
8
Surapet'1$$;(
/8
Iin,ur 5esalination Plant
/$$
-otal
3!2;A
;. GR1W-0 'R1(#LE )
The following is the growth profile in water supply since the formation of the Joard in /;<= to Vuly 1$/$.
DE-A#L/ 3;BA MARC0 >:3:
1'ERA-#18AL AREA C#-7 3B@ /5.9M.
C#-7 G /6RR168D#8G AREA/
.his chapter focuses on the >@A water distribution system, the part of the .ransmission and
,istribution business area that involves delivery of water for retail use and for fire flow. >@AGs
water distribution system consists of water mains, distribution storage facilities and pump
stations, and related appurtenances such as valves, hydrants, service connections, and retail
billing meters. .he supervisory control and data ac0uisition (>-+,+) system
used to monitor and control the water system is also discussed in this chapter. @roper
management of the distribution system ensures that >@A meets its service levels for retail
customers.
=+.E2 ,I>.2I3A.I<? >J>.E7 @<8I-IE>
>@A developed the following new policy to describe >@AGs decision!making process and
criteria for addressing redundancy in the distribution system.
,istribution >ystem 2edundancy @olicy 2edundancy in the distribution system is one way that
>@A can increase the reliability of water delivery to its retail service customers. ,istribution
system redundancy is provided by the network of water mains, appropriately spaced valves,
stand!by pumps, and storage, all of which can help minimie customer outages. Increasing
redundancy, however, adds capital and operation and maintenance (<K7) costs that may not
necessarily be justified. .his policy was developed to incorporate asset management principles,
primarily life!cycle benefit and cost analysis, into >@AGs decision!making and clearly establish
the criteria that >@A will use for adding or retiring redundancy in its water distribution system.
.his policy ensures that service reliability is considered along with costs when considering
retirement of e&isting redundant facilities or adding new redundancy. In developing this policy,
>@A aimed to balance the conse0uences and costs of failure with the benefits of redundancy.
It favors adding redundancy only when it is cost!justified ! meaning the benefits outweigh the
costs.
@olicy >tatement
-onsider redundancy in the distribution system on a case!by!case basis, with decisions based on
an evaluation of net present value.
#. Dor new developments or redevelopments within the distribution system, re0uire developers to
install looped systems, intermediate line valves, and/or additional shut!off valves for dead!end
water mains when >@A determines that the improvement provides a positive net present value to
the water system in the area.
%. -onsider retiring e&isting redundant facilities within the distribution system when they are at
the end of their economic life and the costs of a new facility e&ceeds the avoided risks
costs.
'. -onsider adding redundancy within the distribution system when replacing e&isting facilities
that have reached the end of their economic life or when performing repairs on e&isting
facilities that re0uire retail customer outages.
(. .o increase redundancy, consider installing temporary or permanent looped systems, cross!
over valves, intermediate line valves, and/or additional shut!off valves in the distribution
system when the improvement provides positive net present value to the system.
). =hen evaluating net present value of options over the life of the project, include the capital
costs of installing the redundancy improvement and all <K7 costs such as those to repair the
new facilities or to flush any dead!end mains. +lso include the benefits of any avoided risk
costs, such as the costs of retail customer outages and temporary loss of fire flow.
Di"tri,$tion S%"tem Pre""$re
7aintaining ade0uate distribution system pressure is critical to ensure both customer service and
drinking water 0uality.
+de0uate water pressure enables customers to have sufficient water flow from their household
plumbing fi&tures and appliances.
In addition, ade0uate pressure prevents contaminants from entering the distribution system
through pipeline leaks and cross connections. In %55(, >@A developed a service level which
meets =ashington >tate ,epartment of 1ealth (=,<1) re0uirements for pressure and provides
a method for an economic analysis of supplying higher pressure levels in new and e&isting areas
of the distribution system. .his service level establishes a minimum %5 pounds per s0uare inch
(psi) service connection pressure standard for the e&isting distribution system during normal
operations and a minimum '5!psi design standard for new distribution system construction,
consistent with the =ashington +dministrative -ode (=+-). -urrent services with less than %5
psi of pressure will be brought up to at least %5 psi through system improvements. E&isting
services with pressures less than '5 psi will be brought up to a higher pressure when it is
economical to do so.
Lea."
=hile some level of leakage is unavoidable, it is important to >@A to keep leakage to a minimum
because it represents a waste of valuable resources and may result in water damage to property.
=,<1 is developing a re0uirement that would limit distribution system losses from all leaks to
#5 percent of the total water delivered to the retail service area. >@A intends to meet the
=,<1 re0uirements with this service level. >@AGs water system has had a history of low
leakage rates. In %55), >@AGs total non!revenue water was 9.' million gallons per
day (mgd), or 6 percent of the total #%; mgd produced. 8eakage is only one component of non!
revenue waterH other components include seepage and evaporation from open reservoirs, water
used for flushing and firefighting, as well as meter errors. -urrent leakage from >@AGs
distribution and transmission system is estimated at between '.' mgd and (.; mgd, or between )
and 6 percent of the *6 mgd total produced e&cluding that sold to wholesale customers in %55).
+ppro&imately #) percent of the leakage comes from transmission pipelines and water mains,
and the remaining ;) percent comes from service connections on >@AGs side of the meter.
Di"tri,$tion S%"tem Water Storage Fa!ilitie"
>@AGs distribution system includes eight in!city reservoirs and ten elevated tanks and standpipes
to provide regulating and backup storage capacity to its retail customers.
,istribution >ystem 2eservoirs. .he -ity of >eattle owns and >@A operates and maintains eight
reservoirs in the distribution system. 3itter 8ake was retrofitted with a liner and floating cover
beginning in %55#, and 8incoln 2eservoir was reconstructed as a buried reservoir beginning in
%55(. .he 3eacon and 7yrtle reservoir replacement projects began in %55*, when the e&isting
reservoirs were taken out of service. >@A is investigating the possibility of retiring the last two
open reservoirs, Bolunteer and 2oosevelt.
-ondition assessment of in!town reservoirs follows the same procedure as described for the
water transmission system reservoirs. 3ased on inspections, the structures are in good condition.
2ooseveltGs high!density polyethylene liner was replaced in #995 and, with an estimated life
e&pectancy of %5 years, is not likely to need replacement before the reservoir is decommissioned.
Bolunteer, Biew 2idge, and 7agnolia 2eservoirs are unlined. .he leakage rate from 3itter
8ake, 2oosevelt, and 7agnolia 2eservoirs is low, measured in %55'!%55( at under 5.* gallons
per minute per million gallons (gpm/7C). .he %55'!%55( leakage rates for Bolunteer and Biew
2idge 2eservoirs were '.) and %.* gpm/7C respectively. 8eakage from 8incoln 2eservoir was
tested during construction and found to be minimal and within acceptance criteria.
,istribution >ystem Elevated .anks and >tandpipes. In addition to its in!town reservoirs, the
>@A water distribution system includes two elevated tanks and eight standpipes. .he elevated
tanks and standpipes were constructed between #956 and #99*. .hey range in capacity from
5.;; mg to #.(5 mg. .his e&cludes the [ueen +nne standpipes, which are both scheduled for
demolition in early %556, and are planned to be replaced with a single %!mg tank.
Di"tri,$tion S%"tem App$rtenan!e"
.he >@A water distribution system includes a number of smaller appurtenances, such as valves,
hydrants, service lines, and meters. .he paragraphs below summarie >@AGs inventory and
replacement approach for each class of appurtenance. ,istribution >ystem Balves. >@AGs water
distribution system includes more than %#,555 valves. 7ore than #*,*55 valves control the flow
of water through the distribution system, but other valves regulate pressure, bypass other
facilities, or allow air to escape the system. 7ost valves within the distribution system are
gate valves. .he only significant modification to >@AGs valves planned since the %55# =ater
>ystem @lan will be the valve chamber replacement program that will replace e&isting chamber
tops and access maintenance holes with larger diameter tops and new access ladders. .his
program will provide >@A maintenance staff with safer valve chamber access and meet industry
safety standards. >@A has an ongoing program to replace line valves when they fail
beyond repair, when no replacement parts are available, or where the cost of repair e&ceeds the
cost of replacement. .he determination of when a valve should be replaced instead of
repaired is based on consultation among >@A staff e&perts.,istribution >ystem >ervice
-onnections. >@A maintains appro&imately #;5,555 service connections, ;5 percent of which
are e!inch diameter pipes. +lmost 65 percent of service connections are copper, and %5 percent
are plastic. .he remaining #5 percent are galvanied iron, ductile iron, and other materials.
.he most significant change to >@AGs service connections since %55# is the initiation of a
program to proactively replace noncopper service connections with copper connections. .his
program is intended to reduce the high leakage and failure rate ofnon!copper service connections
and is e&pected to be complete by %5#). .he most appropriate assessment of the condition of
>@AGs service connections is their leakage rate. In %55), >@AGs leakage rate from its service
connections was appro&imately %.; leaks per #,555 service connections. .his is lower than the
I=+Gs target leakage rate of '.6) leaks per #,555 service connections for a well!run utility. .he
current volume of leakage from >@AGs service connections is estimated between %.; to (.5
million gallons per day (mgd), or between #) to %% gallons per day per service connection.
I=+Gs target leakage volume is appro&imately #) gallons per day per service connection. >@AGs
non!copper service connections have leakage rates that are greater than ) leaks per #,555 service
connections. 3y proactively replacing these non!copper service connections with copper
connections, >@A e&pects to reduce the service connection leakage rate down to #.) leaks per
#,555 service connections, well below the I=+ target. Dor all other copper services, >@AGs
replacement program is a frun!to!failureg strategy, since the impacts of a failed copper service
are typically minor, and the services can be 0uickly replaced. ,istribution >ystem 7eters. Each
service line is fitted with water meters used to determine customer charges. 7ost of the
meters (;6 percent) are for residential customers, and the remaining #' percent are for
commercial customers. ?early 9% percent of >@A meters are small ('/(!inch and #!inch). >ince
the %55# =ater >ystem @lan, the most significant change to distribution meters, other than
routine meter replacements and repairs, has been the installation of radio fre0uency modules on
difficult!to!read meters in the downtown area. +lso, radio fre0uency modules were installed in
%55) at a group of multifamily residential meters to pilot!test a new technology to collect
readings from a single pole!mounted collector
Di"tri,$tion S%"tem Maintenan!e
@roper maintenance of distribution system components ensures that >@A will be able to deliver
reliable water service, reduce the risk of une&pected failures, and provide safe drinking water
0uality to its customers. >@A has prepared a number of strategic asset management plans
(>+7@s) for each major class of distribution system infrastructure components. .he >+7@s
outline maintenance strategies for each asset. >ummaries of those maintenance strategies are
provided below.
Water Main"
=ater mains located at fdead!endsg or with low flows often accumulate sediment or have the
potential for microbial growth. >@A crews flush low!flow or dead!end mains to maintain water
0uality. >@A has also begun a plot unidirectional flushing program, as described in the -hapter
'. 2eservoirs and .anks
>torage facility cleaning is also performed to remove sediment, debris, and/or microbial growth
as described in -hapter '. =ater @ump >tations @ump stations in the distribution system are
maintained in the same manner as described for the transmission system pump stations, as
described in -hapter (. =ater +ppurtenances >@A also performs maintenance activities for its
valves, hydrants, service lines, and meters to ensure their continuing operation. +
brief description of each follows.Balves. >@A responds to an average of #55 valve!related
problems per year. 7ost valve problems can be categoried as leaks, casting failures,
mechanical inoperability, and valves being buried by new pavement. ,eterioration of interior
packing, broken and bent stems, and construction projects are usually the causes of valve
problems. >@A is responsible for operating and e&ercising distribution line valves. 8arge valves,
those #* inches or larger, were e&ercised and inspected by valve crews annually until %55'. ,ue
to shifts in priorities, this routine operation work is performed less fre0uently. 1ydrants. Each
fire service agency inspects hydrants located within its service area, generally on an annual basis.
,efects are reported to >@A for repair. ,uring a twelve month period in %55%!%55', >@A
responded to appro&imately %,%*9 work orders to address fire hydrant defects. ,uring
maintenance visits, >@A paints hydrants to prevent e&terior corrosion and improve their
appearance. .he average hydrant painting interval is appro&imately five years. >ervice
-onnections. >@A spends about I#.% million annually on reactive maintenance and repair of
water service lines e&tending from the water main to a customerGs meter. >@A typically learns
of water service failures through customer calls. >@AGs service connection maintenance program
is almost entirely reactive since it is generally not economical to perform preventative
maintenance activities on water service lines. .he conse0uences of failure on water service lines
are low, and therefore it is more economical to run them to failure.7eters. >@AGs retail water
meters ensure proper billing of its drinking water sales, as well as wastewater disposal costs.
3illing system!generated meter problem reports may be generated under a variety of different
conditionsP broken meter dialsH meters that have been inaccessible for reading for three attemptsH
consumption that is much higher or lower than what is e&pected for the customer based on
historical informationH meter registers that are stuckH and meters that show ero consumption.
-ustomer!reported problems often arise from billing 0uestions. =hen these problems arise, >@A
works with each customer to 0uickly resolve the issues. 7alfunctioning customer meters are
much more likely to underregister than over!register. >@A maintains its distribution system water
meters based on meter sie and customer type. >@A has a meter testing and maintenance
program for its large meters, which represent less than three percent of all retail meters. >@AGs
goal is to maintain accuracy of large meters to between 96 and #5' percent as per the guidelines
of the +merican =ater =orks +ssociation. + large meter with an accuracy falling outside that
range is either repaired to restore its performance or replaced.
>@A does not typically perform maintenance activities for small
meters since repairing small meters is not cost!effective and it is
generally cheaper to replace a small meter than repair it. >@A
replaces about ;55 small meters each year.
2ecord Feeping and 2eporting
>@A uses its 7+RI7< work management system to capture asset failure, repair, and
replacement history. Dailure history is not completely reliable because many of the failure codes
that were originally developed did not ade0uately describe the nature of the failure. .his
problem has since been resolved for all new data entered into the system. >@A uses a geographic
information system (CI>) to record and display locations of physical assets and problems. .his
tool is also utilied to review hydrant spacing and identify hydrants that have deficient spacing.
Ceneral, definitions, abbreviations, commonly used waterworks pipes fittings, responsibilities of
water and consumers/agents, general principles for installing plumbing works, submissions of
pluming proposals, general, submissions, plumbing proposals, format, licensed plumber,
commencement of work, interim inspections and final inspections, completion of work, works of
a minor nature, metering, general, meterposition, inside service, fresh water supply, flushing
supply, fire service, metering re0uiremnt pipe materials, supply types and arrangements, storage
cisterns, water pumps and other miscellaneous, water pumps, valve and taps, earthing, separate
metering ine&isting premises, authoriing private developers/authoried persons to undertake
water supply, connection works, maintenance.
@lumbing installation that receives water supply from the =aterworks has to comply with the
=aterworks re0uirements under the provision of the =aterworks <rdinance/2egulations and
1ong Fong =aterworks >tandard 2e0uirements for @lumbing Installation in 3uildings
(1F=>2). +pproval from the =ater +uthority is re0uired in order to construct, install, alter or
remove a plumbing installation. =orks of a 7inor ?ature =orks of a minor nature are works
which can be completed without the involvement of
specialied trade skill and those which do not change the general arrangement of the plumbing
installation already approved by the =ater +uthority, or affect the flowconditions of the
plumbing system thus causing possible supply problems.
E Ppe and Fttngs
Fitting" an# A!!e""orie"
-omplete range of fittings K accessories for @E @iping >olutions offered by ,ura!line includes compression
fittings like couplers/elbows/end caps/tees etc. up to ##5 mm and fabricated K moulded fittings/accessories
like bends, elbows, e0ual tees, flanges etc. up to #555 mm diameter.
-ompression fittings P -overing sies upto ##5 mm for water supply and house service connection, in
accordance with international standards, duly certified by bodies like FI=+, ,BC= K =rc
7olded K Dabricated fittings like e0ual/une0ual tees, bends, collars, flanges, capends, etc. covering the
complete range. @rofessional .urnkey >upport for design, supply, installation, jointing and testing of @E
piping systems. ,ura!line @ipes 8earning -enter at Coa for knowledge sharing K training on design,
application, installation, jointing K testing techni0ues for @E piping systems
Product Features
Capabty: As per the buyer's specfcatons
Pace of orgn: Inda
,escriptionP
>hreyas +gro >ervices (@) 8td. undertakes turnkey projects, which includes design, supply,
installation, testing and commissioning of pipelines. =e are manufacturers and suppliers of @E
pipes which consists ofP
@B- pipes ranging from %5 mm to )*5 mm <,, with pressure rating from %.) Fg/cm
%
to
#* Fg/cm
%
[uick fi& @B- pipes ranging from *' mm to (55 mm, with pressure rating!( Fg/cm
%
to
#%.) Fg/cm
%
3ore well casing and screen pipes ranging from (;mm to )(5 mm for a well depth up to
()5 meters
@lumbing pipes ranging from c f to # c f
1,@E water pipes ranging from %5 mm to #*55 mm with pressure rating of %.)
kg/cm
%
to #* Fg/cm
%
7,@E pipes for house service connection, ranging from %5 mm to *' mm,