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A GUIDE TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR

A GUIDE TO ENGLISH GRAMMAR

Explanations, examples and exercises
for first year students

THE NOUN

Countable and uncountable nouns

In English, nouns can be divided into countable and uncountable nouns. Most common nouns are countable: i.e. they have both singular and plural forms: ex. hand hands. !ther common nouns are uncountable: they have a singular, but no plural: ex. bread " #breads. 1. Examples of countable an uncountable nouns 1a. $ountable nouns can be both singular and plural: s!n"ula# the baby a rose that cup the bird a %ey that shout plu#al the babies some roses those cups the birds some %eys those shouts

1b. &ncountable nouns have no plural: they refer to things you cannot count. 'ere are examples of concrete nouns (referring to the physical )orld* )hich are not countable. +ubstances: bread - *breads; dust - *dusts; steel - *steels. ,i-uids: blood - *bloods; milk - *milks; alcohol - *alcohols. .ases: air - *airs; steam - *steams; oxygen - *oxygens. Many abstract nouns are also uncountable. peace - *peaces; evidence - *evidences; information - *informations; history *histories; work (= ob! - *works" advice # *advices; gratitude - *gratitudes

$. %&at a#e uncountables'

&ncountables refer to masses )hich )e cannot easily thin% of as consisting of separate items: i.e. li-uids, po)ders. 0e can divide many of these masses into subgroups, )hich are also uncountable: material: cotton" wool" silk" nylon meat: beef" pork" lamb" chicken ex.: 1re these soc%s made of (ool or of cotton2 I prefer lamb to c&!c)en. T*pes of uncountables 3o remember easily, thin% of substances, li-uids, gases, and abstract ideas as uncountable. In the lists of )ords in a e, those uncountable nouns )hich have subgroups of uncountable nouns are mar%ed in bold italic type. a. +ubstances: wood, plastic" leather" cement" chalk" plaster" paint" sand" coal" rock" paper material: cloth" cotton" silk" wool" nylon metal: iron" gold" silver" brass" lead food: flour" rice" bread" wheat" rye" sugar" salt" pepper" meat" fish" fruit" butter" cheese" am fur" skin" hair" ice" snow" rain" soil" grass" land" ground b. ,i-uids: water" milk" coffee" tea" oil" petrol 4..5.6, gasoline 4&.+.6, uice" alcohol c. .ases: air" smoke" steam" oxygen" hydrogen d. !thers (7ou might expect some of these to be plural, but they are not8*: furniture" luggage" baggage" money" pay" noise" traffic" music" accomodation e. 1bstract ideas: information" knowledge" advice" education" fiction" (outer! space" time" power" experience" history 9!3E: Ne(s loo%s li%e a plural noun, but in fact it is singular uncountable. Ex.: $here%s not much news on the radio today. :

9ote also that (o#), &ome(o#) and &ouse(o#) are uncountable. +. Ho( countables an uncountables be&a,e +a. $ountable nouns (i* (ii* (iii* can follo) a, an or one can follo) man*, fe(, t&ese, t&ose can follo) a number such as t(o, t&#ee, fou#, ; uncountable (5ut not: ; #a pleasant )or%* (5ut not: #3hose foods;* (5ut not: ; #t)o breads*

countable (i* <o you have a pleasant -ob2 (ii* T&ose meals you coo%ed )ere delicious (iii* I bought t(o loa,es (of bread* +b. &ncountable nouns (i* (ii* (iii*

can have no article and can follo) some in the singular. 3hey ta%e only a singular verb. can follo) muc& or l!ttle can easily follo) expressions li%e most of t&e, all of t&e, all t&e , &alf t&e (in the singular*

uncountable (i* It=s made of (oo . (ii* 3here=s too muc& t#aff!c. (iii* I sold all t&e fu#n!tu#e.

countable (5ut not: #made of tree* (5ut not: #too much vehicle* (5ut not: #all the table*

Some and all t&e are occasionally follo)ed by a singular countable noun. 5ut this is exceptional. Ex.: $hat was some party& (> ?a very special party=* '%ve eaten all the loaf. (>=the )hole loaf=* Many nouns have both countable and uncountable uses. +ome common examples: countable A o.en (>12* e""s, please. I=ve told him so man* t!mes. 3he cro)d thre) #oc)s at us. a strong (!n @ light (!n s +he gave a tal) on sailing. t&e bright l!"&ts of the city uncountable 3here=s some e"" on your chin. 0e=ve )asted so muc& t!me. a tunnel through hard #oc). 3here=s a lot of (!n about. 3hat=s foolish tal). L!"&t travels very fast.

+ome more examples: a glass # (some! glass; a cake # (some! cake; two papers # (some! paper. Bor many nouns, the countable use is for separate items or things, but the uncountable use is for (an amount of* the material or substance. Bor example: two onions # (some! onion; a (whole! cheese # (some! cheese; a chicken # (some! chicken. 1 countable noun can also describe ?a )!n or t*pe of C=, )here C is the uncountable noun. Ex.: (old and silver are valuable metals. ()kinds of metal%! $his store sells health foods and baby food(s). *ak is a hard wood. 0e sometimes change an uncountable noun into a countable noun. Bor instance, nouns for li-uids as tea and coffee are usually uncountable, but )e can use them as countable nouns meaning (a* ?a "lass or cup of C=, or (b* ?a t*pe of C=. Ex.: A tea and two coffees" please. $his is an excellent mineral water from +elgium. 9!3E: 3he meaning of a noun does not al)ays help us to decide )hether it is uncountable. Bor example, t#aff!c, fu#n!tu#e, ba""a"e (..5. lu""a"e*, mone*, ne(s refer to a group of separate things. 5ut English treats them as uncountable@ )e could say that English ?sees= these as a mass.

The plural
3he nouns )hich have a plural form are called countable nouns. Most nouns are countable. 3he regular plural form of a noun adds /s (or /es* to the singular. Ex.: (ee) / (ee)s@ cup / cups@ plan / plans@ la( / la(s@ uncle / uncles@ to* / to*s Most nouns add /s, but if the noun already ends in /s or /.0 1x0 1c&, "sh, it adds /es. Ex.: bus / buses@ bu.. / bu..es@ box / boxes@ peac& / peac&es@ bus& / bus&es 3he formation of the plural can be describes as follo)s: #e"ula# spell!n" 1s after most nouns: 1es after nouns ending in /o: 1s 1x 1c& 1s& consonant E 1* becomes /!es: 9ote that vo)el E 1* adds /s: 1a*: 1e*2 1o*2 1u*2 proper nouns ending in /* add /s in the plural: !##e"ula# spell!n" +ome endings in /f31fe ta%e /,es: Internal vo)el change: 9ouns )ith plurals in /en: 9o change: Boreign plurals: s!n"ula# cat tub potato class box watch bush country day key boy guy ,ry -ennedy s!n"ula# wife man ox sheep analysis plu#al cats tubs potatoes classes boxes watches bushes countries days keys boys guys ,rys -ennedys plu#al wives men oxen sheep analyses

1. 4ollect!,e noun 5 s!n"ula# o# plu#al ,e#b 1a. 4ollect!,e nouns (&!c& &a,e plu#al fo#ms

+ome collective nouns such as audience, class, club, committee, company, congregation, council, crew, crowd, family, gang, government, group, jury, mob, staff, team and union can be used )ith singular or plural verbs. 3hey are singular and can combine )ith the relative pronouns which/that and be replaced by it )hen )e thin% of them in an impersonal fashion, i.e. as a )hole group: $he present government" which hasn t been in power long" is trying to control inflation. !t isn t having much success. 3hey are plural and can combine )ith who and be replaced by they or them )hen )e thin% of them in a more personal )ay, i.e. as the individuals that ma%e up the group: $he government, who are loo"ing for a .uick victory" are calling for a general election soon. #hey expect to be re-elected. / lot of people are giving them their support. 3hese collective nouns can also have regular plural forms: $overnments in all countries are trying to control inflation. 1b. 4ollect!,e nouns (&!c& o not &a,e plu#al fo#ms 3he follo)ing collective nouns have no regular plural but can be follo)ed by a singular or plural verb: the aristocracy, the gentry, the proletariat, the majority, the minority, the public, the youth of today: (ive the public what it wants0they want. %ffspring has no plural form but can be follo)ed by a singular verb to refer to one or a plural verb to refer to more than one: 1er offspring is like her in every respect. (one child* 1er offspring are like her in every respect. (more than one child* #he youth of today (>all young people* should not be confused )ith a/the youth (>aGthe young man*, )hich has a regular plural youths: #he youth of today is0are better off than we used to be. $he witness said he saw a youth0five youths outside the shop. &outh (>a time of life* is used )ith singular verbs: &outh is the time for action; age is the time for repose.

$. 4ollect!,e noun 5 plu#al ,e#b

3he follo)ing collective nouns must be follo)ed by a plural verb@ they do not have plural forms: cattle, the clergy, the military, people, the police, swine, vermin: 'ome people are never satisfied. #he police/the military have surrounded the building. (eople should not be confused )ith a/the people, meaning InationJ or ItribeJ, )hich is countable: $he +ritish are a sea)faring people* $he 2nglish-speaking peoples share a common language. +. Nouns (!t& a plu#al fo#m 5 s!n"ula# ,e#b 3he follo)ing nouns, though plural in form, are al)ays follo)ed by a verb in the singular: " " " the noun news, as in: #he news on $3 is always depressing. games, such as billiards, bowls, darts, dominoes: +illiards is becoming more and more popular. names of cities such as Athens, +russels, ,aples: Athens has grown rapidly in the past decade. 6. Nouns (!t& a plu#al fo#m 5 s!n"ula# o# plu#al ,e#b 3he follo)ing nouns ending in -ics ta%e a singular verb: athletics, gymnastics, linguistics, mathematics and physics: .athematics is a compulsory sub ect in school. 'o)ever, some )ords ending in -ics, such as acoustics, economics, ethics, phonetics and statistics ta%e a singular or plural verb. 0hen the reference is to an academic subKect (e.g. acoustics > the scientific study of sound* then the verb must be singular: Acoustics is a branch of physics. 0hen the reference is specific, (e.g. acoustics > sound -uality* then the verb must be plural: #he acoustics in the /estival 0all are extremely good. Llural"form nouns describing illnesses have a singular verb: $erman measles is a dangerous disease for pregnant women. 'o)ever, a plural verb is sometimes possible: .umps are (or is* fairly rare in adults.

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+ome plural"form nouns can be regarded as a single unit (Everb in the singular* or collective (Everb in the plural*. Examples are: barrac"s, bellows, crossroads, gallows, gaswor"s, head1uarters, "ennels, series, species and wor"s (>factory*. "single unit: #his species of rose is very rare. "more than one: #here are thousands of species of butterflies. 3he )ord means (>a )ay to an end* is follo)ed by a singular or plural verb, depending on the )ord used before it: All means have been used to get him to change his mind. %ne means is still to be tried. 7. Nouns (!t& a plu#al fo#m 5 plu#al ,e#b 9ouns )ith a plural form only (Eplural verb* are: "nouns )hich can combine )ith a pair of: .y trousers are torn. &sed )ith a pair of, these )ords must have a singular verb: A pair of glasses costs .uite a lot these days. 0e cannot normally use numbers in front of these )ords, but )e can say two, etc. pairs of: #wo pairs of your trousers are still at the cleaner%s. +ome of these nouns can have a singular form )hen used in compounds: e.g. pyjama top, trouser leg: 4here did ' put my pyjama top5 "a fe) )ords )hich occur only in the plural and are follo)ed by a plural verb. +ome of these are: antipodes, belongings, brains (>intellect*, clothes, congratulations, earnings, goods, greens (>green vegetables*, lodgings, loo"s (>good loo%s*, means (>money or material possessions*, oats, odds (in betting*, outs"irts, particulars, 1uarters (>accommodation*, remains, riches, stairs. /ll my belongings are in this bag. 8. Nouns (!t& !ffe#ent s!n"ula# an plu#al mean!n"s +ome nouns have different meanings in the singular and plural. 3ypical examples: air/airs, ash/ashes, content/contents, custom/customs, damage/damages, drawer/drawers, fund/funds, glass/glasses, loo"/loo"s, manner/manners, minute/minutes, pain/pains,

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scale/scales, saving/savings, spectacle/spectacles, step/steps, wor"/wor"s* +ometimes the meanings are far apart (air/airs*, sometimes they are -uite close (fund/funds*. %ne small step for man; one giant leap for mankind. 6ou can only reach that cupboard with a pair of steps* !f course, the countable nouns in the above list have their o)n plurals: dirty loo"s, five minutes, sharp pains, two steps, etc.

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QUANTITY

General introduction to quantity

1. 9uant!f!e#s2 (&at t&e* a#e an (&at t&e* o Nuantifiers are )ords and phrases li%e few, little, plenty (of), )hich often modify nouns and sho) ho) many things or ho) much of something )e are tal%ing about. +ome -uantifiers combine )ith countable nouns, some )ith uncountable and some )ith both %inds. 1.1 Nuantifiers combining )ith countable nouns ans)er 0ow many2: 0ow many eggs are there in the fridge5 # $here are a few. 1.2 Nuantifiers combining )ith uncountable nouns ans)er 0ow much2: 0ow much mil" is there in the fridge5 # $here is a little. 1.3 Nuantifiers combining )ith uncountable or )ith countable nouns ans)er 0ow many2 or 0ow much2: 0ow many eggs are there in the fridge5 # $here are plenty. 0ow much mil" is there in the fridge5 # $here is plenty. $. 9uant!f!e# 5 noun comb!nat!ons Nuantifiers combine )ith different types of nouns: 2.1 9uant!f!e# 5 plu#al countable noun: not many books@ any number more than one (3, 4 etc*), both, a couple of, do5ens/hundreds of, (a) few, fewer, the fewest, a/the majority of, (not) many, a minority of, a number of, several: 4e have fewer students speciali7ing in maths than in 2nglish. 2.2 9uant!f!e# 5 uncountable noun: not much sugar@ a (small) amount of, a bit of, a drop of (li1uid), a great/good deal of, (a) little, less, the least, (not) much: '%d like a bit of bread with this cheese. 2.3 9uant!f!e# 5 plu#al countable noun (a lot of books! or E :s!n"ula#; uncountable noun (a lot of sugar!: some (of the), any (of the), all (the), hardly any, enough, half of the/half the, a lot of, lots of, more, most, most of the, no, none of the, the other, part of the, plenty of, the rest of the: $here aren%t any cars on the road at the moment. $here isn%t any traffic on the road at the moment.

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2./ 9uant!f!e# 5 s!n"ula# countable noun: each book@ all (of) the, another, any (of the), each, either, every, half (of) the, most of the, neither, no, none of the, one, the only, the other, some (of the), the whole (of the): 't%s each/every man for himself in this business. +. De"#ees of !n ef!n!te <uant!t* Oeferences to -uantity can be ef!n!te: that is, )e can say exactly ho) many or ho) much: 4e need six eggs and half a "ilo of butter. 'o)ever, most -uantifiers are !n ef!n!te, that is, they do not tell us exactly ho) many or ho) much. 'ome, any and 5ero refer to an indefinite number or amount: /re there (any) apples in the bag5 $here are (some) apples in the bag. (0e are not told ho) many.* 's there (any) mil" in the fridge5 $here is (some) mil" in the fridge. (0e are not told ho) much.* ,o E noun indicates a complete absence of the thing mentioned: 3here are no apples. 3here is no mil%. Most -uantity )ords give us more information than some and any, telling us the comparative degree of the number or amount: plu#al countable nouns /pproximately how many $here are too many eggs. plenty of eggs. a lot of/lots of eggs. (not) enough eggs. a few eggs. very few eggs. not many eggs. hardly any eggs. no eggs. uncountable nouns /pproximately how much $here is too much milk. plenty of milk. a lot of/lots of milk. (not) enough milk. a little milk. very little milk. not much milk. hardly any milk. no milk.

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6. T&e use of =of> afte# <uant!f!e#s +ome -uantity phrases used as determiners al)ays ta%e of: 4e%ve had a lot of answers. (a lot of answers>determiner E noun* 5ut )hen they are used as pronouns, of is dropped: 4e%ve had a lot. (a lot as a pronoun*
6.1 Gene#al #efe#ences (!t& <uant!f!e#s

Nuantifiers )hich al)ays ta%e of before nounsGpronouns include: a couple of do5ens of/hundreds of the majority/a minority of a number of people0books (plural countable*

a large/small amount of a bit of a lot of lots of plenty of

cheese (uncountable* books0cheese (plural countable or uncountable*

3hese references are general, i.e. )e are not saying )hich particular people, etc. !ther -uantifiers (any, (a) few, more, most, some, etc.* go directly before the noun (no of* in general references: $here are hardly any eggs0a few eggs in the fridge. $here is some butter0no butter in the dish.
6.$ Spec!f!c #efe#ences (!t& <uant!f!e#s

If )e need to be specific (i.e. point to particular items* )e can follo) a -uantifier )ith of E a determiner (the, this, my*. 1ave some of this/a little of my wine. (e.g. the )ine in this bottle* '%ll lend you some of these/a few of my books. (specified boo%s* In the same )ay )e can ma%e specific references )ith -uantifiers )hich are al)ays follo)ed by of by using determiners after them. $ompare: A lot of students missed my lecture yesterday. (general reference* A lot of the students who missed my lecture yesterday want to borrow my notes. (specific reference* 1:

9ote the follo)ing -uantifiers )hich are al)ays specific and )hich must therefore be follo)ed by of E determiner: ,one of the/this mil" can be used. (art of /#he rest of this food will be for supper. (ut the rest of these biscuits in the tin. 9ote the omission and use of of in: 1ow much is left5 # ,one (of it!. (art of it. #he rest of it. 1ow many are left5 # ,one (of them!. (art of/#he rest of them.

Particular quantifiers and their uses

1. Numbe#s Exact indications of -uantity can be conveyed by means of numbers.
1.1 4a# !nal numbe#s

$ardinal numbers can be used as -uantifiers (two apples* or pronouns (' bought two*. 3he number one )ill combine )ith any noun used as a singular countable noun: 4e%ve got one micro and two electric typewriters in our office. 1ll other numbers combine )ith plural countable nouns: #wo cabbages" three "ilos of tomatoes and twelve oranges. 9ote also ordinals follo)ed by cardinals (the first three, the second two, etc.* and: the next/last two, etc.: #he first three runners won medals.
1.$ 4ount!n"

1 number of adverbial expressions can be used to describe -uantities and groups: one at a time6 one by one6 two by two6 by the do5en6 by the hundred6 in tens6 in five hundreds: 1ow would you like your money5 # !n fives please.
1.+ ?#act!ons

0e can say: 8 (a/one half*, 9 (a/one 1uarter, or one fourth, 1mE* and :0; (a/one third*. !ther)ise, )e ma%e use of cardinal and ordinal numbers )hen referring to a fraction on its o)n: <0:= (nine sixteenths* or to a )hole number E fraction: > >0; (two and two thirds*: > 9 (#wo and a 1uarter! plus ; 8 (three and a half! e.uals ? @ (five and three 1uarters!. 1A

0e use a (9ot one* )ith fractions for )eights and measures: ' bought half a pound of tea and a 1uarter of a pound of coffee. 3his could also be expressed as: a half pound of tea, a 1uarter pound of coffee.
1.6 Dec!mals

Bractions expressed as decimals are referred to as follo)s: A.? (nought point five or point five*@ >.A? (two point nought five or two point oh five*@ >.? (two point five*: $he front tyre pressure should be :.B ( one point eight! and the rear pressure :.< ( one point nine!.
1.7 Mult!pl*!n" an !,! !n" <uant!t*

3he follo)ing can be used to refer to -uantity: double (the 1uantity or amount;@ twice as much (or twice the 1uantity or amount)@ half as much (or half the 1uantity or amount), etc.: 4e need double/twice/three times the .uantity0amount.
1.8 App#ox!mate numbe# an <uant!t*

9umbers can be modified by: e.g* about, almost, exactly, fewer than, at least, less than, more than, nearly, over, under: $here were over seventy people at the party. (> more than* 6ou can%t vote if you are under eighteen. (> less than* $. T&e use of =some> an =an*> 'ome and any are the most fre-uently used -uantity )ords in the language. 3hey never ans)er 1ow many5 and 1ow much5: 1ow much do you want5 - 7ust a little. (9ot #some* 1ow many do you want5 - 7ust a few. (9ot #some* 0e generally use some and any )hen it is not important to state exactly ho) great or ho) small the -uantity is. 3hey often function as if they )ere the plural of a/an: $here are some letters for you. (unspecified number* 1ow many (letters are there!5 1ow much (bread is there!5 Se,en. (number specified* Half a loaf. (amount specified* $here%s some bread in the bread-bin. (unspecified amount* It is sometimes possible to omit some or any: Cy wife bought me medicine and pastilles for my cough.

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'%.E (> indefinite -uantity or amount* is normally used " in the affirmative: $here are some eggs in the fridge. (i.e. an unstated number* $here is some mil" in the fridge. (i.e. an unstated -uantity* " in -uestions )hen )e expect (or hope to get* the ans)er ?7es=: 1ave you got some paper)clips in that box5 (i.e.: I %no) or I thin% you=ve got some and expect you to say ?7es=.* " in offers, re-uests, invitations and suggestions )hen )e expect the ans)er ?7es= or expect implied agreement. 3he follo)ing are in the form of -uestions, though )e are not see%ing information: 4ould you like some (more! coffee5 (expecting ?7es=* Cay ' have some (more! coffee5 (expecting ?7es=* " to mean ?certain, but not all=: 'ome people believe anything they read in the papers. ,ot8some can be used in certain contexts to mean ?not all=: ' didn%t understand some of the lectures0some of the information. 'ome E countable or uncountable noun is normally unstressed: $here are some letters for you. 'ome, meaning ?certain but not all= is usually stressed. It can be stressed at the beginning of a statement to emphasiPe a contrast: 'ome people have no manners. It can be stressed to refer to an unspecified personGthing: 'ome boy left his shirt in the cloakroom. A,& (> indefinite -uantity or amount* is normally used " in negative statements containing not or n t: 4e haven t got any shirts in your si7e. $here isn t any mil" in the fridge. " in -uestions )hen )e are not sure about the ans)er or expect ?9o=: 1ave you got any paper)clips in the box5 (i.e. I don=t %no) if you=ve got any and )ouldn=t be surprised if you said ?9o=* " in sentences containing a negative )ord other than ?not=, such as hardly, never, seldom or without, or )hen there is any suggestion of doubt, e.g. )ith if or whether (implied negatives*: $here%s hardly any petrol in the tank. 1F

4e got to Daris without any problems. ' don%t know if/whether there s any news from 1arry. " )ith at all and (more formally* whatever for special emphasis: ' haven%t got any idea at all/whatever about what happened. +. T&e use of =not@an*>0 =no> an =none>
+.1 =Not@an*> an =no>

1n alternative )ay of forming a negative is )ith no: notEany: $here aren t any buses after midnight. no: $here are no buses after midnight. 1 clause can contain ONLA ONE NEGATIBE %ORD, so that not and e.g. no or never cannot be used together: ' could get no information. (9ot #' couldn%t* 0hen used in preference to notEany, no is slightly more formal and ma%es a negative idea more emphatic. 9egatives )ith notEany are used in normal conversation, but )e must al)ays use no (9ever #not any* if )e )ish to begin a sentence )ith a negative: ,o department stores open on Fundays. 9o can combine )ith a singular noun: 3here=s no letter for you. (> 3here isn=t a letter for you.* I=m no expert, but I thin% this paper is a fa%e. 9o at the beginning of a statement strongly emphasiPes a negative idea.
+.$ =No> an =none>

,o meaning notEany is a determiner and can only be used before a noun@ none stands on its o)n as a pronoun: $here isn%t any bread. $here aren%t any sweets. used as )ell: ' couldn t get any information about flights to the GF/. ' could get no information about flights to the GF/. Ho you have any new diaries5 # 4e%ve got none at the moment. $here%s no bread. $here%s none. $here are no sweets. $here are none.

,i%e no, none is more emphatic that notEany. 0hen no or none are used, not cannot be

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6. Spec!al uses of =some>0 =an*> an =no>

6.1 =Some>

1part from its common use as a -uantifier, some can be used to refer to an unspecified person or thing etc. 0hen used in this )ay it can mean: " ?several=: " ?approximately=: " ?extraordinary=: " ?an un%no)n=: " ?no %ind of=: ' haven%t seen $om for some years. $here were some 9:: demonstrators. $hat%s some radio you%ve bought& (informal! $here must be some boo" which could help. $hat%s some consolation" ' must say& (ironic!

0ith abstract nouns some can be used to mean ?an amount of=: 4e%ve given some thought to your idea and find it interesting.
6.$ =An*>

1part from its common use as a -uantifier, any can be used to refer to an unspecified person or thing and can occur in affirmative statements. 0hen used in this )ay it can mean: " ?usual=: " ?I don=t care )hich=: $his isn%t ust any ca"e. (it%s special! (ive me a plate. Any plate/one will do. " ?the minimumGmaximum=: 1e%ll need any help he can get.

6.+ =An*> an =no> 5 a -ect!,e o# a ,e#b

Any and no, used as adverbs to mean ?at all=, )ill combine )ith adKectives and adverbs in the comparative: 's he any better this morning5 # Io" he%s no better. Any and no used as adverbs combine )ith a fe) positive adKectives, e.g. good (any good) and different (any different): 's that book any good5 # 't%s no good at all. 7. 4ommon uses of =muc&> an =man*> 0e normally use much (E uncountable* and many (E plural countable*: " " in negative statements: in -uestions: ' haven t much time. $here aren t many pandas in Jhina. !s there much mil" in that carton5 0ave you had many in1uiries2 2M

In everyday speech )e usually avoid using much and many in affirmative statements. 0e use other -uantifiers, especially a lot of. .uch and many occur in formal affirmative statements: .uch has been done to improve conditions of work. .any teachers dislike marking piles of exercise books. $ombinations li%e as much as and as many as are used in the affirmative or negative: 6ou can0can%t have as much as (as many as) you like. 0hen much and many are modified by much and far (much/far too much, much/far too many) they tend to be used in the affirmative: 6our son gets much/far too much poc"et money* $here are far too many accidents at this unction. .any in time expressions occurs in the affirmative or negative: ' have lived here0haven%t lived here (for) many years. ,ot much and not many commonly occur in short ans)ers: 1ave you brought much luggage5 # Io" not much. 1ave you written many letters5 # Io" not many. ,ot much and not many can be subKects or part of the subKect: ,ot much is really known about dinosaurs. ,ot many people know about Helia%s past. .uch occurs in a number of expressions (e.g. there s not much point in86 it s a bit much6 he s not much of a8*: #here s not much point in telling the same story again. ,ot so much occurs in comparisons: 't%s not so much a bedroom" more a studio. Hennis is not so much a nuisance as a menace. 't%s not so much that he dislikes his parents" as that/but that he wants to set up on his own. .any (li%e few* can be modified by the, my, your, etc.: *ne of the many people he knows can help him to get a ob.

21

8. =:A; fe(> an =:a; l!ttle>

8.1 =?e(> an =a fe(>

/ew and a few are used )ith plural countables. /ew is negative, suggesting ?hardly any at all=, and is often used after very: Cona has had very few opportunities to practise her 2nglish. In everyday speech )e prefer not8many or hardly any: Cona hasn t had many opportunities to practise her 2nglish. Cona has had hardly any opportunities to practise her 2nglish. /ew can also convey the idea of ?not as many as )ere expected=: / lot of guests were expected" but few came. A few is positive, suggesting ?some, a (small* number=: $he police would like to ask him a few 1uestions. A few can mean ?a very small number=, or even ?-uite a lot=. 3he siPe of the number depends on the spea%er=s vie)point: ' don%t know how much he%s got" but it must be a few million. A fe( can be used to mean ?more than none, more than expected=: 1ave we run out of sardines5 # Io" there are a few tins left. A few can also combine )ith other )ords: just: only: 1uite: a good: do5en, <::, <::: : 1ow many do you want5 7ust a few please. (i.e. a limited number, not many* $here are only a few seats left. (i.e. very fe), hardly any* 1ow many do you want5 ;uite a few please. (i.e. -uite a lot* 4e had a good few letters this morning. (i.e. -uite a lot* $he film director employed a few hundred people as extras. (i.e. several hundred* 0er few possessions were sold after her death. (i.e. the small number of*
8.$ =L!ttle> an =a l!ttle>

the, my, etc.: #he few people who saw the film en oyed it.

=ittle and a little are used )ith (singular* uncountables. =ittle (li%e few* is negative, suggesting ?hardly any at all= and is often used after very: 1e has very little hope of winning this race. 22

In everyday speech )e prefer not8much or hardly any: 1e hasn t much hope of winning this race. 1e has hardly any hope of winning this race. =ittle can also convey the idea of ?not as much as )as expected=: 4e climbed all day but made little progress. =ittle occurs in idiomatic ?negative= phrases such as little point, little sense, little use, etc: #here s little point in trying to mend it. A little and, in very informal contexts, a bit (of) are positive, suggesting ?some, a (small* -uantity=: '%d like a little (or a bit of) time to think about it please. 3he siPe of the amount depends on the vie)point of the spea%er: Crs. Kacey left a little money in her will # about L:"AAA"AAA& A l!ttle can also mean ?more than none, more than expected=: 1ave we got any flour5 # 6es" there%s a little in the packet. A little can combine )ith other )ords: just: 1ow much do you want5 # 7ust a little please. (i.e. a limited -uantity, not much* only: $here%s only a little soup left. (i.e. very little, hardly any* /ew and little can be modified by e.g. extremely, relatively: $here are relatively few obs for astronauts. A few and a little can modify other -uantifiers, as in a few more, a little less etc.
8.+ =?e(e#3t&e fe(est> an =less3t&e least>

3hese are the comparative and superlative forms of few and little. In theory, fewer/the fewest should be used only )ith plural countables (fewer/the fewest videos* and less/the least only )ith uncountables (less/the least oil*: /ewer videos were sold this year than last. =ess oil was produced this year than last. In practice, ho)ever, the informal use by native spea%ers of less and the least )ith plural countables or collective )ords li%e people is commonly heard ( less people, less newspapers* but is not generally approved: =ess and less people can afford to go abroad for their holidays. Dolitical programmes on $3 attract the least viewers. =ess (not fewer* is used before than for prices and periods of time: 23

't costs less than L?. '%ll see you in less than three weeks.
8.6 T&e mo !f!cat!on of =fe(e#> an >less>

/ewer is modified by even, far, many, a good deal/many and a lot: $here are far fewer/a lot fewer accidents in modern factories. =ess is commonly modified by even, far, a good deal, a little, a lot, many (many less) and much: '%ve got much/a lot/far less free time than ' used to have.

Activities

1. .ive the abstract nouns of: boy@ partner@ )ise@ humid@ to discover@ proud@ to %no)@ long@ deep@ patient@ illiterate@ brother. 2. .ive the plural number of the follo)ing nouns: table@ chair@ )indo)@ flo)er@ bush@ glass@ brush@ horse@ half@ roof@ %nife@ class@ rose@ peach@ bus@ box@ bridge@ city@ lady@ %ey@ fly@ leaf@ ray@ bath@ path@ child@ piano@ pencil@ goose@ )oman@ man@ tooth@ cry@ mouse@ basis@ formula@ datum@ analysis@ phenomenon@ hypothesis@ crisis@ sanatorium@ schoolboy@ cupboard@ camera"man@ high)ay@ afternoon@ footstep@ passer"by@ man"servant@ sister"in"la)@ loo%er"on@ race"horse@ forget"me"not. 3. &se the verbs in brac%ets in the singular or in the plural (present tense* as re-uired by the subKect: 1. My family (be* at the seaside. 2. !ur bas%etball team (play* tonight. 3. Mathematics (be* an exact science. /. Leople (li%e* travelling today. :. !ur group (be* made up of fifteen students. A. 3he cro)d (be* gathered in front of the stadium gates. D. 3he government (agree* to ta%e the necessary steps to improve the living conditions. F. 3he staff (be* composed of almost t)enty persons. 2/

H. 3he army (be* camped near the river. /. $hoose the correct verb: 1. 3he information (is, are* not correct. 2. 3he furniture in this room (is, are* very old. 3. Leople (is, are* interested in computers no)adays. /. 3om=s trousers ()as, )ere* ne). :. My scissors (is, are* in the dra)er. A. 3he H o=cloc% ne)s ()as, )ere* good. :. &se the singular or plural, as re-uired: 1. 3he cro)d ()as, )ere* cheering the spea%er. 2. 3he )hole gang ()as, )ere* arrested. 3. 3he pac% of cards ()as, )ere* lying all over the table. /. 0hen the audience (has, have* settled (itself, themselves* in (its, their* chairs, the play )ill begin. :. 1 bunch of flo)ers ()as, )ere* offered to her. A. 3he herd ()as, )ere* in the field. D. 3he class (is, are* the best in the school. F. 1 lot of people (has, have* flu this autumn. A. 3ranslate into Oomanian: a stac% of )ood@ a herd of deer@ a bunch of flo)ers@ a s)arm of flies@ a floc% of sheep@ a cro)d of people@ a bundle of stic%s@ a series of events@ a cluster of stars@ a gang of thieves@ a chain of mountains@ a flight of steps@ a chest of dra)ers@ a bunch (cluster* of grapes@ a fleet of ships@ a pac% of )olves@ a flight of birds@ a team of )or%ers. D. +upply (the* l!ttle, a l!ttle, (the* fe(, a fe( in the follo)ing sentences: 1. I=d li%e to ma%e ; remar%s in connection )ith the topic under discussion. 2. I %no) ; of the men. 3. I %no) ; about the man. 3here=s nothing definite that I could say. /. Llease, hurry, there is ; time left. ; spare time I have after )or% is al)ays spent on shopping or doing a lot of house)or%. 9o) there is ; time left, so )e can go to the next boo%shop to buy the latest boo%s and magaPines. :. +he has a fairly good command of Brench and, besides, %no)s ; .erman. A. ; )ee%s from no) he=ll be miles and miles a)ay. 2:

D. 3here are ; boo%s on civil la) in our library. ; boo%s on civil la) I have read are very difficult. F. It=s no use as%ing him about it. 'e has ; experience in this matter. H. 'e had very ; friends (hardly any friends*. 1M. 3he chairman said ; )ords (some )ords*. 11. 3here )as very ; )ater in the flo)erpot. 12. May I have ; )ine, please2 13. +he had ; biscuits and ; mil% and felt much better. 1/. 3here is ; soup left so I cannot give you a second helping. F. Insert muc&, man*, ,e#*, suc&, suc& as, suc& a, as needed: 1. 9ic% is the ; image of his father. 2. 7ou have eaten too ; ca%es and drun% too ; lemonade, no )onder you feel sic%. 3. ?'o) ; boo%s do you )ant to borro)2= /. !n ; fine day it is a pity to stay indoors. :. +o ; people had come to the party that you could hardly find a chair to sit do)n. A. $ities ; ,ondon and .lasgo) are very cro)ded. H. +ubstitute :a; fe(, man*, :a; l!ttle, muc&, a lot of in place of ?a small -uantity=, ?a large number=, etc. Bor example: Qohn drin%s a large -uantity of coffee. Qohn drin%s a lot of coffee. Mary had a small number of good friends. Mary had a fe) good friends. 'e doesn=t eat a large -uantity of bread. 'e doesn=t eat much bread. 1. 3he students don=t bring a large number of boo%s to school. 2. $hildren need a large -uantity of mil%. 3. 'e doesn=t usually buy a large number of pens. /. 'as Qohn got a large number of shirts2 :. Mary drin%s a small -uantity of coffee. A. 0e haven=t got a large number of classes today. D. 3hey have a small -uantity of money. F. 'e had a small number of toys. 1M. $hoose the correct adKective: 1. 3here is (little, fe)* )ater in this )ell. 2A ?1s ; as you can give me.=

2. 3here are (much, many* mountains in $anada. 3. 0e have received (much, many* valuable information. /. +he made (little, fe)* mista%es in her last composition. :. 'o) (much, many* pages have you translated2 A. (much, many* cars passed over here. D. 3here is (little, fe)* in% in this in%pot. 11. +upply some or an*: 1. 0asn=t there ; telephone in the house2 2. May I give you ; more mil%2 3. ?.ive me ; cold mil% to drin%=, said Mary. /. 'e may turn up ; time. :. 3he driver can stop the engine at ; moment he pleases. A. ; people are very interesting to tal% to@ others are boring. D. Is there ; reason for his refusal2 F. 7ou=ll have to do it ; )ay.

2D

VERBS, VERB TENSES, IMPERATIVES

General information about verbs and tenses

1. Be#b tenses2 s!mple an p#o"#ess!,e +ome grammarians believe that tense must al)ays be sho)n by the actual form of the verb, and in many languages present, past and future are indicated by changes in the verb forms. !n this rec%oning, English really has Kust t)o tenses, the present and the past, since these are the only t)o cases )here the form of the basic verb varies: love, write (present*@ loved, wrote (past*. 'o)ever, it is usual (and convenient* to refer to all combinations of be E present participle and have E past participle as tenses. 3he same goes for will E bare infinitive to refer to the future ('t will be fine tomorrow*. 5ut )e must remember that tense in English is often only loosely related to time. 3enses have t)o forms, s!mple and p#o"#ess!,e (sometimes called ?cont!nuous>*. 3he progressive contains be E present participle: s!mple p#esent: past: p#esent pe#fect: past pe#fect: futu#e: futu#e pe#fect: ' work. ' worked. ' have worked. ' had worked. ' will work. ' will have worked. p#o"#ess!,e ' am working. ' was working. ' have been working. ' had been working. ' will be working. ' will have been working.

5oth simple and progressive forms usually give a general idea of )hen an action ta%es place. 5ut the distinction bet)een the t)o is not according to the time )hen an action ta%es place (time is indicated by tense*, but to our perception of it (ho) )e perceive the action*. Bor instance, the progressive forms tell us that an activity is (or )as, or )ill be, etc.* in progress (or under development*, or thought of as being in progress. 3his activity may be in progress at the moment of spea%ing: 4hat are you doing5 # '%m making a cake. or not in progress at the moment of spea%ing, but during a limited period of time: 2F

'%m learning to type. (i.e. but not at the moment of spea%ing* !r the activity may be temporary or changeable: ,red was wearing a blue shirt yesterday. !r the activity may be uncompleted: 3era has been trying to learn Jhinese for years. !ur decision about )hich tense to use depends on the context and the impression )e )ish to convey. $. Stat!,e an *nam!c ,e#bs

+ome verbs are not generally used in progressive forms. 3hey are called stat!,e because they refer to states (e.g. experiences, conditions* rather than to actions. In a sentence li%e: Fhe loves/loved her baby more than anything in the world. loves (or loved* describes a state over )hich the mother has no control: it is an involuntary feeling. 0e could not use the progressive forms (is0was loving* here. <ynamic verbs, on the other hand, usually refer to actions )hich are deliberate or voluntary ('%m making a cake* or they refer to changing situations (1e%s growing old*, that is, to activities, etc., )hich have a beginning and an end. <ynamic verbs can be used in progressive as )ell as simple forms. $ompare the follo)ing: p#o"#ess!,e fo#ms '%m looking at you. '%m listening to music. " 3. Rerbs that have dynamic or stative uses: el!be#ate act!ons '%m weighing myself. '%m tasting the soup. '%m feeling the radiator. states ' weigh =? kilos. 't tastes salty. 't feel hot. s!mple fo#ms ' often look at you. ' often listen to you. ' see you. ' hear music. 1. <ynamic verbs )ith progressive and simple forms:

2. Rerbs )hich are nearly al)ays stative (simple forms only*:

Stat!,e ,e#bs usually occur in the simple form in all tenses. 0e can thin% of ?states= in categories li%e: 1. Beelings: 2. 3hin%ingGbelieving: like" love" etc. think" understand" etc. 2H

3. 0ants and preferences: /. Lerception and the senses: :. 5eingGseemingGhavingGo)ning: forms )ith hardly any change of meaning: *oh& 't hurts& = *oh& 't s hurting.

prefer" want" etc. hear" see" etc. appear" seem" belong" own" etc.

+ometimes verbs describing physical sensations can be used in simple or progressive

>an/can t and could/couldn t often combine )ith verbs of perception to refer to a particular moment in the present or the past )here a progressive form )ould be impossible: ' can smell gas. = ' smell gas.

The sequence of tenses

1. T&e se<uence of tenses In extended speech or )riting )e usually select a governing tense )hich affects all other tense forms. 3he problem of the ?se-uence of tenses= is not confined to indirect speech. !ur choice of tense may be influenced by the follo)ing factors:
1.1 4ons!stenc* !n t&e use of tenses

If )e start a narrative or description from the point of vie) of no), )e usually maintain ?no)= as our vie)point. 3his results in the follo)ing combinations: " present (simpleGprogressive* accords )ith present perfectGfuture: *ur postman usually delivers our mail at M every morning. 't%s nearly lunch-time and the mail still hasn%t arrived. ' suppose the mail will come soon. Derhaps our postman is ill. If )e start a narrative or description from the point of vie) of then, )e usually maintain ?then= as our vie)point. 3his results in the follo)ing combinations: " past (simpleGprogressive* accords )ith past perfectGfuture in the past: 4hen ' lived in Kondon the postman usually delivered our mail at M every morning. Gsually no one in our household had got up when the mail arrived.
1.$ T&e p#ox!m!t* #ule

1 present tense in the main clause (for example, in a reporting verb* normally attracts a present tense in the subordinate clause: 1e tells me he%s a good tennis-player. 3M

1 past tense normally attracts another past: 1e told me he was a good tennis-player. In the second example only a more complete context )ould tell us )hether he )as a good tennis"player refers to the past (i.e. ?)hen he )as a young man=* or to present time. 1 spea%er or )riter can ignore the ?proximity rule= and use a present tense after a past, or a past after a present in order to be more precise: 1e told me he is a good tennis-player. (i.e. he still is* 1e tells me he used to be a good tennis player. 'o)ever, combinations such as you say you are or you told me you )ere tend to form themselves automatically. 3hat is )hy )e can refer to the idea of ?se-uence of tenses= in )hich present usually combines )ith present, and past usually combines )ith past.
1.+ Ca#t!cula# tense se<uences

Oefer to the follo)ing for particular se-uences: Indirect speech $onditional sentences 3emporal clauses 1fter )ish, I=d rather, etc. $lauses of purpose.

The simple present tense

1. ?o#m of t&e s!mple p#esent tense 1.1 0e add /s or /es to the base form of the verb in the third person singular ' work 6ou work 1e works Fhe works 't works 1.2 In the interrogative and negative, )e add the auxiliary DO, conKugated in the present. 3he main verb follo)ing the auxiliary is in the bare infinitive: 31 $hey work 4e work 6ou work

Ho ' work5 Ho you work5 Hoes he work5 Hoes she work5 Hoes it work5 ' do not work. 6ou do not work. 1e does not work. Fhe does not work. 't does not work.

Ho we work5 Ho you work5 Ho they work5

4e do not work. 6ou do not work. $hey do not work.

3he function of the auxiliary verb (DO* is grammatical, )hile the function of the main verb (work* is lexical. 1s )e have the verb DO conKugated, )e no longer need to conKugate the main verb, and that is )hy )e cannot have combinations li%e ?Hoes he works5 or ?Fhe does not works. $. Uses of t&e s!mple p#esent tense
$.1 Ce#manent t#ut&s

0e use the simple present for statements that are al)ays true: Fummer follows spring. (ases expand when heated.
$.$ =T&e p#esent pe#!o >

0e use the simple present to refer to events, actions or situations )hich are true in the present period of time and )hich, for all )e %no), may continue indefinitely. 0hat )e are saying, in effect, is ?this is the situation as it stands at present=: Cy father wor"s in a bank. Cy sister wears glasses.
$.+ Hab!tual act!ons

3he simple present can be used )ith or )ithout an adverb of time to describe habitual actions, things that happen repeatedly: ' get up at M. Nohn smo"es a lot. 0e can be more precise about habitual actions by using the simple present )ith adverbs of indefinite fre-uency (always, never, etc.* or )ith adverbial phrases such as every day. 32

' sometimes stay up till midnight. Fhe visits her parents every day. 0e commonly use the simple present to as% and ans)er -uestions )hich begin )ith 1ow often2: 0ow often do you go to the dentist5 # ' go every six months. Nuestions relating to habit can be as%ed )ith ever and ans)ered )ith e.g. never and sometimes notEever: @o you ever eat meat5 # Io" ' never eat meat.
$.6 ?utu#e #efe#ence

3his use is often related to timetables and programmes or to events in the calendar: $he exhibition opens on Nanuary :st and closes on Nanuary ;:st. $he concert begins at M.;A and ends at <.;A. 4e leave tomorrow at ::.:? and arrive at :M.?A. 4ednesday" Cay >Oth marks our >?th wedding anniversary.
$.7 Obse#,at!ons an ecla#at!ons

0e commonly use the simple present )ith stative and other verbs to ma%e observations and declarations in the course of conversation, e.g. ' hope/assume/suppose/promise everything will be all right. ' bet you were nervous ust before your driving test. 't says here that the police expect more trouble in the city. ' declare this exhibition open. ' see/hear there are roadworks in the street again. ' love you. ' hate him. Ae live in difficult times. # ' agree.

33

The present progressive tense

1. ?o#m of t&e p#esent p#o"#ess!,e tense 3he progressive is formed )ith the present of DE E the /!n" form: ' am working. 6ou are working. 1e is working. Fhe is working. 't is working. 3he interrogative is formed by the inversion bet)een the subKect and auxiliary verb: Am ' working5 Are you working5 !s he working5 !s she working5 !s it working5 3he negative is formed by adding the negation (not* after the auxiliary: ' am not working. 6ou are not working. 1e is not working. Fhe is not working. 't is not working. $hey are not working. 4e are not working. 6ou are not working. Are they working5 Are we working5 Are you working5 $hey are working. 4e are working. 6ou are working.

$. Uses of t&e p#esent p#o"#ess!,e tense

$.1 Act!ons !n p#o"#ess at t&e moment of spea)!n"

0e use the present progressive to describe actions or events )hich are in progress at the moment of spea%ing. 3o emphasiPe this, )e often use adverbials li%e now, at the moment, just, etc.: Fomeone s "noc"ing at the door. Jan you answer it5 4hat are you doing5 # '%m just tying up my shoe-laces. 3/

1e s wor"ing at the moment" so he can%t come to the telephone. 1ctions in progress are seen as uncompleted: 1e s tal"ing to his girlfriend on the phone. 0e can emphasiPe the idea of duration )ith still: 1e s still tal"ing to his girlfriend on the phone.
$.$ Tempo#a#* s!tuat!ons

3he present progressive can be used to describe actions and situations )hich may not have been happening long, or )hich are thought of as being in progress for a limited period: 4hat s your daughter doing these days5 # Fhe s studying 2nglish at Hurham Gniversity. +uch situations may not be happening at the moment of spea%ing: Hon%t take that ladder away. 6our father s using it. (i.e. but perhaps not at the moment* Fhe%s at her best when she s ma"ing big decisions. 3emporary events may be in progress at the moment of spea%ing: $he river is flowing very fast after last night%s rain. 0e also use the present progressive to describe current trends: Deople are becoming less tolerant of smoking these days.
$.+ Clanne act!ons2 futu#e #efe#ence

0e use the present progressive to refer to activities and events planned for the future. 0e generally need an adverbial unless the meaning is clear from the context: 4e re spending next winter in /ustralia. 3his use of the present progressive is also commonly associated )ith future arrival and departure and occurs )ith verbs li%e arrive, come, go, leave, etc., to describe travel arrangements: 1e s arriving tomorrow morning on the :;.>M train. 3he adverbial and the context prevent confusion )ith the present progressive to describe an action )hich is in progress at the time of spea%ing: Kook& $he train s leaving. (i.e. it=s actually moving*
$.6 Repeate act!ons

3he adverbs always (in the sense of ?fre.uently%*, constantly, continually, forever, perpetually and repeatedly can be used )ith progressive forms to describe continually"repeated actions: Fhe s always helping people. +ome stative verbs can have progressive forms )ith al)ays, etc.: 3:

' m always hearing strange stories about him. +ometimes there can be implied complaint in this use of the progressive )hen it refers to something that happens too often: *ur burglar alarm is forever going off for no reason. +. T&e p#esent tenses !n t*p!cal contexts
+.1 T&e s!mple p#esent an p#esent p#o"#ess!,e !n commenta#*

3he simple present and the present progressive are often used in commentaries on events ta%ing place at the moment, particularly on radio and television. In such cases, the simple present is used to describe rapid actions completed at the moment (instantaneous* of spea%ing and the progressive is used to describe longer"lasting actions: Cac,ee passes to ,ranklin. ,ranklin makes a .uick pass to +ooth. +ooth is away with the ball" but he%s losing his advantage.
+.$ T&e s!mple p#esent an t&e p#esent p#o"#ess!,e !n na##at!on

0hen )e are telling a story or describing things that have happened to us, )e often use present tenses (even thought the events are in the past* in order to sound more interesting and dramatic. 3he progressive is used for ?bac%ground= and the simple tense for the main events: '%m driving along this country road and '%m completely lost. $hen ' see this old fellow. 1e%s leaning against a gate. ' stop the car and ask him the way. 1e thinks a bit" then says" )4ell" if ' were you" ' wouldn%t start from here.%
+.+ T&e s!mple p#esent !n emonst#at!ons an !nst#uct!ons

3his use of the simple present is an alternative to the imperative. It illustrates step"by"step instructions: ,irst (you! boil some water. $hen (you! warm the teapot. $hen (you! add three teaspoons of tea. Iext" (you! pour on boiling waterE
+.6 T&e s!mple p#esent !n s*nopses :e.". #e,!e(s of boo)s0 f!lms0 etc.;

-ate ,ox%s novel is an historical romance set in Kondon in the :BBA%s. $he action takes place over a period of ;A yearsE

3A

+.7 T&e pe#fo#mat!,e s!mple p#esent

0e use the simple present tense to describe performative utterances, that is, utterances that in themselves constitute actions (e.g. in rituals, customs*: uttering the verb is actually performing an activity. +ometimes the adverb hereby is used: ' bapti5e you Nohn. ' pronounce you man and wife. ' declare the session open. ' hereby consent to your decision.
+.8 T&e s!mple p#esent an p&oto"#ap&!c capt!ons p#esent p#o"#ess!,e !n ne(spape# &ea l!nes an e.".

3he simple present is generally used to refer to past events:

,P2/- FI*4 F$*DF $P/,,'J H'F/PC/C2I$ $/K-F +2('I 'I 3'2II/

3he abbreviated progressive refers to the future. 3he infinitive can also be used for this purpose:
J/+'I2$ C'I'F$2P P2F'(I'I( F**I (or: $* P2F'(I F**I!

The simple past tense

1. ?o#m of t&e s!mple past tense (!t& #e"ula# ,e#bs 3he simple past is formed by adding /e to the base verb. 3he form is the same for all persons: ' worked. 6ou worked. 1e worked. Fhe worked. 't worked. 3he interrogative and negative are formed )ith the auxiliary do conKugated in the simple past, i.e. DID: Hid ' work5 Hid you work5 Hid he work5 3D Hid we work5 Hid you work5 $hey worked. 4e worked. 6ou worked.

Hid she work5 Hid it work5 ' did not work. 6ou did not work. 1e did not work. Fhe did not work. 't did not work.

Hid they work5

4e did not work. 6ou did not work. $hey did not work.

3he auxiliary has the same function as in the simple present, i.e. grammatical (indicating tense, person, number*@ the main verb also has the same merely lexical function. 3herefore )e cannot have utterances li%e: #Hid they worked2 or #' did not worked. $. T&e #e"ula# past2 p#onunc!at!on an spell!n"
$.1 C#onunc!at!on of t&e #e"ula# past

Rerbs in the regular past al)ays end )ith a / in their spelling, but the pronunciation of the past ending is not al)ays the same: play/played /d/ 3he most common spelling characteristic of the regular past is that #ed is added to the base form of the verb: opened, knocked, stayed, etc. Except in the cases noted belo), this #ed is not pronounced as if it )ere an extra syllable, so played is pronounced: GpleidG, knocked: Gno%tG, stayed: GsteidG, etc. arrive/arrived /d/ Rerbs )hich end in the follo)ing sounds have their past endings pronounced 3 3: /b/ rubbed6 /g/ tugged6 /dj/ managed6 /l/ filled6 /m/ dimmed6 /n/ listened @ vowel B /r/ stirred6 /v/ loved6 /5/ sei5ed. 3he #ed ending is not pronounced as an extra syllable wor"/wor"ed /t/ Rerbs )hich end in the follo)ing sounds have their past endings pronounced 3t3: /"/ pac"ed6 /s/ passed6 )tch watched6 )sh washed6 /f/ laughed6 /p/ tipped . 3he #ed ending is not pronounced as an extra syllable. dream/dreamed /d/ or dreamt /t/ 1 fe) verbs function as both regular and irregular and may have their past forms spelt ed or -t pronounced 3 3 or3t32 e.g. burn, dream, lean, learn, smell, spell, spill, spoil. post/posted /id/ Rerbs )hich and in the sounds /t/ or /d/ have their past endings pronounced 3! 32 posted, added. 3he #ed ending is pronounced as an extra syllable added to the base form of the verb. 3F

$.$ Spell!n" of t&e #e"ula# past

3he regular past al)ays ends in #d: arrive/arrived Rerbs ending in -e add / : e.g. phone/phoned, smile/smiled. 3his rule applies e-ually to agree, die, lie, etc. wait/waited Rerbs not ending in #e add /e : e.g. as"/as"ed, clean/cleaned, follow/followed. stop/stopped Rerbs spelt )ith a single vo)el letter follo)ed by a single consonant letter double the consonant: beg/begged, rub/rubbed. occur/occurred In t)o"syllable verbs the final consonant is doubled )hen the last syllable contains a single vo)el letter follo)ed by a single consonant letter and is stressed: preCfer/preferred, reCfer/referred. $ompare: Qbenefit0benefited" Qdiffer0differed and Qprofit0profited, )hich are stressed on their first syllables and )hich therefore do not double their final consonants. In 1mE labeled" .uarreled" signaled and traveled follo) the rule. In 5E labelled, 1uarrelled, signalled and travelled are exceptions to the rule. cry/cried 0hen there is a consonant before -y, the y changes to ! before )e add #ed: e.g. carry/carried, deny/denied, fry/fried, try/tried. $ompare delay0delayed" obey0obeyed, play0played, etc. )hich have a vo)el before #y and therefore simply add #ed in the past +. ?o#m of t&e s!mple past tense (!t& !##e"ula# ,e#bs 3he form of the past tense simple is the 2 nd form in the list of irregular verbs. 3he form is the same for all persons: ' left. 6ou left. 1e left. Fhe left. 't left. 3he interrogative and negative are formed )ith the auxiliary <I< E the bare infinitive of the main verb: Hid ' leave5 Hid you leave5 Hid we leave5 Hid you leave5 3H $hey left. 4e left. 6ou left.

Hid he leave0 Hid she leave5 Hid it leave5 ' did not leave. 6ou did not leave. 1e did not leave. Fhe did not leave. 't did not leave. 5ecause of the reasons exposed above (the auxiliary ta%es over the grammatical functions*, )e cannot say, e.g. EHid he left5 or E$hey did not left. &nli%e regular verbs, irregular verbs (about 1:M in all* do not have past forms )hich can be predicted: shut/shut 1 small number of verbs have the same form in the present as in the past: e.g. cut/cut, hit/hit, put/put. It is important to remember, particularly )ith such verbs, that the third person singular does not change in the past: e.g. he shut (past*@ he shuts (present*. sit/sat 3he past form of most irregular verbs is different from the present: bring/brought, catch/caught, "eep/"ept, leave/left, lose/lost. 6. Uses of t&e s!mple past tense
6.1 4omplete act!ons

Hid they leave5

4e did not leave. 6ou did not leave. $hey did not leave.

0e normally use the simple past tense to tal% about events, actions or situations )hich occurred in the past and are no) finished. 3hey may have happened recently: Fhe phoned a moment ago. or in the distant past: $he (oths invaded Pome in A*@* 9<:. 1 time reference must be given: ' had a word with Nulian this morning. or must be understood from the context: ' saw ,red in town. (i.e. )hen I )as there this morning* ' never met my grandfather. (i.e. he is dead* 0hen )e use the simple past, )e are usually concerned )ith when an action occurred, not )ith its duration (how long it lasted*. /M

6.$ Cast &ab!t

,i%e used to, the simple past can be used to describe past habits: ' smo"ed forty cigarettes a day till ' gave up.
6.+ T&e !mme !ate past

0e can sometimes use the simple past )ithout a time reference to describe something that happened a very short time ago: Nimmy punched me in the stomach. @id the telephone ring5 4ho left the door open5 (4ho%s left the door open5!
6.6 Col!te !n<u!#!es0 etc.

3he simple past does not al)ays refer to past time. It can also be used for polite in-uiries (particularly as%ing for favours*, often )ith verbs li%e hope, thin" or wonder. $ompare: ' wonder if you could give me a lift. ' wondered if you could give me a lift. (more tentativeGpolite* 7. A ,e#b!als (!t& t&e s!mple past tense 3he association of the past tense )ith adverbials that tell us )hen something happened is very important. 1dverbials used )ith the past tense must refer to past (not present* time. 3his means that adverbials )hich lin% )ith the present (before now" so far" till now" yet* are not used )ith past tenses. +ome adverbials li%e yesterday, last summer and combinations )ith ago are used only )ith past tenses: ' saw Nane yesterday/last summer* Ago, meaning ?bac% from no)=, can combine )ith a variety of expressions to refer to the past: e.g. two years ago6 six months ago6 ten minutes ago6 a long time ago: ' met Pobert Darr many years ago in J7echoslovakia. 3he past is often used )ith when to as% and ans)er -uestions: 4hen did you learn about it5 # 4hen ' saw it in the papers. Ahen often points to a definite contrast )ith the present: ' played football every day when ! was a boy.

/1

!ther adverbials can be used )ith past tenses )hen they refer to past time, but can be used )ith other tenses as )ell: a ,e#bs: ' always liked (loria. ' often saw her in Pome. Hid you ever meet Fonia5 a ,e#b!al3p#epos!t!onal p&#ases: a ,e#b!al clauses: as 5 a ,e#b 5 as: 4e left at 9 o cloc"/on #uesday. 4e had our holiday in 7uly. ' waited till he arrived. ' met him when ! was at college. ' saw him as recently as last week.

The past progressive tense

1. ?o#m of t&e past p#o"#ess!,e tense 3he past progressive is formed )ith the auxiliary be conKugated in the past (%AS3%ERE* E the /!n" form of the main verb: ' was working. 6ou were working. 1e was working. Fhe was working. 't was working. 3he interrogative is formed by the inversion of the auxiliary and the subKect: Aas ' working5 Aere you working5 Aas he working5 Aas she working5 Aas it working5 3he negative is formed by adding the negation (9!3* to the auxiliary: ' was not working. 6ou were not working. 4e were not working. 6ou were not working. /2 Aere they working5 Aere we working5 Aere you working5 $hey were working. 4e were working. 6ou were working.

1e was not working. Fhe was not working. 't was not working. $. Uses of t&e past p#o"#ess!,e tense
$.1 Act!ons !n p#o"#ess !n t&e past

$hey were not working.

0e use the past progressive to describe past situations or actions that )ere in progress at some time in the past: ' was living abroad in <DEF" so ' missed the general election. !ften )e don=t %no) )hether the action )as completed or not: Dhilippa was wor"ing on her essay last night. 1dverbials beginning )ith all emphasiPe continuity: 't was raining all night/all yesterday/all the afternoon. In the same )ay, still can emphasiPe duration: Nim was tal"ing to his girlfriend on the phone when ' came in and was still tal"ing to her when ' went out an hour later.
$.$ Act!ons (&!c& be"an befo#e somet&!n" else &appene

3he past progressive and the simple past are often used together in a sentence. 3he past progressive describes a situation or action in progress in the past, and the simple past describes a shorter action or event. 3he action or situation in progress is often introduced by conKunctions li%e when and as, just as, while: 7ust as ' was leaving the house" the phone rang. Nane met ,rank Finatra when she was living in 1ollywood. !r the shorter action can be introduced by when: 4e were having supper when the phone rang. 0e can often use the simple past to describe the action in progress, but the progressive puts more emphasis on the duration of the action, as in the second of these t)o examples: 4hile ' fumbled for some money" my friend paid the fares. 4hile ' was fumbling for some money" my friend paid the fares.
$.+ Ca#allel act!ons

0e can emphasiPe the fact that t)o or more actions )ere in progress at the same time by using e.g. while or at the time (that): Ahile ! was wor"ing in the garden, my wife was coo"ing dinner. /3

$.6 Repeate act!ons

3his use is similar to that of the present progressive: 4hen he worked here" Poger was always ma"ing mista"es.
$.7 Col!te !n<u!#!es

3his use is even more polite and tentative than the simple past: ! was wondering if you could give me a lift. +. Cast tenses !n t*p!cal contexts 3he simple past combines )ith other past tenses, such as the past progressive and the past perfect, )hen )e are tal%ing or )riting about the past. 9ote that the past progressive is used for scene"setting. Last tenses of various %inds are common in story"telling, biography, autobiography, reports, eye")itness accounts, etc.: *n Carch :Oth at :A.:? a.m. ' was waiting for a bus at the bus stop on the corner of Hover Poad and 4est Ftreet when a black Cercedes parked at the stop. +efore the driver (had! managed to get out of his car" a number :O bus appearedE 't was evening. $he sun was setting. / gentle wind was blowing through the trees. 'n the distance ' noticed a Kand Pover moving across the dusty plain. 't stopped and two men umped out of it. 't was ust before the Fecond 4orld 4ar. $om was only >A at the time and was living with his mother. 1e was working in a bank and travelling to Kondon every day. *ne morning" he received a mysterious letter. 't was addressed to )Cr $homas Darker%.

The simple present perfect tense

1. ?o#m of t&e s!mple p#esent pe#fect tense 3he present perfect is formed )ith the present of &a,e 5 t&e past pa#t!c!ple (the third form of the verb*. Bor regular verbs, the past participle has the same form as the simple past tense: e.g. arrive" arrived" have/has arrived. Bor irregular verbs, the simple past and the past participle can be formed in a variety of )ays: e.g. drink" drank" have drun".

//

' have worked. 6ou have worked. 1e has worked. Fhe has worked. 't has worked.

4e have worked. 6ou have worked. $hey have worked.

3he interrogative is formed by means of the inversion bet)een the subKect and the auxiliary have: 1ave ' worked5 1ave you worked5 1as he worked5 1as she worked5 1as it worked5 3he negative is formed by adding the negation 9!3 after the auxiliary: ' have not worked. 6ou have not worked. 1e has not worked. Fhe has not worked. 't has not worked. $. C#esent t!me an past t!me +tudents spea%ing other European languages sometimes misuse the present perfect tense in English because of interference from their mother tongue. 3he present perfect is often )rongly seen as an alternative to the past, so that a student might thin% that '%ve had lunch and ' had lunch are interchangeable. It is also confused )ith the present, so that an idea li%e '%ve been here since ,ebruary is )rongly expressed in the present )ith ' am. 3he present perfect al)ays suggests a relationship bet)een present time and past time. +o '%ve had lunch implies that I did so very recently. 'o)ever, if I say ' had lunch, I also have to say or imply )hen: e.g. ' had lunch an hour ago. +imilarly, '%ve been here since ,ebruary sho)s a connection bet)een past and present, )hereas ' am here can only relate to the present and cannot be follo)ed by a phrase li%e since ,ebruary. In the present perfect tense, the time reference is sometimes un ef!ne @ often )e are interested in p#esent #esults, or in the )ay something that happened in the past affects the present situation. 3he present perfect can therefore be seen as a present tense )hich loo%s /: $hey have not worked. 4e have not worked. 6ou have not worked. 1ave they worked5 1ave we worked5 1ave you worked5

bac%)ards into the past (Kust as the past perfect is a past tense )hich loo%s bac% into an earlier past*. $ompare the simple past tense, )here the time reference is defined because )e are interested in past time or past results. 3he follo)ing pairs of sentences illustrate this difference bet)een present time and past time: ' haven%t seen him this morning. (i.e. up to the present time: it is still morning! ' didn%t see him this morning. (i.e. the morning has now passed! 1ave you ever flown in Joncorde5 (i.e. up to the present time! 4hen did you fly in Joncorde5 (i.e. when" precisely" in the past! +. Uses of t&e s!mple p#esent pe#fect tense 3he present perfect is used in t)o )ays in English: 1. 2. 3o describe actions beginning in the past and cont!nu!n" up to t&e p#esent moment (and possibly into the future*. 3o refer to actions occurring and not occurring at an unspec!f!e t!me !n t&e past )ith some %ind of connexion to the present. 3hese t)o uses are discussed in detail in the sections belo). 6. Act!ons0 etc. cont!nu!n" !nto t&e p#esent
6.1 T&e p#esent pe#fect 5 a ,e#b!als t&at su""est =up to t&e p#esent>

0e do not use the present perfect )ith adverbs relating to past time (ago" yesterday, etc.*. 1dverbial phrases li%e the follo)ing are used )ith the present perfect because they clearly connect the past )ith the present moment: before (now), !t s the first time8, so far, so far this morning, up till now, up to the present. 1dverbs li%e ever (in -uestions*, and not8ever or never (in statements* are commonly (but not exclusively* used )ith the present perfect: ' ve planted fourteen rose-bushes so far this morning. Fhe s never eaten a mango before. 0ave you ever eaten a mango5 't%s the most interesting book '%ve ever read. *lga hasn t appeared on $3 before now.
6.$ T&e p#esent pe#fect (!t& =s!nce> an =fo#>

0e often use s!nce and fo# )ith the present perfect to refer to periods of time up to the present. S!nce (E point of time* can be: " a conKunction: $om hasn t been home since he was a boy. /A

" "

an adverb: ' saw ,iona in Cay and ' haven t seen her since. a preposition: ! ve lived here since <DE:.

S!nce, as a conKunction, can be follo)ed by the simple past or present perfect: ' retired in :<BA and came to live here. '%ve lived here since ! retired. (i.e. the point )hen I retired: 1HFM* ' have lived here for several years now and '%ve made many new friends since ! have lived here. (i.e. up to no)* ?o# E period of time often occurs )ith the present perfect but can be used )ith any tense. $ompare: ' ve lived here for five years. (and I still live here* ' lived here for five years. (I don=t live here no)* ' am here for six wee"s. (that=s ho) long I=m going to stay* 7. Act!ons0 etc. occu##!n" at an unspec!f!e t!me
7.1 T&e p#esent pe#fect (!t&out a t!me a ,e#b!al

0e often use present perfect )ithout a time adverbial, especially in conversation. 0e do not al)ays need one, for often )e are concerned )ith the conse-uences now of something )hich too% place then, )hether then )as very recently or a long time ago. If further details are re-uired (e.g. precise ans)ers to -uestions li%e 4hen5" 4here5* )e must generally use the simple past: 1ave you passed your driving test5 (<epending on context, this can mean ?at any time up to no)= or ?after the test you=ve Kust ta%en=.* 6es" ' passed when ' was :M. (simple past: exact time reference* Nason 3illiers has been arrested. (<epending on context, this can imply ?today= or =recently= or ?at last=.* 1e was seen by a Justoms *fficer who alerted the police . (simple past )ith details* 'o)ever, adverbs li%e -ust, used )ith the present perfect, can provide more information about actions in ?unspecified time=.
7.$ T&e p#esent pe#fect fo# #ecent act!ons

3he follo)ing adverbs can refer to actions, etc. in recent time: " " " -ust: ' ve just tidied up the kitchen. #ecentl*, etc.: 1e%s recently arrived from Iew 6ork. al#ea * in -uestions and affirmative statements: 0ave you typed my letter already5 # 6es" '%ve already typed it.

/D

"

*et, in -uestions, for events )e are expecting to hear about: 0ave you passed your driving test yet5 or in negatives, for things )e haven=t done, but expect to do: ' haven t passed my driving test yet.

"

st!ll0 at last0 f!nall*: ' still haven t passed my driving test. (despite my efforts*G ' have passed my driving test at last. (after all my efforts*

7.+ T&e p#esent pe#fect fo# #epeate an &ab!tual act!ons

3his use is associated )ith fre-uency adverbs ( often, fre1uently* and expressions li%e three/four/several times: '%ve watched him on $3 several times. (i.e. and I expect to again* '%ve often wondered why ' get such a poor reception on my radio. Fhe%s attended classes regularly. Fhe s always wor"ed hard. 8. T&e s!mple p#esent pe#fect tense !n t*p!cal contexts 3he present perfect is never used in past narrative (e.g. stories told in the past, history boo%s*. 1part from its common use in conversation, it is most often used in broadcast ne)s, ne)spapers, letters and any %ind of language"use )hich has connexion )ith the present.

8.1 D#oa cast #epo#ts0 ne(spape# #epo#ts

'nterest rates rose again today and the price of gold has fallen by L:A an ounce. 'ndustrial leaders have complained that high interest rates will make borrowing expensive for industry.
8.$ Impl!e !n ne(spape# &ea l!nes
3'KK/(2F H2F$P*62H 'I 2/P$1RG/-2

(> have been destroyed*

8.+ Lette#s0 postca# s0 etc.

4e%ve ust arrived in 1ong -ong" and though we haven%t had time to see much yet" we%re sure we%re going to en oy ourselves.

/F

The simple past perfect tense

1. ?o#m of t&e s!mple past pe#fect tense 3he past perfect is formed )ith the auxiliary have conKugated in the past > HAD 5 t&e past pa#t!c!ple (the 3rd form of the verb*: ' had worked. 6ou had worked. 1e had worked. Fhe had worked. 't had worked. 3he interrogative is formed by the inversion of the subKect and the auxiliary: 1ad ' worked5 1ad you worked5 1ad he worked5 1ad she worked5 1ad it worked5 3he negative is formed by adding the negation to the auxiliary: ' had not worked. 6ou had not worked. 1e had not worked. Fhe had not worked. 't had not worked. $. Uses of t&e past pe#fect tense It is sometimes supposed that )e use the past perfect simply to describe ?events that happened a long time ago=. 3his is not the case. 0e use the simple past for this purpose: /nthony and Jleopatra died in ;A +.J.
$.1 T&e past pe#fect #efe##!n" to an ea#l!e# past

4e had worked. 6ou had work. $hey had worked.

1ad we worked5 1ad you worked5 1ad they worked5

4e had not worked. 6ou had not worked. $hey had not worked.

3he main use of the past perfect is to sho) )hich of t)o events happened first. 'ere are t)o past events: $he patient died. $he doctor arrived. /H

0e can combine these t)o sentences in different )ays to sho) their relationship in the past: $he patient died when the doctor arrived. (i.e. the patient died at the time or Kust after the doctor arrived* $he patient had died when the doctor arrived. (i.e. the patient )as already dead )hen the doctor arrived* 3he event that happened first need not be mentioned first: $he doctor arrived .uickly" but the patient had already died. +ome typical conKunctions used before a past perfect to refer to ?an earlier past= are: (&en and afte#0 as soon as0 b* t&e t!me t&at. 3hey often imply a cause"and"effect relationship: 4e cleared up as soon as our guests had left. 1dverbs often associated )ith the present perfect: al#ea *, e,e#, fo# (E period of time*, -ust, ne,e#, ne,e#@befo#e, s!nce (E point of time* are often used )ith the past perfect to emphasiPe the se-uence of events: 4hen ' rang" Nim had already left. $he boys loved the 7oo. $hey had never seen wild animals before.
$.$ T&e past pe#fect as t&e past e<u!,alent of t&e p#esent pe#fect

3he past perfect sometimes functions simply as the past form of the present perfect: Nuliet is excited because she has never been to a dance before. Nuliet was excited because she had never been to a dance before. 3his is particularly the case in indirect speech. &sed in this )ay, the past perfect can emphasiPe completion: ' began collecting stamps in ,ebruary and by Iovember ' had collected more than >AAA. Aet can be used )ith the past perfect, but )e often prefer expressions li%e unt!l t&en or b* t&at t!me. $ompare: 1e hasn%t finished yet. 1e hadn%t finished by yesterday evening.
$.+ T&e past pe#fect fo# unfulf!lle &opes an (!s&es

0e can use the past perfect (or the past simple or progressive* )ith verbs li%e expect, hope, mean, suppose, thin", want, to describe things )e hoped or )ished to do but didn=t: ' had hoped to send him a telegram to congratulate him on his marriage" but ' didn%t manage it. :M

+. Obl!"ato#* an non1obl!"ato#* uses of t&e past pe#fect 0e do not al)ays need to use the past perfect to describe )hich event came first. +ometimes this is perfectly clear, as in: /fter ' finished" ' came home. 3he se-uence is often clear in relative clauses as )ell: ' wore the necklace (which! my grandmother (had) left me. 0e normally use the simple past for events that occur in se-uence: ' got out of the taxi" paid the fare" tipped the driver and dashed into the station. )' came" ' saw" ' con1uered"% Nulius Jaesar declared. 5ut there are instances )hen )e need to be very precise in our use of past or past perfect, particularly )ith (&en: Ahen ! arrived" /nne left. (i.e. at that moment* Ahen ! arrived" /nne had left. (i.e. before I got there* In the first sentence, I sa) 1nne, ho)ever briefly. In the second, I didn=t see her at all. 0e normally use the past perfect )ith conKunctions li%e no soone#@t&an or &a# l*3sca#cel*3ba#el*@(&en: Crs 4inthrop had no sooner left the room than they began to gossip about her. Cr Nenkins had hardly/scarcely/barely begun his speech when he was interrupted. 6. S!mple past an s!mple past pe#fect !n t*p!cal contexts 3he past perfect combines )ith other past tenses (simple past, past progressive, past perfect progressive* )hen )e are tal%ing or )riting about the past. It is used in story"telling, biography, autobiography, reports, eye")itness accounts, etc. and is especially useful for establishing the se-uence of events: 4hen we returned from our holidays" we found our house in a mess. 4hat had happened while we had been away5 / burglar had broken into the house and had stolen a lot of out things. (9o) that the time of the burglary has been established relative to our return, the story can continue in the simple past*. $he burglar got in through the kitchen window. 1e had no difficulty in forcing it open. $hen he went into the living-roomE

:1

9ote the reference to an earlier past in the follo)ing narrative: Filas +adley inherited several old cottages in our village. 1e wanted to pull them down and build new houses which he could sell for high prices. 1e wrote to Cr 1arrison" now blind and nearly eighty" asking him to leave his cottage within a month. *ld Cr 1arrison was very distressed. (3he situation has been established through the use of the simple past. 0hat follo)s no) is a reference to an earlier past through the use of the simple past perfect.* 1e had been born in the cottage and stayed there all his life. 1is children had grown up there; his wife had died there and now he lived there all alone

The present perfect progressive and past perfect progressive tenses

1. ?o#m of t&e p#esent3past pe#fect p#o"#ess!,e tenses 3he present perfect progressive is formed )ith the auxiliary be conKugated in the present perfect > HABE DEEN E the ING form. 3he past perfect progressive is formed )ith the auxiliary be conKugated in the past perfect > HAD DEEN E the ING form. presentGpast perfect progressive ' have0had been working. 6ou have0had been working. 1e has0had been working. Fhe has0had been working. 't has0had been working. 3he interrogative is formed by the inversion of the first auxiliary (haveGhad* and the subKect. 1ave0had ' been working5 1ave0had you been working5 1as0had he been working5 1as0had she been working5 1as0had it been working5 3he negative is formed by adding the negation to the first auxiliary (haveGhad*: ' have0had not been working. :2 4e have0had not been working. 1ave0had they been working5 1ave0had we been working5 1ave0had you been working5 $hey have0had been working. 4e have0had been working. 6ou have0had been working.

6ou have0had not been working. 1e has0had not been working. Fhe has0had not been working. 't has0had not been working.

6ou have0had not been working. $hey have0had not been working.

$. Uses of t&e p#esent3past pe#fect p#o"#ess!,e tenses

$.1 Act!ons !n p#o"#ess t&#ou"&out a pe#!o

0e use the present perfect progressive )hen )e )ish to emphasiPe that an activity has been in progress throughout a period, often )ith conse-uences no(. <epending on context, this activity may or may not still be in progress at the present time. 3his use often occurs )ith all E time references: e.g. all day. Fhe is very tired. Fhe%s been typing letters all day. (<epending on context, she is still typing or has recently stopped* 3he past perfect progressive, in the same )ay, is used for activities in progress during an earlier past, often )ith conse-uences t&en: Fhe was very tired. Fhe had been typing letters all day. (<epending on context, she )as still typing or had recently stopped.* +ome verbs li%e learn, lie, live, rain, sit, sleep, stand, study, wait, wor" naturally suggest continuity and often occur )ith perfect progressives )ith s!nce or fo# and also in -uestions beginning )ith 0ow long82 '%ve been wor"ing for 2xxon for <G years. (<epending on context, I am still no), or I may have recently changed Kobs or retired.* 4hen ' first met /nn" she had been wor"ing for 2xxon for :? years. (<epending on context, 1nn )as still )or%ing for Exxon or she had recently changed Kobs or retired.* 0ith ?continuity verbs=, simple and progressive forms are often interchangeable, so in the above examples ?'%ve worked= and ?she had worked= could be used. 3he only difference is that the progressive puts more emphasis on continuity.
$.$ T&e p#esent3past pe#fect p#o"#ess!,e fo# #epeate act!ons

3he perfect progressive forms are often used to sho) that an action is (or )as* fre-uently repeated: Nim has been phoning Nenny every night for the past week. Nenny was annoyed. Nim had been phoning her every night for a whole week.

:3

$.+ T&e p#esent3past pe#fect p#o"#ess!,e fo# #a(!n" conclus!ons

0e use the progressive (seldom the simple* forms to sho) that )e have come to a conclusion based on direct or indirect evidence: 6our eyes are red. 6ou%ve been crying. 1er eyes were red. 't was obvious she had been crying. 3he present perfect progressive often occurs in complaints: $his room stin"s. Fomeone s been smo"ing here.
$.6 T&e p#esent3past s!mple an p#o"#ess!,e compa#e

3he difference bet)een an activity still in progress and one that has definitely been completed is mar%ed by context and by the verbs )e use. 3he simple and progressive forms are not interchangeable here: '%ve been painting this room. '%ve painted this room. In the first example, the activity is uncompleted. In the second example, the Kob is definitely finished. 4hen ' got home" ' found that Nill had been painting her room. 4hen ' got home" ' found that Nill had painted her room. In the first example, the activity )as uncompleted then. In the second example, the Kob )as definitely finished then.

The simple future tense

1. ?o#m of t&e s!mple futu#e tense 3he simple future is formed )ith %ILL and the base form of the verb: ' will work. 6ou will work. 1e will work. Fhe will work. 't will work 3he interrogative is formed by inversion bet)een the subKect and the auxiliary: 4ill ' work5 4ill we work5 :/ $hey will work. 4e will work. 6ou will work.

4ill you work5 4ill he work5 4ill she work5 4ill it work5

4ill you work5 4ill they work5

3he negative is formed by adding the negation to the auxiliary: ' will not work. 6ou will not work. 1e will not work. Fhe will not work. 't will not work. $. Notes on t&e fo#m of t&e s!mple futu#e tense
$.1 S&all an (!ll

4e will not work. 6ou will not work. $hey will not work.

4ill is used )ith all persons, but shall can be used as an alternative )ith ' and we in pure future reference. Fhall is usually avoided )ith you and ': &ou and ! will wor" in the same office.
$.$ 4ont#act!ons

Fhall does not contract to )ll in )riting. 4ill contracts to )ll in )riting and in fluent, rapid speech after vo)els, but )ll can also occur after consonants. +o )e might find )ll used: e.g. "after names: "after common nouns: "after -uestion")ords:
$.+ Ne"at!,es

$om%ll be here soon. $he concert%ll start in a minute. 4hen%ll they arrive5

4ill not contracts to )ll not or won%t@ shall not contracts to shan%t. '04e won%t or shan%t go. ('04e will not or shall not go.! In 1mE shan=t is rare and shall )ith a future reference is unusual.
$.6 ?utu#e tense

0hen )e use will0shall for simple prediction, they combine )ith verbs to form tenses in the ordinary )ay: " s!mple futu#e: ' will see. ::

" " "

futu#e p#o"#ess!,e: futu#e pe#fect: futu#e pe#fect p#o"#ess!,e:

' will be seeing. ' will have seen. ' will have been seeing.

+. Uses of t&e =(!ll3s&all> futu#e

+.1 =%!ll3s&all> fo# p#e !ct!on b#!efl* compa#e (!t& ot&e# uses

4ill and shall can be used to predict events, for example, to say )hat )e thin% )ill happen, or to invite prediction: $ottenham will win on Faturday. 't will rain tomorrow. 4ill house prices rise again next year5 ' don%t know if ' shall see you next week. 3his is sometimes called ?the pure future=, and it should be distinguished from many other uses of will and shall: '%ll buy you a bicycle for your birthday. (promise* (9ote that )ill is not used to mean ?)ant to=* 4ill you hold the door open for me please5 (re-uest* Fhall ' get your coat for you5 (offer* Fhall we go for a swim tomorrow5 (suggestion* Nust wait # you%ll regret this& (threat* 3hough all the above examples point to future time, they are not ?predicting=@ they are ?coloured= by notions of )illingness, etc. 4ill0shall have so many uses as modal verbs that some grammarians insist that English does not have a pure future tense.
+.$ =%!ll> !n fo#mal st*le fo# sc&e ule e,ents

4ill is used in preference to be going to )hen a formal style is re-uired, particularly in the )ritten language: $he wedding will take place at Ft /ndrew%s on Nune >M th. $he reception will be at the /nchor 1otel.
+.+ =%!ll3s&all> to exp#ess &opes0 expectat!ons0 etc.

3he future is often used after verbs and verb phrases li%e assume, be afraid, be sure, believe, doubt, expect, hope, suppose, thin": ' hope she%ll get the ob she%s applied for. 3he present )ith a future reference is possible after hope: ' hope she gets the ob she%s applied for. :A

,ac% of certainty, etc. can be conveyed by using )ill )ith adverbs li%e perhaps, possibly, probably, surely: /sk him again. Derhaps he%ll change his mind. 6. T!me a ,e#b!als (!t& t&e =(!ll3s&all> futu#e tense +ome adverbials li%e tomorrow are used exclusively )ith future reference@ others li%e at 9 o cloc", before /riday, etc. are used )ith other tenses as )ell as the future: '%ll meet you at O o%clock. ,ow and just can also have a future reference: $his shop will now be open on Nune >;rd. '%m nearly ready. '%ll ust put my coat on. 7. Ot&e# (a*s of exp#ess!n" t&e futu#e 0e can express the future in other )ays, apart from will0shall: be "o!n" to: be to: s!mple p#esent: '%m going to see him tomorrow. '%m to see him tomorrow. ' see him tomorrow.

p#esent p#o"#ess!,e: '%m seeing him tomorrow. 3hese )ays of expressing the future are concerned less )ith simple prediction and more )ith intentions, plans, arrangements, etc.

The future progressive tense

1. ?o#m of t&e futu#e p#o"#ess!,e tense 3he future progressive is formed )ith the auxiliary be conKugated in the future: %ILL3SHALL DE E the ING form: ' will0shall be working. 6ou will be working. 1e will be working. Fhe will be working. $hey will be working. :D 4e will0shall be working. 6ou will be working.

't will be working. 3he interrogative is formed by inversion of the subKect and the first auxiliary ()ill*: 4ill0shall ' be working5 4ill you be working5 4ill he be working5 4ill she be working5 4ill it be working5 3he negative is formed by adding the negation to the first auxiliary ()ill*: ' will0shall not be working. 6ou will not be working. 1e will not be working. Fhe will not be working. 't will not be working. $. Uses of t&e futu#e p#o"#ess!,e tense
$.1 Act!ons !n p#o"#ess !n t&e futu#e

4ill0shall we be working5 4ill you be working5 4ill they be working5

4e will0shall not be working. 6ou will not be working. $hey will not be working.

3he most common use of the progressive form is to describe actions )hich )ill be in progress in the immediate or distant future: 1urry up& $he guests will be arriving at any minute& / space vehicle will be circling Nupiter in five years% time.

$.$ T&e =soften!n" effect> of t&e futu#e p#o"#ess!,e

+ometimes the future progressive is used to describe simple futurity, but )ith a ?softening effect= that ta%es a)ay the element of deliberate intention often implied by will: '%ll work on this tomorrow. (intention, possibly a promise* '%ll be working on this tomorrow. (futurity* In some contexts, the future progressive sounds more polite than will, especially in -uestions )hen )e do not )ish to appear to be pressing for a definite ans)er: 4hen will you finish these letters5 (e.g. boss to assistant* 4hen will you be seeing Cr 4hite5 (e.g. assistant to boss* :F

+ometimes there really is a difference in meaning: Cary won%t pay this bill. (she refuses to* Cary won%t be paying this bill. (futurity* 4ill you oin us for dinner5 (invitation* 4ill you be oining us for dinner5 (futurity* 4on%t you come with us5 (invitation* 4on%t you be coming with us5 (futurity*
$.+ A##an"ements an plans

3he future progressive can be used li%e the present progressive to refer to planned events, particularly in connexion )ith travel: 4e%ll be spending the winter in /ustralia. (> )e are spending* Drofessor Jraig will be giving a lecture on 2truscan pottery tomorrow evening . (> is giving*

The future perfect simple and future perfect progressive tenses

1. ?o#m of t&e futu#e pe#fect s!mple an p#o"#ess!,e tenses 3he future perfect simple is formed )ith %ILL HABE E the past participle (4rd form) of the main verb: ' will0shall have worked. 6ou will have worked. 1e will have worked. Fhe will have worked. 't will have worked. 3he future perfect progressive is formed )ith %ILL HABE DEEN E the /ING form of the main verb: ' will0shall have been working. 6ou will have been working. 1e will have been working. Fhe will have been working. $hey will have been working. :H 4e will0shall have been working. 6ou will have been working. $hey will have worked. 4e will0shall have worked. 6ou will have worked.

't will have been working. 3he interrogative is formed by inversion of the first auxiliary ()ill* and the subKect: future perfect simpleGprogressive 4ill0shall ' have worked0been working5 4ill he have worked0been working5 4ill she have worked0been working5 4ill it have worked0been working5 3he negative is formed by adding the negation to the first auxiliary: future perfect simpleGprogressive ' will0shall not have worked0been working. 4e will0shall not have worked0been working. 6ou will not have worked0been working. 1e will not have worked0been working. Fhe will not have worked0been working. 't will not have worked0been working. $. Uses of t&e futu#e pe#fect s!mple an p#o"#ess!,e tenses
$.1 =T&e past as seen f#om t&e futu#e>

4ill0shall we have worked0been working5

4ill you have worked0been working5 4ill you have worked0been working5 4ill they have worked0been working5

6ou will not have worked0been working. $hey will not have worked0been working.

0e often use the future perfect to sho) that an action )ill already be completed by a certain time in the future: ' will have retired by the year >A>A. (3hat is, before or in the year 2M2M, my retirement )ill already be in the past.* 3his tense is often used )ith b* and not@t!ll3unt!l E time and )ith verbs )hich point to completion: build, complete, finish, etc. 0e also often use the future perfect after verbs li%e believe, expect, hope, suppose: ' expect you will have changed your mind by tomorrow.
$.$ T&e cont!nuat!on of a state up to t&e t!me ment!one

0hat is in progress no) can be considered from a point in the future: +y this time next wee"" ' will have been wor"ing for this company for >O years. 4e will have been married a year on Nune >?th.

AM

The going to future

1. ?o#m of t&e ="o!n" to> / futu#e 3he )going to% future is formed )ith the verb be con ugated in the present E "o!n" to E 4e are going to work. 6ou are going to work. $hey are going to work.

the base form of the main verb: ' am going to work. 6ou are going to work. 1e is going to work. Fhe is going to work. 't is going to work. 3he interrogative is formed by inversion of the subKect and the verb be: /m ' going to work5 /re you going to work5 's he going to work5 's she going to work5 's it going to work5 3he negative is formed by adding the negation to the verb be: ' am not going to work. 6ou are not going to work. 1e is not going to work. Fhe is not going to work. 't is not going to work. $. Uses of t&e ="o!n" to> / futu#e
$.1 T&e ="o!n" to> / futu#e fo# p#e !ct!on

/re we going to work5 /re you going to work5 /re they going to work5

4e are not going to work. 6ou are not going to work. $hey are not going to work.

3he going to

future is often used, li%e )ill, to predict the future. It is common in

speech, especially )hen )e are referring to the immediate future. 3he spea%er sees signs of something that is about to happen: *h" look& 't%s going to rain& Kook out& Fhe%s going to faint& 3his use of going to includes the present, )hereas 't will rain is purely about the future. 1lternatively, the spea%er may have prior %no)ledge of something )hich )ill happen in the near future: A1

$hey%re going to be married soon. ('er brother told me.* 1 future time reference may be added )ith such predictions: 't%s going to rain tonight. $hey%re going to be married next Cay. 0e usually prefer )ill to the going to future in formal )riting and )hen there is a need for constant reference to the future as in, for example, )eather forecasts.
$.$ T&e ="o!n" to> / futu#e fo# !ntent!ons0 plans0 etc.

0hen there is any suggestion of intentions and plans, )e tend to use the going to rather than will in informal style:

future

'%m going to practise the piano for two hours this evening. (i.e. 3hat=s my intention: )hat I have plannedGarranged to do.* 'o)ever, )e generally prefer will to going to )hen )e decide to do something at the moment of spea%ing: 4e%re really lost. '%ll stop and ask someone the way. Intention can be emphasiPed )ith adverbs li%e no( and -ust )hich are generally associated )ith present time: '%m now going to show you how to make spaghetti sauce. '%m just going to change. '%ll be back in five minutes. 3he use of be going to refer to the remote future is less common and generally re-uires a time reference: Fhe says she%s going to be a ockey when she grows up. If )e )ant to be precise about intentions and plans, )e use verbs li%e intend to, plan to, propose to, rather than going to: $hey%re going to build a new motorway to the west. (vague* $hey propose to build a new motorway to the west. (more precise*
$.+ T&e ="o!n" to> / futu#e !n place of t&e p#esent p#o"#ess!,e

3he going to

future may be used )here )e )ould e-ually expect to have the present

progressive )ith a future reference: '%m having dinner with Nanet tomorrow evening. '%m going to have dinner with Nanet tomorrow evening. 'o)ever, )e cannot use the present progressive to ma%e predictions, so it )ould not be possible in a sentence li%e this: 't%s going to snow tonight. A2

3hough be going to can combine )ith go and come, the present progressive is preferred )ith these verbs for reasons of style. 0e tend to avoid going to next to go or come (e.g. going to go0going to come*: '%m going0coming home early this evening.
$.6 T&e ="o!n" to> / futu#e afte# =!f>

0e do not normally use )ill after if to ma%e predictions, but )e can use be going to to express an intention: !f you re going to join us" we%ll wait for you. +e going to can often be used in the main clause as )ell: 'f you invite Nack" there s going to be trouble.

Other

ays of e!pressing the future

1. ?o#ms of futu#e subst!tutes DE TO3DE DUE TO3DE ADOUT TO ' am (due0about! to work. 6ou are (due0about! to work. 1e is (due0about! to work. Fhe is (due0about! to work. 't is (due0about! to work /m ' (due0about! to work5 /re you (due0about! to work5 's he (due0about! to work5 's she (due0about! to work5 's it (due0about! to work0 ' am not (due0about! to work. 6ou are not (due0about! to work. 1e is not (due0about! to work. Fhe is not (due0about! to work. 't is not (due0about! to work. A3 $hey are not (due0about! to work 4e are not (due0about! to work. 6ou are not (due0about! to work. /re they (due0about! to work5 /re we (due0about! to work5 /re you (due0about! to work5 $hey are to work. 4e are (due0about! to work. 6ou are (due0about! to work.

DE ON THE COINT O? 5 1ING ' am on the point of working. 6ou are on the point of working. 1e is on the point of working. Etc. $. Uses of futu#e subst!tutes
$.1 T&e use of =be to>

4e are on the point of working.

+e to is used to refer to the future )hen the actions are subKect to human control. 3hus statements such as '%m going to faint or 't%s going to rain cannot be expressed )ith be to, )hich has restricted uses: e.g. Bormal arrangementsGpublic duties: *D2J representatives are to meet in (eneva next $uesday. Bormal appointmentsGinstructions: 1ctive: 6ou%re to deliver these flowers before :A. Lassive: $hree tablets to be taken twice a day. LrohibitionsGpublic notices: 6ou%re not to tell him anything about our plans. (>you mustn=t*
D*'F*I: I*$ $* +2 $/-2I

$.$ T&e use of =be about to>0 =be on t&e po!nt of>

3hese constructions are used to refer to the immediate future: Kook& $he race is about to start. %n the point of conveys even greater immediacy: Kook& $hey%re on the point of starting& 3he use of -ust )ith be about to and be on the point of increases the sense of immediacy, as it does )ith the present progressive: $hey%re just starting&
$.+ T&e use of =be ue to>

3his is often used in connexion )ith timetables and itineraries: $he +/ ?=: is due to arrive from /thens at :;.:?. $he +/ ?=: is not due till :;.:?.

A/

The future"in"the"past
1. T&e futu#e1!n1t&e1past 3he future"in"the"past can be expressed by (as "o!n" to, (as about to, (as to, (as to &a,e E past participle, (as on t&e po!nt of, (as ue to and (in more limited contexts* (oul . 3hese forms can refer to events )hich )ere planned to ta%e place and )hich did ta%e place. ' couldn%t go to $om%s party as ' was about to go into hospital. or refer to an outcome that could not be foreseen: Kittle did they know they were to be reunited ten years later. 'o)ever, the future"in"the"past can also be used to describe events )hich )ere interrupted (-ust@(&en*: 4e were just going to leave when Nean fell and hurt her ankle. or to describe events )hich )ere hindered or prevented (@but*: ' was to see/was going to see/was to have seen Cr -ay tomorrow" but the appointment has been cancelled. 9ote the possible ambiguity of: ' was going to see Cr -ay. (the meeting did or did not ta%e place* compared )ith: ' was to have seen Cr -ay. (I did not see him* $. ?utu#e1!n1t&e1past2 t*p!cal contexts 3he future"in"the"past is often used in narrative to describe ?events that )ere destined to happen=: 2instein was still a young man. 1is discoveries had not yet been published" but they were to change our whole view of the universe. 0ould can also express future"in"the"past in such contexts: 4e had already reached ?.AAA meters. Foon we would reach the top.

A:

The imperative
1. ?o#m of t&e !mpe#at!,e 3he imperative form is the same as the bare infinitive: Aff!#mat!,e fo#m (base form of the verb*: Ne"at!,e s&o#t fo#m (Don>t E base form*: Emp&at!c fo#m (Do E base form*: A Impe#at!,e 5 <uest!on ta": Impe#at!,es -o!ne b* and: $. Some common uses of t&e !mpe#at!,e 0e use the imperative for direct orders and suggestions and also for a variety of other purposes. +tress and intonation, gesture, facial expression, and, above all, situation and context, indicate )hether the use of this form is friendly, abrupt, angry, impatient, persuasive, etc. 3he negative form is usually expressed by Don>t. 3he full form (Do not* is used mainly in public notices. 'ere are some common uses: 1. <irect commands, re-uests, suggestions: ,ollow me. Fhut the door (please!. Hon%t worry& 2. 0arnings: Kook out& $here%s a bus& Hon%t panic& 3. <irections: $ake the >nd turning on the left and then turn right. /. Instructions: Gse a moderate oven and bake for >A minutes. :. Lrohibitions (e.g. in public notices*: -eep off the grass& Ho not feed the animals& A. 1dvice (especially after al)ays and never*: /lways answer when you%re spoken to& Iever speak to strangers& D. Invitations: Jome and have dinner with us soon. F. !ffers: 1elp yourself. 1ave a biscuit. H. Expressing rudeness: AA 4ait& Hon%t wait& Ho wait a moment& 4ait here" will you5 (o and play outside.

#ess!n" someone (e.g. pronoun E base form*: 6ou wait here&

Fhut up& Dush off& +. Uses of t&e !mpe#at!,e (!t& = o> 0e use " " " o (al)ays stressed* before the imperative )hen )e particularly )ish to

emphasiPe )hat )e are saying: e.g. )hen )e )ish to be polite: or )hen )e )ish to express impatience: or )hen )e )ish to persuade: Ho have another cup of coffee. Ho stop talking& Ho help me with this maths problem. In response to re-uests for permission, offers, etc. o and on>t can be used in place of a full imperative: Cay0Fhall ' switch the light off5 # 6es" do. Io" don%t. 6. T&e use of t&e !mpe#at!,e to a #ess pa#t!cula# people

3he imperative, e.g. 4ait here&, might be addressed to one person or several people: you is implied. 'o)ever, )e can get the attention of the person or people spo%en to in the follo)ing )ays: 1. Aou 5 !mpe#at!,e: 6ou wait here for a moment. Intonation and stress are important. If, in the above example you is unstressed, the sentence means ?this is )here you )ait=. If it is stressed, it means ?this is )hat I )ant you to do=. 0hen you is stressed, it might also convey anger, hostility or rudeness: 6ou mind your own business& 6ou try teaching OA noisy children five days a week& @on t (not you* is stressed in the negative: Hon%t you speak to me like that&
$. Aou 5 name:s; o# name:s; 5 *ou2

6ou wait here" Nim and Cary" you wait there.

+. Impe#at!,e 5 name o# name 5 !mpe#at!,e2

Hrink up your milk" Fally& Fally" drink up your milk&

6. Impe#at!,e 5 #eflex!,e2

AD

2n oy yourself. +ehave yourself.

:. 0e can use )ords li%e e,e#*bo *, someone )ith the imperative )hen )e are tal%ing to groups of people:

2veryone keep .uiet& -eep still everybody& Iobody say a word& Fomebody answer the phone please. Any compounds are used after negative commands: Hon%t say a word anybody& Hon%t anybody say a word&
8. %e use let>s fo# 1st pe#son plu#al !mpe#at!,e2

Ket%s take a taxi& Ket%s is often associated )ith s&all (e': Ket%s take a taxi" shall we5 3he negative of Ket%s in suggestions is: Ket%s not0Hon%t let%s argue about it. Informally, Ket%s can relate to I in e.g. offers and re-uests: Ket%s give you a hand. (>I=ll* Ket%s have a look. (>$an I2* F. T&e !mpe#at!,e (!t& <uest!on ta"s 3ags li%e (!ll *ou'0 (on>t *ou'0 can *ou'0 can>t *ou'0 coul *ou' an (oul *ou' can often be used after an imperative for a variety of purposes: e.g. " " to express annoyanceGimpatience )ith will0won%t0can%t you5 (rising tone*: to ma%e a re-uest (can you5 for neutral re-uests@ could0would you5 for more polite ones*@ or to sound less abrupt: Dost this letter for me can you50could you50would you5 " to offer polite encouragement or to ma%e friendly offers and suggestions ( will you5 and won%t you5*: Jome in" will you0won%t you5 $ake a seat" will you0won%t you5 " to obtain the co"operation of others )ith Hon%tEwill you5: Hon%t tell anyone ' told you" will you5 1nd note (&* on>t *ou as a tag in: e.g. (o off for the weekend" why don%t you5 Ftop fiddling with that $3" will you0won%t you0can%t you5

AF

G. Double !mpe#at!,es -o!ne b* =an > +ome imperatives can be follo)ed by and and another imperative )here )e might expect a to"infinitive: $o and buy yourself a new pair of shoes. (9ot #(o to buy* >ome and see this goldfish. (9ot #Jome to see* >ome and play a game of bridge with us. (9ot #Jome to play* Aait and see. (9ot #4ait to see* #ry and see my point of view. (9ote: $ry to is also possible* In 1merican English go is sometimes follo)ed by a bare infinitive: (o fetch some water. (>(o and fetch* 1 to"infinitive can follo) an imperative to express purpose: 2at to live; do not live to eat.

Activities
1. Oead the follo)ing in the t&!# pe#son s!n"ula#. <o not change the obKect if it is plural. 9ote that after certain consonants the final es is pronounced as a separate syllable. 1. 3hey )ish to spea% to you. (he* 2. 5uses pass my house every hour. 3. 3hey help their father. (he* /. 0e change planes at 'eathro). :. 7ou )atch too much 3R. (he* A. 3hey )orry too much. (he* D. I cash a che-ue every month. (he* F. I al)ays carry an umbrella. (she* H. 3hey )ash the floor every )ee%. (she* 1M. 'is sons go to the local school. 11. 3hese hens lay bro)n eggs. 12. Oubber balls bounce. 13. 3hese figures astonish me. 1/. <o you li%e boiled eggs2 (he* 1:. 3hese seats cost S1M. AH

1A. 3hey fish in the la%e. (he* 1D. Elephants never forget. 1F. 3hey usually catch the F.1M bus. 1H. 3hey sometimes miss the bus. 2M. I mix the ingredients together. 21. 3he rivers freePe in )inter. 22. 3hey fly from ,ondon to Edinburgh. 23. 3he carpets match the curtains. 2/. 3hey realiPe the danger. 2:. I use a computer. 2. Oead the follo)ing (a* in the ne"at!,e (b* in the !nte##o"at!,e.

1. 7ou %no) the ans)er. 2. 'e has brea%fast at F.MM. 3. 'e loves her. /. +ome schoolgirls )ear uniforms. :. 'e trusts you. A. 'e tries hard. D. 3he par% closes at dus%. F. 'e misses his mother. H. 3he children li%e s)eets. 1M. 'e finishes )or% at A.MM. 11. 'e lives beside the sea. 12. 3his stove heats the )ater. 13. 'e usually believes you. 1/. +he dances in competitions. 1:. 7ou remember the address. 1A. +he plays chess very )ell. 1D. 'e )orries about her. 1F. 3hese thieves )or% at night. 1H. 'e leaves home at F.MM. 2M. 1nn arranges everything. 21. +he agrees )ith you. 22. 3heir dogs bar% all night. 23. 3heir neighbours often complain. 2/. 3om enKoys driving at night. DM

2:. 3he last train leaves at midnight. 3. Lut the verbs in brac%ets into the p#esent cont!nuous tense. In 9r. 2:, have is used as an ordinary verb and can therefore be used in the continuous. 1. +he (not )or%*, she (s)im* in the river. 2. 'e (teach* his boy to ride. 3. 0hy 1nn (not )ear* her ne) dress2 /. 3he aeroplane (fly* at 2,MMM metres. :. 0hat 3om (do* no)2 'e (clean* his shoes. A. 3his fire (go* out. +omebody (bring* more coal2 D. It (rain*2 7es, it (rain* very hard. 7ou can=t go out yet. F. 0hy you (mend* that old shirt2 H. 7ou (not tell* the truth. 'o) do you %no) that I (not tell* the truth2 It=s 3om. 'e (paint* the front bedroom. 1M. 0ho (move* the furniture about upstairs2

11. Mrs. Qones (s)eep* the stairs outside her house. 12. 0hat you (read* no)2 I (read* Jrime and Dunishment. 13. It is a lovely day. 3he sun (shine* and the birds (sing*. 1/. +omeone (%noc%* at the door. +hall I ans)er it2 my hands. 1:. +he al)ays (ring* up and (as%* -uestions. 1A. 0hy you (ma%e* a ca%e2 +omeone (come* to tea2 1D. 0here is 3om2 'e (lie* under the car. 9o, I=m not. 0ell, I (go* to the cinema. 0ould 1F. $an I borro) your pen or you (use* it at the moment2 1H. 7ou (do* anything this evening2 you li%e to come )ith me2 2M. 0e (have* brea%fast at F.MM tomorro) as 3om (catch* an early train. 21. 1nn usually does the shopping, but I (do* it today as she isn=t )ell. 22. 0hy you (type* so fast2 7ou (ma%e* a lot of mista%es. 23. Mother (rest* no). +he al)ays rests after lunch. 2/. 3hey (dig* an enormous hole Kust outside my gate. %no). Lerhaps they (loo%* for oil. 2:. 0hat (ma%e* that terrible noise2 /. It=s the pneumatic drill. 3hey (repair* the road. 0hy they (do* that for2: " I don=t I (come* in a minute. I Kust ()ash*

Lut the verbs in brac%ets into the s!mple p#esent or the p#esent cont!nuous.

1. $uc%oos (not build* nests. 3hey (use* the nests of other birds. 2. 7ou can=t see 3om no)@ he (have* a bath. D1

3. 'e usually (drin%* coffee but today he (drin%* tea. /. 0hat she (do* in the evenings2 +he usually (play* cards or ()atch* 3R. :. I )on=t go out no) as it (rain* and I (not have* an umbrella. A. 3he last train (leave* the station at 11.3M. D. 'e usually (spea%* so -uic%ly that I (not understand* him. F. 1nn (ma%e* a dress for herself at the moment. +he (ma%e* all her o)n clothes. H. 'ardly anyone ()ear* a hat no)adays. 1M. I=m afraid I=ve bro%en one of your coffee cups. any)ay. 11. I ()ear* my sunglasses today because the sun is very strong. 12. 3om can=t have the ne)spaper no) because his aunt (read* it. 13. I=m busy at the moment. I (redecorate* the sitting room. 1/. 3he %ettle (boil* no). +hall I ma%e the tea2 1:. 7ou (enKoy* yourself or )ould you li%e to leave no)2 ()ant* to stay to the end. 1A. 'o) you (get* to )or% as a rule2 3om=s car. 1D. 0hy you (put* on your coat2 1F. 'o) much you (o)e* him2 I (go* for a )al%. 7ou (come* )ith me2 7ou (intend* to pay him2 7ou (read* a lot2 7es, -uite a lot. 7es, I=d love to come. 7ou (mind* if I bring my dog2 I (o)e* him S:. 7es, I do. 1H. 7ou (belong* to your local library2 I usually (go* by bus but tomorro) I (go* in I (enKoy* myself very much. I <on=t )orry. I (not li%e* that set

'o) often you (change* your boo%s2 I (change* one every day. 2M. Mary usually (learn* languages very -uic%ly but she (not seem* able to learn modern .ree%. 21. I al)ays (but* lottery tic%ets but I never ()in* anything. 22. 7ou (li%e* this nec%lace2 I (give* it to my daughter for her birthday tomorro). 23. I )on=t tell you my secret unless you (promise* not to tell anyone. 2/. 7ou al)ays ()rite* )ith your left hand2 2:. 7ou (love* him2 9o, I li%e him very much but I (not love* him. 2A. 7ou (dream* at night2 nightmares. 2D. 3he mil% (smell* sour. 7ou (%eep* mil% a long time2 2F. 3hese )or%men are never satisfied@ they al)ays (complain*. 2H. 0e (use* this room today because the )indo) in the other room is bro%en. 3M. 'e al)ays (say* that he )ill mend the )indo) but he never (do* it. 31. 7ou (%no)* )hy an apple (fall* do)n and not up2 D2 7es, I al)ays (dream* and if I (eat* too much supper I (have* I (promise*.

32. 7ou ()rite* to him tonight2 ()ant* to send any message2

7es, I al)ays ()rite* to him on his birthday. 7ou

33. 3om and Mr Litt (have* a long conversation. I ()onder* )hat they (tal%* about. 3/. 7ou (believe* all that the ne)spapers say2 you (read* ne)spapers2 3:. 3his car (ma%e* a very strange noise. 7ou (thin%* it is all right2 matter*. It al)ays (ma%e* a noise li%e that. 3A. 3he fire (smo%e* horribly. I can=t see across the room. nest in the chimney. I (expect* that birds (build* a 0hy you (not put* )ire across the tops of your chimneys2 !h, that noise (not 9o, I (not believe* any of it. 3hen )hy

3om (do* that sometimes but it (not seem* to ma%e any difference. :. Lut the verbs in the follo)ing sentences into the s!mple past tense.

1. I go to )or% by bus. 2. I meet her on 3uesdays. 3. 'e al)ays )ears blac%. /. I ma%e ca%es every day. :. +he gets up at A.3M. A. 'e understands me. D. 'e shuts the shop at A.MM. F. +he spea%s slo)ly. H. 'e leaves the house at H.MM. 1M. I read a chapter every night. 11. 7ou eat too much. 12. I see him every day. 13. 'e cries )hen he is hurt. 1/. 0ho %no)s the ans)er2 1:. I thin% I %no) it. 1A. 3he curtain rises at F.MM. 1D. 'e ta%es the dog out t)ice a day. 1F. 0e buy them here. 1H. I dream every night. 2M. 'e often feels ill. 21. I %no) )hat he )ants. 22. I usually pay him S:. 23. It smells odd. 2/. It costs S:M. D3

2:. My bac% hurts. 2A. 0e drin% )ater. 2D. 'is roses gro) )ell. 2F. 'e rides every day. 2H. 'e puts up his prices every year. 3M. 'e sleeps badly. A. Lut the verbs in the follo)ing sentences into (a* the ne"at!,e and (b* the !nte##o"at!,e. 1. +he sa) your brother. 2. 0e heard a terrible noise. 3. 'e slept till 1M.MM. /. 'e loo%ed at the picture. :. 3hey dran% all the )ine. A. 3hey set out early enough. D. +he thought about him. F. 3he police caught the thief. H. 'e hid the letter. 1M. +he found her )atch. 11. 'is nose bled. 12. My mother chose this hotel. 13. +he lent you enough money. 1/. Tei%o taught Qapanese. 1:. 3om hurt his foot. 1A. 'e bro%e his arm. 1D. 'is )ife came at F.MM. 1F. 'e lost his )allet. 1H. 'is son )rote a novel. 2M. 3hey fle) to 9e) 7or%. 21. 1nn dre) you a map. 22. 3om laid the table. 23. Mr Litt fell do)nstairs. 2/. +he lost her )ay. 2:. 'e forbade her to leave. 2A. I sent it to the laundry. 2D. Qac% %ept the money. D/

2F. 'e drove slo)ly. 2H. 3hey spent it all. 3M. +he sold the car. 31. Qean rang the bell. 32. 3he sun rose at A.MM. 33. 3he boys ran home. 3/. 'e shoo% the bottle. 3:. 'e forgave her. 3A. 3hey broadcast an appeal for money. D. Lut the verbs in brac%ets into t&e past cont!nuous tense.

1. 3he children )ere frightened because it (get* dar%. 2. It )as a fine day and the roads )ere cro)ded because a lot of people (rush* to the seaside. 3. 3he house )as in great disorder because he (redecorate* it. /. 3he car had nobody in it but the engine (run*. :. I )as alone in the house at that time because Mr Qones ()or%* in the garage and Mrs Qones (shop*. A. 1re you going to Oome2 I thought that you (go* to Milan. D. My )ife and I (tal%* about you the other day. F. 0hen I first met him he (study* painting. H. 0ho you (tal%* to on the telephone as I came in2 I (tal%* to Mr Litt. 1M. 1s she (climb* the ladder it slipped side)ays and she fell off it. 11. 0hen I first met him he ()or%* in a restaurant. 12. 'e )atched the children for a moment. +ome of them (bathe* in the sea, others (loo%* for shells, others (play* in the sand. 13. 0here he (live* )hen you sa) him last2 1/. +he (stand* at the bus stop. I as%ed her )hat bus she ()ait* for. 1:. Brom the sounds it )as clear that Mary (practise* the piano. 1A. 3here had been an accident and men (carry* the inKured people to an ambulance. 1D. 3)o men (fight* at a street corner and a policeman (try* to stop them (fight* about2 9obody seemed to %no). 0hat they

1F. 3om (sit* in a corner )ith a boo%. I told him that he (read* in very bad light. 1H. 0hen I arrived at the meeting the first spea%er had Kust finished spea%ing and the audience (clap*. 2M. 3he traffic (ma%e* so much noise that I couldn=t hear )hat he (say*. D:

21. 0hile he (learn* to drive he had t)enty"five accidents. 22. 'e had a bad fall )hile he (repair* the roof. 23. 3he exam had Kust began and the candidates ()rite* their names at the top of their papers. 2/. Qust as I ()onder* )hat to do next, the phone rang. 2:. <etective: I=m afraid I must as% you both )hat you (do* yesterday at 1M.2M p.m. Mr C: I (play* cards )ith my )ife. Mr 7: I (listen* to a play on the radio. F. Lut the verbs in brac%ets into the s!mple past or the past cont!nuous tense.

1. I lit the fire at A.MM and it (burn* brightly )hen 3om came in at D.MM. 2. 0hen I arrived the lecture had already started and the professor ()rite* on the blac%board. 3. I (ma%e* a ca%e )hen the light )ent out. I had to finish it in the dar%. /. I didn=t )ant to meet Laul so )hen he entered the room I (leave*. :. &nfortunately )hen I arrived 1nn Kust (leave*, so )e only had time for a fe) )ords. A. 'e ()atch* 3R )hen the phone rang. Rery un)illingly he (turn* do)n the sound and (go* to ans)er it. D. 'e )as very polite. 0henever his )ife entered the room he (stand* up. F. 3he admiral (play* cards )hen he received ne)s of the invasion. 'e (insist* on finishing the game. H. My dog ()al%* along -uietly )hen Mr 5ro)n=s Le%inese attac%ed him. 1M. 0hen I arrived she (have* lunch. +he apologiPed for starting )ithout me but said that she al)ays (lunch* at 12.3M. 11. 'e al)ays ()ear* a raincoat and (carry* an umbrella )hen he )al%ed to the office. 12. 0hat you (thin%* about his last boo%2 I (li%e* it very much. 13. I (share* a flat )ith him )hen )e )ere students. 'e al)ays (complain* about my untidiness. 1/. 'e suddenly (realiPe* that he (travel* in the )rong direction. 1:. 'e (play* the guitar outside her house )hen someone opened the )indo) and (thro)* out a buc%et of )ater. 1A. I Kust (open* the letter )hen the )ind (blo)* it out of my hand. 1D. 3he burglar (open* the safe )hen he (hear* footsteps. 'e immediately (put* out his torch and (cra)l* under the bed. 1F. 0hen I (loo%* for my passport I (find* this old photograph. 1H. 7ou loo%ed very busy )hen I (see* you last night. 0hat you (do*2 DA

2M. 3he boys (play* cards )hen they (hear* their father=s step. 3hey immediately (hide* the cards and (ta%e* out their lesson boo%s. 21. 'e (clean* his gun )hen it accidentally (go* off and (%ill* him. 22. 'e (not allo)* us to go out in the boat yesterday as a strong )ind (blo)*. 23. 0hen I last (see* her she (hurry* along the road to the station. I (as%* her )here she (go* and she (say*, ?,ondon=, but I don=t thin% she (spea%* the truth because there (not be* any train for ,ondon at that time. 2/. 3he tailor said, ?7our suit )ill be ready on Monday.= 5ut )hen I (call* on Monday he still ()or%* on it. 2:. 3he teacher (come* into the classroom unusually early and one of the boys, )ho (smo%e* a cigarette, (have* no time to put it out. +o he (thro)* it into the des% and (hope* for the best. 2A. 1 little later the teacher (notice* that smo%e (rise* from the des%. ?7ou (smo%e* )hen I (come* in2= he (as%*. 2D. 0hile I (s)im* someone (steal* my clothes and I (have to* )al% home in my s)imsuit. 2F. 3he men (say* that they ()or%* on the road outside my house and that they ()ant* some )ater to ma%e tea. 2H. 'e (say* that he (build* himself a house and that he (thin%* it )ould be ready in t)o years. 3M. 1t 3.MM a.m. Mrs 0hite ()a%e* her husband and (say* that she (thin%* that someone (try* to get into the house. 31. 0hy you (lend* him that boo%2 I still (read* it. (read* it. 32. I (come* in very late last night and unfortunately the dog ()a%e* up and (start* to bar%. 3his ()a%e* my mother )ho (come* to the top of the stairs and (say*, ?0ho is there2= 33. I (say*, ?It is me,= but she (not hear* me because the dog (bar%* so loudly, so she (go* bac% to her room and (telephone* the police. H. Lut the verbs in brac%ets into t&e p#esent pe#fect tense, and fill the spaces by repeating the auxiliary. 1. 0here you (be*2 3. 3he post (come*2 I (be* to the dentist. 7es, I ;. 9o, I=m afraid I ;. DD 7es, it ;. 2. 7ou (have* brea%fast2 I=m sorry. I (not %no)* that you still

/. 7ou (see* my )atch any)here2

:. +omeone ()ind* the cloc%2 A. I (not finish* my letter yet. D. 'e Kust (go* out. F. +omeone (ta%e* my bicycle. H. 3he phone (stop* ringing. 1M. 7ou (hear* from her lately2 11. I Kust ()ash* that floor. 12. 3he cat (steal* the fish. 13. 7ou (explain* the exercise2 1:. 7ou (have* enough to eat2 1A. $harles (pass* the exam2 1F. I (live* here for ten years. 1H. 'o) long you (%no)* Qohn2

7es, 3om ;.

9o, I ;.

7es, I ;. 7es, I (have* plenty, than% you. 7es, he ;. 'e (leave* six.

1/. 3here aren=t any buses because the drivers (go* on stri%e.

1D. 'o) many bottles the mil%man (leave*2

I (%no)* him for ten years.

2M. 0ould you li%e some coffee2 I Kust (ma%e* some. 21. Mary ()ater* the flo)ers2 7es, I thin% she ;. 22. 7ou (not ma%e* a mista%e2 23. 0hy you (not mend* the car2 9o, I=m sure I ;. I (not have* time. 9o, I ;.

2/. 7ou ever (leave* a restaurant )ithout paying the bill2 2:. I (as%* him to dinner several times. 2A. 'e al)ays (refuse*. 2D. 7ou ever (ride* a camel2 2F. I (buy* a ne) carpet. $ome and loo% at it. 2H. 'e (post* the letter2 3M. 0hy he (not finish*2 'e (have* plenty of time. 31. I often (see* him but I never (spea%* to him. 32. 7ou ever (eat* caviar2 7es, I ;. 33. 0e Kust (hear* the most extraordinary ne)s. 1M. 3he present perfect and the simple past. (a* (b*

Bill the spaces by #epeat!n" t&e aux!l!a#* used in the -uestion, putting it into the negative )here necessary. Lut the verb in brac%ets into the p#esent pe#fect or the s!mple past tense.

1. 'ave you seen that play2 DF

(a* 7es, I ;. (b* 7es, I (be* there last night. 2. 'ave you )ound the cloc%2 (a* 7es, I ;. (b* 7es, I ()ind* it on Monday. 3. 'ave you ever eaten snails2 (a* 9o, I ;. (b* 7es, I (eat* some at 3om=s party last )ee%. /. 'as she fed the dog2 (a* 7es, I thin% she ;. (b* 7es, she (feed* him before lunch. :. 'ave they repaired the road2 (a* 9o, they ;. (b* 3hey only (repair* part of it so far. A. 'ave they done their home)or%2 (a* 7es, they (do* it all. (b* 7es, they (do* it before they left school. D. 'ave you found the matches2 (a* 9o, I ;. (b* 9o, I (not find* them yet. F. 'ave you made the coffee2 (a* 7es, I ;. (b* I (ma%e* some yesterday: )e can use that. H. 'ave you seen him lately2 (a* 9o, I ;. (b* 9o, I (not see* him since $hristmas. 1M. 'ave you been here before2 (a* 9o, I ;. (b* 7es, I (be* here several times. 11. 'ave you been to the opera this )ee%2 (a* 7es, I ;. (b* 7es, I (go* to ,aust on Briday. 12. 'ave you ever driven this car2 (a* 7es, I (drive* it once or t)ice. (b* 7es, I (drive* it )hen you )ere a)ay. 13. 'as he missed the train2 DH

(a* 9o, he ;. (b* 7es, he ;.It (go* five minutes ago. 1/. 'ave they been through $ustoms2 (a* 7es, they ;. (b* 7es, their luggage (be* examined at <over. 1:. 'as he spo%en to her2 (a* 7es, he ;. (b* 7es, he (spea%* to her on Briday. 1A. 'ave you spent all your money2 (a* 9o, I only (spend* half of it. (b* 7es, I ;. 1D. 'as his temperature gone do)n2 (a* 9o, it ;. (b* 7es, it (go* do)n last night. 1F. 'o) much have you saved since $hristmas2 (a* I (not save* anything. (b* I (save* S1MM. 1H. 'ave you seen his garden2 (a* 9o, I (not see* it yet. (b* I (see* the house on Monday but I (not see* the garden. 2M. 'ave you paid the bill2 (a* 7es, I ;. (b* 7es, I (pay* it )hile you )ere a)ay. 21. 'ave you ever flo)n a plane2 (a* 9o, I ;. (b* 7es, I (fly* )hen I )as at university. 22. 'as your dog ever bitten anyone2 (a* 7es, he (bite* a policemen last )ee%. (b* 7es, he (bite* me t)ice. 23. 'ave you planted your flo)ers2 (a* 7es, I (plant* them on 3uesday. (b* 9o, I ; yet. 2/. 'as he )ritten to the paper2 (a* 7es, he ;. (b* 7es, he ()rite* at once. 2:. 'ave you ever drun% vod%a2 FM

(a* 9o, I ;. (b* I (drin%* it once in Oussia but I (not drin%* it since. 11. Lut the verbs in brac%ets into the p#esent pe#fect or s!mple past tense. Bill the spaces by repeating the auxiliary used in the preceding verb. 1. 0here is 3om2 I (not see* him today, but he (tell* Mary that he=d be in for dinner. 'o) much you (pay* for it2 I (find* it in the garden. 9o, I=m afraid I ;. 0hen you Lerhaps you (leave* them I (pay* S1MM. 2. I (buy* this in 5ond +treet. 3. 0here you (find* this %nife2 last ()ear* them2 at the theatre. :. <o you %no) that lady )ho Kust (leave* the shop2 customer of yours2 anything. A. 'e (leave* the house at F.MM. (last* for four hours. F. 0ho you (vote* for at the last election2 elected, (be* he2 (dismiss* me. ten years. 11. 3hat is Mr Minus, )ho teaches me mathematics, but he (not have* time to teach me much. I only (be* in his class for a )ee%. 12. 7ou (hear* his speech on the radio last night2 7ou (be* to the $athedral2 getting fat so I (start* again. 1:. 7ou (see* today=s paper2 1A. Mary (feed* the cat2 9o, anything interesting (happen*2 7es, t)o convicted murderers (escape* from the prison do)n the road. 7es, she (feed* him before lunch. 0hat she (give* him2 0hat he +he (give* him some fish. 1D. 'o) long you (%no)* your ne) assistant2 (do* before he (come* here2 I (%no)* him for t)o years. I thin% he (be* in prison. F1 7es, I ;. 0hat you (thin%* of it2 13. I (not %no)* that you (be* here. 7ou (be* here long2 1/. 7ou ever (try* to give up smo%ing2 7es, I (be* here t)o months. 9o, he (lose* the election. I (li%e* it but then I (-uarrel* )ith my employer and he I (be* there for t)o )ee%s. I (%no)* her for H. 7ou (li%e* your last Kob2 I (vote* for Mr 5ro)n. 'e (not be* 0here he (go*2 I (not see* )here he (go*. It (begin* in 1H1/ and D. 'e (serve* in the Birst 0orld 0ar. 0hen that )ar (begin*2 7es, that is Miss 3hrift. Is she a 9ot exactly. +he (be* in here several times but she never (buy*

/. I (lose* my blac% gloves. 7ou (see* them any)here2

I ()ear* them at the theatre last night.

'o) long you (be* there2

1M. I (not %no)* that you (%no)* Mrs Litt. 'o) long you (%no)* her2

7es, I (go* there last +unday. 7es, I (try* last year, but then I (find* that I )as

1F. I (not see* your aunt recently. colour 3R. 1H. 3he plumber (be* here yet2 that time2 2M. 0here you (be*2 (ta%e* part in a race.

9o. +he (not be* out of her house since she (buy* her 7es, but he only (stay* for an hour. 7ou (enKoy* it2 0hat he (do* in

'e (turn* off the )ater and (empty* the tan%. I (be* out in a yacht. 7ou ()in*2 7es, very much. 0e 9o, )e (come* in last. It (be* there six months. ,ots of

21. 'o) long that horrible monument (be* there2 (be* done. 22. I Kust (be* to the film 0ar and Leace. 7ou (see* it2 (not read* the boo%. ()rite* it in 1FAF. them in battle. 2/. 0here you (be*2 I (be* to the dentist.

people ()rite* to the 3o)n $ouncil as%ing them to ta%e it a)ay but so far nothing 9o, I ;.Is it li%e the boo%2 0hen 3olstoy ()rite* it2 I 'e

I (read* )hen I (be* at school. 'e ()rite* anything else2

23. 'annibal (bring* elephants across the 1lps.

0hy he (do* that2

'e ()ant* to use 7es, he ;.

'e (ta%e* out your bad tooth2

It (hurt*2 7es, horribly. 2:. +he (say* that she=d phone me this morning, but it is no) 12.3M and she (not phone* yet. 2A. I Kust (receive* a letter saying that )e (not pay* this -uarter=s electricity bill. I (not give* you the money for that last )ee%2 something else. 2D. 'o) long you (be* out of )or%2 I=m not out of )or% no). I Kust (start* a ne) Kob. 9o, not -uite. I (do* about half so far. I=ll get you one. 'o) it 'o) you (find* the Kob2 I (ans)er* an advertisement in the paper. 2F. 7ou (finish* chec%ing the accounts2 (happen*2 2H. I (cut* my hand rather badly. 'ave you a bandage2 I )as chopping some )ood and the axe (slip*. I (get* it in a car accident a year ago. 7es, I ;. 0e (have* coffee 0hy he (lose* his 7ou (see* )hat 3M. 'o) you (get* that scar2 together after)ards. 32. 'e (lose* his Kob last month and since then he (be* out of )or%. Kob2 'e (be* very rude to his boss. 3here (be* an accident. 7es, a bicycle (run* into a lorry. 33. 0hat are all those people loo%ing at2 (happen*2 7es, you ; but I=m afraid I (spend* it on

31. 7ou (meet* my brother at the lecture yesterday2

3/. I (phone* you t)ice yesterday and (get* no ans)er. 3:. !riginally horses used in bull fights (not )ear* any protection, but for some time no) they ()ear* special padding. F2

3A. 3hat house (be* empty for a year. 5ut they Kust (ta%e* do)n the ?Bor +ale= sign, so I suppose someone (buy* it. 12. Lut the verb in brac%ets into the p#esent pe#fect cont!nuous tense.

1. I (ma%e* ca%es. 3hat is )hy my hands are all covered )ith flour. 2. 'er phone (ring* for ten minutes. I )onder )hy she doesn=t ans)er it. 3. 'e (over)or%*. 3hat is )hy he loo%s so tired. /. 'ave you seen my bag any)here2 I (loo%* for it for ages. :. 0hat you (do*2 I ()or%* in the laboratory. A. 'e (study* Oussian for t)o years and doesn=t even %no) the alphabet yet. D. 'o) long you ()ait* for me2 I ()ait* about half an hour. F. It (rain* for t)o days no). 3here=ll be a flood soon. H. 0e (argue* about this for t)o hours no). Lerhaps )e should stop8 1M. I (bathe*. 3hat=s )hy my hair is all )et. 11. 7ou (drive* all day. ,et me drive no). 12. 'o) long you ()ear* glasses2 13. I=m sorry for %eeping you )aiting. I (try* to ma%e a telephone call to Oome. 1/. 7ou (not eat* enough lately. 3hat=s )hy you feel irritable. 1:. 'e (spea%* for an hour no). I expect he=ll soon be finished. 1A. 3he radio (play* since D a.m. I )ish someone )ould turn it off. 1D. I (shop* all day and I haven=t a penny left. 1F. 0e (live* here since 1HDD. 1H. I=m on a diet. I (eat* nothing but bananas for the last month. 2M. 3he children (loo%* for)ard to this holiday for months. 21. 3hat pipe (lea%* for ages. 0e must get it mended. 22. 3om (dig* in the garden all afternoon and I (help* him. 23. I (as%* you to mend that )indo) for six )ee%s. 0hen are you going to do it2 2/. 'o) long you (drive*2 I (drive* for ten years. 2:. 3he trial (go* on for a long time. I )onder )hat the verdict )ill be. 2A. It (sno)* for three days no). 3he roads )ill be bloc%ed if it doesn=t stop soon. 2D. Mary (cry*2 9o, she (not cry*, she (peel* onions. 2F. 'e )al%ed very unsteadily up the stairs and his )ife said, ?7ou (drin%*8= 2H. 7ou usually %no) )hen someone (eat* garlic. 3M. Ever since he came to us that man (try* to ma%e trouble.

F3

13.

Lut the verbs in brac%ets into t&e p#esent pe#fect or the p#esent pe#fect cont!nuous tense. (In some cases either could be used.*

1. 0e ()al%* ten %ilometres. 2. 0e ()al%* for three hours. 3. 7ou ()al%* too fast. 3hat=s )hy you are tired. /. I (ma%e* ca%es for the party all the morning. :. 'o) many you (ma%e*2 I (ma%e* 2MM. A. 3hat boy (eat* seven ice"creams. D. 'e (not stop* eating since he arrived. F. 3he driver (drin%*. I thin% someone else ought to drive. H. I (plant* 1MM flo)ers. 1M. I (plant* flo)ers all day. 11. 0hat you (do*2 0e (pic%* apples. 12. 'o) many you (pic%*2 0e (pic%* ten bas%etfuls. 13. I (sleep* on every bed in this house and I don=t li%e any of them. 1/. 'e (sleep* since ten o=cloc%. It=s time he )o%e up. 1:. 'e (ride*@ that=s )hy he is )earing breeches. 1A. I (ride* all the horses in this stable. 1D. 0hat a lovely smell8 Mary (ma%e* Kam. 1F. 3he students ()or%* very )ell this term. 1H. I only (hear* from him t)ice since he )ent a)ay. 2M. I (hear* from her regularly. +he is a very good correspondent. 21. I (grease* my car. 3hat=s )hy my hands are so dirty. 22. I (polish* this table all the morning and she isn=t satisfied )ith it yet. 23. I ()or%* for him for ten years and he never once (say* ?.ood morning= to me. 2/. 'e (teach* in this school for five years. 2:. I (teach* hundreds of students but I never (meet* such a hopeless class as this. 2A. 0hy you (be* so long in the garage2 3he tyres )ere flat@ I (pump* them up. 2D. I (pump* up three tyres. 0ould you li%e to do the fourth2 2F. I (loo%* for mushrooms but I (not find* any. 2H. 'e (cough* a lot lately. 'e ought to give up smo%ing. 3M. 7ou (hear* the ne)s2 3om and 1nn are engaged8 ages8 31. I (try* to finish this letter for the last half"hour. I )ish you=d go a)ay or stop tal%ing. I hardly (say* anything. 32. 3he driver of that car (sound* his horn for the last ten minutes. F/ 3hat=s not ne)@ I (%no)* it for

33. It (rain* for t)o hours and the ground is too )et to play on, so the match (be* postponed. 3/. 'e (hope* for a rise in salary for six months but he (not dare* to as% for it yet. 3:. Mr +mith, you ()hisper* to the student on your right for the last five minutes. 7ou (help* him )ith his exam paper or he (help* you2 3A. 0hy you (ma%e* such a horrible noise2 by thro)ing stones at her )indo). live next door. 1/. Bill the spaces in the follo)ing sentences by using fo# or s!nce. I (lose* my %ey and I (try* to )a%e my )ife 7ou (thro)* stones at the )rong )indo). 7ou

1. 0e=ve been fishing ; t)o hours. 2. I=ve been )or%ing in this office ; a month. 3. 3hey=ve been living in Brance ; 1HDM. /. 'e has been in prison ; a year. :. I=ve %no)n that ; a long time. A. 3hat man has been standing there ; six o=cloc%. D. +he has driven the same car ; 1HD:. F. 3hings have changed ; I )as a girl. H. 3he %ettle has been boiling ; a -uarter of an hour. 1M. 3he central heating has been on ; !ctober. 11. 3hat trun% has been in the hall ; a year. 12. 'e has been very ill ; the last month. 13. I=ve been using this machine ; t)elve years. 1/. 0e=ve been )aiting ; half an hour. 1:. Mr Litt has been in hospital ; his accident. 1A. 'e hasn=t spo%en to me ; the last committee meating. 1D. I have been very patient )ith you ; several years. 1F. 3hey have been on stri%e ; 9ovember. 1H. 3he stri%e has lasted ; six months. 2M. It has been very foggy ; early morning. 21. 3hey have been -uarrelling ever ; they got married. 22. I=ve been a)a%e ; four o=cloc%. 23. I=ve been a)a%e ; a long time. 2/. 0e=ve had no gas ; the stri%e began. 2:. I=ve earned my o)n living ; I left school. 2A. 9obody has seen him ; last )ee%. F:

2D. 3he police have been loo%ing for me ; four days. 2F. I haven=t )orn lo)"heeled shoes ; I )as at school. 2H. 'e had a bad fall last )ee% and ; then he hasn=t left the house. 3M. 'e has been under )ater ; half an hour. 31. 3hat tree has been there ; 2,MMM years. 32. 'e has been Minister of Education ; 1HF3. 33. I=ve been trying to open this door ; forty"five minutes. 3/. 'e hasn=t eaten anything ; t)enty"four hours. 3:. 0e=ve had terrible )eather ; the last month. 3A. 9obody has come to see us ; )e bought these bloodhounds. 1:. Oe)rite each sentence so that it contains the )ord in capitals and so that the meaning stays the same. a* 7ou have missed the beginning of the film. $he film has already started. b* I can=t seem to stop sneePing lately. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. c* Laul is different from )hat he used to be. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. d* 3his has been my home for thirty years. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. e* Eating $hinese food is ne) to me. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. f* Is there any ne)s2 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. g* I bought my car in 1HF: and I=m still driving it. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. h* I don=t %no) )here my %eys are. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. i* +ue doesn=t have her dictionary )ith her@ it=s at home.'1+ ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. K* 3ony hasn=t been to Laris before. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. BIO+3 '1RE 5EE9 '1LLE9E< 5EB!OE '1RE '1+ 5EE9 '1+

FA

1A.

Lut each verb in brac%ets into a suitable tense. 1ll sentences refer to past time. a* I realised that someone was stealing (steal* my )allet )hen I felt (feel* their hand in my poc%et. b* 0hen I ;;; (phone* 'elen last night she ;;; ()ash* her hair and she ;;; (not finish* )hen I finally ;;; (get to* her house. c* Leter ;;; (offer* me another drin% but I decided I ;;; (drin%* enough. d* 9obody ;;; ()atch*, so the little boy ;;; (ta%e* the pac%et of s)eets from the shelf and ;;; (put* it in his poc%et. e* I ;;; (not realise* that I ;;; (leave* my umbrella on the bus until it ;;; (start* to rain. f* 1t school I ;;; (disli%e* the maths teacher because he ;;; (al)ays pic%* on me. g* 0herever Marion ;;; (find* a Kob, there )as someone )ho ;;; (%no)* that she ;;; (go* to prison. h* It )as only much later I ;;; (find out* that during all the time I ;;; ()rite* to my penfriend, my mother ;;; (open* and reading the replies8 i* I ;;; (not understand* )hat ;;; (go on*. +everal people ;;; (shout* at me, and one ;;; ()ave* a ne)spaper in front of my face. K* I ;;; (%no)* I ;;; (do* )ell in my exams even before I ;;; (receive* the official results.

1D.

Lut each verb in brac%ets into a suitable past tense. !nly use the past perfect )here this is absolutely necessary.

3his time last year I (1* )as cycling (cycle* in the rain along a country road in Brance )ith a friend of mine. 0e (2* ;;; (decide* to go on a cycling holiday in 9ormandy. 9either of us (3* ;;; (go* to Brance before, but )e (/* ;;; (%no)* some Brench from our time at school and )e (:* ;;; (manage* to brush up on the basics. 9o) )e (A* ;;; ()onder* if )e (D* ;;; (ma%e* the right decision. 0e (F* ;;; (plan* our route carefully in advance, but )e (H* ;;; (forget* one important thing, the )eather. It (1M* ;;; (rain* solidly since our arrival and that night )e (11* ;;; (end up* sleeping in the )aiting room at a rail)ay station. 3hen the next morning as )e (12* ;;; (ride* do)n a steep hill my bi%e (13* ;;; (s%id* on the )et road and I (1/* ;;; (fall off*. I (1:* ;;; (realise* immediately that I (1A* ;;; (brea%* my arm, and after a visit to the local hospital I (1D* ;;; (catch* the next train FD

to $alais for the ferry home. &nfortunately my parents (1F* ;;; (not expect* me home for a fortnight, and (1H* ;;; (go* a)ay on holiday. +o I (2M* ;;; (spend* a miserable couple of )ee%s alone, reading $each 6ourself ,rench. 1F. Lut the verb in brac%ets into a suitable tense. a* In t)enty four hours= time '%ll be relaxing (relax* on my yacht. b* ?3here=s someone at the door.= ?3hat ;;; (be* the postman.= c* 5y the time you get bac% 'arry ;;; (leave*. d* It=s only a short trip. I ;;; (be* bac% in an hour. e* 0hat ;;; (you do* this +aturday evening2 0ould you li%e to go out2 f* 5y the end of the )ee% )e ;;; (decide* )hat to do. g* It ;;; (not be* long before <octor +mith is here. h* I=ve pressed the red button. 9o) )hat ;;; (I do*2 i* It=s very hot in here. I thin% I ;;; (faint*. K* 0hat ;;; (you give* 1nn for her birthday2 'ave you decided yet2 1H. $hoose the most appropriate continuation for each sentence. a* Laula=s flight is bound to be late although 1* it arrives at A.MM. 5* it=s due at A.MM. $* it=s arriving at A.MM. b* It=s no use phoning 5ob at the office, he 1* )ill be leaving. 5* is leaving. $* )ill have left. c* Everyone says that this year $ity 1* are going to )in the $up. 5* are )inning the $up. $* )in the $up. d* I don=t feel li%e visiting my relatives this year so 1* I )on=t go. 5* I=m not going. $* I don=t go. e* 1ccording to the latest forecast, the tunnel 1* )ill be finished next year. 5* )ill have been finished next year. $* is finishing next year. f* 7ou can borro) this calculator, I 1* am not going to need it. 5* )on=t have been needing it. $* am not needing it. g* I=m sorry dinner isn=t ready yet, but it FF

1* is going to be ready in a minute. 5* )ill have been ready in a minute. $* )ill be ready in a minute. h* $an you send me the results as soon as you 1* hear anything2 5* are hearing anything2 $* )ill have heard anything2 i* 7ou can try as%ing Martin for help but 1* it )on=t do you any good. 5* it=s not doing you any good. $* it )on=t be doing you any good. K* <on=t )orry about the mista%e you made, nobody 1* )ill notice. 5* is noticing. $* )ill be noticing. 2M. Oe)rite each sentence, beginning as sho)n, so that the meaning stays the same. a* I don=t suppose you have heard the ne)s. 7ou )on=t have heard the news. b* 3he Lrime Minister expects a victory for his party. 3he Lrime Minister believes that ;;;;;;;;; c* 1 ne) manager )ill ta%e Mr 5ro)n=s place in the ne) year. Mr 5ro)n is ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; d* I=ve been in this company for three years, come the end of the month. 5y the end of the month I ;;;;;;;;;;;... e* 0hy don=t you come to see us during lunch2 0hy don=t you come to see us )hen )e ;;;;;; f* 0hat exactly do you intend to do2 0hat exactly are you ;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. g* 3he arrival of the train has been delayed, I=m afraid. 3he train )ill ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. h* ,et=s leave at the end of the next lecture. 1s soon as ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. i* 3here )ill be a team members= meeting tomorro). 3he team members ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. K* 3his boo% )ill ta%e me t)o years to )rite. In t)o years= time ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. 21. Oe)rite each sentence so that it contains the )ord in capitals. <o not change the )ord in any )ay. FH

a* 0hat time is the train for 9ottingham2 0hat time does the train for 9ottingham leave2 b* 0hat do you intend to do no)2 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; c* 7ou=ll find me )aiting outside the station. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; d* 0ho )ill be your assistant on this proKect2 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; e* +cientists are on the point of ma%ing a vital brea%through. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; f* Maria is pregnant again. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; g* I=ll be home late. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; h* 9o one %no)s )ho is going to )in the match. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; i* <avid is bound to be here on time. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; K* Mary and 1lan=s )edding is next )ee%end. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 22.

,E1RE .!I9. 5E 0!OTI9. 15!&3

'1RE &93I, 0'13 0!9=3 M1OOIE<

<ecide )hether the pairs of sentences 1* and 5* could be e-ually acceptable in the context given, or )hether one is more appropriate. a* 7ou can=t leave early, 1* )e=re having a meeting. 5* )e=re going to have a meeting. (both acceptable" but / more appropriate! b* 0e=ve run out of fuel. 1* 0hat are )e doing no)2 5* 0hat are )e going to do no)2 c* !h dear, I=ve bro%en the vase. 1* 0hat )ill your mother say2 5* 0hat is your mother going to say2 d* 1ccording to the )eather forecast, 1* it=ll rain tomorro). HM

5* it=s going to rain tomorro). e* I=d li%e to call round and see you. 1* 0hat=ll you be doing in the morning2 5* 0hat are you doing in the morning2 f* I=ve got nothing to do tomorro) so 1* I=ll get up late. 5* I=m going to get up late. g* It=s my eighteenth birthday next month so 1* I=m having a party. 5* I=ll be having a party. h* 0hy don=t you come )ith us2 1* It=ll be a great trip. 5* It=s going to be a great trip. i* 0hen you get to the airport 1* someone )ill )ait for you. 5* someone )ill be )aiting for you. K* +hut up, )ill you8 1* I=m getting angry in a minute. 5* I=m going to get angry in a minute. 23. Oe)rite each sentence so that it contains the )ord or )ords in capitals. <o not change the )ords in any )ay. a* I intended to call you yesterday, but I forgot. ' was going to call you yesterday" but ' forgot. b* 0e used to spend +unday afternoons )or%ing in the garden. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; c* Laul had the irritating habit of ma%ing trouble. d* <iana )asn=t al)ays as rude as that. e* I felt happy about the improvement in Qean=s condition. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; f* I )asn=t very %een on sport in those days. &+E ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; H1 1,017+ 5E 5E33EO ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 0!&,< .!I9.

g* I might possibly go to the theatre tonight. h* I had to go past your house so I decided to drop in. i* +usan boo%ed out before )e got to her hotel. 3IME

01+ L1++I9. 57 3'E

;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;

;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; K* 0hat did you do at the moment of the explosion2 0'E9 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 2/. Lut each verb in brac%ets into a suitable past tense. !nly use the past perfect )here this is absolutely necessary. 'arry )ent bac% to the camp the follo)ing morning, but it )as in some confusion. +oldiers (1* )ere )andering ()ander* around carrying e-uipment from one place to another, but there (2* ;;; (not seem* to be any purpose to )hat they (3* ;;; (do*. 'arry (/* ;;; (never be* in an army camp before, but it (:* ;;; (not ta%e* a genius to realise that most of the officers (A* ;;; (ta%e* the first opportunity to abandon the men and head for safety. 'e (D* ;;; (try* to phone the ne)spaper, but something (F* ;;; (happen* to the telephone lines. 'e (H* ;;; (try* to find out )hat exactly (1M* ;;; (go on*, )hen the first plane (11* ;;; (fly* lo) over the camp. 1 )ooden building a fe) hundred yards a)ay suddenly (12* ;;; (disappear* in an explosion of flame. 5efore long bombs (13* ;;; (explode* all around him, and then everything (1/* ;;; (go* -uiet. 3he planes (1:* ;;; (vanish* as suddenly as they (1A* ;;; (appear*. +mo%e (1D* ;;; (rise* from burning buildings. 1 dead man (1F* ;;; (lie* next to 'arry, the first dead person he (1H* ;;; (ever see*. 1nd suddenly it (2M* ;;; (begin* to rain.

H2

MODAL AUXILIARIES
General characteristics of modal verbs
1. %&!c& ,e#bs a#e mo al aux!l!a#!es an (&at t&e* o' Rerbs li%e can and may are called modal auxiliaries, though )e often refer to them simply as modal verbs or modals. 0e fre-uently use modals )hen )e are concerned )ith our relationship )ith someone else. 0e may, for example, as% for permission to do something@ grant permission to someone@ give or receive advice@ ma%e or respond to re-uests and offers, etc. 0e can express different levels of politeness both by the forms )e choose and the )ay )e say things. Modals sharing the same grammatical characteristics are: can - could may - might will - would shall - should must ought to Rerbs )hich share some of the grammatical characteristics of modals are: need, dare, used to* 5y comparison, need to and dare to are full verbs. Modals have t)o maKor functions )hich can be defined as primary and secondary. $. C#!ma#* funct!on of mo al ,e#bs In their primary function, modal verbs closely reflect the meanings often given first in most dictionaries, so that: " " " " " " " can0could relate mainly to ability: ' can lift >? kg.0' can type. may0might relate mainly to permission: 6ou may leave early. will0would relate mainly to prediction: 't will rain soon. shall after '0we relates mainly to prediction: Jan we find our way home5 # '%m sure we shall. should0ought to relate mainly to escapable obligation or duty: 6ou should do (or ought to do* as you%re told. must relates mainly to inescapable obligation: 6ou must be .uiet. needn%t relates to absence of obligation: 6ou needn%t wait. H3

+. Secon a#* funct!on of mo al ,e#bs In their secondary function, nine of the modal auxiliaries (not shall* can be used to express the degree of certaintyGuncertainty a spea%er feels about a possibility. 3hey can be arranged on a scale from the greatest uncertainty ( might* to the greatest certainty (must*. 3he order of modals bet)een might and must is not fixed absolutely. It varies according to situation. Bor example, one arrangement might be: might may could can 6ou should ought to would will must 6ou are right almost ce#ta!n ceta!n have been right be right ,e#* unce#ta!n

6. Some (a*s !n (&!c& mo als #esemble =be>0 =&a,e>0 = o> +tructurally, modal auxiliaries resemble the auxiliaries be, have and do in some )ays and differ completely from them in others. +ome of the most important similarities are noted in this section and some differences are explained in section :.
6.1 T&e ne"at!,e

3he negative is formed (as it is for be, have and do* by the addition of not after the modal. In informal spo%en English not is often reduced to the unemphatic n%t: be have do can could may might will would shall should (is) not (have) not (do) not cannot could not may not might not will not would not shall not should not (is)n t (have)n t (do)n t can t couldn t ) mightn t won t wouldn t shan t shouldn t H/

must ought to need dare

6.$ 9uest!ons

must not ought not to need not dare not

mustn t oughtn t to needn t daren t

6es0Io -uestions are formed as for be, have and do. 0e begin )ith the modal, follo)ed by the subKect and then the main verb: Cay we leave early5 In -uestion")ord -uestions, the -uestion")ord precedes the modal: 4hen may we leave5 0ith 6es0Io -uestions, the modal used in the ans)er is normally the same as the one used in the -uestion: Jan you come and see me tomorrow5 # 6es" ' can.0Io" ' can%t. Modals also behave li%e be, have and do in tag -uestions: 6ou can do it" can%t you5
6.+ Ne"at!,e <uest!ons

1s )ith be, have and do, the full form of negative -uestions )ith modals re-uires not after the subKect (Jan you not help me5*. 3his is formal and rare. $ontracted forms are normally used: Jan%t you help me5 7. Some (a*s !n (&!c& mo als !ffe# f#om =be>0 =&a,e>0 = o>
7.1 =Defect!,e ,e#bs>

Modals are sometimes called defective verbs because they lac% forms ordinary full verbs have. Bor example: 1* Modals cannot be used as infinitives (compare to be" to have" to do*. If ever )e need an infinitive, )e have to use another verb: 'f you want to apply for this ob" you have to be able to type at least =A words a minute. (9ot #to before can or can alone* 2* 0e do not use a to"infinitive after modals (compare be to" have to*. !nly the bare infinitive can be used after modals (except ought, )hich is al)ays follo)ed by to*: 6ou must0mustn%t phone him this evening. (9ot #to phone* H:

3*

Modals have no #ing form (compare being" having" doing*. Instead of #ing, )e have to use another verb or verb"phrase:

' couldn%t go0' wasn%t able to go home by bus" so ' took a taxi . (>Iot being able to go home by bus" ' took a taxi.* /* Modals have no #(e!s in the 3rd person singular (compare is" has" does*: $he boss01e can see you now. (9o #s on the end of can* :* Each modal has a basic meaning of its o)n. 5y comparison, as auxiliaries, be0have0do have only a grammatical function.
7.$ One mo al at a t!me

!nly one modal can be used in a single verb phrase: 4e may call the doctor. 4e must call the doctor. 5ut not may and must together. If )e )ish to combine the t)o ideas in the above sentences, )e have to find a suitable paraphrase: 't may be necessary (for us! to call a doctor. 5y comparison, )e can use e.g. be and have together: 't has been necessary to call a doctor. 8. ?o#ms an uses of mo als compa#e (!t& ,e#b tenses 3he labels )e use to describe the verb tenses (e.g. present, progressive, past, perfect* cannot easily be applied to modals.
8.1 =C#esent>

1ll modals can refer to the immediate present or the future, therefore ?present= is not al)ays a reliable label: ' can0may (etc.* phone now. ' can0may (etc.* phone tomorrow.
8.$ =C#o"#ess!,e>

3here is no progressive form for modals. 5ut )e can put the verb that follo)s a modal into the progressive form: Ceg is phoning her fiancS. Ceg may be phoning her fiancS. Ceg may have been phoning her fiancS. (present progressive* (modal E be E verb"ing* (modal E have been E "ing*

It is the phoning that is or )as in progress, not ?may=. HA

8.+ =Cast>

4ould" could" might and should can be said to be past in form, but this usually has little to do )ith their use and meaning. 3hey can be called ?past= )hen used in indirect speech: 1e says you can0will0may leave early. (present* 1e said you could0would0might leave early. (past* .ight can have a past reference in historical narrative: 'n the :Oth century a peasant might have the right to gra7e pigs on common land. 'o)ever, might usually expresses more uncertainty than may: ' might see you tomorrow. is less certain than: ' may see you tomorrow. >ould sometimes expresses ability in the past: 1e could (or was able to* swim five miles when he was a boy. but could is not possible in: ' managed to0was able to finish the ob yesterday. 'o)ever, couldn%t and wasn%t able to are usually interchangeable: ' couldn%t0wasn%t able to finish the ob yesterday. 3he other main use of could, as a more polite alternative to can in re-uests, has nothing to do )ith time: Jould you help me please5 Aould expresses the past in: 4hen we were young we would spend our holidays in +righton. !ther)ise, would and should have special uses. .ust can express past time only in indirect speech@ other)ise it has to be replaced by have to: 1e told us we must wait (or we had to wait* until we were called. Fhe asked her boss if she must work (or had to work* overtime.
8.6 =Ce#fect> an =past>

Borms )ith modal E have E past participle or )ith modal E have been E progressive are not necessarily the e-uivalent of the present perfect. 3he modal refers to the present, )hile have E past participle refers to the past. +o, depending on context, HD

6ou must have seen him can mean: ' assume (now! you have seen him. (i.e. before no)@ e-uivalent to the present perfect* ' assume (now! you saw him. (i.e. then@ e-uivalent to the past* ' assume (now! you had seen him. (i.e. before then@ e-uivalent to the past perfect*
8.7 Mo al 5 =be3&a,e been> 5 p#o"#ess!,e

3)o observations need to be made here: 1. Modal E be0have been E progressive is not al)ays possible in the primary function. Bor example: 1e can%t leave yet. (> it=s not possible for him to leave yet* is -uite different from the secondary function: 1e can%t be leaving yet. (> I don=t thin% he is* 5ut compare the primary and secondary functions of must in: Lrimary: you* to be )or%ing.* +econdary: 2. 6ou must be oking& (i.e. I=m almost certain you are Ko%ing.* !ccasionally, in the primary function, a modal E be E progressive has a ?softening effect= similar to the use of the future progressive. +o: 4e must0may0should (etc.* be leaving soon. is more polite than: 4e must0may0should (etc.* leave soon. 6ou must be working when the inspector comes in. (i.e. it is necessary (for

#ses of modals to e!press ability

1. =4an> H ab!l!t*2 t&e p#esent
1.1 =4an> 5 ,e#b :natu#al ab!l!t*;

9atural ability can be expressed as follo)s: Jan you run :?AA metres in ? minutes5 (>1re you able to run2 1re you capable of running2* Jan and be able to are generally interchangeable to describe natural ability, though able to is less common: +ill is only < months old and he can already stand up. +ill is only < months old and he is already able to stand up.

HF

'o)ever, be able to )ould be unusual )hen )e are commenting on something that is happening at the time of spea%ing: Kook& ' can stand on my hands&
1.$ =4an> 5 ,e#b :lea#ne ab!l!t* o# =)no(1&o(>

,earned ability can be expressed as follo)s: Jan you drive a car5 (> <o you %no) ho) to2 'ave you learnt ho) to2* ' can0cannot0can%t drive a car. Rerbs such as drive, play, spea", understand indicate s%ills or learned abilities. Jan, and to a lesser extent, be able to, often combine )ith such verbs and may generally be used in the same )ay as the simple present tense: ' can0can%t play chess. (> I playGdon=t play chess.* $. =4oul 3coul n>t> H ab!l!t*2 t&e past
$.1 Cast ab!l!t* :natu#al an lea#ne ; exp#esse (!t& =coul >

Jould" couldn%t or was0were (not! able to can describe natural and learned ability in the past, not related to any specific event: Nim could0couldn%t run very fast when he was a boy. +arbara could0couldn%t sing very well when she was younger. Nim was able to0was unable to run fast when he was a boy. 0e also often use used to be able to to describe past abilities: ' used to be able to hold my breath for one minute under water. Jould and was (or would be* able to occur after reporting verbs: 1e said he could see me next week.
$.$ T&e past2 =coul > 5 ,e#b2 ac&!e,ement afte# effo#t

Jould and was0were able to can be interchangeable )hen )e refer to the ac-uisition of a s%ill after effort: ' tried again and found ' could swim0was able to swim.
$.+ Spec!f!c ac&!e,ement !n t&e past

Jould cannot normally be used )hen )e are describing the successful completion of a specific action@ was0were able to, managed to or succeeded in E "ing must be used instead: 'n the end they were able to rescue0managed to rescue0succeeded in rescuing the cat on the roof. If an action )as not successfully completed, )e may use couldn%t: HH

$hey tried for hours" but they couldn%t rescue the cat. (or weren%t able to" didn%t manage to, etc.* Jould can be used )hen )e are as%ing about a specific action (as opposed to describing it*: Jould they rescue the cat on the roof5 (> did they manage to2* -Io" they couldn%t. 't was too difficult. 'o)ever, an affirmative response re-uires an alternative to could: -6es" they managed to. (9ot #could* +. =4an3coul > 5 ,e#bs of pe#cept!on Rerbs of perception li%e see, hear, smell, rarely occur in the progressive. Jan, and to a lesser extent, be able to, combine )ith such verbs to indicate that )e can see, hear, etc. something happening at the moment of spea%ing. In such cases can has a grammatical function e-uivalent to the simple present in statements and to do0does in -uestions and negatives: ' can smell something burning. (> I smell something burning.* ' can%t see anyone. (> I don=t see anyone.* Jould can be used in place of the simple past in the same )ay: ' listened carefully" but couldn%t hear anything. (> I listened carefully, but didn=t hear anything.* Jan0could can be used )ith verbs suggesting ?understanding=: ' can0can%t understand why he decided to retire at ?A. ' could0couldn%t understand why he had decided to retire at ?A. Jan%t0couldn%t cannot be replaced by the simple present or simple past )hen conveying the idea ?beyond (my* control= (impossible*: ' can%t (couldn%t! imagine what it would be like to live in a hot climate . (9ot #' don%t0didn%t imagine* 6. Ab!l!t* !n tenses ot&e# t&an p#esent an past If )e need to express ability in other tense combinations (e.g. the future or the present perfect*, then the appropriate forms of be able to" manage to or succeed in must be used: '%ll be able to pass my driving test after '%ve had a few lessons. '%ve been trying to contact him" but ' haven%t managed to. Jan, referring to ability, s%ill, or perception, is usable in clauses after if and when to refer to the future: 'f you can pass (or are able to pass* your driving test at the first attempt" '%ll be very surprised. 1MM

7. =4an3coul > H capab!l!t*3poss!b!l!t* Jan E be E adKective or noun has the effect of ?is sometimes= or ?is often= and refers to capability or possibility. It can be replaced by be capable of T -ing, but not be able to: 't can be .uite cold in Jairo in Nanuary. (> It is sometimes 1e can be very naughty. (or ?a very naughty boy=* (0hen used for people, the effect is generally negative, even )hen the adKective is favourable: Fhe can look .uite attractive when she wants to loo% attractive.* Jould has the same effect in the past: 't could be .uite cold in Jairo in Nanuary when ' lived there . (> It )as sometimes often -uite cold.* Jould can also have a future reference in this %ind of context: 't could be .uite cold when you get to Jairo. or )hich implies she doesn=t usually or often -uite cold.*

#ses of modals to e!press permission and prohibition

1. As)!n" fo# pe#m!ss!on3#espon !n"2 =can3coul 3ma*3m!"&t> Oe-uests for permission can be graded on a ?hesitancy scale=, ranging from a blunt re-uest to an extremely hesitant one. Oe-uests for permission can refer to the present or future. 3he basic forms are: >an >ould .ay .ight 1. 4an is the commonest and most informal: Jan ' borrow your umbrella (please!5 1 fe) (old"fashioned* native spea%ers still hold that can is the e-uivalent of be able to and therefore may must be used instead. 3he idea of e.g. as%ing for a favour is less strong in can than in could0may0might. 2. 4oul is more ?hesitant= and polite than can. 0e often use it )hen )e are not sure permission )ill be granted: Jould ' borrow your umbrella (please!5 3. Ma* is more formal, polite and ?respectful= than can and could: 1M1

Cay ' borrow your umbrella (please!5 /. M!"&t is the most hesitant, polite and ?respectful= and is rather less common than the other three: Cight ' borrow your umbrella (please!5 In practice, can, could and may are often interchangeable in ?neutral= re-uests. $ommon responses )ith modals are: e.g. " affirmative: *f course you can0may. (9ot #could0might* " negative: Io" you can%t0may not. (9ot #could not0might not* 9umerous non"modal responses are possible, ranging from the polite %f course (affirmative*, ! m afraid not, ! d rather you didn t (negative* to blunt refusal li%e >ertainly not. 1 polite refusal is usually accompanied by some %ind of explanation ( ! m afraid you can t because8*. Lermission to as% an indiscreet -uestion may be re-uested )ith the formulas if ! may as" and (more tentative* if ! might as": 1ow much did you pay for this house if ' may0might ask5 $. G#ant!n" an #efus!n" pe#m!ss!on Lermission can be granted or refused as follo)s: 6ou can(not!0may (not! watch $3 as long as you like. 6ou may0may not carries the authority of the spea%er and is the e-uivalent of ?I (personally* give you permission=. 6ou can0cannot is more general and does not necessarily imply personal permission. Lermission issuing from some other authority can be granted or )ithheld more emphatically )ith be allowed to" be permitted to, and be forbidden to, as follo)s: &ou can/cannot &ou can/cannot &ou mustn t or or or &ou re allowed/not allowed to &ou re permitted/not permitted to &ou re forbidden to

.rantingGrefusing permission is not confined to 1st and 2nd persons: Nohn can0may0can%t0may not0mustn%t stay up late. 3his can be extended to: " " rule"ma%ing e.g. for games: 2ach player may choose five cards. other contexts: Jandidates may not attempt more than three .uestions.

Lermission may also be given by a spea%er )ith shall in the 2nd and 3rd persons (formal and literary*: 6ou shall do as you please. (i.e. you have my permission to* 1e shall do as he pleases. (i.e. he has my permission to* Lermission may also be denied )ith shan%t in 5ritish English only: 1M2

'f you don%t behave yourself" you shan%t go out. 'f he doesn%t behave himself" he shan%t go out. 9umerous alternative forms are available to express anything from mild refusal ( '%d rather you didn%t if you don%t mind* to strong prohibition (' forbid you to*. Bormal and strong statements )ith non"modal forms are often found in public notices: $hank you for not smoking. (i.e. please don=t* Dassengers are re.uested to remain seated till the aircraft stops. $respassing is strictly forbidden. +. Ce#m!ss!on3p#o&!b!t!on !n ot&e# tenses 3he gaps in the defective verbs may and must can be filled )ith the verb phrases be allowed to and the more formal be permitted to. Examples of other tenses: present perfect: visitiors. past 4e were allowed to stay up till :: last night. Jould can only express past ?permission in general=: 4hen we were children we could watch (or were allowed to watch* $3 whenever we wanted to. Crs Names is in hospital and hasn%t been allowed to have any

#ses of modals to e!press certainty and possibility

1. 4e#ta!nt*0 poss!b!l!t* an e uct!on

If )e are certain of our facts, )e can ma%e statements )ith be or any other full verb: Nane is (or works* at home. (a certain fact* If )e are referring to possibility, )e can use combinations of may, might or could E verb: Nane may0might0could be (or work* at home. (a possibility* 0e may dra) a distinction bet)een the expression of possibility in this )ay ()hich allo)s for speculation and guessing* and deduction based on evidence. <eduction, often expressed )ith must (affirmative* and can%t (negative*, suggests near"certainty: Nane%s light is on. Fhe must be at home. Fhe can%t be out.

1M3

$. ?o#ms of tenses :ce#ta!nt*; ,e#sus mo als :poss!b!l!t*; ce#ta!n (expressed by verb tenses* 1e is at home. 1e will be at home tomorrow. 1e was at home yesterday. 1e leaves at <. 1e will leave tomorrow. 1e has left. 1e left last night. 1e will have left by <. 1e is working today. 1e will be working today. 1e was working today. 1e has been working all day. 1e will have been working all day. poss!ble3less t&an ce#ta!n (expressed by may, might and could* 1e may0might0could be at home (now!. 1e may0might0could be at home tomorrow. 1e may0might0could have been at home yesterday. 1e may0might0could leave at <. 1e may0might0could leave tomorrow. 1e may0might0could have left. 1e may0might0could have left last night. 1e may0might0could have left by <. 1e may0might0could be working today. 1e may0might0could be working today. 1e may0might0could have been working today. 1e may0might0could have been working all day. 1e may0might0could have been working all day.

+. Notes on mo al fo#ms exp#ess!n" poss!b!l!t*

+.1 'hould be an ought to be to exp#ess poss!b!l!t*

In addition to the above examples, )e can also express possibility )ith should be and ought to be: Nohn should be0ought to be at home. Nohn should be0ought to be working. Nohn should have left0ought to have left by tomorrow. 'o)ever, because should and ought to also express obligation, they can be ambiguous, so are not used as much as may0might0could to express possibility. Bor example, 1e should have arrived (ought to have arrived! yesterday could mean ?I thin% he probably has arrived= or ?'e failed in his duty to arrive yesterday=.
+.$ 9uest!ons about poss!b!l!t*

0hen )e are as%ing about possibility, )e may use .ight82, >ould82 and sometimes >an82 and (rarely* .ay82* (0e do not normally use should and ought to in affirmative -uestions about possibility because of the ris% of confusion )ith obligation*: Cight0could0can this be true5 Cight0could he know the answer5 1M/

Cight0could0can he still be working5 (or be still working* Cight0could he be leaving soon5 Cight0could0can he have been waiting long5 Cight0could he have left by tomorrow5 4an is not al)ays possible in -uestions li%e these, probably because of the ris% of confusion )ith can > ability. 'o)ever, in -uestions li%e Jan this be true5, can often indicates disbelief. Jan is possible in some indirect -uestions: ' wonder where he can have left the key5

+.+ Ne"at!,e <uest!ons about poss!b!l!t*

9egative -uestions about possibility can be as%ed )ith .ightn t and >ouldn t, .ay not can sometimes be used, as can 'houldn t and %ughtn t to: Cightn%t he be at home now5 Jouldn%t he know the answer5
+.6 Ne"at!,e poss!b!l!t*

9egative possibility is expressed )ith may not, mightn t, can t and couldn t, but not usually )ith shouldn%t and oughtn%t to: 1e may not be (or have been! here. 1e may not be (or have been! working late. >an t B be often suggests disbelief: 4hat you%re saying can%t be true& ' can hardly belief it& >an may be used in negative indirect -uestions: ' don%t think he can have left home yet. !r in semi"negatives: 1e can hardly be at home yet. 't%s only =. 6. Mo als on a scale of ce#ta!nt* <egrees of certainty can be expressed on a scale: 1e is at home. (> it=s a certain fact: non"modal be* 1e could be at home. (>doubtful possibility* 1e should be at home. (> doubtful possibility* 1e ought to be at home. (> doubtful possibility* 1e may be at home. (> it=s possible, but uncertain* 1e might be at home. (> less certain than may* 1M:

1e isn%t at home. (> it=s a certain fact * 1e can%t be at home. (> it=s nearly certain* 1e couldn%t be at home. ( > more ?tentative= than can=t* 1e may not be at home. (> possible, but uncertain* 1e mightn%t be at home. (> less certain than may not* In speech, the element of doubt is increased )ith heavy stress: 'e Ucould be at home. (i.e. but I very much doubt it* Larticular stress is also used in exclamations: 't Qcan%t be true& 6ou Qcan%t mean it& 6ou Qmust be mistaken&

7. 4e#ta!n an unce#ta!n #esponses to <uest!ons 6es0Io ans)ers to -uestions can reflect varying degrees of certainty felt by the spea%er. Bor example, a ?certain= -uestion may elicit an ?uncertain= ans)er: Hoes he like ice-cream5 - 6es" he does.0Io" he doesn%t. - 1e mightn%t. 1e may not. Jan he still be working5 Cightn%t he be working5 - 6es" he is.0Io" he isn%t. - 1e might (be!. 1e may (be!. - 1e may not be. ' don%t think he can be. - 1e can%t be. 1e couldn%t be. available, depending on circumstances: - ' don%t know. '%m not sure. ' don%t think so, etc. +e and have been are normally used in ans)ers to -uestions )ith be: 's he ill5 # 1e may be. 4as he ill5 # 1e may have been. Ho often replaces other verbs: 4ill you catch an early train5 # ' may do. 1as he received my message5 # 1e could have0could have done. 1MA (direct -uestion* (?certain= ans)er=* (uncertainty* (disbelief* (possibility* (?certain= response* (possibility* (possibility* (disbelief*

- 1e might (do!. 1e may (do!. 1e could (do!. (possibility* +imilarly, an ?uncertain= -uestion may elicit a ?certain= ans)er:

!f course, any other ans)er, not necessarily involving the use of a modal verb, may be

#ses of modals to e!press deduction

1. Examples of mo al fo#ms fo# e uct!on must an can>t p#esent #efe#ence2 $ertainty expressed by verb tenses: 1e is here. 1e isn%t here. 1e must be here. 1e can%t be here. 1e lives here. 1e doesn%t live here. 1e must live here. 1e can%t live here. 1e is leaving. 1e isn%t leaving. 1e must be leaving. 1e can%t be leaving.

<eduction expressed by must and can t:

pe#fect an past #efe#ence2 $ertainty expressed by verb tenses: 1e was here. participle: 1e must have been here. 1e can%t have been here. late. $. Exp#ess!n" e uct!on (!t& =must> an =can>t> 3he distinction bet)een possibility (often based on speculation* and deduction (based on evidence* has already been dra)n. 3he strongest and commonest forms to express deduction are must and can%t. Bor teaching and learning purposes, it is necessary to establish the follo)ing clearly: 1. can>t (not #mustn%t* is the negative of must 2. can%t have E 3rd form (not #must have E 3rd form* is the negative of must have E 3rd form 1ave to0have got to (affirmative* can express deduction in 1mE: $his has to be0has got to be the most stupid film ' have ever seen. $ompare deduction (secondary use of modals* in: 1MD 1e must have left early. 1e must have been working late. 1e can%t have left early. 1e can%t have been working late. 1e has left.01e left early. 1e has been0was working late. <eduction expressed by must E have E past participle and can%t0couldn%t E have E past

1e couldn%t have been here. 1e couldn%t have left early. 1e couldn%t have been working

1e can%t be thirsty. 1e can%t have been thirsty. 1e mustn%t be careless. 1e didn%t have to be at the dentist%s.

1e must be hungry. 1e must have been hungry. 1e must be careful. 1e had to be at the doctor%s.

)ith inescapable obligation (primary use of modals* in:

0e also use may/might/could and should/ought to for ma%ing deductions (as )ell as for expressing possibility*@ and, )hen )e are almost certain of our evidence, )e may use will and won t: $his will be Poland. ' can hear him at the door. $hat will have been Poland. 1e said he%d be back at M. $hat won%t be Poland. '%m not expecting him yet. $hat won%t have been Poland. '%m not expecting him till M. 1gain, it is possible to give varying responses to a -uestion: 's Poland in his room5 - 6es" he is.0Io" he isn%t. - 6es" he must be. ' heard him come in. - Io" he won%t be. 1e had to go out. - Io" he can%t be. $here%s no light in his room. (certainty* (deduction* (near"certainty* (deduction*

#ses of modals for offers$ requests$ suggestions

1. Gene#al !nfo#mat!on about offe#s0 #e<uests an su""est!ons Modal verbs are used extensively for ?language acts= or functions such as offering, as%ing for things, expressing preferences. Bine shades of meaning are conveyed not only by the )ords themselves, but particularly by stress, intonation, and gesture. (9ote that )e can also ma%e suggestions, etc. )ith non"modal forms, e.g. 1ave a drink., Ket%s go to the 7oo.*. In this section, offers, re-uests, etc. are considered from six points of vie) under t)o headings: T&!n"s an substances " " " !ffering things and substances E appropriate responses Oe-uests for things and substances E appropriate responses Ma%ing suggestions, inviting actions E appropriate responses 1MF

Act!ons

" " "

Oe-uesting others to do things for you E appropriate responses !ffering to do things for others E appropriate responses +uggestions that include the spea%er.

$. T&!n"s an substances2 offe#s (!t& mo als

$.1 T*p!cal offe#s !n,!t!n" &es/,o #esponses

Jan0Jould ' offer you a sandwich0some coffee5 4ill04on%t you have a sandwich0some coffee5 4ould04ouldn%t you like a sandwich0some coffee5
$.$ T*p!cal #esponses

3here are many non"modal forms (6es please" Io thank you, etc.* and a fe) modal ones: 6es" '%d like one0some please. 6es" '%d love one0some please. 'o)ever, )e don=t usually repeat the modal )hen )e refuse an offer. 1 reply li%e Io" ' won%t in ans)er to 4ill you haveE5 could sound rude.
$.+ T*p!cal offe#s (!t& =Ahat

4hat will you have5 4hat would you like to have5 4hat would you prefer5 4hat would you rather have5 +. T&!n"s an substances2 #e<uests (!t& mo als
+.1 T*p!cal #e<uests !n,!t!n" &es/,o #esponses

Jan0Jould0Cay0Cight ' have a sandwich0some coffee (please!5

+.$ T*p!cal #esponses

*f course you can0may. (not #could0might* Io" you can%t0may not ('%m afraid!. 3hese ans)ers )ith modals )ould be li%ely )here e.g. a parent is addressing a child. 1dult responses )ould be e.g. Jertainly or '%m afraid there isn%t any, etc. 6. Act!ons2 su""est!ons3!n,!tat!ons (!t& mo als
6.1 T*p!cal su""est!ons !n,!t!n" &es/,o #esponses

4ill you04on%t you come for a walk (with me!5 4ould you0wouldn%t you like to come for a walk (with me!5

6.$ T*p!cal #esponses

1MH

(6es.! '%d like to. '%d love to. (Io.! '%d prefer not to" thank you.
6.+ T*p!cal !n<u!#* (!t& =Ahat to !n,!te su""est!ons

4hat would you like to do5 7. Act!ons2 us!n" mo als to as) someone to o somet&!n"
7.1 T*p!cal #e<uests !n,!t!n" &es/,o #esponses

4ill youE5" 4ould youE5 in these re-uests refer to )illingness. Jan youE5" Jould youE5 refer to ability. 4ill you (please! open the window (for me!5 Jan0Jould you (please! open the window (for me!5 4ould you (please! open the window (for me!5 4ould you like to open the window (for me!5 4ould you mind opening the window (for me!5 4ill04ould you sounds even more polite )ith the addition of "indly and can0could )ith the addition of possibly: 4ill04ould you kindlyE5 Jan0Jould you possibly5 0e cannot use Cay youE5 in re-uests for help.
7.$ T*p!cal #esponses

6es" of course (' will!. Io" '%m afraid ' can%t (at the moment!. 8. Act!ons2 us!n" mo als to offe# to o t&!n"s fo# ot&e#s
8.1 T*p!cal offe#s to o t&!n"s

!ffers beginning Fhall ' E5" Fhall we E5 are very common: Jan '0Jould '0Fhall ' open the window (for you!5 4ould you like me to open the window (for you!5 $hat%s the phone. '%ll get it for you" (shall '!5 4hat shall0can ' do for you5 1nd note very polite offers )ith may in e.g.: Cay ' take your coat5

8.$ T*p!cal #esponses

11M

3he usual responses are 6es please" Io thank you, or tag responses li%e Jan0Jould04ould you5 # $hat%s very kind , but not 6es" you can0Io" you can%t, )hich could sound rude. F. Act!ons2 su""est!ons t&at !nclu e t&e spea)e#
F.1 T*p!cal su""est!ons !n,!t!n" &es/,o #esponses

Fhall we go for a swim5 4e can0could0might go for a swim.

F.$ T*p!cal #esponses

6es" let%s" (shall we!5 Io" '%d rather we didn%t.0Io" '%d rather not.
F.+ T*p!cal !n<u!#!es (!t& =Ahat

4hat shall0can0could we do this afternoon5

Advisability$ duty%obligation and necessity

1. Examples of fo#ms exp#ess!n" a ,!sab!l!t*0 etc. p#esent a ,!sab!l!t* ' should stop smoking. ' ought to stop smoking. '%d better stop smoking. (I still smo%e.* p#esent !nescapable obl!"at!on ' must stop smoking. (I am obliged to stop smo%ing and I shall: it is my duty.* past a ,!sab!l!t* not acte upon ' should have stopped smoking. ' ought to have stopped smoking. (I )as advised to stop but ignored the advice.* past !nescapable obl!"at!on ' had to stop smoking. (I )as obliged to stop smo%ing and I did: it )as my duty.*

$. A ,!sab!l!t* / necess!t*2 =a scale of c&o!ce> 0e can use modals and other verbs to express advisability on a scale )hich reflects a degree of choice. 3his scale may vary according to the subKective point of vie) of the spea%er. a ,!sab!l!t* should: generally means ?in my opinion, it is advisable to= or ?it is 111

(your* duty=. ought to: can be slightly stronger than should in that it is sometimes used to refer to regulations or duties imposed from the outside: 6ou ought to vote (> it is your public duty*. Fhould is more li%ely than ought to in -uestions and negatives. had better: is stronger than should and ought to. It is used to recommend future action on a particular occasion, not in general. It carries a hint of threat, )arning or urgency: 6ou%d better see a doctor. be to: need (to): have to: have got to: necess!t* must: can be used for instructions: 6ou%re to report for duty at M. (> it is necessary to*. is an alternative to must and fills the gaps in that defective verb. li%e have to, but more informal. li%e have to and have got to, suggests inescapable obligation. In the spea%er=s opinion there is no choice at all. +. =Must>0 =&a,e to> an =&a,e "ot to> 1s far as meaning is concerned, these three forms are largely interchangeable. 'o)ever, there are differences bet)een them. 0hen used in the 1 st person, have to and have got to can refer to an external authority and might be preferable to must in: e.g. 4e have to04e%ve got to send these 3/$ forms back before the end of the month . (i.e. )e are re-uired to do so by la)* !n the other hand, must can express a spea%er=s authority over himself and might be preferable to have to0have got to in: '04e really must do something about the weeds in this garden . (i.e. but I don=t have to account to anybody if I don=t* In other persons (you, etc.* must al)ays conveys more strongly than have to the idea of inescapable obligation or urgency in: e.g. 6ou must phone home at once. 't%s urgent. 1ave to and have got to are interchangeable for single actions: ' have to0have got to check the oil level in the car. 'o)ever they are not al)ays interchangeable )hen )e refer to habitual actions. 3he follo)ing are possible: 112

' have to0' have got to leave home every morning at M.;A. 5ut )hen one")ord adverbs of fre-uency (always" sometimes, etc.* are used have to is al)ays preferable to have got to: ' often have to get up at ?. Ho you ever have to get up at ?5 Cust (not have to or have got to* is used in public notices or documents expressing commands: Jyclists must dismount. Jandidates must choose five .uestions. 0e generally prefer Cust youE5 to Ho you have toE501ave you got to E5 to mean )Jan%t you stop yourselfE5% Cust you always interrupt me when '%m speaking5 Cust is also used in pressing invitations, such as: 6ou really must come and see us some time. and in emphatic advice, such as: 6ou really must take a holiday this year. Even )hen heavily stressed, these uses of must do not mean or imply ?inescapable obligation=. 6. =Nee > as a mo al Ieed has only some of the characteristics of modal verbs in that it occurs in -uestions, Ieed you go5, and negatives, 6ou needn%t go. In 6es0Io -uestions, a negative ans)er is often expected: Ieed you leave so soon5 (> surely notGI hope not* 6es0Io -uestions )ith Ieed5 can be ans)ered )ith must or needn%t: Ieed ' type this letter again5 # 6es" you must.0Io" you needn%t. Ieed E have E past participle behaves in the same )ay: Ieed you have told him about my plans5 6ou needn%t have told him about my plans. 6es0Io -uestions )ith Ieed E have E5 can be ans)ered: 6es" ' had to. (no choice* Io" ' needn%t have. (' had a choice! Ieed as a modal verb also occurs in combination )ith negative"type adverbs li%e hardly, never, seldom, rarely and scarcely to ma%e )hat are effectively negative statements: Fhe need never know what you have ust told me. 113

' need hardly tell you how badly ' feel about her departure. /ll you need do is to take a taxi from the airport. (i.e. you need to do nothing except ta%e a taxi* Ieed can also occur in clauses with a negative main clause: ' don%t think you need leave yet. Ieed as a modal verb is mostly used in the negative ( ' needn%t go* to express lac% of necessity. !ther)ise )e generally use the full verb need to (used li%e any regular verb*: ' need to0' needed to go to the dentist this morning. ' don%t need to0' didn%t need to go to the dentist. 4hen will you next need to go to the dentist5 4hy did you need to go to the dentist5 Etc. 7. A ,!sab!l!t*3necess!t*2 t&e p#esent an futu#e Fhould" ought to, etc. refer to present time (except in indirect speech*. 0ith the addition of adverbials such as this afternoon, tomorro), etc., they refer to future time. s&oul ou"&t to &a bette# &a,e to &a,e "ot to must

be leave be leaving

at the office (before H tomorro)* (before H tomorro)* (before H tomorro)*

0illGshall )ill combine )ith have to and need to (full verb* for explicit future reference: nee to I=ll &a,e to be leave be leaving at the office before H (tomorro)*. ,ondon before H (tomorro)*. ,ondon before H (tomorro)*.

8. A ,!sab!l!t*3necess!t*2 t&e pe#fect an past Oeference to the past can be made in the follo)ing )ays: s&oul &a,e been 11/ at the office before H. ,ondon before H.

I ou"&t to &a,e I &a to

left been leaving be leave be leaving

,ondon before H. at the office before H. ,ondon before H. ,ondon before H.

Fhould have and ought to have could be follo)ed (here* by but ' wasn%t0didn%t to suggest that )hatever )as advisable or necessary did not happen: ' should have left Kondon before <" but ' didn%t. 1ad to suggests that the action )as performed in the past because this )as necessary. It could be follo)ed by and ' was0did: ' had to leave Kondon before < and ' did. 3he form had got to also exists, but it is not al)ays suitable@ had to is generally preferred. 0hen other tenses are re-uired, appropriate forms of have to must be used to fill the gaps of the defective modal must: ' have had to remind him several times to return my book. +ecause of the bus strike '%ve been having to walk to work every day. $he reason for our late arrival was that we had had to wait for hours while they checked the plane before take-off. 'f he had asked me" ' would have had to tell him the truth.

&ac' of necessity$ inadvisability$ prohibition

1. Examples of mo al fo#ms to exp#ess !na ,!sab!l!t*0 etc. p#esent lac) of necess!t* 6ou needn%t go there. !r: 6ou don%t need to go there. 6ou don%t have to go there. 6ou haven%t got to go there. past lac) of necess!t* 6ou needn%t have gone there. (> you )ent there unnecessarily* 6ou didn%t have to go there. !r: 6ou didn%t need to go there. (> there )as no necessity to go there, )hether you did go or not* p#esent !na ,!sab!l!t* 6ou shouldn%t start smoking. past !na ,!sab!l!t*0 not acte upon 6ou shouldn%t have started smoking. 11:

6ou ought not to start smoking.

6ou oughtn%t to have started smoking. (but e.g. you ignored this advice*

p#esent p#o&!b!t!on 6ou can%t park here. 6ou mustn%t park here.

fa!lu#e to obse#,e a p#o&!b!t!on 6ou shouldn%t have parked there. 6ou ought not to have parked there.

Fhouldn%t have and oughtn%t to have are not ambiguous in the )ay that should have and ought to have can sometimes be ambiguous. 1ave to can replace must in the present, but don%t0didn%t have to cannot replace mustn%t in the present and past. $. Lac) of necess!t*2 =nee n>t3 on>t &a,e to3&a,en>t "ot to> ,ac% of necessity can be expressed by needn%t" don%t have to and the more informal haven%t got to ()here got is often stressed*: 6ou needn%t work such long hours. 6ou don%t have to work such long hours. 6ou haven%t got to work such long hours. (i.e. you can )or% fe)er hours, if you choose to* 3he above forms can be used to express the subKective point of vie) of the spea%er that the listener has a choice or has permission not to do something. 9ote that haven%t to is a regional 5E variation of don%t have to. +. Ina ,!sab!l!t* / p#o&!b!t!on2 =a scale of c&o!ce> 0e can use modals and other verbs to express inadvisability prohibition on a scale )hich reflects a degree of choice. 3his scale may vary according to the subKective vie) of the spea%er. 3his is particularly the case )hen )e are addressing others directly )ith you, or )hen )e are referring to others )ith he, she, and they. 1t one end of the scale the advice (ho)ever strong* can be ignored. 1t the other end of the scale, the prohibition is total and, in the spea%er=s opinion, there is no choice at all.

!na ,!sab!l!t* shouldn t: oughtn t to:

generally means ?in my opinion, it is inadvisable toG it is (your* duty not to=. can be slightly stronger than shouldn%t. It is sometimes used to refer to regulations and duties 11A

imposed from the outside. 6ou oughtn%t to park so near the crossing suggests ?it=s your public duty not to do this=. had better not: is stronger than shouldn%t and oughtn%t to. It is used to recommend future action on a particular occasion, not in general. It carries a hint of threat, )arning, or urgency: 6ou%d better not overtake here& be to: can t: p#o&!b!t!on mustn t: can be used for instructions is nearly as strong as mustn=t to suggest something is prohibited: 6ou can%t park here. conveys absolute prohibition. In the opinion of the spea%er, there is no choice at all. 3his opinion may be subKective or may be supported by some outside authority, as in 6ou mustn%t turn left. (e.g. there=s a road sign forbidding it*.

6. =Mustn>t>0 =nee n>t>0 = on>t &a,e to>0 =&a,en>t "ot to> 3hough must, have to and have got to are generally interchangeable in the affirmative, don%t have to and haven%t got to can never replace mustn%t to convey prohibition. ,i%e needn%t they convey lac% of necessity. Mustn>t conveys the strongest possible opinion of the spea%er: 6ou really mustn%t say things like that in front of your mother. Nulian mustn%t hitchhike in $urkey on his own. Lrohibition reflecting external authority (e.g. in public notices, documents* is often expressed as must not (in full*: Kife belts must not be removed. Jandidates must not attempt more than four .uestions. Ha,en>t "ot to should be avoided )ith adverbs of fre-uency (al)ays, sometimes, etc.* for reasons of style. +o: ' needn%t always be at the office by <. ' don%t always have to be at the office by <. is usually preferred to: ' haven%t always got to beE 7. Lac) of necess!t*0 etc.2 p#esent3futu#e 11D

7.1 Lac) of necess!t*2 =nee n>t>0 = on>t &a,e to>0 =&a,en>t "ot to>

Oeference to present or future time can be made as follo)s. 3hese forms are normally interchangeable: needn t I don t have to be leave be leaving at the office (until H tomorro)*. until H (tomorro)*. until H (tomorro)*

1aven%t got to is not generally used )ith progressive forms. %on>t (and s&an>t in 5E* )ill combine )ith &a,e to and nee to (full verb* for explicit reference to the future: ' won%t need to0have to be at the office before < tomorrow.
7.$ Ina ,!sab!l!t*3p#o&!b!t!on2 =s&oul n>t3ou"&tn>t to3mustn>t>0 etc.

6ou shouldn%t0oughtn%t to0can%t0mustn%t be late for meetings. (presentGhabitual* 6ou shouldn%t0oughtn%t to0had better not0can%t0mustn%t be late tomorrow. (future* Fhouldn%t" oughtn%t to" had better not" can%t and mustn%t are used to refer to the future, although they do not have future forms. Lossible alternatives are: Fhouldn%t0oughtn%t to0had better not can be replaced by: 't won%t be advisable (for her! to play games for the next month. Jan%t and mustn%t can be replaced by: 4e won%t be allowed to park here for long. 6ou will be forbidden to enter the courtroom before <.;A. $raffic in this street will be prohibited by law. 8. Lac) of necess!t*3!na ,!sab!l!t*3p#o&!b!t!on2 pe#fect3past
8.1 Lac) of necess!t*2 =nee n>t &a,e>0 = ! n>t &a,e to>0 = ! n>t nee to>

3hese forms can mean roughly the same thing in: e.g. ' needn%t have gone to the office yesterday. ' didn%t have to (or ' didn%t need to* go to the office yesterday. (have and need are stressed* (> I )ent there, but it )as unnecessary* 0hen have and need are unstressed, they mean something different from needn%t have: ' didn%t have to0' didn%t need to go to the office yesterday. (> I %ne) it )as unnecessary and I didn=t go* 11F

5ecause modals are defective, appropriate alternatives must be used in some tenses: 't wouldn%t have been necessary to change at Keeds if we had caught the earlier train. ' haven%t had to cancel my appointment after all. 'f he had asked me" ' would have had to tell him the truth.
8.$ Ina ,!sab!l!t*2 =s&oul n>t &a,e> an =ou"&tn>t to &a,e>

5oth these forms suggest criticism of an action: 6ou shouldn%t have paid the plumber in advance. 6ou oughtn%t to have paid the plumber in advance. or failure to observe a prohibition: 6ou shouldn%t have0oughtn%t to have stopped on the motorway.

Activities
1. Oe)rite each sentence so that it contains the )ord in capitals, and so that the meaning stays the same. a* I=m sure that=s Marion. $hat%ll be Carion. b* Qim %eeps giving me presents. c* It ma%es no difference if )e call it off. d* <on=t bother lying to me. e* 3he burglar might come bac%, so change all the loc%s. f* 1lthough it=s summer, the temperature is more li%e )inter. g* 7ou should leave before Qac% gets bac%. h* 3hat is not typical of 'elen=s behaviour. i* It )ould be impossible to tell +ally the truth. 11H 0I,, M17 '1RE $1+E M17 '1< 0!&,<9=3 L!++I5,7 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. 0I,,

;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. 2. $omplete each sentence )ith a suitable )ord or phrase. a* 0hat about this meat2 Fhould0Fhall I roast it or ste) it2 b* 3han% you for offering but I ;;;;; possibly accept. c* 'arry studies a lot. 'e ;;;;; %no) all the ans)ers. d* !h )ell, things ;;;;; much )orse I suppose. e* It=s no use )aiting here. 0e ;;;;; )ell start )al%ing. f* Qac% refuses. 'e says it=s )rong and he ;;;;; do it. g* 1ny letters from Italy ;;;;; be for 3ina. h* $airo ;;;;; be -uite cold in )inter. i* I love these trees. 0ithout them the garden ;;;;; the same. K* Oule A. 9o member ;;;;; enter the bar area )earing sports %it. 3. Oe)rite each sentence so that it contains the )ord in capitals, and so that the meaning stays the same. a* I expect this beach )ill be deserted. $his beach should be deserted. b* 3his climb is possibly dangerous. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. c* 1rthur is sometimes really irritating8 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. d* 7ou can=t borro) my car8 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. e* 'o) about going to the theatre instead2 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. f* <o you )ant me to turn off the oven, or not2 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. g* I don=t thin% 'arry is li%ely to resign. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. h* I=m not sure this isn=t the )ay to 9or)ich. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. i* It )ould be all the same if )e gave up no). ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. K* Llease turn off the light before leaving. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. 12M +'!&,< MI.'3 $19=3 0!&,< +'!&,< $!&,< 0!9=3 $19 $!&,< +'!&,<

/.

$hoose the sentence closest in meaning to the sentence given. a* It=s possible that )e=ll %no) the ans)ers tomorro). 1* 0e may %no) all the ans)ers tomorro). 5* 0e should %no) all the ans)ers tomorro). b* I don=t thin% you should ring him no). It=s rather late. 1* 7ou might not ring him no). It=s rather late. 5* 7ou=d better not ring him no). It=s rather late. c* 7ou needn=t come if you don=t )ant to. 1* 7ou )on=t come if you don=t )ant to. 5* 7ou don=t have to come if you don=t )ant to. d* I thin% it=s )rong for you to )or% so hard. 1* 7ou don=t have to )or% so hard. 5* 7ou shouldn=t )or% so hard. e* Lerhaps these are the %eys. 1* 3hese might be the %eys. 5* 3hese must be the %eys. f* I %no). 0hy don=t )e go out to eat instead. 1* I %no). 0e must go out to eat instead. 5* I %no). 0e could go out to eat instead. g* It )ould be -uite )rong for us to loc% the cat in the house for a )ee%. 1* 0e=d better not loc% the cat in the house for a )ee%. 5* 0e can=t loc% the cat in the house for a )ee%. h* It=s possible that the decision )ill be announced next )ee%. 1* 3he decision might be announced next )ee%. 5* 3he decision )ill be announced next )ee%.

:.

$omplete each sentence )ith a suitable )ord or phrase. a* 'o) funny that you should say that8 b* 3he heating comes on automatically. 7ou ;;;;; turn it on. c* 3he people here ;;;;; be really unfriendly. d* !f course I=ll help8 I ;;;;; possibly let you do it on your o)n. e* 3he team ;;;;; good )ithout +ue at centre"for)ard. f* !f course you can=t sleep if you ;;;;; drin% so much coffee8 g* It=s a lovely hotel. 1nd the staff ;;;;; more helpful. h* 7ou ;;;;; be very critical sometimes. 121

i* .eorge ;;;;; it there if he has stayed there for so long. K* 7ou ;;;;; right, but I still don=t agree )ith you. A. Insert the correct form of ma*3m!"&t except in 1M and 3A, )here a be allowed form is necessary. 1. It ; rain, you=d better ta%e a coat. 2. 'e said that it ; rain. 3. 0e ; as )ell stay here till the )eather improves. /. ; I borro) your umbrella2 :. 7ou ; tell me8 (I thin% I have a right to %no).* A. $andidates ; not bring textboo%s into the examination romm. D. Leople convicted of an offence ; (have a right to* appeal. F. If he %ne) our address he ; come and see us. H. ; I come in2 Llease do. 1M. 0hen he )as a child he ; (they let him* do exactly as he li%ed. 11. I thin% I left my glasses in your office. 7ou ; as% your secretary to loo% for them for me. (re-uest* 12. 'e ; be my brother (I admit that he is* but I don=t trust him. 13. I ; never see you again. 1/. 'e ; be on the next train. 0e ; as )ell )ait. 1:. If )e got there early )e ; get a good seat. 1A. 3he police ; (have a right to* as% a driver to ta%e a breath test. 1D. 7ou ought to buy no)@ prices ; go up. 1F. I=ll )ait a )ee% so that he ; have time to thin% it over. 1H. 'e isn=t going to eat it@ I ; as )ell give it to the dog. 2M. 7ou ; at least read the letter. (I thin% you should* 21. 7ou ; have )ritten. (I am annoyedGdisappointed that you didn=t.* 22. 0e=d better be early@ there ; a cro)d. 23. 9obody %no)s ho) people first came to these islands. 3hey ; have sailed from +outh 1merica on rafts. 2/. 7ou ; (have permission to* use my office. 2:. 'e said that )e ; use his office )henever )e li%ed. 2A. I don=t thin% I=ll succeed but I ; as )ell try. 2D. 7ou ought to go to his lectures, you ; learn something. 2F. If )e can give him a blood transfusion )e ; be able to save his life. 2H. 3)o parallel )hite lines in the middle of the road mean that you ; not overta%e. 122

3M. If I bought a lottery tic%et I ; )in S1MMM. 31. If you said that, he ; be very offended. 32. I )onder )hy they didn=t go. 3he )eather ; have been too bad. 33. 0arning: 9o part of this boo% ; be reproduced )ithout the publisher=s permission. 3/. 'e has refused, but he ; change his mind if you as%ed him again. 3:. ; I see your passport, please2 3A. 'e ; (negative* drive since his accident. (3hey haven=t let him drive.* D. &se must not or nee not to fill the spaces in the follo)ing sentences.

1. 7ou ; ring the bell@ I have a %ey. 2. 9otice in cinema: Exit doors ; be loc%ed during performances. 3. 7ou ; drin% this: it is poison. /. 0e ; drive fast@ )e have plenty of time. :. 7ou ; drive fast@ there is a speed limit here. A. $andidates ; bring boo%s into the examination room. D. 7ou ; )rite to him for he )ill be here tomorro). F. 0e ; ma%e any noise or )e=ll )a%e the baby. H. 7ou ; bring an umbrella. It isn=t going to rain. 1M. 7ou ; do all the exercise. 3en sentences )ill be enough. 11. 0e ; reheat the pie. 0e can eat it cold. 12. Mother to child: 7ou ; tell lies. 13. 7ou ; turn on the light@ I can see -uite )ell. 1/. 7ou ; stri%e a match@ the room is full of gas. 1:. 7ou ; tal% to other candidates during the exam. 1A. 0e ; ma%e any more sand)iches@ )e have plenty no). 1D. 7ou ; put salt in any of his dishes. +alt is very bad for him. 1F. 7ou ; ta%e anything out of a shop )ithout paying for it. 1H. 7ou ; carry that parcel home yourself@ the shop )ill send it. 2M. 7ou ; clean the )indo)s. 3he )indo)"cleaner is coming tomorro). 21. Mother to child: 7ou ; play )ith matches. 22. $hurch notice: Risitors ; )al% about the church during a service. 23. I ; go to the shops today. 3here is plenty of food in the house. 2/. 7ou ; smo%e in a non"smo%ing compartment. 2:. Lolice notice: $ars ; be par%ed here.

123

F.

Bill the spaces in the follo)ing sentences by using must, can=tGcouldn=t or needn=t E the perfect infinitive of the verbs in brac%ets.

must E perfect infinitive is used for affirmative deductions. can=tGcouldn=t E infinitive is used for negative deductions. needn=t E perfect infinitive is used for a past action )hich )as unnecessary but )as performed. 1. <id you hear me come in last night2 9o, I ; (be* asleep.

2. I )onder )ho bro%e the )ineglass@ it ; (be* the cat for she )as out all day. 3. 7ou ; (help* him. (7ou helped him but he didn=t need help.* /. I had my umbrella )hen I came out but I haven=t got it no). the bus. :. 'e ; (escape* by this )indo) because it is barred. A. I ; (give* S1M. S: )ould have been enough. D. I sa) a rattlesna%e near the river yesterday. any rattlesna%es in this country. F. 'e is bac% already. 'e ; (start* very early. 'is )ife ; (be* very pleased about that. I=m sorry. I ; (be* in the 7ou ; (buy* mil%@ )e have heaps in the house. H. 'e returned home )ith a tiger cub. 1M. I bought t)o bottles of mil%. garden. 12. I left my bicycle here and no) it=s gone. 1/. I=ve opened another bottle. anything. 1A. I told him to turn left and he immediately turned right8 1D. Lerhaps he s)am across. time. 1H. 'e ; ()al%* from here to ,ondon in t)o hours. It isn=t possible. 2M. 'e )as very sic% last night. 3he meat )e had for supper ; (be* good. 3he passengers ; (be* furious. 7ou ; (have* a very 21. 3here )as a stri%e and the ship couldn=t leave port. good dinner if you only paid S1M. 23. I have Kust )atered the roses. 7ou ; ()ater* them. ,oo%, it=s raining no)8 12/ 1F. <o you remember reading about it in the ne)spapers2 'e ; (understand* you. 9o, I ; (be* abroad at the 9o, he ; (do* that@ he can=t s)im. +omeone ; (borro)* it. +omeone ; (steal* it )hile she slept. 7ou ; (say* 13. 0hen she )o%e up her )atch had vanished. 7ou ; (see* a rattlesna%e. 3here aren=t 7ou ; (leave* it on

11. I phoned you at nine this morning but got no ans)er.

7ou ; (do* that. 0e=ve only Kust started this one.

1:. 3he machine said ?7ou )eigh A: %ilos= and I said ?3han% you=.

22. 0e )ent to a restaurant and had a very good dinner for S1M.

2/. 3hat carpet )as made entirely by hand. 2:. 3he door )as open. poc%et. H.

It ; (ta%e* a long time.

It ; (be* open. I had loc%ed it myself and the %ey )as in my

Oe)rite each sentence so that it contains the )ord in capitals, and so that the meaning stays the same. a* It )asn=t very nice of you not to invite me to your party8 6ou might have invited me to your party& b* 3han% you very much for buying me flo)ers8 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; c* It )ouldn=t have been right to let you do all the )or% on your o)n. $!&,<9=3 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; d* I don=t believe that you have lost your %eys again8 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; e* Mary )as a talented violinist at the age of ten. f* Lerhaps they didn=t notice the tyre )as flat. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; g* 3he results are expected tomorro). ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; h* 3hey escaped possible inKury )hen the car crashed. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; i* 1 visa )asn=t necessary after all. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; K* 1pparently someone has borro)ed the cassette player. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; '1RE 9EE< '1RE T9!0 L,17 MI.'3 $19=3 +'!&,<9=3 MI.'3

1M.

$omplete each sentence )ith a suitable )ord or phrase. a* <on=t )orry that $arol is late, she might0could have missed the train. b* I begged <avid to accept some money, but he ;;;;; hear of it. c* 3hat )as a luc%y escape8 7ou ;;;;; been %illed8 d* It )as supposed to be a secret8 7ou ;;;;; told her8 e* I spent last )ee% at the beach because I didn=t ;;;;; go to school. f* 3he plane is late. It ;;;;; landed by no). g* 7ou ;;;;; met my brother. I haven=t got one8 12:

h* 3here is only one solution. 3he butler ;;;;; done it. i* It )as lovely. 0e ;;;;; a better holiday. K* +o it )as you )ho set off the fire alarm for a Ko%e8 I ;;;;; %no)n8 11. $omplete the comment at the end of each sentence. a* Lay no attention to )hat Martin said. 'e can%t have been serious. b* Bancy accepting the Kob Kust li%e that8 7ou ;;;;; as%ed me first8 c* 3he rest )as no problem at all. It ;;;;; easier, in fact8 d* I=m sure Qac% didn=t mean to ignore you. 'e ;;;;; noticed you. e* 3he meat is a bit burnt. 7ou ;;;;; coo%ed it for so long. I did tell you8 f* 3here )ere plenty of tic%ets left for the concert. 0e ;;;;; them in advance. g* +ally got home at four o=cloc% this morning. 3he party ;;;;; really good8 h* 3his home)or% is not as good as usual. I thin% you ;;;;; more time on it. 12. Lut one suitable )ord in each space. 0ords )ith ?n%t= count as one )ord. a* I could have become a millionaire, but I decided not to. b* 7ou ;;; have been here )hen 'elen told the boss not to be so laPy8 c* Leter )asn=t here then, so he ;;; have bro%en your vase. d* I ;;; have bought the car, but I decided to loo% at a fe) others. e* If you felt lonely, you ;;; have given me a ring. f* <on=t ta%e a ris% li%e that again8 0e ;;; have lost because of you. g* It=s been more than a )ee%8 7ou ;;; have some ne)s by no)8 h* 0e )ere glad to help. 0e ;;; have Kust stood by and done nothing. i* 7ou really ;;; have gone to so much trouble8 K* I ;;; have thought that it )as rather difficult. 13. $omplete each sentence )ith a suitable )ord or phrase. a* 7ou should have seen Qim=s face8 'e ;;;;; happier8 b* I=m sorry. I suppose I ;;;;; been a bit rude. c* +urely it ;;;;; been 1nn )ho told you. d* 7ou really ;;;;; so much trouble over me. e* !ne thing is for sure, someone ;;;;; %no)n about it. f* 0as it really necessary2 7ou ;;;;; to tell the police, you %no). 12A

g* 3hey ;;;;; saved her from the fire, but the ladder didn=t reach her )indo). h* Teep your fingers crossed8 3he traffic )arden ;;;;; noticed the car is par%ed on double yello) lines8 i* It=s funny ;;;;; bought exactly the same dress as me8 K* I should ;;;;; )ould %no) better. 1/. Oe)rite each sentence so that it contains a modal auxiliary and so that the meaning stays the same. a* 3he police refused to do anything about my noisy neighbours. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; b* Qean=s boss )as extremely %ind to her. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; c* 0hy didn=t you bac% me up8 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; d* !ur )orrying so much )as a )aste of time. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; e* It=s Kust not possible for the cat to have opened the fridge8 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; f* .eorge %ne) ho) to ride a bicycle )hen he )as five. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; g* I )anted to go to the party, but it )as sno)ing hard. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; h* It )ould have been possible for 'elen to give us a lift. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; i* It=s possible that the last person to leave didn=t loc% the door. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; K* +chool uniform )asn=t compulsory at my school. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;

1:.

Oe)rite each sentence, beginning as sho)n, so that the meaning stays the same. a* 1lthough you are in charge, it doesn=t give you the right to be rude. 7ou may be in charge" but it doesn%t give you the right to be rude. 12D

b* I recommend going to 5righton for a )ee%. I thin% ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; c* It=s typical of +teve to lose his %eys8 +teve )ould ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;... d* I suppose Tate is -uite )ell off. I should ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. e* I am as happy as possible at the moment. I couldn=t ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; f* 1lthough I tried hard, I couldn=t lift the suitcase. 3ry ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. g* I=m sure that Leter )ill be on time. Leter is ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; h* Bancy you and I having the same surname8 It=s odd ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;... i* If I )ere you I=d ta%e up Kogging. I thin% ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. K* <o )e have to leave so early2 9eed ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;..

12F

THE PASSIVE AND THE CAUSATIVE

Passive (
1. Das!c uses of t&e pass!,e
1.1 A"ent an !nst#ument

3he person )ho performs an action in a passive sentence is called the agent, introduced by b*. 3he agent may or may not be mentioned. Cy purse was found by one of the cleaners. 1n obKect )hich causes something to happen is called an instrument, introduced by (!t&. 1e was hit on the head with a hammer.
1.$ T#ans!t!,e an !nt#ans!t!,e ,e#bs

Most verbs )ith an obKect (transitive verbs* can be made passive. $ommon verbs not used in the passive include: become, fit (be the right siPe*, get, have, lac", let, li"e, resemble, suit +ome verbs have both transitive and intransitive meanings. 4e arrived at the hotel at B. (cannot be made passive* 1ow was the answer arrived at5 (passive )ith a different meaning*
1.+ Be#bs (!t& t(o ob-ects

Rerbs )hich have t)o obKects can be made passive in t)o )ays. ' was handed a note. / note was handed to me. !ther common verbs of this type are: bring, give, lend, pass, pay, promise, sell, send, show, tell*
1.6 Be#bs (!t& ob-ect an complement

+ome verbs have a noun or adKective )hich describes their obKect. 4e elected Nim class representative. 2veryone considered him a failure. 0hen these are made passive, the complement goes directly after the verb. Nim was elected class representative. 1e was considered a failure.

12H

1.7 Tenses

1lthough it is possible to form a )ide range of passive tenses, the most used are present simple and continuous, past simple and continuous, present perfect simple, past perfect simple, )ill future, and future perfect. 3here are also present and past passive infinitives. present simple: 5E (conKugated in the present* E past participle of the main verb $he damage is done. present continuous: 5E (conKugated in the present* E 5EI9. E past participle of the main verb $he damage is being done. $he house is being painted. past simple: 5E (conKugated in the past* E past participle of the main verb $he damage was done. past continuous: 5E (conKugated in the past* E 5EI9. E past participle of the main verb $he damage was being done. $he house was being painted. present perfect simple: 5E (conKugated in the present perfect* E past participle of the main verb $he damage has been done. $he house has been painted. past perfect simple: 5E (conKugated in the past perfect* E past participle of the main verb $he damage had been done. $he house had been painted. will future: 5E (conKugated in the future* E past perfect of the main verb $he damage will be done. $he house will be painted. future perfect: 5E (conKugated in the future perfect* E past participle of the main verb $he damage will have been done. $he house will have been painted. present infinitive: 5E (in the infinitive* E past participle of the main verb $he damage is said to be done. past infinitive: 5E (in the past infinitive > to have been* E past participle of the main verb $he damage is said to have been done.

13M

$. Us!n" an not ment!on!n" t&e a"ent

$.1 4&an"e of focus

3he passive can change the emphasis of a sentence. Nack won the pri7e. (focus on Qac%* $he pri7e was won by Nack. (focus on the priPe*
$.$ Un)no(n a"ent

3he agent is not mentioned if un%no)n. Cy wallet has been stolen. In this case, there is no point in adding an agent: ?by somebody=.
$.+ Gene#al!se a"ent

If the subKect is ?people in general= or ?you= the agent is not mentioned. +icycles are widely used in the city instead of public transport.
$.6 Ob,!ous a"ent

If the agent is obvious or has already been mentioned, it need not be mentioned again. Kinda has been arrested& ()e assume by the police* $he company agreed to our re.uest and a new car-park was opened.
$.7 Un!mpo#tant a"ent

If the agent is not important to the meaning of the sentence it is not mentioned. ' was advised to obtain a visa in advance.
$.8 Impe#sonal!t*

&sing the passive is a )ay of avoiding the naming of a specific person )ho is responsible for an action. 't has been decided to reduce all salaries by :AU. In descriptions of processes, there is emphasis on the actions performed rather than on the people )ho perform them. $hen the packets are packed into boxes of twenty-four.

131

Passive )* The causative

1. Ha,e an "et somet&!n" one0 nee
1.1 Ha,e somet&!n" one

o!n"

3his usually describes a service performed for us by someone else. '%ve ust had my car serviced. It can also describe something unfortunate that happens to someone. 4e have had our cars stolen so we need a lift. 3his applies to a range of tenses: '%m having my flat painted next week. ' have it done every year. Fheila had her hair done yesterday. ' was having the roof repaired when it happened. 9ote the -uite different collo-uial expressions have someone round/over. In this case, there is no sense of a service. 4e had some friends round for dinner last night.
1.$ Get somet&!n" one

(et cannot be used in all the same contexts as have in this case. (et is common )here there is a feeling that something must be done: ' must get my car serviced. It is also common in orders and imperatives: (et your hair cut& 3here is also a feeling of eventually managing something in some uses: ' eventually got the car fixed. Fue always gets things done in this office.
1.+ Nee o!n"

3he need to have a service done can be described )ith need doing. 6our hair needs cutting. $. Cass!,e get (et can be used instead of be to form the passive in spo%en language. Cartin got arrested at a football match. +. Repo#t!n" ,e#bs 132

+.1 C#esent #efe#ence

0ith verbs such as believe, "now, say, thin" )hich report people=s opinions, a passive construction is often used to avoid a )ea% subKect, and to give a generalised opinion. 0ith present reference, the passive is follo)ed by the present infinitive. Deople think that Fmith is in 2ngland. Fmith is thought to be in 2ngland.
+.$ Cast #efe#ence

0ith past reference, the passive is follo)ed by the perfect infinitive. Deople believe that Fmith left 2ngland last week. Fmith is believed to have left 2ngland last week.
+.+ Cast #epo#t!n" ,e#b

If the reporting verb is in the past, the perfect infinitive tends to follo), though not al)ays if the verb be is used. Deople thought Fue had paid too much. Fue was thought to have paid too much. $he police thought that the thief was still in the house. $he thief was thought to still be in the house.
+.6 %!t& pass!,e !nf!n!t!,e

2veryone knows the portrait was painted by an 'talian. /n 'talian is known to have painted the portrait.
+.7 T(o ob-ects

If there are t)o obKects, t)o versions are possible. $he portrait is known to have been painted by an 'talian. /n 'talian is known to have painted the portrait.
+.8 4ont!nuous !nf!n!t!,e

Last and present continuous infinitives are also used. Cary is thought to be living in Fcotland. $he driver is thought to have been doing a G-turn.

6. Be#bs (!t& p#epos!t!ons

6.1 En !n" a sentence (!t& a p#epos!t!on

133

It is possible to end a sentence )ith a preposition in a sentence )here a prepositional verb is made passive. Fomeone broke into our house. *ur house was broken into.
6.$ +y an with

0ith is used after participles such as filled, pac"ed, crowded, crammed. $he train was packed with commuters. 3he difference bet)een by and with may involve the presence of a person: Have was hit by a branch. (an accident* Have was hit with a branch. (a person hit him )ith one*
9*4 .a"e to

Cake is follo)ed by to )hen used in the passive. Cy boss made me wor" hard. ! was made to wor" hard by my boss.
6.6 Be#bs 5 by0 with

>over and verbs )hich involve similar ideas, such as surround, decorate can use )ith or by. Jover can also be follo)ed by in. 7. 4ommon contexts fo# t&e pass!,e
7.1 ?o#mal!t*

3he passive is probably more common in )ritten English, )here there tends to be less use of personal reference in some contexts, since the audience may be un%no)n.
7.$ 4&an"e of focus

3he passive is used to change the focus of the sentence, to avoid generalised subKects, and to ma%e an action impersonal. It is common in descriptions of processes, and in scientific and technical language in general.

Activities
13/

1. 5oth sentences in each pair have the same meaning. $omplete the second sentence. a* 3he cro)d )as slo)ly filling the huge stadium. 3he huge stadium was slowly being filled by the cro)d. b* 3he invention of the computer simplified the )or% of accountants. +ince the computer ;;;;; the )or% of the accountants ;;;.. simplified. c* +omeone has suggested that the shop should close. It ;;;;; that the shop should close. d* ?I=d ta%e out some travel insurance if I )ere you, Mr +mith.= Mr +mith ;;;;; ta%e out some travel insurance. e* 3he )aitress )ill bring your drin%s in a moment. 7our drin%s ;;;;; in a moment. f* +omeone used a %nife to open this )indo). 3his )indo) ;;;;; a %nife. g* 7ou )ill hear from us )hen )e have finished dealing )ith your complaint. 1fter your complaint ;;;;;, you )ill hear from us. h* 1n announcement of their engagement appeared in the local paper. 3heir engagement ;;;;; in the local paper. i* 9obody ever heard anything of <avid again. 9othing ;;;;; <avid again. K* 3hey paid +heila S1MMM as a special bonus. S1MMM ;;;;; +heila as a special bonus. 2. Oe)rite each sentence so that it does not contain the )ords underlined and so that it contains a passive form. a* +omeone left the phone off the hoo% all night. $he phone was left off the hook all night. b* 3he government has announced that petrol prices )ill rise tomorro). ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; c* 1 burglar bro%e into our house last )ee%. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; d* Leople as%ed me the )ay three times. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; e* 3he fruit"pic%ers pic% the apples early in the morning. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; f* It=s time the authorities did something about this problem. 13:

;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. g* ,ots of people had par%ed their cars on the pavement. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. h* 3he government agreed )ith the report and so they changed the la). ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. i* 7ou have to fill in an application form. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. K* 3hey don=t %no) )hat happened to the ship. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. 3. Lut each verb in brac%ets into the passive in an appropriate tense. a* 3he boxes have not been packed (not pac%* yet. b* 7our food ;;; (still prepare*. c* 3he ne) ship ;;; (launch* next )ee%. d* ,uc%ily by the time )e got there the painting ;;; (not sell*. e* 0e had to go on holiday because our house ;;; (decorate*. f* I=m afraid that next )ee%=s meeting ;;; (cancel*. g* If )e don=t hurry, all the tic%ets ;;; (sell* by the time )e get there. h* 1ll main courses ;;; (serve* )ith vegetables or salad. i* 3he second goal ;;; (score* by 'ughes in the /1st minute. K* 3he cathedral ;;; (build* in the fourteenth century. /. Oe)rite each sentence, beginning as sho)n, so that the meaning stays the same. a* 1 friend lent .eorge the motorbi%e he rode in the race. 3he motorbi%e .eorge rode in the race was lent to him by a friend. b* 1t the time my aunt )as loo%ing after the children for us. 1t the time our children ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; c* 3he police have issued a description of the )anted man. 1 description ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. d* It )as a mista%e to enter 5rian for the exam. 5rian should not ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; e* 3hey said they )ould rather <iana didn=t listen to music at )or%. <iana ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. f* Qohnson first became a member of parliament in 1HF3. Qohnson )as first ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. g* My legal advisers have told me not to say any more at this time. 13A

I have ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; h* 9obody had invited Qean to the party, )hich annoyed her. 1s she ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; i* 3ony has another six months to finish his thesis. 3ony has been ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; K* 3here is no definite decision yet about the venue of the next !lympic .ames. 9othing ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. :. Oe)rite each sentence in a more formal style so that it contains a passive form of the )ord given in capitals. a* +orry, but )e=ve lost your letter. Gnfortunately your letter has been mislaid. b* 3he police are grilling 'arry do)n at the station. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. c* 3hey=ve found the remains of an old Ooman villa nearby. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. d* 7ou=ll get a rise in salary after six months. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. e* 7ou go in the cathedral from the south door. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. f* 3hey stopped playing the match after half an hour. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. g* 3hey=ve stopped traffic from using the centre. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. h* 3hey too% $hris to court for dangerous driving. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. i* 7ou usually eat this %ind of fish )ith a )hite sauce. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. K* I don=t %no) your name. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. I93O!<&$E +EORE LO!+E$&3E 519 1519<!9 E93EO O1I+E <I+$!REO N&E+3I!9 MI+,17

A. Lut each verb in brac%ets into the passive in an appropriate tense. a* 9othing has been seen (see* of Lauline since her car ;;; (find* abandoned near 9e)bury last )ee%.

13D

b* 1s our ne) furniture ;;; (deliver* on Monday morning I=ll have to stay at home to chec% that it ;;; (not damage* during transit. c* 3he ne) 1lhambra hatchbac%, )hich in this country ;;; (sell* under the name ?$hallenger=, ;;; (fit* )ith electric )indo)s as standard. d* Bor the past fe) days I ;;; ()or%* in Qac%=s office, as my o)n office ;;; (redecorate*. e* 3he last time I )ent sailing )ith friends the boat ;;; (sin%* in a gale. ,uc%ily I ;;; (not invite* again since then8 f* It ;;; (announce* that the proposed ne) office bloc% ;;;. (no) not build* because of the current economic situation. g* 1 maKor ne) deposit of oil ;;; (discover* in the 9orth +ea. It ;;; (thin%* to be nearly t)ice the siPe of the largest existing field. h* Lictures of the surface of the planet Renus ;;; (receive* yesterday from the space probe ?Explorer= )hich ;;; (launch* last year. i* 1 large sum ;;; (raise* for the Bund by a recent charity concert but the target of S2:M.MMM ;;; (still not reach*. K* 9o decision ;;; (ma%e* about any future appointment until all suitable candidates ;;; (intervie)*. D. Oe)rite each sentence, beginning as sho)n, so that the meaning stays the same. a* Leople thin% that neither side )anted )ar. 9either side is thought to have wanted war. b* Everyone %no)s that eating fruit is good for you. Eating fruit ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. c* Everyone thought the painting had been destroyed. 3he painting ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; d* Leople say that the company bid fifty million pounds for the shares. 3he company ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. e* Leople say that the late Mr Qohnson )as difficult to )or% )ith. 3he late ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. f* Leople thin% the Ke)els )ere stolen by one of the guests. !ne of the guests ;;;;;;;;;;;;;... g* It is believed that the $hinese invented gunpo)der. 3he $hinese ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;... h* 1pparently the ship did not sustain any damage. 3he ship ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. 13F

i* It is thought that the t)o inKured men )ere repairing high"tension cables. 3he t)o inKured men ;;;;;;;;;;;; K* 3here is a rumour that the escaped prisoner is living in +pain. 3he escaped prisoner ;;;;;;;;;;;; F. Oe)rite each sentence so that it contains the )ord in capitals. a* 0e believe that the government has prepared a plan. $he government is believed to have prepared a plan. b* 0e are thin%ing of getting someone to paint the outside of the house. L1I93E< ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. c* In the end I )as unable to find a garage to service my car. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. d* Leople say that Mrs 3urner )as having business difficulties. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. e* 3he treasure is thought to date from the thirteenth century. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. f* 3he police to)ed a)ay 1lan=s car. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. g* 7our hair needs cutting ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. h* 3he police believe that a professional thief stole the statue. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. i* Qill=s parents are ma%ing her study hard. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. K* Everyone thought that 'elen had missed the train. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. H. Oe)rite each sentence so that it ends )ith the )ord underlined. a* 1nother company has ta%en over our company. *ur company has been taken over. b* 0e are dealing )ith your complaint. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; c* 0e have not accounted for all the missing passengers. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. d* +omeone had tampered )ith the loc% of the front door. 13H 3! M1<E 5EE9 .E3 .!3 I3 5EE9 .E3 '1RE

;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. e* 0e don=t %no) ho) they disposed of the body. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. f* I must insist that you %eep to the rules. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. g* 0e are loo%ing into this allegation. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. h* 0e )ill fro)n upon any attempts to cheat in the exam. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. i* 3he youngest complained that people )ere pic%ing on him. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. K* 1nn )as )ell provided for in her husband=s )ill. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. 1M. Lut a suitable preposition in each space. a* 3he tree had been decorated with coloured balls. b* 3he ans)ers have been included ;;; the boo%. c* 1fter the rugby match, Qim=s shorts )ere covered ;;; mud. d* 3he victim )as struc% from behind ;;; a heavy obKect. e* 3he house )as built ;;; money that <avid borro)ed from the ban%. f* 3he cat narro)ly escaped being run over ;;; a car. g* 0hen the accident happened, +ue )as struc% ;;; flying glass. h* 3he tur%ey )as stuffed ;;; chestnuts, and )as very tasty. i* 9o one %ne) that Leter had been involved ;;; the investigation. K* 0hen I left the casino, my poc%ets )ere crammed ;;; money. 11. Oe)rite each sentence so that it begins 'tE. a* 3hey have decided to cancel the match. It has been decided to cancel the match. b* 0e thought it )as necessary to send a telegram. It ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. c* 0e have agreed to meet again in a fortnight. It ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. d* 3here is a rumour that the couple are to see% a divorce. It ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;... e* 3here is confirmation of Mr Qac%son=s resignation. 1/M

It ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. f* 0e believe that the ship has sun%. It ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. g* 3here )as a proposal that a ne) offer should be made. It ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. h* 0e didn=t thin% it )as a good idea. It ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. i* 0e didn=t thin% it )as a good idea. It ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. K* 3here has been a suggestion that I should ta%e a holiday. It ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. 12. Oe)rite the text using the passive )here possible and so that the )ords underlined do not appear. 9obody %no)s exactly )hen someone invented gunpo)der. Leople %no) for a fact that the $hinese made roc%ets and fire)or%s long before people used gunpo)der in Europe, )hich occurred at about the beginning of the thirteenth century. 0e generally believe that gunpo)der brought to an end the ?1ge of $hivalry=, since anyone )ith a firearm could bring do)n a mounted %night. In fact, people did not develop efficient firearms until the sixteenth century. 3hey used gunpo)der mainly in siege cannon )hen people first introduced it. ,ater they used it in engineering )or% and in mining, but they found that it )as extremely dangerous. Modern explosives have no) replaced gunpo)der, but )e still use it for ma%ing fire)or%s, Kust as the $hinese did. 't is not known exactly;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;..

1/1

UNREAL TENSES AND SUBJUNCTIVES

1. It>s t!me
1.1 It>s t!me0 It>s &!"& t!me

3hese are follo)ed by past simple or continuous, though the time referred to is unreal. 't%s time we left. 't%s high time ' was0were going.
1.$ %as o# (e#e

1s in conditional sentences, )ere can be used for all persons of be, though was is more common in everyday speech. $. %!s&es
$.1 C#esent

3hese are )ishes )here you )ant to change a present state. ' wish ' had a motorbike. (I don=t have one no).* ' wish you weren%t leaving. (7ou are leaving.* ' wish ' was going on holiday with you. (I am not going.*
$.$ %oul an coul

If the verb is an event verb, the reference is to the future. 0e use would or could after )ish. 4ould here means ?decided to=. ' wish you would leave. ' wish ' could come on holiday with you next year. 3he use )ith would is often used to describe an annoying habit. ' wish you wouldn%t make such a mess.
$.+ Cast

3hese are )ishes referring to a past event, )hich cannot be changed. ' wish ' hadn%t eaten so much. 3his use is common after !f onl* to express regrets.
$.6 Hope

0ishes about simple future events are expressed )ith hope. ' hope it doesn%t rain tomorrow. ' hope he%ll stop talking soon& 1/2

+. I> #at&e#3I p#efe# :follo(e b* a clause;

+.1 I> #at&e#

It is follo)ed by past tenses in the same )ay as )ishes about the present. It expresses a personal preference about actions. '%d rather you didn%t smoke in here. '%d sooner )or%s in the same )ay. 5oth '%d rather and '%d sooner are used )ith normal tenses )hen comparing nouns or phrases. '%d rather be a sailor than a soldier. (present* '%d rather have lived in /ncient (reece than /ncient Pome. (past*
+.$ I> p#efe#

'%d prefer can be used as part of a conditional 2 sentence. 9ote that ?prefer= in this type of sentence has an obKect ?it=. '%d prefer it if you didn%t go. '%d prefer is not follo)ed by an unreal tense. '%d prefer tea to coffee. '%d prefer you not to go. 6. As !f0 As t&ou"&
6.1 Real an un#eal

3he tense here depends on )hether the comparison is true or unreal. 1e acts as if he were in charge. ('e isn=t in charge.* 1e acts as if he is in charge. ('e is in charge.* 3he difference is clearer )ith obviously unreal comparisons. 6ou look as if you had ust seen a ghost& In everyday speech, there is often no obvious difference made.
6.$ C#esent an past #efe#ence

Lresent and past reference are both possible. ' feel as if ' were flying. (I=m not.* ' feel as if an express train had hit me. (It didn=t.*

7. Suppose an !ma"!ne 1/3

7.1 Un e#stoo con !t!ons

3he conditional part of these sentences is often understood but not stated. 'magine we won the pri7e& (Imagine )hat )e )ould do if;* Fuppose someone told you that ' was a spy& (0hat )ould you say2* 1s )ith conditional sentences, if the event referred to is a real possibility, rather than imaginary, a present tense is possible: Fuppose it starts raining" what%ll we do5
7.$ C#esent o# past

Lresent and past reference are both possible. 'magine we%d never met& Fuppose we went to 4ales for a change. 8. ?o#mal sub-unct!,es
8.1 Ins!st!n"0 eman !n" etc

1fter verbs such as

eman , !ns!st, su""est, #e<u!#e )hich involve an implied

obligation, the subKunctive may be used in formal style. 3his has only one form, that of the infinitive, and there is no third person #s, or past form. 3he verb be has be for all forms. $hey demanded that he leave at once. 3he same applies after expressions such as !t !s necessa#*3essent!al3!mpo#tant t&at; 't is essential that you arrive before six.
8.$ Less fo#mal usa"e

,ess formally, s&oul infinitive construction is used.

can be used, and collo-uially no tense change is made, or an

$hey demanded that he should leave. $hey demanded that he left. (informal* 't is essential for you to arrive before six. F. ?o#mula!c sub-unct!,e 3hese are fixed expressions all using subKunctive. 3ypical examples are: (od save the Rueen& +e that as it mayE Jome what mayE

1//

Activities
1. Lut each verb in brac%ets into a suitable tense. a* I )ould say it )as time you started (start* )or%ing seriously. b* I=d rather you ;;; (not )atch* television )hile I=m reading. c* I )ish I ;;; (spend* more time s)imming last summer. d* 'elen is so bossy. +he acts as if she ;;; (o)n* the place. e* I )ish you ;;; (not %eep* coming late to class. f* +uppose a complete stranger ;;; (leave* you a lot of money in their )ill8 g* I )ish I ;;; (go* to your party after all. h* I=d rather you ;;; (sit* next to +usan, please. i* 3he government demanded that the ambassador ;;; (be* recalled. K* 7ou are luc%y going to Italy. I )ish I ;;; (go* )ith you. 2. $omplete each sentence )ith a suitable )ord or phrase. a* I )ish you would stop ma%ing so much noise late at night8 b* I=d rather the children ;;; on the television )ithout permission. c* I ;;; rather not go by bus, if possible. d* ;;; that as it may, it doesn=t alter the seriousness of the problem. e* I )ish $arol ;;; be here to see you all. f* 0e both )ish you ;;; staying longer. g* 7ou ;;; as if you had played in the match instead of )atching it8 h* ;;; they offered you the Kob of managing director8 i* I really )ish )e ;;; married. K* I ;;; you didn=t mind my phoning so late. 3. Oe)rite each sentence so that it contains the )ord in capitals, and so that the meaning stays the same. a* <o you ever regret not going to university2 Ho you ever wish you had gone to the university5 b* I should really be leaving. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; c* I=d rather have beer than )ine. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; d* Qac% doesn=t %no) all the ans)ers, though he pretends to. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 1/: 1$3+ LOEBEO 3IME 0I+'

e* I=d love to be able to go )ith you to the opera. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;... f* I )ish I hadn=t sold that old painting. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;... g* It )ould be better if you didn=t stay long. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; h* 3he management insisted on our )earing dar% suits. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; i* 0hy do you have to complain all the time2 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; K* I don=t )ant to go to the meeting. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;

0I+' LI37 O13'EO 0E1O 0I+' O13'EO

/. Oe)rite each sentence, beginning as sho)n, so that the meaning stays the same. a* It )ould be nice to be able to fly. I )ish ' could fly& b* I )ish I hadn=t heard that8 I=d rather you ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. c* Everyone )ished they had listened more carefully to the lecture. Everyone regretted ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. d* &nfortunately I=ve got to )or% late tonight. I )ish ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. e* Is it better for me to leave2 0ould you ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. f* It=s a pity I can=t borro) your car. I )ish you )ould ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;... g* 0e really must discuss this again. It=s important that ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. h* It=s a pity you )ere driving so fast. I )ish you ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. i* May the Lresident live a long time8 ,ong ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;... K* Qac% prefers me not to say anything about the missing money. Qac% )ould rather ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;

1/A

CONDITIONALS AND IF SENTENCES

Types of conditional sentences

$onditional sentences are usually divided into three basic types referred to as 3ype 1, 3ype 2 and 3ype 3. Each has its o)n variations, but the elements are as follo)s: 1. T*pe 12 =!f> 5 s!mple p#esent 5 =>ll> futu#e )',% clause
1. p#esent tenses

main clause
futu#e

'f ' lose my ob" '%ll go abroad.

$. p#esent tenses mo al

'f it%s fine tomorrow" we can0could0may0might0should0ought to0must go out. 'f she has arrived" she must phone me.
+. s&oul !mpe#at!,e

'f you should see him" tell him '%ll be back soon. If 5 s&oul instead of !f 5 p#esent ma%es the condition more doubtful. 3he main clause is not necessarily al)ays an imperative: 'f ' should see him" '%ll ask him to ring you.
6. !mpe#at!,e con-unct!on s&all3(!ll futu#e

,ail to pay and they%ll cut off the electricity. (comment* $ell us what to do and we%ll get on with it. (re-uest* Ftop eating sweets" or you won%t get any dinner. (threat* $ake a taxi" otherwise you%ll miss the train. (advice* 9ote the difference bet)een !mpe#at!,e 5 o# and !mpe#at!,e 5 an in threats: Hrop that gun" or '%ll shoot you. (i.e. if you don=t drop it* Hrop that parcel" and '%ll kill you. (i.e. if you do drop it* $. T*pe $2 =!f> 5 s!mple past 5 =(oul 3s&oul > ', clause
1. s!mple past

main clause
(oul

'f you went by train" you would get there earlier. 1/D

'f you didn%t stay up so late every evening" you wouldn%t feel so sleepy in the morning.
$. (e#e3(as (oul 3s&oul

'f ' was0were .ualified" '%d apply for the ob. 4ere is preferable in purely imaginary statements: 'f ' were you (Nane!0in your (Nane%s! position" '%d walk out on him.
+. past tense mo al

'f Nohn were here" he could help us. 'f she were here now" she could be helping us. 'f he was in Iew 6ork" he could have met my sister.
6. (e#e to3(as to (oul 3s&oul

'f Fue were to make an effort" she could do better. 'f you were to ask him" he might help you. +. T*pe +2 =!f> 5 past pe#fect 5 (oul &a,e3s&oul &a,e
1. past pe#fect (oul &a,e3s&oul &a,e

'f he had worked harder at school" he%d have got a better ob. 'f ' hadn%t been wearing a raincoat" ' would have got wet. 'f ' had been you" ' would have walked out on him years ago.
$. past pe#fect mo al

'f she had been here" she could have met my sister.

+upplementary e!planations
I. Das!c cont#asts

1. %&at !s al(a*s t#ue2 p#esent 5 p#esent

5oth present simple and continuous are possible after !f meaning (&en. 'f ' work late" ' get tired. 'f the water is boiling" it means the food is nearly ready.
$. %&at (as al(a*s t#ue2 past 5 past

5oth past simple and continuous are possible after !f meaning (&en. 4e went home early if it was foggy. 'f it was snowing" we stayed at home. 1/F

+. Real s!tuat!ons2 p#esent 5 (!ll

'ere )e thin% that the outcome is really possible. 'f you keep driving like that" you%ll have an accident.
6. H*pot&et!cal s!tuat!ons2 past 5 (oul

3hese are imaginary situations. 'f ' knew the answer" '%d tell you. 3he verb be usually ta%es the form (e#e for all persons in these sentences, though (as is used in everyday speech. 9ote that in the first person it is possible to use s&oul instead of (oul . 'f ' left home" ' think ' should be lonely.
7. H*pot&et!cal past s!tuat!ons2 past pe#fect 5 (oul &a,e

3hese refer to past events. 'f ' had known you were coming" ' would have met you at the station.
8. %!t& mo als

Lossible situations in the present 'f you get wet" you should change your clothes immediately. 'f you come early" we can discuss the problem together. 'ypothetical situations 'f ' had the money" ' could help you. 'ypothetical past situations 'f you hadn%t reminded me" ' might have forgotten.
F* !f only

3his adds emphasis to hypothetical situations. 0ith past events it adds a sense of regret. 3he second part of the sentence is often left out. 'f only ' had enough time& 'f only ' hadn%t drunk too much" this wouldn%t have happened&
G. Hnless an ot&e# alte#nat!,es to if

Unless means onl* !f not. 9ot all negative !f sentences can be transformed into unless sentences. 'f he wasn%t told by Nane" he couldn%t have known. Gnless he was told by Nane" he couldn%t have known. (can be changed* 1/H

'f Cr Fmith doesn%t come back" he%ll phone you. (cannot be changed* If one situation depends on another, !f can be replaced by as3as lon" as, p#o,! e or onl* !f. '%ll do what you say provided the police are not informed. E,en !f describes ho) something )ill happen )hatever the condition. 2ven if it rains" we%ll still go for a picnic.
I. Cast e,ents (!t& #esults !n t&e p#esent2 past pe#fect 5 (oul

'f Nim hadn%t missed the plane" he would be here by now. I.

<* $oing to

Ot&e# tenses !n con !t!onal sentences

Go!n" to can replace (!ll. 'f you fall" you%re going to hurt yourself. It can also be used to mean ?intend to= after !f. 'f you%re going to make trouble" we%ll call the police.
$. C#esent pe#fect

3his can be used to emphasiPe completion after !f. 'f you%ve finished" then we%ll go. It is also possible in both parts of the sentence. 'f '%ve told you once" '%ve told you a hundred times&
+. Doubt an unce#ta!nt*

1n additional not can be added in formal expressions involving doubt. 3his emphasiPes the uncertainty and does not add a negative meaning. ' wouldn%t be surprised if it didn%t rain. (I thin% it )ill rain.*
9* 'hould

1fter !f, this ma%es the possibility of an event seem unli%ely. 'f you should see /nn" could you ask her to call me5 3his implies that I do not expect you to see 1nn.
G* Aere to

3his also ma%es an event seem more hypothetical. 'f ' were to ask you to marry me" what would you say5 1:M

I* 0appen to

3his emphasiPes chance possibilities. It is often used )ith s&oul . 'f you happen to see 1elen" could you ask her to call me5 'f you should happen to be passing" drop in for a cup of tea.
F* !f it were not for/!f it hadn t been for

3his describes ho) one event depends on another. 'f it weren%t for Nim" this company would be in a mess. 'f it hadn%t been for their goalkeeper" Gnited would have lost.
G. Aill an would2 pol!teness an emp&as!s

3hese can be used as polite forms. 'f you will0would wait here" '%ll see if Crs (reen is free. %!ll can also be used for emphasis, meaning ?insist on doing=. 'f you will stay out late" no wonder you are tired& II. Ot&e# (a*s of ma)!n" a con !t!onal sentence

<* 'upposing, otherwise

Suppos!n" or suppose can replace !f, mainly in everyday speech. Fupposing you won" what would you do5 Ot&e#(!se means ?or if not=. It can go at the beginning or end of the sentence. 'f you hadn%t given us directions" we wouldn%t have found the house. $hanks for your directions to the house. 4e wouldn%t have found it otherwise.
3* +ut for

3his can replace !f not. It is used in formal language, and must be follo)ed by a noun form. 'f you hadn%t helped us" we would have been in trouble. +ut for your help" we would have been in trouble.

4* !f so/!f not

3hese can refer to a sentence understood but not stated. $here is a possibility that Nack will be late. 'f so" ' will take his place. 1:1

6. 4ollo<u!al om!ss!on of if

1n imperative can be used instead of an if clause in everyday speech. Fit down" and '%ll make us a cup of tea. (If you sit do)n;*
7. !f an a -ect!,es

In expressions such as !f !t !s necessa#*3poss!ble it is possible to omit the verb be. If interested, apply )ithin. If necessary, ta%e a taxi.
8. ?o#mall* !f can mean alt&ou"&0 usuall* as if B adjective.

$he room was well-furnished" if a little badly decorated.

Activities
1. Lut each verb in brac%ets into an appropriate tense: a* b* c* d* e* f* g* h* i* K* 9o) )e=re lost8 If you had written down ()rite do)n* Mary=s directions, this ;;; (not happen*. 0hy don=t )e emigrate2 If )e ;;; (live* in 1ustralia, at least the )eather ;;; (be* better8 I=m afraid that +mith is a hardened criminal. If )e ;;; (not punish* him this time, he ;;; (only commit* more crimes. 3han%s to <r Qones, I=m still alive8 If it ;;; (not be* for her, I ;;; (be* dead for certain8 I=m sorry I can=t lend you any money. 7ou %no) that if I ;;; (have* it, I ;;; (lend* it to you. <on=t be afraid. If you ;;; (touch* the dog, it ;;; (not bite*. In those days, if you ;;; (have* a Kob, you ;;; (be* luc%y. It=s al)ays the same8 If I ;;; (decide* to leave the office early, my boss ;;; (call* me after I=ve left8 0hat a terrible thing to happen8 Qust thin%, if )e ;;; (not miss* the plane, )e ;;; (be %illed* in the crash. <id you enKoy your meal2 If you ;;; (finish* eating, I ;;; (clear a)ay* the plates 2. Oe)rite each sentence so that it contains the )ord in capitals. 1:2

a* b* c* d* e* f* g* h* i*

If you do have any time free, could you give me a ring2 +'!&,< 0e don=t go a)ay if the )eather is bad. I didn=t have the money so I didn=t buy a ne) suit. I regret not studying hard last term. If you hurry up, you )on=t be late. If they offered you the Kob, )ould you accept2 If you are in ,ondon by any chance, come and see me. 0ithout you, I )ould have given up years ago. &9,E++ 0!&,< !9,7 .!I9. 0EOE '1LLE9 5EE9

;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. If you insist on doing everything yourself, of course you feel tired. 0I,, ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;... K* Llease ta%e a seat, and I=ll in-uire for you. 0I,, ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 3. $omplete each sentence )ith a suitable )ord or phrase. a* b* c* d* e* f* g* h* i* K* 3hat )as a narro) escape8 If I had fallen, I would have broken my leg. If it hadn=t ;;;, ;;;;;;; gone out for a )al%. If you ;;;;;;;;;;;;, then I=d li%e it bac% please. I ;;;;;;;;;;;.. if 'arry didn=t )in the competition8 &nless 5renda ;;;;;;;;;;;; lost the race. If you ;;;;;;;;; see Mary, give her my love. I )ouldn=t accept the Kob, even ;;;;;;;;;; to me. If I )ere ;;;;;;;;;. loved you, )hat )ould you say2 3han%s for your help )ith the garden. I ;;;;;;.. other)ise. 5ut for +ally, Qim ;;;;;;;;;;;;.. dro)ned.

/. Oe)rite each sentence, beginning as sho)n, so that the meaning stays the same. a* 0or%ing so much )ill ma%e you tired. 1:3

If you work so much" you will get tired. b* c* d* e* f* I regret drin%ing so much last night8 If only ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. 0hat )ould you do if there )as an earth-ua%e2 +upposing ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. If you do the shopping, I=ll coo% lunch. 7ou ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.... 0hat )ould you do if you found some buried treasure2 If you )ere ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; If Lauline hadn=t been interested, the proKect )ould have been abandoned. 5ut for ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;... g* h* i* K* If by any chance you find my )allet, could you let me %no)2 If you happen ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; I might be late. If so, start )ithout me. If I ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. 3he fire )as brought under control than%s to the night")atchman. If it hadn=t ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. <ic% is in prison because a detective recognised him If a detective ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. :. Oe)rite each sentence so that it contains the )ord in capitals. a* b* c* d* e* f* g* <on=t ta%e this Kob if you don=t really )ant it. <on=t ta%e this Kob unless you really )ant it. I )asn=t tall enough to reach the shelf. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. I )on=t sell the painting, not even for S1MMM. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. If the ship san%, )hat )ould you do2 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. If you should notice )hat=s on the cinema, let me %no). '1LLE9 ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. If you hadn=t encouraged me, I )ould have given up. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. 1lthough it is a good car, it is expensive. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. 1:/ IB 5&3 0EOE IB 31,,EO &9,E++

h* i* K*

If you insist on smo%ing so much, of course you feel ill. 0I,, ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. I don=t have any scissors so I can=t lend you any. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. 5ut for 'elen, the play )ould be a flop. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;... 0EOE IB

A. Oe)rite each sentence, beginning as sho)n, so that the meaning stays the same. a* b* c* It=s a pity your parents can=t be here too. If only your parents could be here too. If Qane hadn=t refused to )or% overtime, she )ould have got promotion. If it hadn=t ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; If you left out that chapter, you can=t really say you read the )hole boo%. &nless ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. d* e* f* g* If you )ant my advice, I=d thin% t)ice about buying a car li%e that. If I ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; It )on=t ma%e any difference if $ity score first, &nited )ill still )in. &nited )ill still )in ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. If the painting is finished by +aturday, )e=ll pay you extra. Binish ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; Lrovided your voice is audible, the audience )ill get the point of this scene. 1s long as the audience ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. h* If you refuse to stop eating s)eets, you can=t expect to lose )eight easily. If you )on=t ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;... i* K* 0ithout your help, I )ouldn=t have found the house. If you ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. .etting up early ma%es me feel hungry. If ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; D. $omplete each sentence )ith a suitable )ord or phrase. a* b* If you had really )anted to come, you could have left a fe) hours earlier. I=ll lend you my radio as ;;;.. you bring it bac% before +aturday. 1::

c* d* e* f* g* h* i* K*

;;; the phone bill today, the phone )ill be cut off. I shall call off the sale ;;; to pay me the )hole amount in cash. If I ;;; your tools, I )ouldn=t have been able to fix the car. If you=d told me you )ere coming, I ;;; something to eat. If you too% more time over your )or% ;;; so many mista%es in it. 3hose )ires loo% a bit dangerous@ ;;; I )ere you. If you=ve finished ;;;;;; home. If +ue had %no)n her sister )asn=t coming, she ;;; to such trouble.

1:A

INDIRECT SPEECH AND REPORTING

,!planations
I. C#oblems

1. In !#ect speec& (!t& t&e !mpe#at!,e 0hen reported, the imperative becomes infinitive. Jome with me& # 1e told me to come with him. Hon%t shut the window. # 1e asked me not to shut the window. $. Tenses !n t&e !n !#ect speec& :t&e se<uence of tenses; If the reporting verb is in a present tense (present tense simple and continuous, present perfect simple and continuous* or a future tense, the tenses of the verbs in the reported clause do not change. Fhe is telling0has told me you are nice. Fhe is telling0has told me that the party was great. Fhe is telling0has told me that you will leave. ' will tell you what ' know. If the reporting verb is a past tense (past tense simple or continuous*, then the tenses in the subordinate clause )ill change as follo)s: p#esent s!mple3cont!nuous am3a#e3!s etc. "o!n" to am3a#e3!s to past tense s!mple3cont!nuous =(!ll> futu#e ,e#b; Fhe told me you were nice. Fhe told me that the party had been great. Fhe told me you were going to leave. Fhe told me that you were to0were ust about to leave. Fhe told me you would leave soon. ' told you what ' knew. past s!mple3cont!nuous (as3(e#e "o!n" to (as3(e#e to past pe#fect s!mple3cont!nuous futu#e !n t&e past :(oul 5 t&e !nf!n!t!,e of t&e

p#esent pe#fect s!mple3cont!nuous past pe#fect s!mple3cont!nuous

1:D

+. 4&an"es of ,!e(po!nt In reported speech, the vie)point and the perspective change. 1s a conse-uence, the pronouns, adverbs and the )ords indicating time and place are changed. Lronouns 6ou are nice. # 1e told me ' was nice. 6ou are nice. # 1e told her she was nice. 6ou are nice. # Fhe told him he was nice. 6ou are nice. # 1e told them they were nice. 6ou are nice. # $hey told us we were nice. $his is not a nice thing to do - 1e told me that was not a nice thing to do. $hese are not your books. # 1e told me those were not my books. $hese are not your books. # 1e told her those were not her books. 1dverbs &e#e / t&e#eJ no( / t&en '%ll be here on time. # 1e told me he would be here on time. (I am still here* '%ll be here on time. # 1e told me he would be there on time . (I am not there any longer* '%ll be there on time. # 1e told me he would be there on time. 6ou have to decide now. # 1e told me ' had to decide then. Llace and time obKects tomo##o( / t&e next a*J to a* / t&at a*J *este# a* / t&e a* befo#eJ a (ee)3mont& etc. a"o / a (ee)3mont& etc befo#eJ t(o (ee)s3ten *ea#s etc f#om no(3t(o (ee)s3ten *ea#s etc. f#om t&enJ last n!"&t3(ee) etc. / t&e n!"&t3(ee) befo#eJ next *ea#3mont& etc. / t&e next *ea#3mont& etc.J f#om no( on / f#om t&en onJ t&!s *ea#3mont& etc. / t&at *ea#3mont& etc. '%ll leave tomorrow. # Fhe said she would leave the next day. ' am very busy today. # 1e told me he was very busy that day. ' was at home yesterday. # 1e told me he had been at home the day before. ' am very busy this month. # Fhe told me she was very busy this month. (the month is not over yet* ' am very busy this month. # Fhe told me she was very busy that month . (the respective month has passed*

1:F

6. In !#ect speec& (!t& mo al aux!l!a#!es If the reporting verb is in a past tense, modals change )here there is a ?past= e-uivalent. (!ll / (oul can / coul ma* / m!"&t Jould, would and might do not change. ' might be late. # Fhe said (that! she might be late. Fhould changes to would if it is used as a first person form of would. ' should love to come. # Fhe said that she would love to come. !ther)ise should remains unchanged. 6ou should rest. # $hey said (that! ' should rest. Cust can be reported as either had to or remain as must. 7. In !#ect speec& (!t& con !t!onal sentences 1fter a past tense reporting verb, real situations include tense changes. 'f we leave now" we%ll catch the train. # ' told him that that if we left we%d catch the train. In reported hypothetical situations, tense changes are not made if the event has reference to a possible future. 'f you came back tomorrow" '%d be able to help you. # Fhe said that if ' came back the next day" she%d be able to help me. If the event is clearly hypothetical and impossible, time changes are made. 'f ' had a telephone" ' could call him. # Fhe said that if she had had a telephone" she could have called him. 'ypothetical past conditional sentences do not change II. Repo#t!n" ,e#bs

3here are numerous reporting verbs, )hich report the )ords of others, or our o)n )ords or thoughts. !nly a selection is given here. !ther examples are included in the activities. 1. Be#bs follo(e b* t&at 5 clause ()ith # can be follo)ed by a person* add admit agree announce argue believe claim decide deny doubt estimate expect? explain feel mean mention object persuade predict reassure? reply report? say state suggest promise? tell? 1:H suppose

complain confirm consider

hope imply insist

rec"on remar" repeat

thin" threaten? warn?

$. Be#bs follo(e b* pe#son 5 to advise as" forbid instruct invite order persuade remind tell warn

+. Be#bs follo(e b* sub-unct!,e o# should Most of these verbs can also be used in the other )ays given. 1s these verbs contain the sense that someone ?should do= something, should can follo) them. $hey suggested that she should apply again. More formally, the subKunctive can be used instead of should. 3his is formed from the base of the verb ()ithout third person ?s=*. $hey suggested that she apply again. +ome other verbs of this type are: advise (also: someone to doGagainst something* agree (also: to do something, that E clause )ithout should* demand (also: to do something* insist (also: on someone doing something* prefer (also: someone to do something* propose (also: doing something* recommend (also: doing something* re1uest (also: someone to do something* suggest (also: that E clause )ithout should* urge (also: someone to do something* 6. Be#bs (&!c& can be !mpe#sonal (!t& it 3he spea%er may not )ant to ta%e personal responsibility for a statement, or may be reporting the vie)s of a group of people. 3hese verbs can be used in the passive, introduced by it. 't has been agreed to close most of the coal mines. agree announce believe decide estimate expect imply "now predict 1AM rumour say state

claim confirm consider III. 1. ?unct!ons

fear feel hope ?unct!ons

rec"on recommend report

suggest suppose thin"

Many verbs describe a function, rather than report )ords. Kook" if ' were you" '%d leave early # Fhe advised me to leave early. Examples are: admit advise agree $. Act!ons +ome verbs describe actions. -1i" Have" how are you5 # 1e greeted me. Examples are: accept, congratulate, decide, greet, interrupt, introduce complain invite persuade re1uest remind suggest threaten warn

Activities

1. $hoose the most suitable )ord underlined. a* 3he government spo%esperson deniedGrefused that there )as a crisis. b* Qane said meGtold me there )as nothing )rong. c* Leter persuaded meGinsisted me to stay for dinner. d* 3he director of studies advised meGsuggested me to spend more time in the library. e* +heila explained meG)arned me not to leave the heater on all night. f* 3he chairperson mentioned usGreminded us that time )as extremely short. g* 5ill ans)ered themGreplied them )ith a detailed description of his plans. h* Michael and +arah announcedGreported that they )ere going to get married. i* Laul acceptedGexpected that he had made a mista%e, and apologised. 1A1

K* 3he manager confirmedGreassured that our room had been reserved. 2. Match each report 1* to 1M* )ith the actual )ords spo%en from a* to K*. IR. R. RI. RII. RIII. IC. C. CI. CII. CIII. Qim admitted that he might have ta%en it. +ue denied that she had ta%en it. 'arry doubted )hether he had ta%en it. <iana explained that she had ta%en it. 5ill insisted he had ta%en it. Mary suggested that she had ta%en it. 3ed confirmed that he had ta%en it. Outh claimed that she had ta%en it. $harles repeated that he had ta%en it. +ally reassured us that she had ta%en it.

a* 9o, I=ve definitely ta%en it. b* I don=t thin% I too% it. c* <on=t )orry, I=ve ta%en it. It=s all right8 d* 0hat about me2 Lerhaps I too% it2 e* !T, perhaps I did ta%e it after all. f* 7es, I too% it. I too% it, I tell you8 g* 7es, that=s -uite correct, I too% it. h* 9o, I certainly didn=t ta%e it, I can assure you. i* 7ou may not believe me, but actually I too% it. K* 7ou see, it=s li%e this. I=ve ta%en it. 3. Oe)rite each sentence in indirect speech beginning as sho)n. a* ?I )ouldn=t coo% the fish for too long, 5ill, if I )ere you,= said Qean. Qean advised 5ill not to cook the fish for too long. b* ?'elen, )ould you li%e to come to lunch on +unday2= said Mary. Mary ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; c* ?0ell, in the end I thin% I=ll ta%e the bro)n pair,= said the customer. 3he customer finally ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;... d* ?Me2 9o, I didn=t ta%e +ue=s calculator,= said 5ob. 5ob denied ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;.. e* ?<on=t forget to buy some mil%, 1ndy,= said $lare. $lare reminded ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 1A2

f* ?,oo%, I might not be able to come on +aturday,= said <avid. <avid told us ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;... g* ?0hy don=t you go and see ?3he +ound of Music= again, 5rian2= I said. I suggested ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;... h* ?9o, you really must stay the night, +ophia,= 1nn said. 1nn insisted ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; i* ?Ma%e sure you don=t ta%e the 12M in the rush hour, 3im,= said Qac%. Qac% )arned ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; K* ?7ou are not allo)ed to smo%e in your room, Qohn,= said his mother. Qohn=s mother ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;. /. Oe)rite each sentence so that it contains the )ord in capitals, and so that the meaning stays the same. a* 'e )as )arned by the fireman not to re"enter the house. $he fireman warned him not to re-enter the house. b* 3here has been a rumour that the president is ill. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; c* +ue thought it )ould be a good idea for me to see a doctor. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; d* 3he minister proposed regular meetings for the committee. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; e* 3he management claimed that all stri%ers had returned to )or%. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; f* 3he travel agent recommended our staying near the airport. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; g* 3here has been no report that any lives )ere lost. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; h* Qac% demanded action from the police. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; i* <avid supposed that )e didn=t )ant to )atch television. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; K* My ban% manager invited me to visit him alone. ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; :. Match each report 1* to 1M* )ith the actual )ords spo%en from a* to K*. 1* 1nn told me that I should ta%e a holiday. 1A3

2* 1nn expected me to ta%e a holiday. 3* 1nn insisted that I should ta%e a holiday. /* 1nn invited me to ta%e a holiday. :* 1nn agreed that I could ta%e a holiday. A* 1nn reminded me to ta%e a holiday. D* 1nn proposed that I should ta%e a holiday. F* 1nn as%ed )hether I )ould ta%e a holiday. H* 1nn reassured me that I could ta%e a holiday. 1M* 1nn preferred that I ta%e a holiday. 1. 0ould you li%e to come on holiday )ith me2 2. <on=t )orry. !f course you can ta%e a holiday. 3. <on=t forget to ta%e a holiday, )ill you8 /. 7ou should ta%e a holiday. :. 1re you going to ta%e a holiday2 A. It=s all right by me if you ta%e a holiday. D. 1ctually, I=d rather you too% a holiday. F. I thought you )ere going to ta%e a holiday. H. 3a%ing a holiday )ould be a good idea. 1M. 7ou really must ta%e a holiday. A. Lut the follo)ing into indirect speech. 1. ?I have something to sho) you=, I said to her. 2. ?9othing gro)s in my garden. It never gets any sun,= she said. 3. ?I=m going a)ay tomorro), mother,= he said. /. ?I=ve been to ,ondon for a month but so far I haven=t had time to visit the 3o)er,= said Oupert. :. ?It isn=t so foggy today as it )as yesterday,= I remar%ed. A. ?3he ne) underpass is being officially opened the day after tomorro),= said the 55$ announcer. D. ?0e have moved into our ne) flat. 0e don=t li%e it nearly so much as our last one,= said my aunt. F. ?0e have a lift but very often it doesn=t )or%,= they said. H. ?Brom one of the )indo)s of my flat I can see the Eiffel 3o)er,= he said. 1M. ?I=ve no idea )hat the time is but I=ll dial FMF1 and find out,= said his daughter. 11. 'e said, ?My )ife has Kust been made a Kudge.= 1A/

12. ?I=ll come )ith you as soon as I am ready,= she replied. 13. ?I have a .erman lesson this afternoon and I haven=t done my home)or% yet,= said the small boy. 1/. ?If you let the iron get too hot you )ill scorch your clothes,= I )arned her. 1:. ?7ou haven=t given me -uite enough. 3he bill is for S1/ and you=ve paid me only S13,= he pointed out. 1A. 1nn said, ?Englishmen ma%e good husbands because they are nearly al)ays )illing to help in the house.= 1D. Mary ans)ered, ?I li%e men to be useful but I don=t li%e them to be too domesticated. I prefer them to %eep out of the %itchen altogether. Men loo% silly in aprons any)ay.= 1F. Motoring report: 3he ne) Oolls Ooyce runs so -uietly that all you can hear is the tic%ing of the cloc%. Managing director of the Oolls Ooyce company: In that case )e=ll have to do something about the cloc%. 1H. ?I don=t %no) )hat to do )ith all my plums. I suppose I=ll have to ma%e Kam. 3he trouble is that none of us eats Kam,= she said. 2M. ?0e li%e )or%ing on +undays because )e get double pay,= explained the builders. 21. 'e said, ?I am -uite a good coo% and I do all my )ashing and mending too.= 22. ?7ou can %eep that one if you li%e, Qoan,= he said, ?I=ve got plenty of others.= 23. ?I=m going fishing )ith my father this afternoon,= said the small boy, ?and )e are going into the garden to dig for )orms.= 2/. ?7ou=ve got my umbrella,= I said crossly. ?7ours is in your bedroom.= 2:. ?I %no) exactly )hat they said,= the private detective explained to his client, ?because I bugged their phone.= 2A. ?I=ll sit up till she comes in, but I hope she )on=t be late,= he said. 2D. ?If you give me some )ire, I=ll hang that picture for you,= said my cousin. 2F. ?I have a 3ur%ish bath occasionally, but it doesn=t seem to ma%e any difference to my )eight,= she said. 2H. ?3his is -uite a good model, madam, I use one of these myself,= said the salesman. 3M. ?My ne) house is supposed to be haunted, but so far I haven=t seen any ghosts,= she said. 31. 3he advertisement said, ?If you ans)er the -uestions correctly you may )in S1MM.= 32. ?If I press my ear against the )all, I can hear )hat the people in the next flat are saying,= he said. D. Lut the follo)ing into indirect speech. 1. ?0hy are you loo%ing through the %eyhole2= I said. 1A:

2. ?0ho put salt in my coffee2= he as%ed. 3. ?0hich of you %no)s ho) to ma%e Irish coffee2= said the bartender. /. ?0hy did you travel first class2= I as%ed him. :. ?0hat is your ne) house li%e2= I as%ed them. A. ?'o) can I run in high"heeled shoes2= she en-uired. D. 'e said, ?0here am I supposed to go no)2= (!mit now* F. ?0hose car did you borro) last night2= I said to him. H. ?0hat )as she )earing )hen you sa) her last2= the policeman as%ed me. 1M. ?0ho o)ns this revolver2= said the detective. 11. ?0here )ere you last night, Mr Qones2= he said. 12. ?0hat else did you see2= I as%ed the boy. 13. ?'ave you done this sort of )or% before2= said his ne) employer. 1/. ?$an you read the last line on the chart2= the oculist as%ed her. 1:. ?<id they understand )hat you said to them2= he as%ed me. 1A. ?1re you being attended to, sir2= said the shop assistant. 1D. ?0ill you go on stri%e )hen the others do2= the shop ste)ard as%ed him. 1F. ?<o you see )hat I see, Mary2= said the young man. 1H. ?0ho left the banana s%in on the front doorstep2= said my mother. 2M. ?'ave you gone completely mad2= I as%ed, ?<o you )ant to blo) us all up2= 21. ?0hy is your house so full of anti-ues2= she as%ed. ?0as your father a collector2= 22. ?1re you leaving today or tomorro) morning2= said his secretary. 23. ?'o) far is it2= I said, ?and ho) long )ill it ta%e me to get there2= 2/. ?$ould I spea% to Mrs Litt2= said the caller. ?$ould I ta%e a message2= 2:. ?1re you going to see him off at the station2= I as%ed her. 2A. ?0ould you mind if I loo%ed inside your bag, Madam2= said the policeman. 2D. ?1re you sorry for )hat you did2= the mother as%ed the little boy. 2F. ?If someone faint at your feet )ould you %no) )hat to do2= said the instructor in Birst 1id. 2H. ?0hy do you thin% it may be dangerous2= he as%ed her. 3M. ?<o you %no) that the shoes you are )earing aren=t a pair2= I as%ed him. F. Lut the follo)ing into indirect speech using as%, advise, beg, invite, offer, order, remind, tell, )arn. 1. ?+)itch off the 3R=, he said to her. 2. ?+hut the door, 3om,= she said. 1AA ?I=m afraid she=s out,= said the girl,

3. ?,end me your pen for a moment,= I said to Mary. /. ?<on=t believe everything you hear,= he said. :. ?<on=t hurry=, I said. A. ?Llease fill up this form,= the secretary said. D. ?<on=t touch that s)itch, Mary,= I said. F. ?0ould you li%e to have lunch )ith me on +unday2= he said to me. H. ?0ould you li%e a cigarette2= said one of the guests. 1M. ?0ould you mind not smo%ing bet)een courses2= said the hostess. 11. ?3a%e these letters to the post, )ill you2 1nd shut the door as you go out,= said the boss. 12. ?0ill you help me, please2= she said. ?I can=t reach the top shelf.= 13. ?3his is a horrible room. 0hy don=t you as% for something better2= he said. 1/. ?If I )ere you I=d try to get a room on the top floor,= he said. 1:. ?I=ll )ait for you if you li%e,= she said. 1A. ?0ould you li%e to )ait here2= said the receptionist, sho)ing me into the )aiting room. 1D. ?Oemember to s)itch off )hen you=ve finished,= he said. 1F. ?7ou might chec% these figures for me,= he said. 1H. ?7ou=d better apologiPe for being late,= said my mother. 2M. ?$ould you chec% the oil, please2= I as%ed the mechanic. 21. ?I )ish you=d sit still8= said the artist. ?'o) do you expect me to paint you )hen you %eep moving your head2= 22. ?0hy don=t you go by train2 It=s much less tiring than driving,= I said. 23. 'otel notice: 0ill guests please not play radios loudly after midnight2 2/. ?7ou must see this exhibition8= said all my friends. 2:. ?I should plant roses, if I )ere you,= I said to them. 2A. ?If you=d Kust sign the bac% of the che-ue,= said the ban% cler%. 2D. ?I=d be very grateful if you=d for)ard my letters )hile I am a)ay,= he said. 2F. Lolice announcement: 0ill anyone )ho sa) this accident please get in touch )ith their nearest police station2 2H. ?<on=t leave your room at night,= he said. ?!ur host=s dogs might mista%e you for a burglar.= 3M. ?1ns)er this letter for me, )ill you2= he said. ?1nd remember to %eep a copy.= 31. ?0ould you mind moving your car2= he said. ?It=s bloc%ing my gate.= 32. (in a letter* ?Lerhaps you=d let me %no) )hen your ne) stoc% comes in.= (Mrs Qones*

1AD

33. ?$ould you se) on this button for me2= 3om as%ed 1nn.

?7ou=d better se) it

yourself,= said Mary. ?5uttons se)n on by 1nn usually come off the next day.= 3/. ?If you )ill %indly sit do)n the doctor )ill be )ith you in a moment,= the girl said. H. Lut the follo)ing into indirect speech, avoiding as far as possible the verbs say, ask and tell, and choosing instead from the follo)ing: accept, accuse, a m!t, a ,!se, a"#ee, apolo"!.e, assu#e, be", call (> summon*, call (E nounGpronoun E noun*, compla!n, con"#atulate, t&#eaten, (a#n, (!s&. 1. 'e said, ?<on=t )al% on the ice@ it isn=t safe.= 2. ?Miss 5ro)n, this is Miss 0hite. Miss 0hite, Miss 5ro)n,= he said. 3. ?'ere are the car %eys. 7ou=d better )ait in the car,= he said to her. /. ?Llease, please, don=t tell anyone,= she said. of my o)n.= A. 3om: ?I=ll pay.= 1nn: ?!h no, you mustn=t8= 3om: ?I insist on paying8= D. ?$ome in and loo% round. 3here=s no obligation to buy,= said the shop%eeper. F. ?If you don=t pay the ransom, )e=ll %ill the boy,= said the %idnappers. H. ?I )on=t ans)er any -uestions,= said the arrested man. 1M. ?'e expects a lot of )or% for very little money,= complained one of the typists. ?7es, he does,= agreed the other. 11. ?I )ish it )ould rain,= she said. 12. ?7ou pressed the )rong button,= said the mechanic. ?<on=t do it again. 7ou might have a nasty accident.= 13. ?7our )eight=s gone up a lot8= I exclaimed. " ?I=m afraid it has,= she said sadly. 1/. ?I hope you=ll have a good Kourney,= he said. ?<on=t forget to send a card )hen you arrive.= 1:. ?'urrah8 I=ve passed the first exam8= he exclaimed. good luc% )ith the second.= 1A. ?1ll right, I=ll )ait a )ee%,= she said. (!mit all right* 1D. ?Many happy returns of your birthday8= )e said. 1H. ?$igarette2= ?3han%s,= I said. ?3han%s,= said the boy. ?It is,= I said. 1F. ?7our door is the shabbiest in the street,= said the neighbour. ?$ongratulations8= I said, ?and ?I )on=t, I promise,= I said. ?9o, than%s,= he said, ?I have one :. ?0ould you li%e my torch2= I said, holding it out. en*, excla!m, expla!n, "!,e, &ope, !ns!st, !nt#o uce, !n,!te, offe#, po!nt out, p#om!se, p#otest, #efuse, #ema#), #em!n , su""est, t&an),

1AF

2M. ?I=ll sell the 3R set if you %eep -uarrelling about the programme,= said their mother. ?9o, don=t do that8 0e )on=t -uarrel any more,= said the children. 21. ?I=ll give you S:MM to %eep your mouth shut,= he said to me. 22. ?I=ll )ait for you, I promise,= he said to me. 23. ?I=m sorry I=m late,= she said. ?3he bus bro%e do)n.= 2/. ?7ou=ve been lea%ing information to the Lress8= said his colleagues. he said. ?,iar8= said 3om. ?9o, I haven=t,=

2:. ?I=ll drop you from the team if you don=t train harder,= said the captain. 2A. ?If the boys do anything clever, you call them your sons,= complained his )ife. ?5ut if they do anything stupid, you call them mine.= 2D. ?,et=s have a rest,= said 3om. ?7es, let=s,= said 1nn.

1AH

3'E 9!&9........................................................................................................................./ $ountable and uncountable nouns.................................................................................../ 3he plural.........................................................................................................................F N&193I37.......................................................................................................................13 .eneral introduction to -uantity....................................................................................13 Larticular -uantifiers and their uses...............................................................................1A 1ctivities........................................................................................................................2/ REO5+, REO5 3E9+E+, IMLEO13IRE+......................................................................2F .eneral information about verbs and tenses..................................................................2F 3he se-uence of tenses..................................................................................................3M 3he simple present tense................................................................................................31 3he present progressive tense........................................................................................3/ 3he simple past tense.....................................................................................................3D 3he past progressive tense............................................................................................./2 3he simple present perfect tense....................................................................................// 3he simple past perfect tense........................................................................................./H 3he present perfect progressive and past perfect progressive tenses.............................:2 3he simple future tense..................................................................................................:/ 3he future progressive tense..........................................................................................:D 3he future perfect simple and future perfect progressive tenses...................................:H 3he ?going to= future...................................................................................................A1 !ther )ays of expressing the future..............................................................................A3 3he future"in"the"past....................................................................................................A: 3he imperative...............................................................................................................AA 1ctivities........................................................................................................................AH M!<1, 1&CI,I1OIE+..................................................................................................H3 .eneral characteristics of modal verbs..........................................................................H3 &ses of modals to express ability..................................................................................HF &ses of modals to express permission and prohibition................................................1M1 &ses of modals to express certainty and possibility....................................................1M3 &ses of modals to express deduction...........................................................................1MD &ses of modals for offers, re-uests, suggestions.........................................................1MF 1dvisability, dutyGobligation and necessity.................................................................111 ,ac% of necessity, inadvisability, prohibition..............................................................11: 1ctivities......................................................................................................................11H 3'E L1++IRE 19< 3'E $1&+13IRE......................................................................12H 1DM

Lassive 1......................................................................................................................12H Lassive 2. 3he causative..............................................................................................132 1ctivities......................................................................................................................13/ &9OE1, 3E9+E+ 19< +&5Q&9$3IRE+..................................................................1/2 1ctivities......................................................................................................................1/: $!9<I3I!91,+ 19< IB +E93E9$E+......................................................................1/D 3ypes of conditional sentences....................................................................................1/D +upplementary explanations........................................................................................1/F 1ctivities......................................................................................................................1:2 I9<IOE$3 +LEE$' 19< OEL!O3I9.......................................................................1:D Explanations.................................................................................................................1:D 1ctivities......................................................................................................................1A1

1D1