Ch.

4 Measures of Central Tendency: Categories or scores that describe what is average or typical of the distribution Mode=category or score with the highest frequency of percentage in distribution Largest # or proportion of cases fall in mode/ not necessarily category with the majority Used for nominal variables and is the only measure that can be used with nominal Median=score that divides distribution into 2 equal parts so that half is above and half is below Represents the EXACT middle of distribution Can only be used with ordinal or interval ration variables (scores can be at least rank ordered) Can be used to compare groups Special case of a percentile score at or below which a specific percentage of distribution falls Response associated with middle case *Remember must order categories or scores first (lowest to highest or highest to lowest) ** If data is ordinal, theres no need to average 2 middle scores isnt appropriate because it simply falls between two middle values. For ODD N#: (N+1)/2 For EVEN N#: (N+1)/2 (which produces a figure that is in-between so need to average) Figure 1 and Figure 2/ 2= Median Median in Frequency Distributions is always the value of the response category not the frequency (Extremely/Somewhat/Not at all: Extremely is median) Lower and upper quartiles (25% percentile and 75% percentile) Mean=most widely used and best known measure of central tendency (average) and is typically used to describe interval ratio variable (age/income/education) Only for IR level because involves addition and division (only level that provides #s that can be added or divided) Mean for frequency table 1. Multiply freq by value for each row 2. Add up totals for each row 3. Divide by total freq for the table Unlike mode or median, incorporates all scores in distribution. If subtract mean from each score and add up all differences, it will always =0 Every score figures into mean so is sensitive to extreme scores (disproportionately affected by outliers) Median is not and mode so mean shouldnt be used in these cases Add up all the scores together and then divide by the # of scores Ch.5 Measures of Variability= describes diversity of distribution of variable

Interquartile range (IQR)=is the width of the middle 50% of distribution IOR= Q3- Q1 Q1=25th percentile meaning 25% of the cases fall below it Based on intermediate scores not extreme scores in distribution (avoid instability of range) 1. Order scores from highest-lowest 2. Identify first quartile Q1=N x .25 3. Identify third quartile Q3=N x .75 Range= highest score lowest score (IR variables) **Very limited and especially sensitive to extreme of atypical high/low scores (may be misleading indicator of variation in distribution) In a frequency distribution

Variance=measure of variation of IRV (average of squared deviations from the mean)

SD= measure of variation for IRV (equal to square root of variance) x = individual scores M = mean n = number of scores in group

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

Calculate the mean Calculate deviation scores by subtracting each score from the mean Squaring each of those answers Sum the squared deviation scores Divide answer by # of values less 1 (n-1) Take square root of result

Positive when % change is above the mean Negative when deviation is below mean Population SD=Analyzing test scores of a class. Population SD= Analyzing age of respondents on a national census. Sample SD=Analyzing the effect of caffeine on reaction time on people age 18-25. Sample SD=Analyzing the amount of copper in the public water supply Nominal=only IQV (index of qualitative variation) Ordinal=IQV and IQR (IQR provides more info) IR: IQV< IQR or variance/SD (SD most info) Ch.6 Z score Table # of SDs given raw score is above or below mean

X 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

(X - X ) -4.8 -3.8 -2.8 -1.8 -.8 .2 1.2 2.2 3.2 4.2 5.2

2 (X - X ) f

f (X - X ) 69.12 43.32 31.36 22.68 5.12 .48 12.96 29.04 30.72 35.28 54.08 59 334.16

23.04 14.44 7.84 3.24 .64 .04 1.44 4.84 10.24 17.64 27.04

3 3 4 7 8 12 9 6 3 2 2