onference

NASA-11"M112908

Paper C37

Systems Challenges Hypersonic Vehicles

by James L. Hunt NASA Langley Research Hampton, Virginia and Gerard Laruelle and

for

Center

Alain Wagner Aerospatiale Espace & Defense

FutureAerospaceTechnology in the Service of the Alliance

April 14-16, 1997 ECOLEPOLYTECHNIQUE PALAISEAUnear PARIS, FRANCE

Systems

Challenges

for Hypersonic
by L. Hunt

Vehicles

James

NASA Langley Research Center Gerard Laruelle and Alain Wagner Aerospatiale 1. 2. 3. Abstract Introduction Cruise Airplanes 3.1 Hydrocarbon 3.1.1 Fueled Baseline 3.1.1.1 3.1.1.2 3.1.1.3 3.2 Hydrogen 3.2.1 Airplanes (M < 8) Espace & Defense

Propulsion Systems/Integration Thermal Management/Power Structures/Materials/Tank

Generation Systems

3.1.1.4 Challenges Fueled Airplanes (M > 8) Baseline (2 ducts) -- Underslung, 3.2.1.1 3.2.1.2 3.2.1.3 3.2.1.4 3.2.1.5 3.2.1.6 3.2.1.7 3.2.1.8 3.2.1.9 3.2.1.10 Propulsion Thermal Management Fuel Supply

over/under

turboram/ram-scram

Pressurization and Purge Vehicle Management/Avionics Airframe Structure/TPS/Leading Leading Edge Systems Power Generation Actuation Challenges Edge

3.2.2 3.2.3 4. Access 4.1 to Space

Ejector Ramjet/Ram-Scramjet (1 duct) LACE Ejector Ramjet/Ram-Scramjet (1.5 ducts)

Single-Stage-to-Orbit (SSTO) Vehicles 4.1.1 Airbreathing SSTO Vehicles 4.1.1.1 Example Baseline 4.1.1.1.1 Architecture 4.1.1.1.2 4.1.1.1.3 4.1.1.1.4 4.1.2 Trajectory/Engine Modes Thermal Management Subsystems

4.1.1.1.5 Challenges Rocket-Powered SSTO Vehicles 4.1.2.1 Example 4.1.2.1.1 4.1.2.1.2 4.1.2.1.3 Baseline Architecture Reference Challenges Systems/Technologies

4.2

Two-Stage-to-Orbit (TSTO) Vehicles 4.2.1 TSTO Vehicles With Airbreathing 4.2.1.1 Example 4.2.1.1.1 Baseline Staging Trade

Powered

Boosters/Rocket

Powered

Orbiters

4.2.2

TSTO 4.2.2.1 4.2.2.2 4.2.2.3

4.2.1.1.2 Challenges Vehicles With Rocket Powered

Boosters/Rocket

Powered

Orbiters

High Staging Speed Concepts (beyond Staging Speed Near 3,000 ft./sec. 4.2.2.2.1 LOX/LHC Challenges Systems Concepts (GN&C) and Safety Siamese Pop-Down

10,000 ft./sec.) Concept

5. 6.

Advanced,

Enhancing

Common Systems Challenges 6.1 Guidance, Navigation and Control 6.2 Telecommunications 6.3 Reliability, Availability, 6.4 Operations Concluding Remarks References

Maintainability

7. 8.

C37-1

Systems

Challenges

for Hypersonic
by

Vehicles

James NASA Langley Gerard Laruelle Aerospafiale

L. Hunt Research Center and Alain Wagner Espace & Defense

1. ABSTRACT This paper examines reusable hypersonic cles. Hydrocarbon ered with cruise

are unique the system challenges posed by fully cruise airplanes and access to space vehiand hydrogen fueled airplanes are considThe of Mach 5 and 10, respectively. structures, compatible

to the vehicles materials,

for sustained

hypersonic systems constraints

flight, (TPS) of sus-

i.e.

and thermal

protection

with the very high thermal

speeds

tained hypersonic flight and the requirement low dry weight. There are also commonality such as fast response earities of the control systems and cross-couplings are the norm.

for extremely requirements in which nonlin-

access to space matrix is examined. Airbreathing and rocket powered, single- and two-stage vehicles are considered. Reference enhancing nologies 2. vehicle systems architectures challenges concepts are presented. are described. as well as common Major sysAdvanced, system techtems/subsystems

Herein, system challenges for hypersonic vehicles addressed in terms of endoaWnospheric operations mospheric breathing delivery/return and rocket with major systems such as hydrocarbon and hydrogen propulsion fuel for airplanes to space

will be and exoatand airvehicles.

are discussed.

differentiations

INTRODUCTION for sustained vehicles hypersonic and missiles. flight encompass Functional airplanes, and architecfrom a categories are: or a)

for access

Vehicles

space access

3. cruise

CRUISE Mach

AIRPLANES airplanes, number range for a given payload of merit (ref. at a given 1). How is airplanes is a good figure impacted

tural categories impose major differentiation systems/subsystems perspective. Important take-off launch (launch,; assist, b) _; horizontal, vertical, horizontal

For hypersonic

staged/air-dropped or vertical,

this figure of merit

for hydrocarbon-fueled

c) propulsion:

alrbreathing, rocket or combination, d) fuel (propellant); cryogenic and/or noncryogenic, solid or liquid, e) reusability; expendable combination, or reusable, f) _; cruise, one versus acceleration, or In and g) __ng; two or more.

and liquid hydrogen-fueled airplanes? Calculations indicate that Mach 8 is approximately the cruise speed limit to which a dual-mode fuels (depends ramjet/scramjet on contraction can be cooled with endothermic pressure, ref. ratio and dynamic

order to constrain the scope of this paper, air-dropped, launch assist, vertical landing, solid propellants systems and expendables including missiles will be omitted.

1). On the other hand, liquid hydrogen ing capacity and provides considerably hydrocarbons for the same Mach

has much more coolmore range than in figure 1. The

as indicated

range of hydrogen fueled vehicles maximizes at about Mach 10, beyond the cooling limits of the hydrocarbons. The takeoff gross weight planes (TOGW) of the hydrocarbon-fueled Mach airnumber than is much greater for the same cruise

There are also commonalities in the system challenges across the hypersonic vehicle matrix. These commonalities exist primarily within the framework of features/disciplines that

that for hydrogen-fueled Although the dry weight planes for the same cruise

airplanes as shown in figure 2. of hydrocarbon vs. hydrogen airMach number and for the same

Caleulit_cl Per_mne:
mk, elf_ h_ _mhi_s

Range

Assumptions: Constantpayload -70% fuel fraction for hydrocarbon ~50%fuel fraction for hydrogen

1.8

_laKI

Petfnan_:

Fuel_l

Ra. TOOW 1.0

)._ (.c) /
''" Httrol _

_J

10 11 12 13 14 15
S 10 number 15 0 $ Illch number 10 15 /

tlh rmmber Figure payload, 1. Range ref. 1). C37-2 potential for hypersonic airplanes (fixed Figure payload,

2. Weight ref. 1 ).

potential

for hypersonic

airplanes

(fixed

payload is much
hydrogen-fueled

closer,

it still tends to break favorably

for the

the fuel in the presence through an endothermic

of a catalyst, chemical

the fuel is transformed in which the origi-

aircraft (figure 2). the fuel break appears to be about Mach fueled/hydrocarbon vehicles are limited 8,

reaction

Thus, for airplanes that is, endothermic

nal fuel molecules decompose into combustible chemical constituents with the absorption of substantial amounts of heat (figure 3). The catalyst can be applied inside being applied the cooling panels of the engine for direct cooling or a secondary fluid can be

to below Mach 8 and airplanes with cruise speed above Mach 8 will require hydrogen. Since the shape of the vehicle and the systems that constitute it will be considerably than for hydrogen planform and resultant different because of for hydrocarbon-fueled modate loading, machines the discussion

used with the catalyst

to one side of a heat

exchanger which is outside of the engine for indirect cooling. The most likely solution would be to use a combination of direct and indirect waverider airplane cooling design systems as was used for the Mach 2. 5 study in reference

the fuel density differences

to accom-

will be broken along these

lines with the assumption that the speed break point is Mach 8 even though hydrogen-fuel systems could be designed for lower cruise Mach numbers. will be considered Other The hybrid approach, dual-fuel, systems. as a subset of hydrogen-fueled influence integration.

3.1.1 Example Baseline The Mach 5 waverider airplane (ref. 2) was selected erence vehicle planes. design (example for hydrocarbon design. baseline), fueled, A 3-view representing hypersonic turbojet/ramjet, drawing tem architectures

as a refsysairtwoof the

than the fuel, the biggest considered herein

on the system archiAll hypersonic integrated surin

It is an underslung,

over/under,

tectures will come from engine airplanes that the forebody serves

duct airframe-integrated

are engine-airframe

as an extemal

precompression

Mach 5 waverider configuration is presented in figure 4. Performance estimates (ref. 2) indicated a 6,000 nm tankerto-tanker take-off range with a refueled gross weight (TOGW) gross weight of 550K was 400K lbs.; lbs. with an empty length of 135 ft.

face for the engine inlet and the aftbody as a high expansion ratio nozzle. Also, for the purpose of discussion continuity, the airbreathing lower surface propulsion of the vehicle flowpath is considered on the (underslung). The differences

weight (EW) of t41K 3.1.1.1 Propulsion

lbs., and a vehicle System/Integration waverider

are in whether the engine integration or a two-duct approach, or something

embodies a single duct in between.

As designed

(ref. 2), the baseline

airplane, fueled

by

3.1 Hydrocarbon Fueled Airplanes (4 < M < 8) The engine integration architecture for hydrocarbon-fueled hypersonic airplanes depends on the design cruise speed of the vehicle. For ruise Mach numbers between 4 and 5, underslung, single-duct, turboramjet, airframe-integrated systems can be used. For cruise Mach numbers between 5 and 8, two-duct, integrated turboramjet/rarnjet-scramjet, systems are required. systems over/under, airframefor of of Single duct, ejector-ramjet,

an advanced paraffin turboramjet engines. rent technology

endothermic would be powered by four The STRLI011 powerplant system and is based on curThe turbojet would fuel.

design was supplied by Pratt & Whitney using endothermic

operate from take-off to turbojet/ramjet transition (approximately Mach 2-3). The ramjet engine is to be started at a low supersonic Mach number and operated in parallel with the turafter which the ramjet acceleration would operate and cruise. engines is the high-Mach bojet through transition, alone to complete

airframe-integrated

do not appear favorable

hydrocarbon-fueled airplanes because of the low efficiency the propulsion system and the large planform loading incurred by the airplane due to the high propellant hydrocarbon fuel plus liquid oxygen dizer in the ejector rocket motors. For hypersonic be selected (LOX) density used for an oxi-

The over/under integration

of the turbojet/ramjet

shown in the propulsion system schematic of figure 5. An effective transition from a conical flowfield to a 2-D variable geometry inlet is provided. Inlet strakes (figure 4) are incorporated to isolate each inlet in case of an unstart or engine-out condition in one module. The outboard strakes axe extended forward to control side spillage. The cowl is fixed so flow con-

speeds, liquid hydrocarbon on cooling

(LHC)

fuels must Fuels with

primarily

characteristics.

the highest energy per pound of cooling capacity are required; this class of fuels is endothermic. Thus, when heat is added to
2OOO P_ o,r _

1500 Heat sink ...... -Chlm_l //

/.f

(a'ru_.)
TOrsi /

/ 10oo

/// / / ...... ;........... ........

,.

5OO

i IOO0 t. -_ _,s.o

Figure

3. Heat

sink of methylcyclohexane

(approximate). C37-3

Figure

4. Aircraft

three-view

(ref

2).

trol inthe inlet istobeaccomplished by the variable

ramp system. the turbojet A splitter vane that controls and ramjet

bodyside

Power ments

for the fuel pump and other aircraft are derived from the turbine

systems

requireis

the flow between

shaft while

the turbojet

is located behind the inlet throat. duct (figure 5) was integrated the low only. operation just

operating and from a fuel expansion turbine (figure 6) when the ramjet is operating. Both sources are available during transition. greater Mach The power Engine power generated needed by the fuel turbine to drive the fuel pump power is much during is obtained than the power 5 cruise.

A boundary-layer forward energy

diverter

of the first external boundary-layer

inlet ramp to remove turbojet

flow during

start and engine-out unit (APU).

This may not preclude the need for bleed internal to the inlet, but it does minimize the volume required, and thus, simplifies the bleed system. range performance; tanker range the range was 7,600 turbojet Inlet bleed has a substantial with an 8% inlet bleed, assuming nm without nozzle, nozzle the bleed. ramjet nozzle, and nozzle impact on the tanker-to-

from an auxiliary 3.1.1.3 The Mach

Structural/Material/Tank 5 cruise aircraft was designed

System (ref. 2) as a hot and contain-

was 6,000 nm...

inlet functionality,

structure with integral tanks lined with insulation ing flexible fuel cells. Honeycomb monolithic titanium alloy (Ti6242) skins because they provide (figure 7) requiring

sandwich panels of a were selected for airframe structural between structural solution the tempera-

The turbojet, external

ramburner,

a lightweight Maximum

expansion

are aligned

in a 2-D arrangement. the ramjet nozat approximately 2.5, the turunobstructed

only modest ringframes

As seen in figure 5, a door opens

to allow the turbojet

major frame and bulkheads.

flow to exit to the external nozzle just above zle. As conceived, the ramjet will be started Mach bojet 2. When nozzle the turbojet shuts down exit doors seal shut, leaving surface. Thermal Management/Power

at Mach a large,

tures approach 900_'F. Wing and tail leading edges are more severely heated (1,300-1,500_F), so a metal matrix material is used which has silicon carbide fibers in a titanium-aluminide alloy matrix (TMC). The fuel tank design uses flexible fuel cells within the integral tank. This allows the airframe to be completely assembled before installing the fuel cells. Rigid insulation (figure 7) was

expansion 3.1.1.2 Both direct ence design promote thermal cooling inside

Generation were used in the referis needed of the fuel. to The

and indirect fuel cooling (ref. 2). In either chemical

case, a catalyst reaction

used to protect 3.1.1.4 Other

the fuel cells from the hot airframe. Systems

the endothermic

management system is shown in figure 6. Direct fuel is used in the ramburner and nozzle where the heat For these areas, the catalyst cooling panels. and turbojet is installed cooling on the is of the superalloy Indirect engine

load is highest.

Certain systems that are common to several classes of hypersonic aircraft such as avionics and actuation will be deferred to example baselines to come later herein (sections 3.1.1.5 Developing carbon-fueled Challenges a turboramjet hypersonic and ramjet powerplant for a hydroairplane is the first challenge. 3.2.1 and 4.1.1 ).

used for the inlet, avionics,

bay, and a cat-

alytic heat exchanger reactor (CHER) is employed to transfer heat from the low-viscosity, secondary fluid to the fuel. The inlet has integral titanium alloy and a cobalt L-605 heat shield. cooling panels with insulation

Integrating in a viable arrangement that will accommodate an efficient inlet system and allow a smooth transition from the turbojet to the ramjet tems with minimum Also, the inlet/diffuser is a close second. bleed is a challenge system presented Given the sensitivity inlet sysof inlet bleed on range, designing high performance

worth undertaking. (figure 5) with its

internal flow diverter (splitter) to control engine flows is very long. The engine nacelle could be shortened by using a split two-inlet maintained Figure 5. Propulsion system schematic (ref. 2). system; whether or not the performance is the question. challenges for the thermal management deceleracould be

One of the biggest system is cooling

of the aircraft during

high-speed

_/Honeycomb Turbo_t _otrm I_v

-T:6242

-llTLI
Cl'lgt

l:l!llllll

rlrl!ll

II I]lill L]l]lllklll[lllt!

Itlr

II#o.r _.5"
MD-12

Cnl_i

llili

Cint

Cg

IAir

clinli

i
................................................... _" ........ _........... _i"_ ,--,--,6 d--_ _-i :----'_

,.,..
.............. :, _?Y,

Llyers

ot

_--x'__

gli.baggedlniullllln__'t'l'-';_ Pick fiber InlullUon/ icing

_lcel! I _ Lacing Vlton/Florel

around

Figure

6. Thermal

management

system

(ref.

2). C37-4

Figure

7. Structural/tank

wall concept

(ref.

2).

tion.Thrust must
ed for combustion,

be reduced which results

in less fuel needhigh. A layer

upper bodyside

surfaces.

From

Mach 4.0 to 4.5 both the to

while the heat loads remain

of air could act as fdrn cooling near the wall while combustion is restricted to the center core of the ramjet combustor. 3.2 Hydrogen Fueled Airplanes (M 8) offer more options in engine

turboramjet and the ramjet]scramjet systems are functioning provide uninterrupted maximum thrust during the transition

from turbojet to ramjet]scramjet operation. During high speed operation, the turboramjets are shutdown/closed-off and the ramjet]scramjet At the completion ered from Mach is used to accelerate to and cruise at Mach 10. the scramjet unpowfeet altiand

Hydrogen-fueled

airplane designs

integration architecture than their hydrocarbon fueled counterparts, which again centers on whether the engine integration embodies approach. a single duct, a duct and one-half or a two-duct The single duct would be an ejector ramjet] scramoperate on liquid oxy-

of the Match 10 cruise segment The vehicle then descends Mach 0.8/30K 10 to approximately

is shutdown/closed-off. tude, where the low-speed the turboramjets at partial power subsonic

inlet and nozzle

are reopened

jet in which the ejector rocket motors

gen/liquid hydrogen (LOX/LH2) or gaseous oxygen/gaseous hydrogen (GOX/GH2) propellant. Remove the LOX tank and add a Liquid Air Cycle Engine (LACE) ejector operates on LAIR/LH2, approach results system, for which the and the duct and one-half an auxiliary

are airstarted. The turboramjets for the remainder of the mission

then operate including

cruise and landing.

IMo = 0.o- 4.01

since the LACE system requires

inlet. Remove the LACE system and add a turboramjet and the two duct system emerges since the turboramjet requires both an inlet and an exhaust nozzle. 3.2.1 Example Baseline

A design data base exists for an underslung turborsmjet/dual mode scramjet over/under integrated Mach 10 cruise vehicle (figure 8), namely NASA's Dual-Fuel Aitbreathing Hypersonic Vehicle Study (ref. 3 and 4), in which an all-hydrogen-fueled design option was examined. This all hydrogen version was selected as the reference with respect to system architectures for hydrogen-fueled cruise airplane designs providing continuity with the two-duct hydrocarbon-fueled example. Accommodating a payload of 10,000 lbs. in a 2,000 ft 3 payload bay, the range of the Mach l0 reference ah-plane ia approximately 10,000 nm. lbs. [Mo = 4.53.2.1.1 Propulsion propulsion (low, system (ref. 5, 6, and 7) operates M = 0 to 4; mid, M = 4 to 4.5; The airbreathing 10.0 I _:_ /J Figure 9a. Propulsion system operation (initial acceleration). in a 200 ft. long vehicle with a TOGW less than 500,000

RAM E

in three speed regimes

and high speed, M = 4.5 to 10) with a distinct engine and/or engine combination for each as depicted in figure 9. During low and mid-speed Turboramjet the turboramjets (Air Core Enhanced (AceTR) for this study) operate at full power to

provide acceleration thrust; the turboramjets were sized such that no external burning was required to augment thrust production at transonic Engine close-off speeds. The ramjet]scramjet in the low-speed by upward engine regime. remains shut-down/closed-off is achieved

rotation of the inlet

and nozzle cowl flaps until each flap contacts its respective

Figure 9b. Propulsion system eration, cruise, descent).

operation

(high

speed

accel-

Figure

8. Mach

10 aircraft

(ref

3). C37-5

Figure 9c. Propulsion landing).

system operation

(low speed

cruise and

3.2.1.2

Thermal

Management

System approach (ref. 6) for is shown in figure

restraints designed

bonded

to the composite

lines to provide

flexibility is

An overview

of the thermal

management

(foam insulation

is used on all feedlines).

The fuel system

the Mach 10, hydrogen-fueled 10. Fuel is routed heat exchangers

cruise vehicle

with fail safe redundancy. vehicle in the Mach 10

from the aircraft's with a secondary

main fuel tank through The initial fuel system for the hydrogen global reach airplane design study was liquid hydrogen because sup-

cooling loop, to the actively-

cooled fuselage leading edge, and then to the propulsion active cooling system including the internal propulsion flowpath and the initial part of the external nozzle, and f'marly out into the combustor. The hydrogen boil-off handles most of the aftframe aerodynamic heat loads. The propulsion system is cooled by the fuel via non-integral the structure system layout on the internal is shown in Figure heat exchangers 11 including mounted to the heated surfaces of the engines; the hydrogen

the design was simpler for both flight system and ground port compared to a slush hydrogen-fuel hydrogen would allow the fuel system lower tank pressure as illustrated refinement, a trade study was conducted fuel system.

system. However, slush to operate at a much 13. During to evaluate The boil-off design the advanof two liquid

in figure

tage of a slush hydrogen

flow network for providing hot hydrogen combustor heat exchanger to the turbines pumps, main fuel pump and auxiliary tems are cooled by the fuel via col@late

flow back from the for operating boost unit. The subsysthe is Glycol/Water heat heat exchangers;

k_l Fuel TWtk

J /l;ldlllry

power

layout is shown in figure

12 where Ethylene

used in the second coolant loop between the hydrogen exchangers off the main tank and the subsystems. 3.2.1.3 Fuel Supply System

_*"_" _'_';
The hydrogen fuel system for the Mach 10 cruise vehicle (ref. --_ _ .... ___ ....

_
_--_:

/
..... ,--:r :'s J

Body -d-g-*_ _......

6) was designed for horizontal takeoff and aircraft-type operability. The forward and aft tankage were interconnected among themselves to form functionally elevations individual tanks. Each
"-_.

forward and aft tank has separate fill loops to allow for tankage to be at different gravity requirements. system which consists ground disposal and filled to satisfy center-ofFigure design Each tank has a self-contained chill of spray bars in which hydrogen is cirThe tanks vent to a

.............. ..... ............................

Cow1 In',emaJ C.o_lng _i-

"_"_

11. Mach concept.

10 cruise

vehicle

propulsion

cooling

culated to keep the tank near equilibrium.

system when filling and allow free venting and are

during flight or ground maneuver operations. The system includes all composite valves, all electric valves/actuators zero-push boost pumps. The boost pump will allow ous tank drainage. The tank bodies and actuator housings

continu-

made of graphite composite. The feedlines are composite construction with stainless steel bellows and titanium

H2 Boil-off Figure 12. Mach 10 cruise vehicle (simplified version thermal management system system in ref 6). design concept of dual-fuel

_0wable

Tatlk Pressure

_nt_g

Must Not

I
._

.....
_ ' Saturation P_ure _ Loa_cl Wrlh NBP 13-12

ow _o_,_
Steady State B_f But AlsoAccept Flashotf

! Heat Load Subsystem

P_ro (p_al

_ _
, I

_
_ _ Vel_ng Begins I

Due to S_wessino
Lk:[u_d Sa_r_on Due --.. ', Io Dropping t_euure

Tank Allowable_ Pmss_e D_I

Heat Load Nose

.,I

--A_osphoric Pressure

_Satu_P_um When Loaded

I 14.7psi "

/ /

s,u,_
I Propulsion I_ l Heat _P' Load __lP.Burner
Ground

_
Pres,.cufe, 1 p_a /_can_ Cru_

Figure approach

IO. Mach (ref. 6).

10 cruise

vehicle

thermal

management

Figure system C37-6

13. Difference thermodynamics.

in liquid and slush (ref. 6).

hydrogen

fuel

hydrogen fuel tanks at 20or30psid

ment disconnect. slush hydrogen shown in figure However,

and two slush hydrogen

3.2.1.5

Vehicle

Management System

System (VMS) design concept (VFCS) is and is a

tanks at 5 or 20 psid were analyzed. The liquid hydrogen boiloff is small during ground hold after the ground support equipit accumulates much more rapidly As a result, the as a fuel also provides during both outbound and the return flight.

The Vehicle

Management

based on the Versatile

Flight Control System

fly-by-light (FBL) configuration. Quadruplex FBL architecture is the design approach. The major functions of the avionics are: (1) store mission information, (2) provide capability, crew threat with situation awareness (engine status, terrain and star maps,

fuel system has much lower total boil-off 14. A 50% slush hydrogen

15% density increase compared to normal boiling point liquid hydrogen and an added heat sink capacity of 110 Ben/lb. For a slush hydrogen fuel system design, slush return mani-

GPS, etc.), and (3) provide

communication

warnings, air data and radar information, aircraft subsystem status and maintenance information. The mission critical portions of the avionics gle channel. 3.2.1.6 are dual redundant; the remainder is sinAll buses are fiber-optic. Strncture/TPS System tank (figure 16). A (Gr/Ep) tank design is for the slush

fold and lines must be added

to melt slush in the tank to pre-

vent clogging in inlet lines during flight. A fill return system was added to recirculate fill slush and densify propellant. The schematic of the slush hydrogen herein is presented fuel system in figure 15. design selected as a baseline 3.2.1.4 cryogenic hydrogen

Airframe

The airframe for the Mach 10 cruise airplane (ref. 7) is a cold structure with an integral cold, integral conformal slush hydrogen graphite-epoxy

Pressurization hydrogen/slush

and Purge supercrifical power

Systems active control of The slush only. The storage.

used since the maximum pressure differential hydrogen remainder

The pressurization

system (helium)

provides

tank is only 5 psi. Graphite composite constitutes the of the fuselage struclawe. There is tungsten in the wings are hot strucCryogenic foam insumatrix composites, TMC).

fuel system requires initial pressurization APU (auxiliary

nose area for ballast and the all-moveable ture (titanium

liquid oxygen

unit) supply tank requires

continuous pressurization. The slush hydrogen tank exterior and vehicle cavity need to be continuously purged for safety during ascent and descent hydrogen vent also requires tion system uses technology tem, with all composite valve actuation.
30 r _,-- Ground =l= I M h I _._ ac _ Flight [ lhr@ Mach I _-_ Total LH2 BoiI-Cfff 8.4% _'_'_0 / psid Tank

lation is bonded to the outside of the tank using a chemical bond between the polyimide and graphite epoxy. High temperature insulation with a heat shield is then attached the foam and are secured to stand-off posts tank. which penetrate to the GR/EP

below

100,000

feet altitude.

The

purge. The purge and pressurizasimilar to the hydrogen-fuel syswith fail safe redundancy.

valves and feed lines, and all-electric

+/_./ _'_ _

It was designed

28-20 LH2

_o _o.78
Descent

Boil-Off 15 - GSE (1,000Ib) Disconnect

_" /

/ / _[_---_ 30p_d

/'

5 or 20 psid

,.,_.,_,.,..., _'"" _<_/_

,A -60 -30 0 30 60 Mission 90 Time (rain) 120 150 180 210

_..,. _

%,

Figure structure

16a. Fuselage vehicle

TPS insulation

requirements (ref. 7).

for cold

Figure 14. Boil-off comparison fuel system (ref. 6).

of liquid and slush hydrogen

with typical

dimensions

L_

Pu_e In_ Fmlium

Atb_'me _. _

C_!twr_ We_b

m Bu_Y_i _

um

Oulet _n ,ru_ c_ p, mu_

Ge=ur, mttme

sluJmFII Ralum

i_

Figure

I5. Mach

10 cruise

vehicle slush hydrogen

fuel system

Figure

16b. Trimetric (ref 7).

of cold skin with integral

fuel

tank

schematic

(ref. 6). C37-7

construction

High

Temperature

Multi

Piece C/SiC High Panel

Fastener _ -I--_. X

--_ \ _ _--_irgohmTmeem:sPerature CiviC;

The wing leading edges are made of ceramic matrix composites such as zirconium diboride or coated carbon/carbon. High temperature ceramic composite leading edges are currently being tested by the Air Force under the HyTech Program and results should be available in 1997 (ref. 8). 3.2.1.8 Power Generation

Temper=ure

The power generation concept has two sources of power to drive one generator. Figure 18 shows which power source is driving
.,,11_ _l_ _-_li_ _ _ High temperature

the generator is operating,

as a function

of mission. the vehicle

When neither is operating

engine
T;erpa_eal r_ _ [I _ [_ pes;il===,_ ,,c ,tandoff met_dt

the APU (figure When

11) is used to power the

generator

with one exception.

above Mach 4 the cooling loads generate enough gas to spin the accessory power turbine, which in turn spins the associated starter/generator. 3.2.1.9 Figure 17. Advanced TPS (ref. 6). Actuation

Actuator sizes and types were selected to meet the mission dynamics and static loads requirements. Power requirements dictate that the major portion
Max

TlUO_. _toM45 M_

_ _4S

m MlO

of the actuator be hydraulic. and nose gear steerdriven motor A typical with electrically

Me

Control surfaces, ing have hydraulic

landing gear extension actuators

H=rRew _TR

Ht Row Raml'llcmm

pumps. All other actuators are electromechanical. actuator block diagram is presented in figure 19. 3.2.1.10 Challenge for developing the hydrogen-fueled

The challenges
"rl_i m

over/under type of hypersonic airbreathing propulsion system are similar to that for the lower speed, hydrocarbon-fueled example baseline. A reasonably turboramjet high performance, high systhrust-to-weight is required along with a

_1 _ree

APU

A_TR

A_*_'

AeeTR

ramjet/scramjet or dual-mode ramjet. These two engine tems must be integrated together in both a viable vehicle 18. Electrical of use. power source and hydrogen flow rate flowpath configuration systems and a viable mechanical that allow variable actuation/seal surface) TPS assembly external (ref. 6) is shown carbon/siliconDue to the relatively protection system long cruises at high speed geometry

Figure

design with opera-

as a function

tions over a broad Mach range with engine mode transition. The flowpath in figure 17. (lower It consists of a 60-mil the thermal system

carbide (C/SiC) panel and frame, CMC/metailic (ceramic matrix composites) standoff attachment post, staggered Internal Multiscreen Insulation (IMI), integrated purge channel and APF insulation. The addition of purge resulted in a weight (TABI) savings for the TPS while providing Advanced Blanket many operational Insulation on advantages. A Tailorable

(TPS) and the thermal

management

(TMS) design must be analyzed as an integrated system and optimized interactively. The thermal management system must provide adequate cooling for the dual-mode combined engine structure/subsystems, the airframe leading edges, crew station, avionics, radar, hydraulics, and the electrical power. A challenge in developing the thermal management system is

type TPS was found to be better for tank locations

the top of the vehicle. TABI consists of woven fiber mat with triangular alumina foam prisms encased inside (ref. 6). 3.2.1.7 Leading Edge Systems Based on work done for the National (NASP) program, the actively-cooled the engine axe specified

R _teel

R M=in [ R I_IT 2 IR R_d04_ 1

Aero-Space leading

Plane used on the vehi-

edges

to be 0.1" radius (ref. 4);

cle and wing leading edges have a 0.2" radius. The engine cowl, sidewall and vehicle leading edges are actively cooled. The engine cowl leading edge is a particularly difficult cooling problem because it would be exposed to severe heating if the bow shock impinges on the cowl-lip. The challenge conductivity adequately is to use materials cooled to survive with a combination capability this heating of high
_ Motor/Pumpwtth Reeervo_r E_romec_n_d Pctuator Hydraulic _r_ VlJv*

and high temperature

which can be A design

requirement.

platelet architecture was selected using a copper alloy material.

for the baseline

Figure C37-8

19. Actuation

block diagram

(generic).

the direct cooling non-integral heat exchanger

they must be reliable tures without and allow surface oxidation system presents

for the engine; high fuel injection temperaweight. development and is to

offers a much improved of its lower derivative,

specific

impulse

potential

over that The

the LOX/GH2

ejector

ramjet.

at a reasonable considerable

challenge is to develop efficient, light weight heat exchangers for use in LACE architectures and to manufacture a reliable leak-proof aged. system or one in which foil design reduction the leaks could be manin figure 20 offers an The dimple shown

The fuel supply

challenges including all composite valves, feedlines slush return manifold. Perhaps the biggest challenge overcome negative paradigms with respect slush hydrogen.

order of magnitude

in weight over that of the conapproach for the same heat

to the use of

ventional tube-bank-manifold transfer capacity. 4. ACCESS TO SPACE

In structures/tankage, the challenge is to develop conformal, integral, graphite-epoxy, slush-hydrogen tankage; graphitecomposite grated the rotating In avionics, fuselage-structure TMC wings the challenge mission and IMI TPS system some development. the concept to with intefor purge. Also, the wing box and airframe require interface

Access to Space is and will remain a strategic issue for leading nations. However, this does not mean that concern for cost will be disregarded. In the context of intemational competition, cost reductions are and will be mandatory to create new business. Although the future prospects of expendables remain high in of the

is to design/develop reliability

meet the specific 3.2.2 Ejector

requirements. (1.0 ducts)

terms of cost reduction

as reflected

in simplification

Ramjet/Ram-Scramjet

vehicles and their operations, in scalability to fit the payload/ orbital-destination market and in multiplicity of launch options, launchers their potential appears limited below that of reusable Reusability seems (ref. 9). in terms of cost-per-pound-to-orbit.

This is a single propulsion duct machine and therefore offers the least engine/airframe integration challenges. Its propulsion system consists that operates of a LOX/GH2 ejector ramjet system from takeoff to Mach 2.5 or 3 where the ejector

with reliable systems that provide substantial cycle-life to be the only way to achieve dramatic cost reductions Will reusable reduction business? approaches? studies launch vehicles

system is shut down and full ramjet mode takes over. The challenge is to design a more efficient ejector ramjet without significant engine weight increases. This hinges, to some degree, on whether or not mixing and diffusion can be allowed to occur simultaneously; the simultaneous approach would provide added choking The low specific provide more performance risk. impulse potential airplane of the LOX/GH2 ejector potential, but could provide

pave the way to a dramatic cost

in access to space and in so doing, create a new Will they generate new financial and operational Will they require to analyze new infrastructures? these issues System are mandatory and focus on the

related technology matrix for Access weight (high density) of the LOX may

development programs. A coarse vehicle to Space is presented in figure 21. Only

ramjet and the added and loiter perspective. 3.2.3 Liquid

single-stage-to-orbit (SSTO) and two-stage-to-orbit (TSTO) vehicles are included in order to contain the discussion. 4.1 Single-Stage-To-Orbit (SSTO) Vehicles community: only

a rather unattractive

from a range vs. TOGW SSTO is the aspiration of the astronautics

Air Cycle Engine

Ejector

Ramjet

Ram-

Scram jet (1.5 ducts) The Liquid Air Cycle Engine (LACE) system with its auxiliary inlet in the over position and the ram-scramjet in the under requires position is a duct and one-half duct...the chamber system; the LACE is supplied This system Applications
drop * High themml _ efficiency COSt CIItllly_ Exchanger Reac_nl Heat

one vehicle to develop, manufacture, and operate. The feasibility, however, depends on the development of necessary technologies for required dry mass fraction with built in margins systems with favorable cycle life. that will provide to reliable

no exhaust stagnation

liquid air (LAIR) via plumbing.

the ejector Advantages

Light Small Low w_ght volume prelmure

The SSTO systems discussion sion systems, i.e., airbreathing 4.1.1 Airbreathing SSTO

will be segmented on the propuland rocket powered systems. Vehicles offer mission flexibility in terms launch offset and cross range vehicles will

I_lmthllly

Airbreathing of favorable
Hut

SSTO vehicles launch window, Discussion

Fuel

out

Fuel-side

passages

H2 IN:, LOX Exchanger

capabilities.

of SSTO airbreathing

Cool air for APU _AIf m i:_z x _ i_l X _ out

lupply

concentrate on horizontal takeoff/landing systems since this is where most of the emphasis has been placed in recent studies

;=:>7_ :
\

===
--

=Z:

= _>
I fI

" Exchangers
Ple_ronlcs Themml

Cryogenic

Heat

....

Management
\ Fuel flow flow Air _! Air-side Fuel passages m

....

_m_.[mt _oThliJU_ Ste

[tm_Cas A_ F_4,1_ Tol_otaelal$le

Oom_Plcau AT_

r--_

.-

Or_e Imad Otmn

I_

Figure

20. Dimpled

foil heat exchanger

technology

for hyperFigure 21. Configuration C37-9 matrix for SSTO and TSTO vehicles.

sonic vehicles

(ref. 1).

(ref. 1, 10, 11 and 12) and it provides

continuity

with air-

vehicle escape

mid section with two "shuttle-like" from the vehicle topside

doors that swing to the pay-

planes. Also, there are compelling reasons for horizontal takeoff/landing airbreathing systems such as gradual step and check engine startup and shutdown, after takeoff, etc. It will be assumed extends beyond tion of the trajectory abort during and shortly that the airbreathing porMach 8 and thus requires

A crew station adjacent to the payload load bay.

bay with access/

and conduit

Two 6-wheel main landing gears; one nose gear(two wheels). Baseline vehicle airframe structure/tank/thermal protection systems (TPS). (Gr/Ep) integral, (SH2) tank (A1/Li) non-integral, multilobe tank; carbide/ liqI-stiffened, conformal Graphite/epoxy slush hydrogen Aluminum/Lithium

a scramjet since rocket-initiation/pull-up at Mach 8 or below (ramjet operations) would probably require dropping takeoff gears (trolley, etc.) at lift off and thus would not be categorized as a classic SSTO. A definitive design breathing propelled mentation in NASA's study was performed on an SSTO airorbital vehicle with rocket propulsion augAccess to Space study activities This design (ref. 13 (figure A credible design an optimum. was established architecture for by the Langley in 1993.

uid oxygen (LOX) tanks Gr/Ep shell structure fore and aft of integral Titanium Matrix Composites (TMC), Silicon

and 14; Option HI Team). (ref. 15), but by no means

beta 21s titanium all moving horizontal controls and twin verticals/rudder with Carbon/Silicon Carbide (C/SiC) TPS over portions exceeding 1,960R; carboncarbon (C/C) leading and trailing edges

22) provides a reference representing system airbreathing SSTO vehicles; it was developed Research 4.1.1.1 Center's Example Systems Baseline Analysis Office

Fibrous Refractory Composite Insulation (FRCI-12) over Rohacell insulation on windward surface and Tailorable insulation 4.1.1.1.2 Advanced Blanket on leeward surface. Modes to Mach 25 and the engine mode (TABI) over Rohacell

The airbreathing SSTO reference vehicle (figure 22) was designed to carry 25,000 lbs. of payload in a 15' x 15' x 30' rectangular payload bay to an orbit of 220 nm, 51.6 inclinaspace station for delivery tion, then dock with a hypothetical

Trajectory/Engine corridor

The airbreathing

of the payload (ref. 15). It had a 15% weight growth margin, a 5-minute launch window, and an ascent delta velocity margin of 1%. The takeoff sion was 917,000 the length 4.1.1.1.1 was 200 ft. Architecture in figure 22 consists spatula-shaped foreof: forebody profile, gross weight sized for the closed was 239,000 mislbs., the dry weight lbs., and

changes experienced terize this aerospace including indicators

in this acceleration process also characplane. A representative ascent trajectory is presented in figure 23 for propulsion mode events. Most of the

(ref. 13) for the SSTO vehicle

airbreathing propelled ascent is along a high dynamic pressure isobar (2150 psf). Takeoff and transonic ascension are accomplished with the low-speed system and external rocket system performing simultaneously. The rocket is switched off at Mach 2. Transition to the scramjet mode begins at Mach 6 with the full scram jet mode in operation LOX augmentation by Mach 7.5. of Departure from the isobar above Mach 15 signals the onset of through the scram jet and the activation the external rocket system as indicated in figure 23. Scramjet main engine cutoff (MECO) is at Mach 24. Even though the external rocket system has essentially engine, the same thrust at takeprooff as the airbreathing the airbreathing flowpath

The baseline design (ref. 13) as shown A wedge-shaped

body planform, lifting-body configuration with all moving horizontal tails, twin vertical tails with rudders, and trailing edge body flaps. Underslung, 2-D airbreathing engine nacelle for which the vehicle forebody serves as a precompression the aftbody as a high expansion ratio nozzle; systems surface and two engine

with 130K lbs. of thrust each at takeoff.

vides 83% of the total ascent energy. 4.1.1.1.3 Thermal concept Management of the airbreathing engine for this refer-

Linear modular, aerospike rocket engine at the trailing edge; two engine systems with 117K lbs. of thrust each at takeoff. Slush hydrogen (LOX) propellant fuel (SH2) and Liquid (about a 50/50 Oxygen oxidizer split by weight).

The cooling

Actively cooled leading edges (fuselage spatula-shaped region and engine cowl); actively cooled, non-integral panels in engine. payload bay located in the A 15' x 15' x 30' rectangular

300
F..nem_ flocNt (F-RSl _from --]m t,l_of/Ihrough Irlmeonlc omdomtJon

LOX Augmenl_l Low TranldUon to Scllmjet I Exlemal

ScmmJet

1(s"s) _

Rocket

Systm_

25,000 lb. payload 51.6 declination

2OO

/ 220

nm.

orbit

Altitude

0 ooon)
100

.................. /:Z:
o o
Mach

Figure

22. Reference

airbreathing

SSTO

vehicle

(ref. 13). C37-10

Figure

23. Representative

ascent

trajectory

(ref.

15).

ence SSTO is a cold structure (ref. 15) with mostly actively-cooled heat exchangers. Cryogenic

nonintegral, fuel is

hydrogen

the main scramjet engine; own turbomachinery. The VPP&D ization, is required Helium

the external

rocket

system has its

the coolant. Slush hydrogen is stored in the tank at 20 psig and 25R. It is pumped to 5,500 psi and 60R before circulating through pump, the cooling panels, then through a turbine network to drive the 15 condiback into the cooling again, and out into the

to provide

helium

for tank pressurand pneuthe hydro-

vehicle

cavity purge and repressurization, is stored at 25R within

combustor.

The heat exchangers

were sized at Mach

matic actuation. gen fuel tank. The avionics is intended

tions, where the beat loads am greatest. The cooling panel network was designed to deliver hot hydrogen to the injectors. 4.1.1.1.4 Subsystems of the subsystems are highly integrated with each

is based on a proven to provide

quad-redundant optics control.

architecbusses which

ture using ADA software The majority

and dual-fiber

for autonomous

other. The individual subsystems are (ref. 15): (1) active vehicle thermal control system (AVTCS), (2) environmental control and life support system (ECLSS), tlon and conversion tion, (5) auxiliary system (3) electrical (6) reaction power generaand actuasystem (EPG&C), (4) hydraulic

4.1.1.1.5 The system

Challenges challenges extend from the actively-cooled aircowl leading edges to the linear aerospike

frame and engine

power unit (APU),

control

rocket engine at the airframe Wailing edge. Some of the most critical items that are essentially the same as for the Mach 10 cruise baseline example mechanisms are: the graphite/epoxy the ramjet/scramjet integral fuel engine with (SH2) tank and TPS system,

(RCS), (7) fuel system, (8) oxidizer system, (9) vehicle pressurization, purge and drain system (VPP&D), and (10) avionics. The AVTCS hot hydrogen will be required to handle both cryogenic and

for mode transition;

and the actively-cooled

within the same fluid network.

Active cooling

engine non-integral heat exchangers that allow fuel injection temperatures of 2,000R. An 8,000 psia hydraulic system is also required, as is a health monitoring/management for the entire vehicle. reduce Optimization of the reference at La_RC. dry weight and cost is in progress Rocket-Powered of the enhanced SSTO Vehicles load due to on-board rocket-powered SSTO's (launch assist is not being landing is being considsystem design to

is provided on the external nozzle, the airframe inlet ramp, engine systems, and the external rocket system. The active cooling Because panels will deliver hot hydrogen to the engine. control system fuel is used as the coolant, a fail-safe

is being used. The ECLSS uses standard cryogenic hydrogen control devices, modified for low weight/volume, and provides an operation working environment for the crew. system, It also instruprovides cooling for the vehicle mentation, and hydraulic fluids. The EPG&C cell assemblies. consists management

4.1.2 Because

propellant as fuel),

LOX as the oxidizer (LH2

must be vertical takeoff machines considered). Also, only horizontal ered to contain the scope.

of a number

of 40 kW 270 VDC fuel technoloThe case for the SSTO rocket ence 16 in which mass fraction, and sensitivity liorated 4.1.2.1 A reusable, concerns with cumulative Example launch vehicle is made in referpayload, to be ameThey use power primarily APU's is prothe Baseline SSTO launch vehicle was Manned Vehicle The vehicle rocket-powered, margin, minuscule and shown advancements.

The fuel cells come from existing

gy developed for the Space Shuttle program. hydrogen and oxygen and provide electrical for on-orbit aero-surfaces vide the hydraulic power for the actuators gear.

are addressed technology

duty, but are also used for avionics. and the landing

that control

The APU system

derived from an existing Space Shuttle system. It is driven by a dual mode, gas generator expander cycle turbine using hot gas temperature differential which is required to prevent overheating of the material, thereby making the APU power requirements virtually "free" during ascent. The hydraulic system operates utilizes a conventional hydraulic fluid system that at 8,000 psia. Hydraulic fluid cooling heat exchang-

designed (ref. 17 and 18) as apart of the Advanced Launch System (AMLS) study in NASA Langley's Analysis design Branch and is an appropriate reference mission for the AMLS reference single-stage

vehicle.

is delivery and return of a 20,000 lb. payload international space station (51.6 , 220 nm). 4.1.2.1.2 The vehicle Architecture

and 2 crew to an

ers dump heat directly into a hydrogen fuel system that provides for the gasification of LH2 and LOX for use in the RCS. The RCS is a previously-developed rocket assembly.

design (ref. 17) is shown in figure 24.

The pay-

load bay is 15 ft. in diameter The fuel system is a cryogenic fluid delivery system that supplies LH2 from the vehicle's tanks to the engine turbopumps and actively-cooled Because the hydrogen panels using a series of boost pumps. was sub-cooled to a fuel in the tanks

and 30 ft. long and located

between an aft liquid hydrogen (LH2) tank and a forward liquid oxygen (IX)X) tank. The normal-boiling-point LH2 and LOX propellants tanks. On board velocity are contained in integral, reusable cryogenic propellants would provide an incremental following launch insertion into wing tip t-ms for

slush condition, separate spray and mixing systems in the tanks are required to continually circulate the hydrogen so that it does not stratify; ture as the fuel. The oxidizer system the ullage is kept at the same tempera-

(AV) of 1100 ft./sec, control.

a 50 x 100 nm orbit. The design employs directional vehicle. An airlock located

The crew cabin is located on top of the aft of the crew cabin provides bay and to the space

provides

LOX to the engine

and extemal

access to the cross-wise canister payload station through a hatch on top. The liftoff thrust-to-weight C37-11

rocket system and is composed of both high and low pressure turbopumps. These pumps are used only to supply LOX to

(T/W) of the SSTO is 1.22 (ref. 17).

IOC

= 2008-2010

Crew = 2 for 5 days

P/l_bay= 15 x30 fl P/L wgt = 20 klb to space

station

4.1.2.1.4 Challenges The challenge is the maturation design of a viable, and decrease the vehicle affordable the operational

of technologies

to enable

the of

SSTO rocket powered complexity

vehicle

and empty weight technologies

(ref. 17 and 18). More advanced

would enable the design of an SSTO vehicle that is less sensitive to changes in engine performance parameters. The cumulative effect advancements
Crew cabin

of employing

a number

of moderate

technology in figin

over STS technologies technology SSTO could enhance

(ref. 17) is shown the design

ure 26. Additional for the reference

Dry wgt = 230 klb Gross wgt = 2.32 MIb

advances

over those assumed as shown

figure 27. These technology advancements could be traded for increased vehicle design margins and reduced sensitivities. 4.2 Two-Stage-to-Orbit (TSTO) Vehicles

171.8

ft

=,

Figure 24. Reference (ref. 17).

rocket-powered

SSTO

configuration

For TSTO vehicles, technology requirements are reduced relative to SSTO vehicles; they require only current or near-term technologies. velocity) Also, they are less sensitive to dry weight growth. They allow the proration of the ascent energy (delta and orbiter). However,

ACC Graphite composite wings, interlank, fairings, and aft skirt _ leading edges _

among the stages (booster

TSTO systems lead to the development, manufacture, and operation of the two vehicles (in fact, three: the composite, the booster and the orbiter).

nose cap _

_,,.,.._,__/_-_-_-_\

Since the design of access to space vehicles major extent by propulsion systems

is influenced integra-

to a

and propulsion

AI/Li tanks with internal ring frames end external cryo insulation

Bonded blanket TPS_ (TABI, AFRSI) L ACC control surfaces 800700LH 2 600500-

Figure

25. Reference

SSTO

vehicle

materials

(ref.

17).

Dry We_lgbht , 400300-

The vehicle 2,320,000

dry weight is 230,000 lbs. (figure 24).

lbs., and the gross weight

is
200100-

4.1.2.1.3 Reference Systems/Technologies The reference AMLS SSTO has seven SSME-derivative engines that are gimballed for vehicle control during ascent and abort (ref. 18); the performance characteristics of one of these engines are summarized in Table 1. The SSME-derivative engine differs from the current SSME in a number of ways (ref. 18). Extended-life, high-pressure turbopumps are used with hydrostatic are used for gimbals beatings. and valves. Electromechanical Other improvements a Block II controller, actuators include and a two-

STS technology

Advanced subsystems

Advanced TPS

AI-Li tanks

Composite structures (reference SSV)

Figure 26. Cumulative STS (ref. 17).

250_

effect of technology

evolution

from

integrated health monitoring, duct hot gas manifold. The major materials

I and structural technologies assumed for

150 _Dry

the AMLS SSTO vehicle (ref. 17) are summarized 25. The SSTO vehicle employs graphite composite intertank, nose region, fairings

in figure wings,

._h,
100

and aft skirt which all act as

5O

carrier panels for a ceramic blanket TPS on most windward and leeward surfaces and for an advanced carbon-carbon (ACC) TPS on the vehicle All aerodynamic control nose and leading surfaces edges (ref. 17). are of an ACC hot structure

Reference SSV

Gr/Ep LH tan:_

Slush H_ TBP O_

Duel-fuel engine

lightwei_lht propulsion

design. The integral hydrogen and oxygen tanks are constructed of A1-Li 2095 and utilize external, closed-cell foam insulation. The thrust structure also utilizes A1-Li 2095 and graphite composite elements (ref. 18). C37-12

Figure

2 7. Cumulative vehicle

effect of enhancing (ref. 17).

technologies

on

rocket-powered

tionarchitectures, the TSTO

according ing boosters to propulsion and rocket tion is given in figure

vehicles

will be categorized TSTO classificafor alrbreathThe airto ramjet The remainas they operations, as well as combina-

systems. powered

A coarse boosters

4.2.1.1 Example Baseline The reference vehicle is from NASA's (ref. 13). The configuration system with a piggy-back airbreathing propulsion jet engines over/under orbiter booster

Access

to Space

Study

28 which has categories

is a horizontal (figure 29).

take-off/landing It stages at Mach of LH2 (to M=5). to delivhas

on top of a two-duct,

tion powered orbiters and rocket powered orbiters. breathing boosters are further divided with respect (M< 6) and scramjet (M>6) der of the discussion constitute the greatest and cost perspective. 4.2.1 Rocket TSTO Vehicles With Airbreathing Powered Orbiters centers propulsion mainly systems. a systems, on the boosters

5. The booster fueled turbofan The orbiter station

system is a combination (to M=2.4) and ramjets LH2 fueled. the reference Designed 2STO

is rocket

powered

challenge--from

er 25,000 lbs. of payload

in a 15' x 15' x 30' bay to a space system

at 51.6 , 220rim orbit,

Boosters

a combined take-off gross weight (TOGW) of 800,000 lbs. and dry weight (DW) of 300,000 ibs. The TOGW/DW of the booster and orbiter is 352,000 1bs.]252,000 lbs. and 450,000 lbs./52,000 lbs., respectively.

The focus is on a horizontal take-off and landing (HTOL) launch vehicle. The advantage is more versatile basing with airplane like operations, launch offset capability For launch and nearthat term technology requirements. systems

The booster is a lifting-body with a shape very similar to the reference airbreathing SSTO of section 4.1.1.1.3. Both have a spatular airframe leading-edge control and rotating wings which also serve as horizontal graphite-epoxy posite primary surfaces. Both utilize cold integral

stage at Mach 6 or below, the booster could be designed with near-term technology. Boosters that stage above Mach 6 would require more advanced technology because of the need for a scramjet and more sophisticated/thicker TPS. With their ability to cruise, airbreathing landing boosters have the potential to return to viable staging Mach numbers.
sslo_

cryogenic tanks (LH2 vs SH2); graphite comstructure; and passive, adhesively-bonded TPS, systems.

as well as 8,000 psi hydraulic 4.2.1.1.1 Staging

sites, even at the higher As the staging Mach number is increased, total system gross weight declines (figure 30, ref. 20) because of a more optimal split of the energy content in each stage. Above Mach 6, the

I _eittl_wm Bmtlm I t So.m_R_mO_w"

I @l_aoJtMtt 12 ealtmm)

eeom _/ttm_ @10 ,tin Mate ieeo_ (mlClOlZ_ :_ _tll=_

i L

booster air-breathing propulsion system would require a ram/scramjet engine. Moving from a Mach 5 to a Mach 10 staging system, from 800,000 weight would 4.2.1.1.2 the combined gross weight would decrease lbs. to 600,000 ibs. and the combined dry decrease from 300,000 lbs. to 250,000 lbs.

i_,meOm_"

Rm/eNmrm..

|, I iSme_+ReeimOe:,k Roe_O_e,"

Figure

28. TSTO

vehicle

classification. Challenges booster (for Mach 5 staging) requires

The TSTO reference

51ft.

85ft. J -----l------O---Booster Booster + Orbiter Orbiter + Gross Dry Wt.Wt.

-._

221 ft.

1000

zeft. t

.11"---1

.O

800

0 B00_0r/Orblter C0mb|naU0n

600

2011.

: -

I
o
0
@ 0 e-

400
m

200

0 Orbiter Figure 29. TSTO (ref 13). C37-13 (airbreather/rocket vehicle characteristics

6 Staging

7 Mach

9 Number

10

11

Figure 30. Staging (ref 20).

Mach

number

effect

on gross

weight

These high staging speed concepts Aerospatiale

were downselected required

by by the

(ref. 23) because the downrange

booster is very high (once around) and the AV reduction potential is very low, even for high lift-to-drag ratio (L/D) booster Vehicle gross lift-off weight configurations. 1600 ft./sec, L/D exceed Aerospatiale concept, Transatlantic"), For example, in the booster 5 for the booster recently to achieve to acquire a AV reduction of about would require that the hypersonic a viable landing site. high speed staging

downselected

another

Taranis

(ref. 24, figure 32, also dubbed "the because it raises the question of the indepenlanding since the booster

dence of access to space activities Advancing technology --1_ Design for performance --_ _-- Design for operations, safety, reliability Increasing payload, margins Figure 31. Factors influencing rocket vehicle sizing (ref. 18). sys3.1.1 Having eliminated (downselected)

strips are located outside of the launching country. However, since Taranis exhibits some major advantages such as use of near-term generator technologies and use of engines derived for the gas cycle of Ariane 5, a modified version with an extend-

ed range booster (re-boost of the main engines or cruise with turbojets) will be studied. This extended range version would allow a landing on territories belonging to the launching nation.

development

of a turbojet/ramjet

airbreathing airplane

propulsion of section

tem much like the Mach except the booster duct and one-half,

5 Waverider

most of the high staging

is fueled by LH2 rather than LHC. LACE ejector ramjet could provide for staging at higher from a ram to scramjet is required.

Also, a an inter(M The

speed TSTO launchers, Aerospatiale's launch system analyses have been focused on low staging speed concepts (less than 6000 ft./sec.) which allow a rather easy flight hack of the booster The main thrust of the work was: to its launch base. (1) study TSTO

esting trade, especially > 7) where transition structure/material ing SSTO--cold composite primary

Mach numbers

challenges are very similar to the air-breathintegral graphite-epoxy tanks and graphite structure--as in reference is the hydraulic system.

with staging speed nearing 3,000 fL/sec., (2) assess the PopDown concept, (3) assess the Siamese configuration, and (4) assess the interest of using LOX/LHC 4.2.2.2 Staging This configuration allel-bum, winged, rather than LOX/LH2.

The orbiter, as defined

18, would require the devel-

opment of an expander cycle LOX/LH2 rocket engine systems. Staging within the atmosphere could be quite a challenge itself. If a pull-up to low dynamic then both a tail rocket system (RCS) 4.2.2 Rocket (for control) TSTO pressure for staging was desirable, Control System for the booster. Powered Boosters/ and a Reaction

Speed Nearing 3,000 ft./s is envisioned (ref. 23) as a two-stage, vertical take-off, horizontal landing

parsys-

tem. When the launch system reaches

a speed of about 3,000

would be required with Rocket

ft./sec., the booster (first stage) is staged and glides back to the launch site runway. This system is an unbalanced configuration with respect to ascent energy having a quite "easy-todesign" first stage and a very ambitious second stage.

Vehicles

Powered

Orbiters are considered primarily because of Also, they retain a gross-weight / dry even at reduced Despite its operational drawbacks with respect to SSTO concepts (three vehicles to operate versus only one), this TSTO configuration offers many advantages mance and technological feasibility. The low velocity the operations "transatlantic" in terms of perfor-

TSTO rocket systems technology readiness. weight advantage

over SSTO rocket systems

technology levels (figure 31, ref. 21), hut the benefits of staging are clearly reduced. For TSTO rocket systems, the recovery of the booster is a major bility has serious limitations. issue since their "fly-back" The criticalness capaof the recovery

of the first stage after the staging maneuver to the launch site. Therefore

allows a glide back trajectory

issue increases with staging speed, so high staging speed concepts will be considered first. 4.2.2.1 High Staging Speed Concepts (beyond 10,000 ft./sec.)

appear greatly simplified with respect to the TSTO (Taranis configuration, ref. 24).

For these high staging speeds, a relatively even distribution of the ascent energy is achieved between the two stages. Since SSTO vehicles are seldom pure single-stage (for many missions, they need an intelligent upper stage to send their pay-

loads into higher energy orbits), an approach (ref. 22 and 23) is to develop a semi-reusable TSTO, the first stage being targeted to become an SSTO vehicle. Should this SSTO vehicle appear out of reach during its development, either from a cost or tech-

nology perspective, the designers would have the following option: reduce the AV of the reusable first stage and increase the AV of the expendable upper stage. The first stage, unable to Figure C37-14 32. Taranis concept (ref 24). go into orbit, would have to perform a once-around flight to land at its launch site, or perhaps land at the Antipodes.

Jettisonable

Tunnel & fairing-_ / "

/-- 15-ft x 30-It .._,__payload bay i ' i _ _.j_ LO 2 tank

shown that the propellant close to one another. acceleration to minimize needed the same number Aerospatiale both stages to select contain

masses

of both stages since the orbiter

were very needs a high

Moreover,

craw module-_..,___r___ LH2_

the velocity of engines.

losses, both stages This has led for further study: is mass and are powered

a Siamese

concept

the same propellant

by the same number of engines. Thus, this Siamese TSTO somewhat characteristic of SSTO vehicles in that there is 146 ft "i only one configuration 4.2.2.3 Challenges to develop, manufacture, and operate.

,ow:
_Body flaps

The challenges of the rocket similar to the SSTO systems However, of abort) 5. TSTO systems ic interactions between

powered TSTO vehicles are very but generally less severe. problems: aerodynamin case staging (especially

pose specific the stages,

and crossfeeding. ENHANCING systems benefits SYSTEMS concepts CONCEPTS interest vehicles

ADVANCED,

There which Vertical takeoff LO2/LH2; SSME-derivative Parallel burn with crossfeed External payload canister Figure station 33. Near-term-technology mission), 40K payload, two-stage ref. 21). stage which it has to susAMLS (spaceengines

are many advanced may have significant

of current

for hypersonic

(ref. l ) that will present system challenges. Advanced concepts are currently under study for configuration, drag reduction, low speed propulsion, ment, controls and launch In enhancing configuration LAIR collection/oxygen assist. SSTO and TSTO enrich-

Unmanned glideback booster; Mach 3 staging

the air-breathing is extremely

designs,

the that

important.

The lifting body

served as a reference may be better if it was designed upside down--inverted lifting-body--as shown in figure 34 (ref. 1). In this arrangement much more favorable lower angle-of-attack the profde of the vehicle would be a lift at a throughof the mass fracairfoil and provide much greater

The design effort has to focus on the second appears to be "almost tion, mechanical an SSTO" because and thermal

load requirements

and thus less drag, especially

tain. Nevertheless, the AV reduction due to the booster (especially in case of crossfeeding) allows a vehicle design with lower technology systems level requirements, mass fraction allowed mainly reduction in propulsion requirements. system first and structure

out the subsonic and transonic region. Above the transonic region the vehicle may be more optimum in a conventional engine underslung attitude and thus require rolling 180 .

The numerous provide SSTO many vehicle:

configurations interim options (1) expendable

by this launch

As air-breathing ogy maturation there lifting-body

engine weight increased with design/technolin prior programs, it became apparent that to switch configurations ratio wing-body from a 34) (figure

on the way to an affordable rtrst stage, (2) reusable

may be an advantage

to a high-f'meness

stage with LOX/hydrocarbon propellants with or without LH2 crossfeeding to the second stage (ref. 25), and (3) reusable ftrst stage with an increased staging speed (the first stage flies back to the launch site using an airbreathing

where engine weight can be traded for wing weight. Highfineness ratio configurations would have lower drag per unit volume and thus require less engine size.

propulsion system). This approach, after the downselection of the "Once Around" and "Antipodal" systems, appears to be one of the most promising a really affordable launch at NASA Langley Systems (AMLS) appropriate 4.2.2.2.1 interim system. options to pave the way to was studied an High Fineness Ratio Wing Body: Concept a Inward Turning Inlet (Funnel) Configuration: Inverted Llft_ Such a concept

as part of the Advanced Manned Launch activities (figure 33, ref.21) and provides vehicle Siamese for this class. Pop-Down

reference LOX/LHC

The Pol _, !)own procedure (ref. 25) is a method of launching TSTO v. ,,cle which allows recovery of both stages at the launch site. The booster flies along a strictly vertical path so that it always remains above the launch site. procedure expense solves the downrange fully optimized. analyses of such a Pop-Down launcher have site recovery problem ascent of a payload mass loss, since the TSTO flight This at the trajec-

tory is no longer The first staging

Figure C37-15

34. Extended/advanced

configuration

matrix

(ref. 1).

The ultimate of propulsion

hypersonic air-breathing configuration in terms flowpath for a point design is the inward turning (ref. 26) as shown in figure 34. Ideally, the offers more air capture and more

in NASA's

Advanced

Space Transportation to vehicles percentage

Program.

Takeoff LOX frac-

assist is more beneficial tions in which a higher been burned 6.

that have higher of propellant

inlet configuration

would have

funnel inlet configuration

had not the assist delta velocity SYSTEM vehicles CHALLENGES described

been provided.

efficient compression to the inlet throat for less wetted area with an accompanying, more efficient expansion through the radial nozzle than does its two-dimensional or conical counterparts, resulting impulse. design" in potentially higher net thrust and specific etc. (reL 27) in which to the is largephechemiOf course there are concerns inlet spillage, volumetric such as "on-design/off-

COMMON

All the hypersonic

heretofore

pose formi-

dable system problems:

(1) vehicles

are high speed and long

efficiency,

range, (2) vehicles are subjected to severe environment, but must be lightweight, (3) vehicles' propulsion systems and airframes have to be intricately integrated, (4) vehicles' major characteristics have considerable uncertainties since the realm of hypersonics remains widely unexplored, and they are sensitivity intensive, and (5) vehicles must accommodate a wide flight envelope. Most of these challenges (efficient identified However, will be resolved with tangible means

The technology a nonequilibrium vehicle to reduce ly unexplored, nomena. cal regeneration

area of magnetogasdynamics

cold plasma is created ahead/adjacent shock strength, drag and heat transfer of hydrocarbon fuel through generation

although

test results point to these favorable

Steam reforming

and magnetogasdynamic

of electri-

cal power through deceleration of inlet flows is also profiled in reference 27. As these phenomena become better understood, flight systems must be designed engines (PDE), to accommodate which them. waves

propulsion, lightweight structures...). These are herein and addressed in other AGARD papers. more impalpable means can contribute.

Pulse detonation

use detonation

propagating through a premixed fuel-air mixture to produce large chamber pressures and thereby thrust, are potentially promising for low speed (M = 0 to 5) propulsion for very high specific (ref. 28). impulse, The PDE has the potential

6.1 Guidance, Navigation and Control (GN&C) GN&C is considered an enabling technology for hypersonic vehicles and/or because military beyond vehicles the aforementioned and/or subjected problems: (1) phethey have to be autonomous for they are long range vehicles to the blackout

and it may be possible to have a single converted from a low speed airbreather rocket series bustible for boost to orbit. of cylinders mixture which are repeatedly and detonated.

system which can be to an efficient pulse of a cylinder or filled with a comcan be air proretrieved oxygen

nomena, (2) they may have very short response times, flexible structures, propellant sloshing, and (3) they have to use sophisticated behind sensors (high speed Air Data Systems, windows, etc.). explicit/adaptive realits in a lifting re-entry seekers high temperature vehicles and control.

The PDE consists The oxidizer or gaseous

vided by an inlet (airbreather) from a tank (rocket). The ejector ramjet

Hypersonic guidance

need high performance Explicit guidance For instance,

allows on-board,

time trajectory allows the ramjet to operate from takeoff to ramjet takeover speed (M = 3), and thus a single duct engine that operates over a broad Mach number range is possible (ref. 29). As might amount vehicle be expected, the ejector ramjet requires a large of oxidizer which may mean that, to be practical, a using this system must also extract air and/or oxygen The system ramjet which extracts is called air, condensa liquid air cycle

computations.

missile whose target would be out of range may re-optimize trajectory, make an atmospheric skip and hit the bull's eye. Adaptive control allows accounting for vehicle uncertainties and control real time and to adapt, in real time, the guidance

algorithms. Using more recent control methods, like H_o or neural networks, explicit and adaptive GN&C will ease the hypersonic vehicles design and operation.

from the atmosphere.

es it, and uses it in an ejector

engine (LACE). LACE has been studied for many years (ref. 30) as well as other condensing systems such as air collection and enrichment quently separated system (ACES) where liquid oxygen for later use. is subseI

out and stored

The original

ACES used an approach was accelerated through produced centrifugal

where the distillation column process application to a rotating disk which to an increase oxygen in gravity.
/

force analogous

Many other methods for extracting rently being studied (ref. 1). In the controls area, neural networks

from air are cur-

/ /

(ref. 31) appear

to offer

a significant advancement controls and the coupling Automation strating ic waverider LoFLYTE For takeoff to accelerate
TM

for both the airframe and engines between the two. Accurate is currently at subsonic (figure in the process speeds 35). (magnetic field used of demonfor the rudder control of a hypersonin their

Microcomputer ..... , Fuel Tank:

, /
/

Parachute/FTS _

Corporation network configuration

a neural

flight test vehicle

assist, Mag Lifter technology vehicle,

Figure (ref. 1). C37-16

35. LoFLYTE

Subsonic

Neural

Net Demonstrator

ref. 32) is being examined

for rail launch

6.2 Telecommunications
Telecommunications with hypersonic vehicles pose specific problems: (1) antennas are to be protected against high heat loads, opment (2) the radio commtmication of a network of ground flight, blackout stations phenomena, satellites. to high The radio and (3) the long range of hypersonic flight may dictate and/or the devel-

ness to the system; autonomous tures are to be favored. Among the ideas to increase

and fault tolerant

architec-

vehicle

operability

are:

(1) to

some extent use aircraft lessons learned, (2) develop and use an inflight health monitoring system, (3) use robust, fastresponse, fault-tolerant software and avionics, the reliance (4) avoid hyperon hydraulic sysgolic propellant, and (5) reduce

During its hypersonic heat loads

the vehicle

is subjected (plasma).

which may cause air ionization

tems; use electromechanical 7. CONCLUDING

actuators where possible.

communication blackout phenomena sheath which surrounds the vehicle.

is caused by the plasma Possible solutions to this

REMARKS architecture for fully reusable hypersonsys-

phenomena are: (1) use frequencies higher than the plasma cut-off frequency, (2) select a proper antenna location, and (3) use other communication means (laser...).

Systems/subsystems

ic airplanes and space access vehicles were examined. Screening categories were takeoff, landing, propulsion tems, fuels/propellants, mission and staging. tem challenges were identified.

System/subsys-

6.3 Reliability, Availability, Maintainability and Safety The vehicle's reliability by itself is often not sufficient to justify the development consider a reusable Statistically, of a hypersonic vehicle. For example, is only 0.99. every launcher whose reliability

For hypersonic airplanes, emphasis was focused on Mach 5 and 10 cruise with hydrocarbon and hydrogen fuel, respectively. forming thermal titanium Developing an efficient management the powerplants (turboramjets or LACE and perejector-ramjets and dual-mode ramjets/scramjets)

this translates

to the loss of one vehicle

100 flights. This is why reliability enhancement for reusable launch vehicles is so important and why built-in abort strategies have to be included to increase the probability of recovshould ering the vehicle and its payload be greater than 0.999, ref. 13). A low availability could negate (crew survivability

airframe propulsion integration as well as are the main issues. For the endother(Mach viable. < 8), hot, integral For the hydrogentank appears

mic-hydrocarbon

fueled systems

tank structure

the speed

advantage

of most

hypersonic vehicles. Responsiveness is a major operational issue, especially for military vehicles. Maintainability is one of the key issues for hypersonic vehi-

fueled systems (Mach > 8), cold, integral graphite/epoxy structure with graphite composite interfaces and external insulation/TPS is the architecture of choice. For access to space vehicles, emphasis was focused

on sin-

cles in terms of what is required instance, should the maintenance 1% of the vehicle missions vehicles, therefore Proper and health would amount

and what it will cost. For cost per mission represent cost over 100 (2%, two

gle- and two-stage, airbreathing and rocket propelled systems with horizontal takeoff for airbreathers and vertical takeoff for rockets. For the airbreather, propulsion and propulsion integration along with thermal management are still the biggest challenges; this is essentially the same as with cruise required) vehicles access systems for staging except for the additional boosters. rocket integra(if life tion for orbital ing propulsion in SSTO vehicles in the TSTO have the potential and pullup

cost, the total maintenance

to the cost of one vehicle

etc). Technology maturation and demonstrators are mandatory to reduce the maintenance uncertainties. design and operation methodology (e.g. aircraft like) monitoring systems are also mandatory.

The airbreathfor long cycle

Also hypersonic vehicles pose specific problems of safety, both from the range safety viewpoint and from the crew safety viewpoint. For major malfunction at hypersonic speed crew rescue is a challenge. maintained before ejection cabin has to be ejected. 6.4 Operations Either vehicle integrity must be seats can be used or the crew

which could have a positive effect cost (lower frequency of changing structures, hydrogen

on reducing operational engines and pumps). For

the emphasis is on cold, integral graphite/epoxy tanks and graphite composite interfaces. The air-

breathing vehicles, being lifting configurations, are designed for normal loads and thus are conducive to abort situations. For SSTO vehicles, overcome negative slush hydrogen. For rocket powered one of the biggest paradigms challenges may be to with respect to the use of

Reusable vehicles must be designed for operations and maintenance (ref. 9) to minimize the life cycle costs and to maximize responsiveness. The enhancement of systems/subsysof their tems reliability in conjunction with an extension

systems,

the main challenges

are to

mature the enabling ity. This feasibility technologies gins that will provide

technologies to ensure operation feasibildepends on the development of necessary dry mass fraction systems with built-in marreliable with favorable cycle

cycle life is a must in reducing operations consist of expensive vehicles. tions longer mization Operations reduce costs The vehicle This is no longer be designed perspective. must be automated and streamlined designed have to be designed

operational cost. Present-day tasks to prepare and operate vehicles Vehicles and operacan no

for required

affordable; concurrently.

life. Some of these technologies such as cryogenic, integral tankage, etc. are common to airbreathers as well. These technologies Advanced are being pursued Space Technology in the U.S. X-33, X-34 and Program (ASTP) programs.

from just a performance/weight-mini-

(no "standing to increase provides

army")

to

responsiveness. more robustC37-17

Even though less demanding tems pose specific problems: feeding, and staging,

than SSTO vehicles, TSTO sysaerodynamic interactions, cross-

for operations

among others.

Vacuum Sea-level Chamber

thrust, Ib .......................................... thrust, Ib ............................................... psia ...................................

463,900 402,600 3,000 50 447.3 387.9 6.0 6,780 characteris-

10. Fazi, D.; Wagner, Outline. nautical

A.; and Johnson, C.: STS 2000:

An

IAF 90-192, 41st Congress of the International AstroFederation, Dresden, Germany, October 6-22, 1990. A.; and Bombled, J. P.: Oriflamme: A Reference

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C37-19