Magnetism: The physics of allure and

repulsion

Magnets have been known for centuries. The Chinese and Greeks knew about The Chinese and Greeks knew about the magical properties of magnets. The ancient Greeks used a stone the ancient Greeks used a stone substance called magnetite. They substance called magnetite. They discovered that the stone always discovered that the stone always pointed in the same direction. Later, pointed in the same direction. Later, stones of magnetite called stones of magnetite called lodestones were used in navigation. Lodestones were used in navigation. William Gilbert, an English physician, first proposed in 1600 that the earth itself is a magnet, and he predicted that the Earth would be found to have magnetic poles

What is Magnetism? Magnetism is the force of attraction or repulsion of a magnetic material due to the arrangement of its atoms, particularly its electrons.

THE HISTORY OF MAGNETISM

The first known magnets were naturally occurring lodestones, a type of iron ore called magnetite. People of ancient Greece and China discovered that a lodestone would always align itself in a longitudinal direction if it was allowed to rotate freely. This property of lodestones allowed for the creation of compasses two thousand years ago, which was the first known use of the magnet. In 1263 Pierre de Mari court mapped the magnetic field of a lodestone with a compass. He discovered that a magnet had two magnetic poles North and South poles. In the 1600's William Gilbert, physician of Queen Elizabeth I, concluded that Earth itself is a giant magnet. In 1820 the Danish physicist Hans Christian rsted discovered an electric current flowing through a wire can cause a

compass needle to deflect, showing that magnetism and electricity were related.
In 1830 Michael Faraday (British) and Joseph Henry (American) independently discovered that a changing magnetic field produced a current in a coil of wire. Faraday, who was perhaps the greatest experimentalist of all time, came up with the idea of electric and magnetic fields. He also invented the dynamo (a generator), made major contributions to chemistry, and invented one of the first electric motors In the 19th century James Clerk Maxwell, a Scottish physicist and one of the great theoreticians of all times, mathematically unified the electric and magnetic forces. He also proposed that light was electromagnetic radiation. In the late 19th Century Pierre Curie discovered that magnets lose their magnetism above a certain temperature that later became known as the Curie point. In the 1900's scientists discover

superconductivity. Superconductors are materials that have a zero resistance to a current flowing through them when they are a very low temperature.

Magnetic Fields

You have seen that electric fields and be uniform, no uniform and symmetric, or no uniform and asymmetric. The same is true for magnetic fields. Regardless of symmetry or complexity, the SI unit for any E field is the N/C, since by definition an electric field is force per unit charge. Because there are no magnetic monopoles, there is no analogous definition for B. However, regardless of symmetry or complexity, there is only one SI unit for a B field. Its called a tesla and its symbol is T. The coming slides will show how to write a tesla in terms of other SI units. The magnetic field vector is always tangent to the magnetic field. Unlike E fields, all

magnetic field lines that come from the N pole must land on the S pole--no field lines go to or come from infinity.

Force Due to Magnetic Field

The force exerted on a charged particle by a magnetic field is given by the vector cross product: F = q v B sin F = force (vector) q= charge on the particle (scalar) v = velocity of the particle relative to field (vector) B= magnetic field (vector) F = qv B Recall that the magnitude of a cross is the product of the magnitudes of the vectors times the sine of the angle

between them. So, the magnitude of the magnetic force is given by where is angle between qv and B vectors.

Right Hand Rule Review

A quick way to determine the direction of a cross product is to use the right hand rule. To find ab, place the knife edge of your right hand (pinky side) along a and curl your hand toward b, making a fist. Your thumb then points in the direction of It can be proven that the magnitude of is given by: absin = |ab| ,where is the angle between a and b.

Magnetic Field Units

A magnetic field of one tesla is very powerful magnetic field. Sometimes it may be convenient to use the gauss,

which is equal to 1/10,000 of a tesla. Earths magnetic field, at the surface, varies but has the strength of about one gauss. F = q v B sin 1N = (1C) (1m/s) (1T) = tesla (1T) = 1N/(1m/s)

Direction of Magnetic Field & Force

Near the poles, where the field lines are close together, the field is very strong (so the field vector are drawn longer). Anywhere in the field the mag. field vector is always tangent to the mag. field line there. The + charge in the pic in moving into the page. Since q is +, the q v vector is also into the page. The - charge is moving to the right, so the q v Vector is to the left. The mag. force vector is alwaysto plane formed by the q v vector and the B vector.

The force on the -charge is into the page. If a charge is motionless relative to the field, there is nonmagnetic force on it, but if either magnet is moving or a charge is moving, there could a force on the charge. If a charge moves parallel to a magnetic field, there is no magnetic force on it, since sin 0 = 0.

Magnetic Effect of Electric Current

needle is placed on the cardboard, the direction of the n eedle will show the direction of the magnetic field. The point on the cardboard where the north pole of the needl e is siturated is marked. The needle is shifted a little so that its south pole takes the same position where the nor th pole was situated previously. The position of the north

pole is marked. If the current is strong the lines will be ci rcular. The arrows on the circular lines show the directio n of the magnetic field.

Magnetic Field Lines Due to Straight Wire If the direction of the current is reversed, the lines will stil l be circular, but the directions of the lines will be reversed, which can be verified using the compass need le. Magnetic Field due to a Solenoid When a long wire is coiled in the shape of a spring so that the turns are closely spaced and insulated from

each other it forms a solenoid. Generally, a wire is coiled over a non-conducting hollow cylindrical tube. An iron rod is often inserted inside the hollow tube. This rod is

called the core. Magnetic Field due to a Solenoid The free ends of the solenoid are connected to a battery to pass current through the solenoid. This produces a magnetic field. The magnetic field inside the coil is almost constant in magnitude and direction. The current carrying solenoid produces magnetic field similar to that of a bar magnet. One end of the solenoid becomes the north pole and the other end becomes a south pole. The magnitude of the field depends on the following factors. The magnetic field is directly proportional to:

the amount of current passing through the solenoid the number of turns of the solenoid. It also depends on the core material.

Since the magnetic field formed by the solenoid is temporary it is used to make electromagnets. Electromagnets are used in electric bells, cranes, etc. Electromagnetic Induction The process of producing electricity by magnetic field is called electromagnetic induction. Electric current can also be induced through a wire loop, by moving it near a fixed magnet. So a current is induced either by moving a magnet near the loop or by moving the loop near a magnet. It is the relative motion between the two which is important. It does not matter which of the two is moved. Thus the electromagnetic induction takes place because of the relative motion between a magnet and a coil. The induced current exists

as long as there is a relative motion between the coil and the magnet. When the magnet is moved faster, then the amount of current induced is found to be higher. Normally moving the magnets in a linear fashion is difficult. Hence a different arrangement is used. The figure given below shows a wire loop, a section AB of which lies in a magnetic field. A galvanometer is connected to the loop.

Electromagnetic Induction The wire is directed along south-north direction and the magnetic field is from west to east. When the loop is pulled up such that the wire AB moves upwards in the field, a current is induced in the loop as shown in the

figure. The direction of the current will be from A to B, i.e., from south to north. If the loop is pushed down vertically, the direction of the current in the wire will be

from B to A. Fleming's Right Hand Rule The direction of the current in a wire moving perpendicular to itself and to a magnetic field may be found by Fleming's right hand rule. If the thumb, forefinger and middle finger of the right hand are stretched in a mutually perpendicular direction, in such a way that the forefinger directs towards the magnetic field, the thumb shows the motion of the wire, then the middle finger shows the direction of the induced current.

So the phenomenon electromagnetic induction paved us the way to generate current without the electrochemical cells. It formed the principle underlying the working of dynamos.

An electric current produces a magnetic field A magnetic field exists in the region surrounding a magnet, in which the force of the magnet can be detected

Field lines are used to represent a magnetic field The magnetic field lines of a straight current are circular with centres on the wire carrying the current

The magnetic field inside a current carrying solenoid is uniform and parallel to the axis. It behaves like a bar magnet

An electromagnet consists of a soft iron core wrapped with an insulated copper wire

When a current carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field, a force acts on the wire. The direction of force is given by Fleming's left-hand rule. This is the basis of electric motor

An electric motor is a device that converts electrical energy into mechanical energy

The phenomenon by which an emf or current is induced in a conductor due to change in the magnetic field near the conductor is known as electromagnetic induction

The direction of the induced current is given by Fleming's right-hand rule. This forms the basis of the electric generator

An electric generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy

In our houses we receive AC electric power of 220 V with a frequency of 50 Hz. There are two wires -

the live wire and neutral wire. The potential difference between the two wires is 220 V

Earthing and electric fuse are the two commonly used safety measures in electrical circuits. It prevents electric shock

Electric fuse is a safety device used for protecting the circuits due to overloading and short-circuiting

Rules

Rules for Determining the Direction of Magnetic Field The direction of magnetic field around a current carrying conductor can be determined by using one of the laws given here. Right Hand Thumb Rule Imagine the conductor to be held in your right hand with the fingers curled around it. If the thumb points in the

direction of the current, then the curled fingers show the direction of the magnetic field Maxwell's Cork- Screw Rule Imagine a right-handed corkscrew being rotated along the wire in the direction of the current. The direction of rotation of the thumb gives the direction of the magnetic lines of force. Ampere's Swimming Rule Ampere's swimming rule states that "if a man swims along the wire carrying current such that his face is always towards the magnetic needle with current entering his feet and leaving his head then the North Pole of the magnetic needle is always deflected towards his left hand". Clock Rule According to the clock rule "When an observer, looking at the face of the coil, finds the current to be flowing in

the anti-clockwise direction, then the face of the coil will behave like the North Pole. While if the current is in the clockwise direction, the face of the coil will behave like South Pole. Fleming's Rule Fleming's rules help us to predict the movement of a current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field and the direction of the induced current. Fleming's Left Hand Rule Extend the thumb, forefinger, and the middle finger of the left hand in such a way that all the three are mutually perpendicular to each another. If the forefinger points in the direction of the magnetic field and the middle finger in the direction of the current, then, the thumb points in the direction of the force exerted on the conductor. Fleming's Right Hand Rule

Stretch the forefinger, the middle finger and the thumb of the right hand, such that they are mutually perpendicular to each other. If forefinger indicates the direction of the magnetic field, the thumb indicates the direction of motion of the conductor, then, middle finger indicates the direction of induced current in the conductor.

Major progress in understanding magnetism came after the relationship between electricity and magnetism was established by Hans Christian Oersted in 1820. He found that an electric current moves a compass needle and this effect lasts as long as the current flows through the wire. It is then possible to produce magnetism without any magnetic substance at all. A coil of wire could produce a magnetic field exactly like the field around a permanent magnet. Magnetic Field

A magnetic field is defined as a region in which a magnetic force is present. In a magnetic field, the magnetic dipole (two equal and oppositely charged or magnetized poles separated by a distance) experiences a turning force, which tends to align it parallel to the direction of the field. The concept of a magnetic field can be understood with the help of the following activity: Place a piece of cardboard over a magnet Sprinkle some iron filings onto the cardboard Tap the cardboard gently and draw what you see The iron filings show the magnetic field of the magnet Magnetic Lines of Force Due To Current in a Straight Wire The direction of the magnetic field due to a current may be studied by drawing the magnetic lines of force. A vertical wire AB is passed through a horizontal cardboard PQRS. Ion filings are sprinkled on the

cardboard. Current is passed through it by connecting a battery to it. Iron filings spread evenly on the cardboard. When a compass needle is placed on the cardboard, the direction of the needle will show the direction of the magnetic field. The point on the cardboard where the north pole of the needle is siturated is marked. The needle is shifted a little so that its south pole takes the same position where the north pole was situated previously. The position of the north pole is marked. If the current is strong the lines will be circular. The arrows on the circular lines show the direction of the magnetic field.

The electric motor

It works on the principle that when an electric current is passed through a conductor placed normally in a magnetic field a force acts on the conductor as a result of which the conductor begins to move. The direction of the force is obtained with the help of Fleming's left hand rule. Construction The figure below shows the construction of an electric motor. The main parts of an electric

motor are: D.C. Motor

the armature coil ABCD mounted on an axle the commutator that is a split ring divided in two parts S1 and S2 a pair of brushes B1 and B2 a horse - shoe electromagnet The coil ABCD is wound round a soft iron and is placed in between the pole pieces of a powerful horse - shoe magnet. The coil is free to rotate about its axis. The ends of the coil A and D are connected to split parts of the ring S1 and S2 respectively. Two brushes B1 and B2, made of carbon or copper, touch the split rings S1 and S2 respectively. A dc source is connected across the brushes B1 and B2. When the coil rotates, the split rings rotate but the brushes do not move. A wheel can be mounted on the axle placed along the axis of the coil so as to drive the desired parts of the machine such as electric fan, washing machine etc. where the motor is used. Working The plane of the coil is horizontal and the split ring S1 touches the brush B1 while the split ring S2 touches the brush B2. The brush B1 is connected to the anode of the d.c. battery while the brush B2 is connected to the cathode. The current flows in the coil in the direction ABCD. The arms BC and DA being parallel to the magnetic field experience no force. According to Fleming's left hand rule force 'F' acting on the arm AB, is inward and perpendicular to the plane of the coil and the force on the arm CD is in just in the opposite direction. The forces on the arms AB and CD being equal and opposite form an anticlockwise couple, due to which the coil begins to rotate. It rotates in such a way that the arm AB goes in and the arm CD comes out. When the coil reaches the vertical position, the couple becomes zero since the forces on the arms now become collinear. But due to the inertia of motion, the coil does not stop in this position. As the coil passes from the vertical the split ring S1 comes in contact with the brush B2, while the split ring S2 comes in contact with the brush B1. Now the current flows through

the coil in the direction DCBA and the forces acting on the arms DC and AB of the coil again form an anticlockwise, couple due to which the coil remains rotating in the same direction. Thus, whenever the coil comes in the vertical position, the direction of the current through the coil reverses and the coil continues to rotate in the same direction. The deflecting couple on the coil is maximum when the plane of the coil is parallel to the direction of the magnetic field and the deflecting couple is minimum when the plane of the coil is perpendicular to the magnet field. The speed of rotation of the coil depends on the deflecting couple acting on the coil. Hence the speed of rotation of the coil can be increased by, increasing the number of turns of the coil increasing the strength of the current increasing the area of the coil increasing the strength of the magnetic field. The electric generator is a machine for producing electric current. The electric generator or dynamo converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.

DC Generator Principle

The generator is an application of electromagnetic induction. It works on the principle that when a wire is moved in a magnetic field, then the current is induced in the coil. A rectangular coil is made to rotate rapidly in the magnetic field between the poles of a horse shoe type magnet. When the coil rotates, it cuts the lines of magnetic force, due to which a current is produced in the generator coil. This current can be used to run the various electrical appliances. Construction A simple D.C. generator consists of a rectangular coil ABCD which can be rotated rapidly between the poles N and S of a strong horse-shoe type magnet M. The generator coil is made of a large number of turns of insulated copper wire. The two ends of the coil are connected to the two copper half rings (or split rings) R1 and R2 of a commutator. There are two carbon brushes B1 and B2 which press lightly against the two half rings. When the coil is rotated, the two half rings R1 and R2 touch the two carbon brushes B1 and B2 one by one. So the current produced in the rotating coil can be tapped out through the commutator half rings and into the carbon brushes. From the carbon brushes B1 and B2 we can supply current into various electrical appliances like radio, television, electric bulb etc. Working Let us suppose that the generator coil ABCD is initially in the horizontal position. As the coil rotates in the anticlockwise direction between the pole N and S of the magnet the side AB of the coil moves down cutting the magnetic lines of force near the N-pole of the magnet and side DC moves up, cutting the lines of force near the S-pole of the magnet. Due to this, induced current is produced in the sides AB and DC of the coil. On applying Fleming's right hand rule to the sides AB and DC of the coil we find that the currents in them are in the directions B to A and D to C respectively. Thus the induced currents in the two sides of the coil are in the same direction and we get an effective induced current in the direction BADC. Due to this the brush B1 becomes the positive pole and brush B2 becomes the negative pole of the generator. After half revolution, the sides AB and DC of the coil will interchange their positions. The side AB will come on the right hand side and starts moving up whereas side DC will come on the

left hand side and start moving down. But when sides of the coil interchange their positions, then the two commutator half rings R1 and R2 automatically change their contacts from one carbon brush to the other. Due to this change, the current keeps flowing in the same direction. Thus a DC generator supplies a current only in one direction. If the current flows always in the same direction, it is called 'direct current'. Direction current is represented as DC or dc. The current derived from a cell or a battery is direct current since it is unidirectional. The positive and negative terminals are fixed. If the current changes direction after equal intervals of time, it is called alternating current. Alternating current can be written as AC or ac. Most of the power stations generate alternating current. The following are the circuit elements representing dc and ac.

The difference can be learnt by drawing voltage-time

graph. The DC sources are described only in turns of the steady voltage and AC sources are described with maximum voltage and the frequency with which the voltage varies. Magnetic Field Basics

Magnetic fields are different from electric fields. Although both types of fields are interconnected, they do different things. The idea of magnetic field lines and magnetic fields was first examined by Michael Faraday and later by James Clerk Maxwell. Both of these English scientists made great discoveries in the field of electromagnetism.

Magnetic fields are areas where an object exhibits a magnetic influence. The fields affect neighboring objects along things called magnetic field lines. A magnetic object can attract or push away another magnetic object. You also need to remember that magnetic forces are NOT related to gravity. The amount of gravity is based on an object's mass, while magnetic strength is based on the material that the object is made of.

If you place an object in a magnetic field, it will be affected, and the effect will happen along field lines.

Many classroom experiments watch small pieces of iron (Fe) line up around magnets along the field lines. Magnetic poles are the points where the magnetic field lines begin and end. Field lines converge or come together at the poles. You have probably heard of the poles of the Earth. Those poles are places where our planets field lines come together. We call those poles north and south because that's where they're located on Earth. All magnetic objects have field lines and poles. It can be as small as an atom or as large as a star.

Attracted and Repulsed You know about charged particles. There are positive and negative charges. You also know that positive charges are attracted to negative charges. A French scientist named Andre-Marie Ampere studied the

relationship between electricity and magnetism. He discovered that magnetic fields are produced by moving charges (current). And moving charges are affected by magnets. Stationary charges, on the other hand, do not produce magnetic fields, and are not affected by magnets. Two wires, with current flowing, when placed next to each other, may attract or repel like two magnets. It all has to do with moving charges. Earth's Magnetic Field Magnets are simple examples of natural magnetic fields. But guess what? The Earth has a huge magnetic field. Because the core of our planet is filled with molten iron (Fe), there is a large field that protects the Earth from space radiation and particles such as the solar wind. When you look at tiny magnets, they are working in a similar way. The magnet has a field around it.

As noted earlier, current in wires produces a magnetic

effect. You can increase the strength of that magnetic field by increasing the current through the wire. We can use this principle to make artificial, adjustable magnets called electromagnets, by making coils of wire, and then passing current through the coils.

Flowing Electrons Electric current is very similar to a flowing river. The river flows from one spot to another and the speed it moves is the speed of the current. The size of the current flow is related more to the size of the river than it is to the speed of the river. A river carries more water each second than a stream, even if both flow at the same speed. With electricity, current is a measure of the amount of charge transferred over a period of time.

Current is a flow of electrons, or individual negative charges. When charge flows, it carries energy that can be used to do work. Scientists measure current with

units called amperes. Current and Heat One of the results of current is the heating of the conductor. When an electric stove heats up, it's because of the flow of current. The electrons have a mass (however small), and when they move through the conductor, there are collisions that produce heat. The more electrons bumping into the atoms of the conductor, the more heat is created, so higher current generally means greater heat.

Scientists used to think that the flow of current always

heated up the object, but with modern superconductors, that is not always true, or at least not as true as with normal materials. Superconducting materials seem to have less interaction between atoms and current, so the moving charges lose much less energy.

Spaces Between Atoms Everything that is matter can conduct electricity, but not everything does it well. Scientists use the terms conductors, insulators, and semi-conductors. The labels are used to describe how easily energy is transferred through the object by moving charge. The spaces between the atoms, as well as the type of atoms,

determines whether an object a good conductor or a good insulator (poor conductor). Usable Current There are two main kinds of electric current, direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC). They are easy to remember. Direct current is a flow of charge always in one direction. Alternating current is a flow of charge back and forth, changing its direction many times in one second. Batteries produce DC current, while the outlets in our homes use AC current.