Training Report On CCNA (Cisco Certified Network Associate)

A PRACTICAL TRAINING REPORT
ON
CCNA
Submitted in the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Technology
in Computer Science & Enginnering
SUBMITTED TO:Mr. Deepak Goyal Associate Professor & Head CSE Department VCE, ROHTAK
SUBMITTED BY:Pankaj Gill 11/CSE/168 VCE, ROHTAK
VAISH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

(Affiliated to Maharshi Dayanand University, Rohtak) ROHTAK 124001 JULY-AUG-2013
Certificate
This is to certify that practical training report entitle CCNA done by Mr. Pankaj Gill, Roll No. 11/CSE/168 of Vaish College of Engineering, Rohtak towards partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in C.S.E is a bonafide record of the work carried out by him under My Supervision and Guidance.
Date: Place:
AUTHORISED SIGNATORY
Acknowledgement
I take this opportunity to express my profound gratitude and deep regards to my guide Mr. Amit Singh & HCL CDC for his exemplary guidance, monitoring and constant encouragement throughout the course of this training. The blessing, help and guidance given by him, time to time shall carry me a long way in the journey of life on which I am about to embark.
I also take this opportunity to express a deep sense of gratitude to HOD Sir & All Faculty Members of Department of Computer Science & Engineering, Rohtak for their cordial support, valuable information and guidance, which helped me in completing this task through various stages.
I am obliged to staff members of Computer Department, for the valuable information provided by them in their respective fields. I am grateful for their cooperation during the period of my Project. Lastly, I thank almighty, my parents, brother, sisters and friends for their constant encouragement without which this assignment would not be possible.
Pankaj Gill 11/CSE/168 C.S.E
Certificate Acknowledgement
Project Description 1. Basic Networking

1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10
What is Network? What is Topology? Categories of Network Network Architectures Protocols Transmission Media Ethernet Products Types of Servers IP Addressing Examining your Network with Commands
INDEX
Page No.
4 6 13 16 18 20 26 31 33 36
2.
DNS(Domain Name Servers)

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Introduction Operations DNS Server Installation DNS Server Configuration Managing DNS Records Disabling DNS Recursion 40 43 46 50 54 58
3.
LAN Solution
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 LAN Solution Specification Sheet Router Routing Protocols 60 62 64 69
4.
Firewall
4.1 4.2 Introduction Configuring the Firewall 73 74
5. 6.
Intrusion Detection System(IDS)

5.1 Introduction 77
WAN Solution
6.1 6.2 Requirement Solution 80 80
7.
WLAN(Wireless LAN)
7.1 7.2 Introduction Topologies 82 83
8.
Integrated Service Digital Network(ISDN)

8.1 8.2 8.3 Introduction ISDN Interfaces ISDN Function Group & Reference Points 86 87 88
TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA
2013
Project Description
CCNA (Cisco Certified Network Associate) is a certification from Cisco. CCNA certification is a first-level Cisco Career certification. CCNA certification validates the ability to install, configure, operate, and troubleshoot medium-size routed and switched networks, including implementation and verification of connections to remote sites in a WAN. To achieve CCNA certification, one must earn a passing score on Cisco exam #200-120, or combined passing scores on both the ICND1 #100-101 and ICND2 #200-101 exams. Passing the ICND1 grants one the Cisco Certified Entry Networking Technician (CCENT) certification. Passing scores are set by using statistical analysis and are subject to change. At the completion of the exam, candidates receive a score report along with a score breakout by exam section and the passing score for the given exam. Cisco does not publish exam passing scores because exam questions and passing scores are subject to change without notice. The 200-120 CCNA is the composite exam associated with the Cisco Certified Network Associate certification. This exam tests a candidate's knowledge and skills required to install, operate, and troubleshoot a small to medium size enterprise branch network. The topics include connecting to a WAN; implementing network security; network types; network media; routing and switching fundamentals; the TCP/IP and OSI models; IP addressing; WAN technologies; operating and configuring IOS devices; extending switched networks with VLANs; determining IP routes; managing IP traffic with access lists; establishing point-topoint connections; and establishing Frame Relay connections. The exams themselves include a mixture of question types. Multiple choice, drag and drop, testlets, and simulations are the most common.
The Available Exams

To receive the CCNA certification, one must pass either:

the ICND1 Exam (100-101) and the ICND2 (200-101) the combined CCNA Exam (200-120)
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The Material Covered In Each Exam

The ICND1 covers "Network Types, Network Media, Switching Fundamentals, TCP/IP, IP Addressing and Routing, WAN Technologies, Operating and Configuring IOS Devices, and Managing Network Environments." The ICND2 covers "Extending Switched Networks with VLANS, Determining IP Routes, Managing IP traffic with Access Lists, Establishing Point-to-Point connections, and Establishing Frame Relay Connections." The combined CCNA covers all topics covered under the ICND1 and ICND2.
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CCNA TRAINING REPORT
1. BASIC NETWORKING
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 What is Network? What is Topology? Categories of Network Network Architectures Protocols Transmission Media Ethernet Products Types of Servers IP Addressing Examining your Network with Commands 4 6 13 16 18 20 26 31 33 36
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1.1
What is a Network?
A network is any collection of independent computers that communicate with one another over a shared network medium. A computer network is a collection of two or more connected computers. When these computers are joined in a network, people can share files and peripherals such as modems, printers, tape backup drives, or CD-ROM drives. When networks at multiple locations are connected using services available from phone companies, people can send e-mail, share links to the global Internet, or conduct video conferences in real time with other remote users. As companies rely on applications like electronic mail and database management for core business operations, computer networking becomes increasingly more important.
Every network includes:

At least two computers Server or Client workstation. Networking Interface Card's (NIC) A connection medium, usually a wire or cable, although wireless communication between networked computers and peripherals is also possible. Network Operating system software, such as Microsoft Windows NT or 2000, Novell NetWare, Unix and Linux.
Very common types of networks include:

1. 2. 3. 4. 1. Local Area Network (LAN) Wide Area Network (WAN) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) Personal Area Network (PAN) Local Area Network
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that is confined to a relatively small area. It is generally limited to a geographic area such as a writing lab, school, or building. Computers connected to a network are broadly categorized as servers or workstations. Servers are generally not used by humans directly, but rather run continuously to provide "services" to the other computers (and their human users) on the network. Services provided can include printing and faxing, software hosting, file storage and sharing, messaging, data storage and retrieval, complete access control (security) for the network's resources, and many others. On a single LAN, computers and servers may be connected by cables or wirelessly. Wireless access to a wired network is made possible by wireless access points (WAPs). These WAP
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2. Wide Area Network
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devices provide a bridge between computers and networks. A typical WAP might have the theoretical capacity to connect hundreds or even thousands of wireless users to a network, although practical capacity might be far less.
Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect networks in larger geographic areas, such as Florida, the United States, or the world. Dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used to connect this type of global network. Using a WAN, schools in Florida can communicate with places like Tokyo in a matter of seconds, without paying enormous phone bills. Two users a half-world apart with workstations equipped with microphones and a webcams might teleconference in real time. A WAN is complicated. It uses multiplexers, bridges, and routers to connect local and metropolitan networks to global communications networks like the Internet. To users, however, a WAN will not appear to be much different than a LAN. 3. Metropolitan area network
A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a computer network in which two or more computers or communicating devices or networks which are geographically separated but in same metropolitan city and are connected to each other are said to be connected on MAN. The limits of Metropolitan cities are determined by local municipal corporations and we cannot define them. Hence, the bigger the Metropolitan city the bigger the MAN, smaller a metro city smaller the MAN. The IEEE 802-2002 standard describes a MAN as being. 4. Personal area network
A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used or communication among computerized devices, including telephones and personal digital assistants. PANs can be used for communication among the personal devices themselves (intrapersonal communication), or for connecting to a higher level network and the Internet (an uplink). A wireless personal area network (WPAN) is a PAN carried over wireless network technologies such as IrDA, Wireless USB, Bluetooth, Z-Wave, ZigBee, or even Body Area Network. The reach of a WPAN varies from a few centimeters to a few meters. A PAN may also be carried over wired computer buses such as USB and FireWire. 5. VPN (Virtual Private Network)
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VPN uses a technique known as tunneling to transfer data securely on the Internet to a remote access server on your workplace network. Using a VPN helps you save money by using the public Internet instead of making longdistance phone calls to connect securely with your private network. There are two ways to create a VPN connection, by dialing an Internet service provider (ISP), or connecting directly to Internet.
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1.2
What is a Topology?
The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals. Physical topology should not be confused with logical topology which is the method used to pass information between workstations. Logical topology was discussed in the Protocol chapter.
Main Types of Physical Topologies

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Linear Bus Topology Ring Topology Star Topology Mesh Topology Tree (Expanded Star) Topology Hybrid Topology
1.
Linear Bus Topology
A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator at each end. All nodes (file server, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the linear cable.
Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus. Requires less cable length than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable. Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable. Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down. Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.
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2. Ring Topology
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Alternatively referred to as a ring network, the ring topology is a computer network configuration where each network computer and devices are connected to each other forming a large circle (or similar shape). Each packet is sent around the ring until it reaches its final destination. Today, the ring topology is seldom used. Below is a visual example of a simple computer setup on a network using a ring topology.
Advantages of Ring Topology This type of network topology is very organized. Each node gets to send the data when it receives an empty token. This helps to reduces chances of collision. Also in ring topology all the traffic flows in only one direction at very high speed. Even when the load on the network increases, its performance is better than that of Bus topology. There is no need for network server to control the connectivity between workstations. Additional components do not affect the performance of network. Each computer has equal access to resources.
Disadvantages of Ring Topology Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and destination. This makes it slower than Star topology. If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected. Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components. MAUs and network cards are expensive as compared to Ethernet cards and hubs.
3.
Star Topology
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A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals) connected directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator.
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Data on a star network passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to its destination. The hub, switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is common with twisted pair cable; however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or fiber optic cable.
Advantages of a Star Topology Easy to install and wire. No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices. Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology Requires more cable length than a linear topology. If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled. More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs, etc.
4.
Mesh Topology
A network setup where each computer and network device is interconnected with one another, allowing for most transmissions to be distributed, even if one of the connections goes down. This topology is not commonly used for most computer networks as it is difficult and expensive to have redundant connection to every computer. However, this topology is commonly used for wireless networks. Below is a visual example of a simple computer setup on a network using a mesh topology.
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Advantages of Mesh topology Data can be transmitted from different devices simultaneously. This topology can withstand high traffic. Even if one of the components fails there is always an alternative present. So data transfer doesnt get affected. Expansion and modification in topology can be done without disrupting other nodes.
Disadvantages of Mesh topology There are high chances of redundancy in many of the network connections. Overall cost of this network is way too high as compared to other network topologies. Set-up and maintenance of this topology is very difficult. Even administration of the network is tough.
5.
Tree or Expanded Star
A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable. Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to configure a network to meet their needs.
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Advantages of a Tree Topology Point-to-point wiring for individual segments. Supported by several hardware and software venders.
Disadvantages of a Tree Topology Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used. If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down. More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.
6.
Hybrid Topology
In this type of topology we integrate two or more different topologies to form a resultant topology which has good points (as well as weaknesses) of all the constituent basic topologies rather than having characteristics of one specific topology. This combination of topologies is done according to the requirements of the organization. For example, if there exists a ring topology in one office department while a bus topology in another department, connecting these two will result in Hybrid topology. Remember connecting two similar topologies cannot be termed as Hybrid topology. Star-Ring and StarBus networks are most common examples of hybrid network. Let's see the benefits and drawbacks of this networking architecture
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Advantages of Hybrid Network Topology Reliable: Unlike other networks, fault detection and troubleshooting is easy in this type of topology. The part in which fault is detected can be isolated from the rest of network and required corrective measures can be taken, WITHOUT affecting the functioning of rest of the network. Scalable: Its easy to increase the size of network by adding new components, without disturbing existing architecture. Flexible: Hybrid Network can be designed according to the requirements of the organization and by optimizing the available resources. Special care can be given to nodes where traffic is high as well as where chances of fault are high. Effective: Hybrid topology is the combination of two or more topologies, so we can design it in such a way that strengths of constituent topologies are maximized while there weaknesses are neutralized. For example we saw Ring Topology has good data reliability (achieved by use of tokens) and Star topology has high tolerance capability (as each node is not directly connected to other but through central device), so these two can be used effectively in hybrid star-ring topology.
Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology Complexity of Design: One of the biggest drawbacks of hybrid topology is its design. Its not easy to design this type of architecture and its a tough job for designers. Configuration and installation process needs to be very efficient. Costly Hub: The hubs used to connect two distinct networks, are very expensive. These hubs are different from usual hubs as they need to be intelligent enough to work with different architectures and should be function even if a part of network is down.
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Costly Infrastructure: As hybrid architectures are usually larger in scale, they require a lot of cables; cooling systems, sophisticate network devices, etc.
Considerations When Choosing a Topology

1. Money: A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network; you do not have to purchase concentrators. 2. Length: Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable. 3. Future growth: With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another concentrator. 4. Cable type: The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most often used with star topologies.
Summary Chart
Physical Topology Linear Bus Star Tree Common Cable Twisted Pair or Coaxial Fiber Twisted Pair or Fiber Twisted Pair or Coaxial Fiber Common Protocol Ethernet Ethernet Ethernet
Collisions
Ethernet is a shared media, so there are rules for sending packets of data to avoid conflicts and protect data integrity. Nodes determine when the network is available for sending packets. It is possible that two nodes at different locations attempt to send data at the same time. When both PCs are transferring a packet to the network at the same time, a collision will result.
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1.3
Categories of Network
Network can be divided in to two main categories: 1. Peer-to-peer. 2. Server based.
In peer-to-peer networking there are no dedicated servers or hierarchy among the computers. All of the computers are equal and therefore known as peers. Normally each computer serves as Client/Server and there is no one assigned to be an administrator responsible for the entire network.
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Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for needs of small organizations where the users are allocated in the same general area, security is not an issue and the organization and the network will have limited growth within the foreseeable future. The term Client/server refers to the concept of sharing the work involved in processing data between the client computer and the most powerful server computer. The client/server network is the most efficient way to provide: Databases and management of applications such as Spreadsheets, Accounting, Communications and Document management. Network management. Centralized file storage.
The client/server model is basically an implementation of distributed or cooperative processing. At the heart of the model is the concept of splitting application functions between a client and a server processor. The division of labor between the different processors enables the application designer to place an application function on the processor that is most appropriate for that function. This lets the software designer optimize the use of processors--providing the greatest possible return on investment for the hardware. Client/server application design also lets the application provider mask the actual location of application function. The user often does not know where a specific operation is executing. The entire function may execute in either the PC or server, or the function may be split between them. This masking of application function locations enables system implementers to upgrade portions of a system over time with a minimum disruption of application operations, while protecting the investment in existing hardware and software.
The OSI Model:

Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model has become an International standard and serves as a guide for networking. This model is the best known and most widely used guide to describe networking environments. Vendors design network products based on the specifications of the OSI model. It provides a description of how network hardware and software work together in a layered fashion to make communications possible. It also helps with trouble shooting by providing a frame of reference that describes how components are supposed to function.
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There are seven to get familiar with and these are the physical layer, data link layer, network layer, transport layer, session layer, presentation layer, and the application layer. 1. Physical Layer, is just that the physical parts of the network such as wires, cables, and there media along with the length. Also this layer takes note of the electrical signals that transmit data throughout system. 2. Data Link Layer, this layer is where we actually assign meaning to the electrical signals in the network. The layer also determines the size and format of data sent to printers, and other devices. Also I don't want to forget that these are also called nodes in the network. 3. Network Layer, this layer provides the definition for the connection of two dissimilar networks. 4. Transport Layer, this layer allows data to be broken into smaller packages for data to be distributed and addressed to other nodes (workstations). 5. Session Layer, this layer helps out with the task to carry information from one node (workstation) to another node (workstation). A session has to be made before we can transport information to another computer. 6. Presentation Layer, this layer is responsible to code and decode data sent to the node. 7. Application Layer, this layer allows you to use an application that will communicate with say the operation system of a server. A good example would be using your web browser to interact with the operating system on a server such as Windows NT, which in turn gets the data you requested.
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1.4
1.
Network Architectures
Ethernet
Ethernet is the most popular physical layer LAN technology in use today. Other LAN types include Token Ring, Fast Ethernet, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) and LocalTalk. Ethernet is popular because it strikes a good balance between speed, cost and ease of installation. These benefits, combined with wide acceptance in the computer marketplace and the ability to support virtually all popular network protocols, make Ethernet an ideal networking technology for most computer users today. The Institute for Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) defines the Ethernet standard as IEEE Standard 802.3. This standard defines rules for configuring an Ethernet network as well as specifying how elements in an Ethernet network interact with one another. By adhering to the IEEE standard, network equipment and network protocols can communicate efficiently. 2. Fast Ethernet
For Ethernet networks that need higher transmission speeds, the Fast Ethernet standard (IEEE 802.3u) has been established. This standard raises the Ethernet speed limit from 10 Megabits per second (Mbps) to 100 Mbps with only minimal changes to the existing cable structure. There are three types of Fast Ethernet: 100BASE-TX for use with level 5 UTP cable, 100BASE-FX for use with fiber-optic cable, and 100BASE-T4 which utilizes an extra two wires for use with level 3 UTP cable. The 100BASE-TX standard has become the most popular due to its close compatibility with the 10BASE-T Ethernet standard. For the network manager, the incorporation of Fast Ethernet into an existing configuration presents a host of decisions. Managers must determine the number of users in each site on the network that need the higher throughput, decide which segments of the backbone need to be reconfigured specifically for 100BASE-T and then choose the necessary hardware to connect the 100BASE-T segments with existing 10BASE-T segments. Gigabit Ethernet is a future technology that promises a migration path beyond Fast Ethernet so the next generation of networks will support even higher data transfer speeds.
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3. Token Ring
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Token Ring is another form of network configuration which differs from Ethernet in that all messages are transferred in a unidirectional manner along the ring at all times. Data is transmitted in tokens, which are passed along the ring and viewed by each device. When a device sees a message addressed to it, that device copies the message and then marks that message as being read. As the message makes its way along the ring, it eventually gets back to the sender who now notes that the message was received by the intended device. The sender can then remove the message and free that token for use by others. Various PC vendors have been proponents of Token Ring networks at different times and thus these types of networks have been implemented in many organizations. 4. FDDI
FDDI (Fiber-Distributed Data Interface) is a standard for data transmission on fiber optic lines in a local area network that can extend in range up to 200 km (124 miles). The FDDI protocol is based on the token ring protocol. In addition to being large geographically, an FDDI local area network can support thousands of users.
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1.5
Protocols
Network protocols are standards that allow computers to communicate. A protocol defines how computers identify one another on a network, the form that the data should take in transit, and how this information is processed once it reaches its final destination. Protocols also define procedures for handling lost or damaged transmissions or "packets." TCP/IP (for UNIX, Windows NT, Windows 95 and other platforms), IPX (for Novell NetWare), DECnet (for networking Digital Equipment Corp. computers), AppleTalk (for Macintosh computers), and NetBIOS/NetBEUI (for LAN Manager and Windows NT networks) are the main types of network protocols in use today. Although each network protocol is different, they all share the same physical cabling. This common method of accessing the physical network allows multiple protocols to peacefully coexist over the network media, and allows the builder of a network to use common hardware for a variety of protocols. This concept is known as "protocol independence," Some Important Protocols and their job: Protocol Transmission Control Protocol/internet Protocol Internetwork Package Exchange/Sequenced Packet Exchange NetBIOS Extended User Interface File Transfer Protocol Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Secured Hyper Text Transfer Protocol Network File Services Acronym Its Job TCP/IP The backbone protocol of the internet. Popular also for intranets using the internet IPX/SPX This is a standard protocol for Novell Network Operating System NetBEUI FTP HTTP HTTPS This is a Microsoft protocol that doesn't support routing to other networks Used to send and receive files from a remote host Used for the web to send documents that is encoded in HTML. Information transfer is encrypted and secured to encrypted information. Allows network nodes or workstations to access files and drives as if they were their own. Used to send Email over a network Used to connect to a host and emulate a terminal that the remote server can recognize This protocol is used for transferring or downloading mails to your local system. So, that you can view/compose mails offline. This is secured version of POP.
NFS
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Telnet
SMTP
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Internet Message Access Protocol
IMAP4
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Post Office Protocol
POP

Routing Information Protocol RIP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol DHCP
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It is a protocol that is used to communicate b/w multiple routers for data transmission at a long distance. This protocol is used for assignment of dynamic IP address to the host systems.
Introduction to TCP/IP Networks:

TCP/IP-based networks play an increasingly important role in computer networks. Perhaps one reason for their appeal is that they are based on an open specification that is not controlled by any vendor.
What Is TCP/IP?
TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol and IP stands for Internet Protocol. The term TCP/IP is not limited just to these two protocols, however. Frequently, the term TCP/IP is used to refer to a group of protocols related to the TCP and IP protocols such as the User Datagram Protocol (UDP), File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Terminal Emulation Protocol (TELNET), and so on.
The Origins of TCP/IP

In the late 1960s, DARPA (the Defense Advanced Research Project Agency), in the United States, noticed that there was a rapid proliferation of computers in military communications. Computers, because they can be easily programmed, provide flexibility in achieving network functions that is not available with other types of communications equipment. The computers then used in military communications were manufactured by different vendors and were designed to interoperate with computers from that vendor only. Vendors used proprietary protocols in their communications equipment. The military had a multi vendor network but no common protocol to support the heterogeneous equipment from different vendors
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1.6
Transmission Media
Transmission Media is of two types: 1. Wired 2. Wireless
1.
Wired Transmission
Cable is the medium through which information usually moves from one network device to another. There are several types of cable which are commonly used with LANs. In some cases, a network will utilize only one type of cable, other networks will use a variety of cable types. The type of cable chosen for a network is related to the network's topology, protocol, and size. Understanding the characteristics of different types of cable and how they relate to other aspects of a network is necessary for the development of a successful network. The following are the wired mediums: Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Cable Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable Coaxial Cable Fiber Optic Cable
Twisted pair cabling comes in two varieties: shielded and unshielded. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) is the most popular and is generally the best option for school networks.
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The quality of UTP may vary from telephone-grade wire to extremely high-speed cable. The cable has four pairs of wires inside the jacket. Each pair is twisted with a different number of twists per inch to help eliminate interference from adjacent pairs and other electrical devices. The tighter the twisting, the higher the supported transmission rate and the greater the cost per foot. The EIA/TIA (Electronic Industry Association/Telecommunication Industry Association) has established standards of UTP and rated six categories of wire (additional categories are emerging). Categories of Unshielded Twisted Pair Category 1 2 3 4 5 5e 6 Speed 1 Mbps 4 Mbps 16 Mbps 20 Mbps 100 Mbps (2 pair) 1000 Mbps (4 pair) 1,000 Mbps 10,000 Mbps Use Voice Only (Telephone Wire) LocalTalk & Telephone (Rarely used) 10BaseT Ethernet Token Ring (Rarely used) 100BaseT Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet Gigabit Ethernet
Unshielded Twisted Pair Cabling Standards Cat 1 : Currently unrecognized by TIA/EIA. Previously used for POTS telephone communications, ISDN and doorbell wiring. Cat 2 : Currently unrecognized by TIA/EIA. Previously was frequently used on 4 Mbit/s token ring networks. Cat 3 : Currently defined in TIA/EIA-568-B; used for data networks utilizing frequencies up to 16MHz. Historically popular for 10 Mbit/s Ethernet networks. Cat 4 : Currently unrecognized by TIA/EIA. Provided performance of up to 20 MHz, and was frequently used on 16 Mbit/s token ring networks. Cat 5 : Currently unrecognized by TIA/EIA. Provided performance of up to 100 MHz, and was frequently used on 100 Mbit/s Ethernet networks. May be unsuitable for 1000BASE-T gigabit Ethernet. Cat 5e : Currently defined in TIA/EIA-568-B. Provides performance of up to 100 MHz, and is frequently used for both 100 Mbit/s and gigabit Ethernet networks. Cat 6 : Currently defined in TIA/EIA-568-B. Provides performance of up to 250 MHz, more than double category 5 and 5e. Cat 6a : Future specification for 10 Gbit/s applications. Cat 7 : An informal name applied to ISO/IEC 11801 Class F cabling. This standard specifies four individually-shielded pairs (STP) inside an overall shield. Designed for transmission at frequencies up to 600 MHzs.
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1.
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Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector
The standard connector for unshielded twisted pair cabling is an RJ-45 connector. This is a plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style connector. A slot allows the RJ-45 to be inserted only one way. RJ stands for Registered Jack, implying that the connector follows a standard borrowed from the telephone industry. This standard designates which wire goes with each pin inside the connector.
RJ-45 connector
2.
Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable
Although UTP cable is the least expensive cable, it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency interference (it should not be too close to electric motors, fluorescent lights, etc.). If you must place cable in environments with lots of potential interference, or if you must place cable in extremely sensitive environments that may be susceptible to the electrical current in the UTP, shielded twisted pair may be the solution. Shielded cables can also help to extend the maximum distance of the cables. Shielded twisted pair cable is available in three different configurations: Each pair of wires is individually shielded with foil. There is a foil or braid shield inside the jacket covering all wires (as a group).
There is a shield around each individual pair, as well as around the entire group of wires (referred to as double shield twisted pair).
3.
Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cabling has a single copper conductor at its center. A plastic layer provides insulation between the center conductor and a braided metal shield. The metal shield helps to block any outside interference from fluorescent lights, motors, and other computers.
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Coaxial cable
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Although coaxial cabling is difficult to install, it is highly resistant to signal interference. In addition, it can support greater cable lengths between network devices than twisted pair cable. The two types of coaxial cabling are thick coaxial and thin coaxial. Thin coaxial cable is also referred to as thinnet. 10Base2 refers to the specifications for thin coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 2 refers to the approximate maximum segment length being 200 meters. In actual fact the maximum segment length is 185 meters. Thin coaxial cable has been popular in school networks, especially linear bus networks. Thick coaxial cable is also referred to as thicknet. 10Base5 refers to the specifications for thick coaxial cable carrying Ethernet signals. The 5 refers to the maximum segment length being 500 meters. Thick coaxial cable has an extra protective plastic cover that helps keep moisture away from the center conductor. This makes thick coaxial a great choice when running longer lengths in a linear bus network. One disadvantage of thick coaxial is that it does not bend easily and is difficult to install. Coaxial Cable Connectors The most common type of connector used with coaxial cables is the Bayone-NeillConcelman (BNC) connector. Different types of adapters are available for BNC connectors, including a T-connector, barrel connector, and terminator. Connectors on the cable are the weakest points in any network. To help avoid problems with your network, always use the BNC connectors that crimp, rather screw, onto the cable.
BNC connector
4.
Fiber Optic Cable
Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective materials. It transmits light rather than electronic signals eliminating the problem of electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference. It has also made it the standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the effects of moisture and lighting. Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals over much longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the capability to carry information at vastly greater speeds. This capacity broadens communication possibilities to include services such as video conferencing and interactive services. The cost of fiber optic cabling is comparable to copper
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cabling; however, it is more difficult to install and modify. 10BaseF refers to the specifications for fiber optic cable carrying Ethernet signals. The center core of fiber cables is made from glass or plastic fibers (see fig 5). A plastic coating then cushions the fiber center, and kevlar fibers help to strengthen the cables and prevent breakage. The outer insulating jacket made of teflon or PVC.
Fiber optic cable
There are two common types of fiber cables -- single mode and multimode. Multimode cable has a larger diameter; however, both cables provide high bandwidth at high speeds. Single mode can provide more distance, but it is more expensive. Specification 10BaseT 10Base2 10Base5 100BaseT 100BaseFX 100BaseBX 100BaseSX 1000BaseT 1000BaseFX 1000BaseBX 1000BaseSX Cable Type Unshielded Twisted Pair Thin Coaxial Thick Coaxial Unshielded Twisted Pair Fiber Optic Single mode Fiber Multimode Fiber Unshielded Twisted Pair Fiber Optic Single mode Fiber Multimode Fiber
Installing Cable - Some Guidelines

When running cable, it is best to follow a few simple rules: 1. Always use more cable than you need. Leave plenty of slack. 2. Test every part of a network as you install it. Even if it is brand new, it may have problems that will be difficult to isolate later. 3. Stay at least 3 feet away from fluorescent light boxes and other sources of electrical interference. 4. If it is necessary to run cable across the floor, cover the cable with cable protectors. 5. Label both ends of each cable. 6. Use cable ties (not tape) to keep cables in the same location together.
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Ethernet Cable Connectors
There are two types of Ethernet Cables: 1. Straight Cable : 2. Cross Cable :
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8P8C - 8 positions, 8 conductor modular connector. Incorrectly referred to as RJ45. Cables available assembled, or connectors may be crimped on cable.
To connect different kinds of devices. Eg, Switch to System, To connect similar kinds of devices. Eg, System to System
Ethernet RJ45 Pin Configurations
T568B RJ45 Connection
Eight connections consist of four wire pairs. Pairs are solid and stripe of same color. Two pin configurations, T568A and T568B, which are interoperable.
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1.7
The standards and technology that have just been discussed help define the specific products that network managers use to build Ethernet networks. The following text discusses the key products needed to build an Ethernet LAN.
Ethernet Products
Transceivers
Transceivers are used to connect nodes to the various Ethernet media. Most computers and network interface cards contain a built-in 10BASE-T or 10BASE2 transceiver, allowing them to be connected directly to Ethernet without requiring an external transceiver. Many Ethernet devices provide an AUI connector to allow the user to connect to any media type via an external transceiver. The AUI connector consists of a 15-pin D-shell type connector, female on the computer side, male on the transceiver side. Thickwire (10BASE5) cables also use transceivers to allow connections. For Fast Ethernet networks, a new interface called the MII (Media Independent Interface) was developed to offer a flexible way to support 100 Mbps connections. The MII is a popular way to connect 100BASE-FX links to copper-based Fast Ethernet devices.
Network Interface Cards

Network interface cards, commonly referred to as NICs, and are used to connect a PC to a network. The NIC provides a physical connection between the networking cable and the computer's internal bus. Different computers have different bus architectures; PCI bus master slots are most commonly found on 486/Pentium PCs and ISA expansion slots are commonly found on 386 and older PCs. NICs come in three basic varieties: 8bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit. The larger the number of bits that can be transferred to the NIC, the faster the NIC can transfer data to the network cable. Many NIC adapters comply with Plug-n-Play specifications. On these systems, NICs are automatically configured without user intervention, while on non-Plug-n-Play systems, configuration is done manually through a setup program and/or DIP switches. Cards are available to support almost all networking standards, including the latest Fast Ethernet environment. Fast Ethernet NICs are often 10/100 capable, and will automatically
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Hubs/Repeaters
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set to the appropriate speed. Full duplex networking is another option, where a dedicated connection to a switch allows a NIC to operate at twice the speed.
Hubs/repeaters are used to connect together two or more Ethernet segments of any media type. In larger designs, signal quality begins to deteriorate as segments exceed their maximum length. Hubs provide the signal amplification required to allow a segment to be extended a greater distance. A hub takes any incoming signal and repeats it out all ports. Ethernet hubs are necessary in star topologies such as 10BASE-T. A multi-port twisted pair hub allows several point-to-point segments to be joined into one network. One end of the point-to-point link is attached to the hub and the other is attached to the computer. If the hub is attached to a backbone, then all computers at the end of the twisted pair segments can communicate with all the hosts on the backbone. The number and type of hubs in any one-collision domain is limited by the Ethernet rules. These repeater rules are discussed in more detail later. Network Type 10BASE-T 10BASE2 10BASE5 10BASE-FL Max Nodes Per Segment 2 30 100 2 Max Distance Per Segment 100m 185m 500m 2000m
Adding Speed
While repeaters allow LANs to extend beyond normal distance limitations, they still limit the number of nodes that can be supported. Bridges and switches, however, allow LANs to grow significantly larger by virtue of their ability to support full Ethernet segments on each port. Additionally, bridges and switches selectively filter network traffic to only those packets needed on each segment - this significantly increases throughput on each segment and on the overall network. By providing better performance and more flexibility for network topologies, bridges and switches will continue to gain popularity among network managers.
Bridges
The function of a bridge is to connect separate networks together. Bridges connect different networks types (such as Ethernet and Fast Ethernet) or networks of the same type. Bridges map the Ethernet addresses of the nodes residing on each network segment and allow only necessary traffic to pass through the bridge. When a packet is received by the bridge, the bridge determines the destination and source segments. If the segments are the same, the packet is dropped ("filtered"); if the segments are different, then the packet is "forwarded"
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to the correct segment. Additionally, bridges do not forward bad or misaligned packets. Bridges are also called "store-and-forward" devices because they look at the whole Ethernet packet before making filtering or forwarding decisions. Filtering packets and regenerating forwarded packets enable bridging technology to split a network into separate collision domains. This allows for greater distances and more repeaters to be used in the total network design.
Ethernet Switches
Ethernet switches are an expansion of the concept in Ethernet bridging. LAN switches can link four, six, ten or more networks together, and have two basic architectures: cut-through and store-and-forward. In the past, cut-through switches were faster because they examined the packet destination address only before forwarding it on to its destination segment. A store-and-forward switch, on the other hand, accepts and analyzes the entire packet before forwarding it to its destination. It takes more time to examine the entire packet, but it allows the switch to catch certain packet errors and keep them from propagating through the network. Both cut-through and store-and-forward switches separate a network into collision domains, allowing network design rules to be extended. Each of the segments attached to an Ethernet switch has a full 10 Mbps of bandwidth shared by fewer users, which results in better performance (as opposed to hubs that only allow bandwidth sharing from a single Ethernet). Newer switches today offer high-speed links, FDDI, Fast Ethernet or ATM. These are used to link switches together or give added bandwidth to high-traffic servers. A network composed of a number of switches linked together via uplinks is termed a "collapsed backbone" network.
Routers
Routers filter out network traffic by specific protocol rather than by packet address. Routers also divide networks logically instead of physically. An IP router can divide a network into various subnets so that only traffic destined for particular IP addresses can pass between segments. Network speed often decreases due to this type of intelligent forwarding. Such filtering takes more time than that exercised in a switch or bridge, which only looks at the Ethernet address. However, in more complex networks, overall efficiency is improved by using routers.
What is a Network Firewall?

A firewall is a system or group of systems that enforces an access control policy between two networks. The actual means by which this is accomplished varies widely, but in principle, the firewall can be thought of as a pair of mechanisms: one which exists to block traffic, and the other which exists to permit traffic. Some firewalls place a greater emphasis on blocking traffic, while others emphasize permitting traffic. Probably the most important
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thing to recognize about a firewall is that it implements an access control policy. If you don't have a good idea of what kind of access you want to allow or to deny, a firewall really won't help you. It's also important to recognize that the firewall's configuration, because it is a mechanism for enforcing policy, imposes its policy on everything behind it. Administrators for firewalls managing the connectivity for a large number of hosts therefore have a heavy responsibility.
Network Design Criteria

Ethernets and Fast Ethernets have design rules that must be followed in order to function correctly. Maximum number of nodes, number of repeaters and maximum segment distances are defined by the electrical and mechanical design properties of each type of Ethernet and Fast Ethernet media. A network using repeaters, for instance, functions with the timing constraints of Ethernet. Although electrical signals on the Ethernet media travel near the speed of light, it still takes a finite time for the signal to travel from one end of a large Ethernet to another. The Ethernet standard assumes it will take roughly 50 microseconds for a signal to reach its destination. Ethernet is subject to the "5-4-3" rule of repeater placement: The network can only have five segments connected; it can only use four repeaters; and of the five segments, only three can have users attached to them; the other two must be inter-repeater links. If the design of the network violates these repeater and placement rules, then timing guidelines will not be met and the sending station will resend that packet. This can lead to lost packets and excessive resent packets, which can slow network performance and create trouble for applications. Fast Ethernet has modified repeater rules, since the minimum packet size takes less time to transmit than regular Ethernet. The length of the network links allows for a fewer number of repeaters. In Fast Ethernet networks, there are two classes of repeaters. Class I repeaters have a latency of 0.7 microseconds or less and are limited to one repeater per network. Class II repeaters have a latency of 0.46 microseconds or less and are limited to two repeaters per network. The following are the distance (diameter) characteristics for these types of Fast Ethernet repeater combinations: Fast Ethernet No Repeaters One Class I Repeater One Class II Repeater Two Class II Repeaters * Full Duplex Mode 2 km Copper 100m 200m 200m 205m Fiber 412m* 272m 272m 228m
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When conditions require greater distances or an increase in the number of nodes/repeaters, then a bridge, router or switch can be used to connect multiple networks together. These
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devices join two or more separate networks, allowing network design criteria to be restored. Switches allow network designers to build large networks that function well. The reduction in costs of bridges and switches reduces the impact of repeater rules on network design. Each network connected via one of these devices is referred to as a separate collision domain in the overall network.
Comparison between Hub, Bridge, Switch & Router

Feature Hub Bridge Switch Router Number of broadcast Segment 1 1 1 per router domains interface Number of collision 1 1 per 1 per switch port 1 per router domains bridge port interface Forwards LAN 1 Yes Yes No Forwards LAN multicasts N/A Yes Yes; can be optimized for No broadcasts? less forwarding OSI layer used when making N/A Layer 2 Layer 2 Layer 3 forwarding decision Internal processing variants N/A Store- and- Store-andforward, cut- Store- andforward through, Fragment Free forward Frame/packet N/A No No Yes fragmentation allowed? Multiple concurrent equalN/A No No Yes cost paths to same destination allowed?
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1.8
1.
Types of Servers
Device Servers
A device server is defined as a specialized, network-based hardware device designed to perform a single or specialized set of server functions. It is characterized by a minimal operating architecture that requires no per seat network operating system license, and client access that is independent of any operating system or proprietary protocol. In addition the device server is a "closed box," delivering extreme ease of installation, minimal maintenance, and can be managed by the client remotely via a Web browser. Print servers, terminal servers, remote access servers and network time servers are examples of device servers which are specialized for particular functions. Each of these types of servers has unique configuration attributes in hardware or software that help them to perform best in their particular arena.
2.
Print Servers
Print servers allow printers to be shared by other users on the network. Supporting either parallel and/or serial interfaces, a print server accepts print jobs from any person on the network using supported protocols and manages those jobs on each appropriate printer. Print servers generally do not contain a large amount of memory; printers simply store information in a queue. When the desired printer becomes available, they allow the host to transmit the data to the appropriate printer port on the server. The print server can then simply queue and print each job in the order in which print requests are received, regardless of protocol used or the size of the job.
3.
Multiport Device Servers
Devices that are attached to a network through a multiport device server can be shared between terminals and hosts at both the local site and throughout the network. A single terminal may be connected to several hosts at the same time (in multiple concurrent sessions), and can switch between them. Multiport device servers are also used to network devices that have only serial outputs. A connection between serial ports on different servers is opened, allowing data to move between the two devices. Given its natural translation ability, a multi-protocol multiport device server can perform conversions between the protocols it knows, like LAT and TCP/IP. While server bandwidth is not adequate for large file transfers, it can easily handle host-to-host inquiry/response applications, electronic mailbox checking, etc. And it is far more economical than the alternatives of acquiring expensive host software and special-purpose converters. Multiport
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device and print servers give their users greater flexibility in configuring and managing their networks. Whether it is moving printers and other peripherals from one network to another, expanding the dimensions of interoperability or preparing for growth, multiport device servers can fulfill your needs, all without major rewiring.
4.
Access Servers
While Ethernet is limited to a geographic area, remote users such as traveling sales people need access to network-based resources. Remote LAN access, or remote access, is a popular way to provide this connectivity. Access servers use telephone services to link a user or office with an office network. Dial-up remote access solutions such as ISDN or asynchronous dial introduce more flexibility. Dial-up remote access offers both the remote office and the remote user the economy and flexibility of "pay as you go" telephone services. ISDN is a special telephone service that offers three channels, two 64 Kbps "B" channels for user data and a "D" channel for setting up the connection. With ISDN, the B channels can be combined for double bandwidth or separated for different applications or users. With asynchronous remote access, regular telephone lines are combined with modems and remote access servers to allow users and networks to dial anywhere in the world and have data access. Remote access servers provide connection points for both dial-in and dial-out applications on the network to which they are attached. These hybrid devices route and filter protocols and offer other services such as modem pooling and terminal/printer services. For the remote PC user, one can connect from any available telephone jack (RJ45), including those in a hotel rooms or on most airplanes.
5.
Network Time Servers
A network time server is a server specialized in the handling of timing information from sources such as satellites or radio broadcasts and is capable of providing this timing data to its attached network. Specialized protocols such as NTP or udp/time allow a time server to communicate to other network nodes ensuring that activities that must be coordinated according to their time of execution are synchronized correctly. GPS satellites are one source of information that can allow global installations to achieve constant timing.
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1.9
IP Addressing
An IP (Internet Protocol) address is a unique identifier for a node or host connection on an IP network. An IP address is a 32 bit binary number usually represented as 4 decimal values, each representing 8 bits, in the range 0 to 255 (known as octets) separated by decimal points. This is known as "dotted decimal" notation. Example: 140.179.220.200
It is sometimes useful to view the values in their binary form.

140 .179 .220 .200 10001100.10110011.11011100.11001000
Every IP address consists of two parts, one identifying the network and one identifying the node. The Class of the address and the subnet mask determine which part belongs to the network address and which part belongs to the node address.
Address Classes:
There are 5 different address classes. You can determine which class any IP address is in by examining the first 4 bits of the IP address. Class A addresses begin with 0xxx, or 1 to 126 decimal. Class B addresses begin with 10xx, or 128 to 191 decimal, because 127 is loopback address. Class C addresses begin with 110x, or 192 to 223 decimal. Class D addresses begin with 1110, or 224 to 239 decimal. Class E addresses begin with 1111, or 240 to 254 decimal. Addresses beginning with 01111111, or 127 decimal, are reserved for loopback and for internal testing on a local machine. [You can test this: you should always be able to ping 127.0.0.1, which points to yourself] Class D addresses are reserved for multicasting. Class E addresses are reserved for future use. They should not be used for host addresses. Now we can see how the Class determines, by default, which part of the IP address belongs to the network (N) and which part belongs to the node (n).
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Class A -- NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnn.nnnnnnn Class B -- NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn.nnnnnnnn Class C -- NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.NNNNNNNN.nnnnnnnn In the example, 140.179.220.200 is a Class B address so by default the Network part of the address (also known as the Network Address) is defined by the first two octets (140.179.x.x) and the node part is defined by the last 2 octets (x.x.220.200). In order to specify the network address for a given IP address, the node section is set to all "0"s. In our example, 140.179.0.0 specifies the network address for 140.179.220.200. When the node section is set to all "1"s, it specifies a broadcast that is sent to all hosts on the network. 140.179.255.255 specifies the example broadcast address. Note that this is true regardless of the length of the node section.
Private Subnets
There are three IP network addresses reserved for private networks. The addresses are 10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, and 192.168.0.0/16. They can be used by anyone setting up internal IP networks, such as a lab or home LAN behind a NAT or proxy server or a router. It is always safe to use these because routers on the Internet will never forward packets coming from these addresses. Subnetting an IP Network can be done for a variety of reasons, including organization, use of different physical media (such as Ethernet, FDDI, WAN, etc.), preservation of address space, and security. The most common reason is to control network traffic. In an Ethernet network, all nodes on a segment see all the packets transmitted by all the other nodes on that segment. Performance can be adversely affected under heavy traffic loads, due to collisions and the resulting retransmissions. A router is used to connect IP networks to minimize the amount of traffic each segment must receive.
Subnet Masking
Applying a subnet mask to an IP address allows you to identify the network and node parts of the address. The network bits are represented by the 1s in the mask, and the node bits are represented by the 0s. Performing a bitwise logical AND operation between the IP address and the subnet mask results in the Network Address or Number. For example, using our test IP address and the default Class B subnet mask, we get: 10001100.10110011.11110000.11001000 140.179.240.200 Class B IP Address 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 255.255.000.000 Default Class B Subnet Mask 10001100.10110011.00000000.00000000 140.179.000.000 Network Address
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Default subnet masks
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Class A - 255.0.0.0 - 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000 Class B - 255.255.0.0 - 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000 - 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
Class C - 255.255.255.0
CIDR -- Classless InterDomain Routing.

CIDR was invented several years ago to keep the internet from running out of IP addresses. The "classful" system of allocating IP addresses can be very wasteful; anyone who could reasonably show a need for more that 254 host addresses was given a Class B address block of 65533 host addresses. Even more wasteful were companies and organizations that were allocated Class A address blocks, which contain over 16 Million host addresses! Only a tiny percentage of the allocated Class A and Class B address space has ever been actually assigned to a host computer on the Internet. People realized that addresses could be conserved if the class system was eliminated. By accurately allocating only the amount of address space that was actually needed, the address space crisis could be avoided for many years. This was first proposed in 1992 as a scheme called Supernetting. The use of a CIDR notated address is the same as for a Classful address. Classful addresses can easily be written in CIDR notation (Class A = /8, Class B = /16, and Class C = /24) It is currently almost impossible for an individual or company to be allocated their own IP address blocks. You will simply be told to get them from your ISP. The reason for this is the ever-growing size of the internet routing table. Just 5 years ago, there were less than 5000 network routes in the entire Internet. Today, there are over 90,000. Using CIDR, the biggest ISPs are allocated large chunks of address space (usually with a subnet mask of /19 or even smaller); the ISP's customers (often other, smaller ISPs) are then allocated networks from the big ISP's pool. That way, all the big ISP's customers (and their customers, and so on) are accessible via 1 network route on the Internet. It is expected that CIDR will keep the Internet happily in IP addresses for the next few years at least. After that, IPv6, with 128 bit addresses, will be needed. Under IPv6, even sloppy address allocation would comfortably allow a billion unique IP addresses for every person on earth
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1.10 Examining your Network with Commands

1. PING PING is used to check for a response from another computer on the network. It can tell you a great deal of information about the status of the network and the computers you are communicating with.Ping returns different responses depending on the computer in question. The responses are similar depending on the options used. Ping uses IP to request a response from the host. It does not use TCP. It takes its name from a submarine sonar search - you send a short sound burst and listen for an echo - a ping coming back. In an IP network, `ping' sends a short data burst - a single packet - and listens for a single packet in reply. Since this tests the most basic function of an IP network (delivery of single packet), it's easy to see how you can learn a lot from some `pings'. To stop ping, Press Ctrl+C. This terminates the program and prints out a nice summary of the number of packets transmitted, the number received, and the percentage of packets lost, plus the minimum, average, and maximum round-trip times of the packets. Sample PING session
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The Time To Live (TTL) field can be interesting. The main purpose of this is so that a packet doesn't live forever on the network and will eventually die when it is deemed "lost." But for us, it provides additional information. We can use the TTL to determine approximately how many router hops the packet has gone through. In this case it's 255 minus N hops, where N is the TTL of the returning Echo Replies. If the TTL field varies in successive pings, it could indicate that the successive reply packets are going via different routes, which isn't a great thing. The time field is an indication of the round-trip time to get a packet to the remote host. The reply is measured in milliseconds. In general, it's best if round-trip times are under 200 milliseconds. The time it takes a packet to reach its destination is called latency. If you see a large variance in the round-trip times (which is called "jitter"), you are going to see poor performance talking to the host 2. NSLOOKUP
NSLOOKUP is an application that facilitates looking up hostnames on the network. It can reveal the IP address of a host or, using the IP address, return the host name. It is very important when troubleshooting problems on a network that you can verify the components of the networking process. Nslookup allows this by revealing details within the infrastructure. 3. NETSTAT
NETSTAT is used to look up the various active connections within a computer. It is helpful to understand what computers or networks you are connected to. This allows you to further investigate problems. One host may be responding well but another may be less responsive. 4. IPconfig
This is a Microsoft windows NT, 2000 command. It is very useful in determining what could be wrong with a network. This command when used with the /all switch, reveal enormous amounts of troubleshooting information within the system. Windows 2000 IP Configuration
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6.
Traceroute
Traceroute on Unix and Linux (or tracert in the Microsoft world) attempts to trace the current network path to a destination. Here is an example of a traceroute run to www.berkeley.edu:
$ traceroute www.berkeley.edu traceroute to amber.Berkeley.EDU (128.32.25.12), 30 hops max, 40 byte packets 1 sf1-e3.wired.net (206.221.193.1) 3.135 ms 3.021 ms 3.616 ms 2 sf0-e2s2.wired.net (205.227.206.33) 1.829 ms 3.886 ms 2.772 ms 3 paloalto-cr10.bbnplanet.net (131.119.26.105) 5.327 ms 4.597 ms 5.729 ms 4 paloalto-br1.bbnplanet.net (131.119.0.193) 4.842 ms 4.615 ms 3.425 ms 5 sl-sj-2.sprintlink.net (4.0.1.66) 7.488 ms 38.804 ms 7.708 ms 6 144.232.8.81 (144.232.8.81) 6.560 ms 6.631 ms 6.565 ms 7 144.232.4.97 (144.232.4.97) 7.638 ms 7.948 ms 8.129 ms 8 144.228.146.50 (144.228.146.50) 9.504 ms 12.684 ms 16.648 ms 9 f5-0.inr-666-eva.berkeley.edu (198.128.16.21) 9.762 ms 10.611 ms 10.403 ms 10 f0-0.inr-107-eva.Berkeley.EDU (128.32.2.1) 11.478 ms 10.868 ms 9.367 ms 11 f8-0.inr-100-eva.Berkeley.EDU (128.32.235.100) 10.738 ms 11.693 ms 12.520 ms
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2. DNS
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 Introduction Operations DNS Server Installation DNS Server Configuration Managing DNS Records Disabling DNS Recursion 40 43 46 50 54 58
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2.1
Introduction
The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical distributed naming system for computers, services, or any resource connected to the Internet or a private network. It associates various information with domain names assigned to each of the participating entities. Most prominently, it translates easily memorized domain names to the numerical IP addresses needed for the purpose of locating computer services and devices worldwide. By providing a worldwide, distributed keyword-based redirection service, the Domain Name System is an essential component of the functionality of the Internet. An often-used analogy to explain the Domain Name System is that it serves as the phone book for the Internet by translating human-friendly computer hostnames into IP addresses. For example, the domain name www.example.com translates to the addresses 93.184.216.119 (IPv4) and 2606:2800:220:6d:26bf:1447:1097:aa7 (IPv6). Unlike a phone book, the DNS can be quickly updated, allowing a service's location on the network to change without affecting the end users, who continue to use the same host name. Users take advantage of this when they use meaningful Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), and email addresses without having to know how the computer actually locates the services.
Domain name space

The domain name space consists of a tree of domain names. Each node or leaf in the tree has zero or more resource records, which hold information associated with the domain name. The tree sub-divides into zones beginning at the root zone. A DNS zone may consist of only one domain, or may consist of many domains and sub-domains, depending on the administrative authority delegated to the manager.
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The hierarchical Domain Name System, organized into zones, each served by a name server
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Domain name syntax
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Administrative responsibility over any zone may be divided by creating additional zones. Authority is said to be delegated for a portion of the old space, usually in the form of subdomains, to another name server and administrative entity. The old zone ceases to be authoritative for the new zone.
The definitive descriptions of the rules for forming domain names appear in RFC 1035, RFC 1123, and RFC 2181. A domain name consists of one or more parts, technically called labels, that are conventionally concatenated, and delimited by dots, such as example.com.

The right-most label conveys the top-level domain; for example, the domain name www.example.com belongs to the top-level domain com. The hierarchy of domains descends from right to left; each label to the left specifies a subdivision, or subdomain of the domain to the right. For example: the label example specifies a subdomain of the com domain, and www is a sub domain of example.com. This tree of subdivisions may have up to 127 levels. Each label may contain up to 63 characters. The full domain name may not exceed the length of 253 characters in its textual representation. In the internal binary representation of the DNS the maximum length requires 255 octets of storage, since it also stores the length of the name. In practice, some domain registries may have shorter limits. DNS names may technically consist of any character representable in an octet. However, the allowed formulation of domain names in the DNS root zone, and most other sub domains, uses a preferred format and character set. The characters allowed in a label are a subset of the ASCII character set, and includes the characters a through z, A through Z, digits 0 through 9, and the hyphen. This rule is known as the LDH rule (letters, digits, hyphen). Domain names are interpreted in caseindependent manner. Labels may not start or end with a hyphen. There is an additional rule that essentially requires that top-level domain names not be allnumeric. A hostname is a domain name that has at least one IP address associated. For example, the domain names www.example.com and example.com are also hostnames, whereas com is not.
Internationalized domain names

The limited set of ASCII characters permitted in the DNS prevented the representation of names and words of many languages in their native alphabets or scripts. To make this possible, ICANN approved the Internationalizing Domain Names in Applications (IDNA) system, by which user applications, such as web browsers, map Unicode strings into the valid DNS character set using Punycode. In 2009 ICANN approved the installation of internationalized domain name country code top-level domains. In addition, many registries of the existing top level domain names (TLD)s have adopted the IDNA system.
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Name servers
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The Domain Name System is maintained by a distributed database system, which uses the client-server model. The nodes of this database are the name servers. Each domain has at least one authoritative DNS server that publishes information about that domain and the name servers of any domains subordinate to it. The top of the hierarchy is served by the root name servers, the servers to query when looking up (resolving) a TLD.
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2.2
Operations
Address resolution mechanism

Domain name resolvers determine the appropriate domain name servers responsible for the domain name in question by a sequence of queries starting with the right-most (toplevel) domain label.
A DNS recursor consults three name servers to resolve the address www.wikipedia.org.
The process entails: 1. A network host is configured with an initial cache (so called hints) of the known addresses of the root name servers. Such a hint file is updated periodically by an administrator from a reliable source. 2. A query to one of the root servers to find the server authoritative for the top-level domain. 3. A query to the obtained TLD server for the address of a DNS server authoritative for the second-level domain. 4. Repetition of the previous step to process each domain name label in sequence, until the final step which returns the IP address of the host sought. The diagram illustrates this process for the host www.wikipedia.org. The mechanism in this simple form would place a large operating burden on the root servers, with every search for an address starting by querying one of them. Being as critical as they are to the overall function of the system, such heavy use would create an insurmountable bottleneck for trillions of queries placed every day. In practice caching is used in DNS servers to overcome this problem, and as a result, root name servers actually are involved with very little of the total traffic.
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DNS resolvers
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The client-side of the DNS is called a DNS resolver. It is responsible for initiating and sequencing the queries that ultimately lead to a full resolution (translation) of the resource sought, e.g., translation of a domain name into an IP address. A DNS query may be either a non-recursive query or a recursive query:
A non-recursive query is one in which the DNS server provides a record for a domain for which it is authoritative itself, or it provides a partial result without querying other servers. A recursive query is one for which the DNS server will fully answer the query (or give an error) by querying other name servers as needed. DNS servers are not required to support recursive queries.
The resolver, or another DNS server acting recursively on behalf of the resolver, negotiates use of recursive service using bits in the query headers. Resolving usually entails iterating through several name servers to find the needed information. However, some resolvers function more simply by communicating only with a single name server. These simple resolvers (called "stub resolvers") rely on a recursive name server to perform the work of finding information for them.
Reverse lookup
A reverse lookup is a query of the DNS for domain names when the IP address is known. Multiple domain names may be associated with an IP address. The DNS stores IP addresses in the form of domain names as specially formatted names in pointer (PTR) records within the infrastructure top-level domain arpa. For IPv4, the domain is in-addr.arpa. For IPv6, the reverse lookup domain is ip6.arpa. The IP address is represented as a name in reverseordered octet representation for IPv4, and reverse-ordered nibble representation for IPv6. When performing a reverse lookup, the DNS client converts the address into these formats before querying the name for a PTR record following the delegation chain as for any DNS query. For example, assuming the IPv4 address 208.80.152.2 is assigned to Wikimedia, it is represented as a DNS name in reverse order: 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa. When the DNS resolver gets a pointer (PTR) request, it begins by querying the root servers, which point to the servers of American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) for the 208.in-addr.arpa zone. ARIN's servers delegate 152.80.208.in-addr.arpa to Wikimedia to which the resolver sends another query for 2.152.80.208.in-addr.arpa, which results in an authoritative response.
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Client lookup
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DNS resolution sequence
Users generally do not communicate directly with a DNS resolver. Instead DNS resolution takes place transparently in applications such as web browsers, e-mail clients, and other Internet applications. When an application makes a request that requires a domain name lookup, such programs send a resolution request to the DNS resolver in the local operating system, which in turn handles the communications required.
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2.3
DNS SERVER INSTALLATION
To install a DNS server from the Control Panel, follow these steps: From the Start menu, select Administrative Tools --> Server Manager.
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Expand and click Roles from the left window. Choose Add Roles
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Follow the wizard by selecting the DNS Server role (leave any previously checked items checked)
Click NEXT and then INSTALL to install DNS in Windows Server 2008
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2.4
DNS SERVER CONFIGURATION
From the Start menu, select Administrative Tools --> DNS to open the DNS console.
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Highlight your computer name and choose Configure a DNS Server to launch the Configure DNS Server Wizard.
Click NEXT and then select the first option, Create a Forward lookup zone
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On the next screen, leave the default option selected, This Server maintains the zone, and click NEXT
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Now you will need to enter the domain name that you want to create your first zone file for. We are using "example.com" in this tutorial:
Click NEXT, and NEXT again on the next two screens
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On the Forwarders screen, select the option "No, it should not forward queries"
Click FINISH
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2.5
MANAGING DNS RECORDS
There are many types of DNS records, this is a basic tutorial and will show you how to point your domain name to the IP address you assigned to your web site via an A record. You can also create other types of DNS records (MX, CNAME,etc) in a similar fashion. In DNS Manager, expand your server name, then expand the 'Forward Lookup Zones' , right-click on your domain name and select Properties
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Click on the Start of Authority (SOA) tab. The SOA resource record is always the first record in a DNS zone. Set the Primary Server to your primary nameserver:
Next, click on the Name Servers tab. Remove anything currently listed, and click Add and enter your nameservers (i.e. ns1.yourdomain.com , ns2.yourdomain.com)
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When done, click OK to close the window. You are now ready to set up your zone records. Right-click on your domain name under Forward Lookup Zones, and select New Host (A or AAAA)...
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Leave the Name field blank, and under IP Address, enter the IP address you configured for this web site in IIS, and click Add Host.
You will most likely also want to make a record for 'www', so repeat the above step but this time instead of leaving the Name field blank, enter www in that field:
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2.6
DISABLE DNS RECURSION
The final step you'll want to perform is to disable DNS recursion. This will help secure your server from a variety of DNS recursion attacks. To disable recursion, right-click on your DNS server and go to 'Properties'. Click the 'Advanced' tab. Then check the box labeled "Disable recursion"
You have now set up DNS in Windows Server 2008 and have set up DNS records for your domain name. You can create additional DNS records as needed (MX, CNAME, etc) by right-clicking on the domain under Forward Lookup Zones and selecting the appropriate type of record you wish to create.You can test that your DNS server is properly serving DNS from a Windows command prompt, by using the nslookup command in this format: nslookup example.com ns1.yourdomain.com
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3. LAN SOLUTION
3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 LAN Solution Specification Sheet Router Routing Protocols 60 62 64 69
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3.1
LAN SOLUTION
Customer Requirement
There is a company, which has 2 offices. And the offices are 200 meters apart. The connectivity between these two offices is the main requirement to be fulfilled. In each office there are three different departments each department at different floor. In building Ist At each floor there are 20 users and also at 3rd floor there are 2 Servers. In building IInd At floor 1st and 2nd there are 20 users each. And at 3rd floor there are 40 users. The bandwidth requirement of each user is 100 Mbps while the bandwidth requirement for the server is 1 Gbps. All floors must be connected to a central switch to be placed at IInd floor in office 2nd. And connectivity should be via optical fiber. Everywhere cabling. there should be structured
Every switch should be provide with one GBIC slot for future connectivity of server. Every where smart and managed switch should be used.
Solution
By looking at the requirement it is clear that we require a switch that has got 20 ports and also 2 GBIC slots (one for optical fiber connectivity and one free slot is demanded for future use). Keeping this point into consideration we can use HCL 24 Port Managed Stackable Switch as this switch has got 24 ports and 2 GBIC slots and this switch is managed switch also. And with this 24 port switch we will use 24 port HCL made Patch Panel And for connectivity of patch panel with switch we require 3 ft Patch Cord. As structured cabling is must so we require UTP cable and I/O box and to connect PCs with I/O box we require 7ft Patch Cord. Here we will use Cat5e UTP cable because bandwidth requirement is 100 Mbps This trend of connecting the users to the switch will be followed at each and every floor but at floor 3rd of building IInd there are 40 user so here instead of 1 switch we require 2 switches.
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At 3rd floor of building 1st 2 servers are also present whose bandwidth requirement is 1Gbps. So now we have two options either to connect with UTP cable or Fiber optic cable. But here we will use fiber optic as we are already using it so thee is no need to waste money on UTP Cat 6 Cable. So here we will simply use the fiber optic patch cord to connect the server to switch. Now only one thing is left i.e. connection of switches to a central switch placed at 2nd floor of IInd building. As the connection requirement is via optical fiber so we at central location we require a switch having all its ports as GBIC slots and no of ports should not be more than 8 as there are only 7 24 port switches in use (one optical cable line from each switch) Now here as the distance between the two offices is only 200 meters so here we will use multimode optical fiber and that too FX type and as the cable is to be laid in open so outdoor armored cable will be use. The connectivity diagram, the bill of material and the specification sheet for the solution is given in the following pages.
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3.2
HCL-24TMS-2S-W
HCL 24 Port Managed Stackable Switch STANDARDS- IEEE802.3 (Ethernet) , IEEE802.3a (Fast Ethernet), IEEE802.2ab (Gigabit Ethernet), IEEE802.3z (1000Base SX/LX) PORTS- 24 port auto negotiation 10 base T/100 base TX 2optional modular expansion ports (1000 base-T, 1000 baseLX/SX/FX) MAC Addresses- 4K BANDWIDTH- 12Gbps SWITCHING RATE- 6.6Mbps SNMP(Simple Network Management Protocol) - Yes, and supports RFC1157 WEB MANAGEABLE- Yes
Specification Sheet
PC-C305-E
CAT 5 e CABLE Enhanced CAT 5 350 MHz UTP Bulk Cable 4 Pairs Solid Grey Length: 305 Meters
PC-JP24-E
PATCH PANEL Unshielded 24 Port RJ-45 jack for performance @ rated 100 Mbps Fully Complied to e CAT 5 T568A/B standards 1.6mm metallic Patch Panel 19'' Rack Mount frame 1U Fully powder coated Black
PC-MC3-GE
3 ft. patch cord 3 ft. Enhance CAT.5 350 MHz Grey Patch Cord UTP twisted pair with Black Snagless Flange Boot
PC-MC7-GE
7 ft. patch cord 7 ft. Enhance CAT.5 350 MHz Grey Patch Cord UTP twisted pair with Black Snagless Flange Boot.
PF-CM6-A-OM2
Outdoor armoured Fiber optic cable - Multimode Construction: Corrugated steel tape armoured cable construction Multimode 62.5/125m cable No of Cores 6 fibre core cables. Length- 1 meter
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PF-PMSC-SC-3D-50
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SC-SC Duplex Patch cord Multimode Patch Cords cable 50/125m Multi mode Patch Cords connectors SC/ST Connectors MM patch cords OFC Patch cord is duplex type of 3mtrs length
PF-COSC-M
SC Connector Multi mode Easy connection & disconnection Pull -- Push type
PF-CPSC-M
SC Coupler mm (Included in the Fiber Patch Panel) Low Insertion loss Type SC - SC type
PF-LIU-12U
12 Core LIU ( Line Insertion Unit ) Wall mount 12 way Fibre Jack Panel Base Unit + 12 MM SC couplers with panel
PF-LIU-6U
6 Core LIU (Line Insertion Unit) Wall mount 6 way Fibre Jack Panel Base Unit + 6 MM SC couplers with panel.
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3.3
ROUTER INTERNAL COMPONENTS

Like a computer, a router has a CPU that varies in performance and capabilities depending upon router platform. It has typically 4 types of memory in it.: ROM- It is used to store the routers bootstrap startup program, operating system software, and power-on diagnostic tests programs. We can also upgrade our ROM FLASH MEMORY- It holds operating systems image(s). Flash memory is erasable, reprogrammable ROM. Our IOS software is present in this memory and we can upgrade it also. Flash content is retained even when we switch off or restart the router. RAM- It is used to store operational information such as routing tables, routers running configuration file. RAM also provides caching and packet buffering capabilities. Its content is lost when we switch off or restart the router. When we configure the router at that time actually we are writing in RAM. NVRAM- It is used to store the routers startup configuration file. It does not lose data when power is switched off. So the contents of startup configuration files are maintained even when we switch off or restart the router.
ROUTER
ROUTERS NETWORK INTERFACES
Ethernet or Token Ring interface are configured to allow connection to a LAN. Synchronous serial interfaces are configured to allow connections to WANs. ISDN BRI interfaces are configured to allow connection to an ISDN WAN. All cisco routers have a console port that provides an EIA/TIA-232 asynchronous serial connection. Console port can be connected to computers serial connection to gain terminal access to router. Most routers also have an auxiliary port that is very similar to console port but, is typically used for modem connection for remote router management.
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CONFIGURING THE ROUTER
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There are three methods for configuring the router: 1) Through console port:- The console port is used for configuring a router locally with the help of a PC or a Laptop. The console port of the router is connected to the serial i.e COM port of the router. The detailed configuration is given in the section. 2) Through the AUX port:- The aux ( auxiliary ) port is accessed from a modem located faraway from a router through the PSTN ( Public Switched Telephone Network ) and the configuration is done. 3) Through Telnet:- Line vty ( virtual terminal ) 0 to 4 are used for the configuring the router by telnet.
Configuring Router through Console port

We use HyperTerminal Program to open a console session and log into the router locally. This console connection allows to connect to and to communicate with router without having to connect to the network to which it belongs. Now, the PC becomes the console that allows to enter commands and communicate directly with the router. To set up a console session, we use the workstations Windows HyperTerminal (terminal emulation) program. Now first of all we configure the COM port settings, then log into the router to interact with the IOS command line interface (CLI). These are the com port settings:
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9600 8 N 1 On/off After pressing enter or OK to accept these settings, we came across a blank window. This is a session window. The Following steps are adopted to access a router through the console port with a Windows based PC. Access Hyper terminal:- Start Menu Communication Hyperterminal Connect to the device of the PC Programs Accessories
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COM 1 Setting
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Hyper terminal Screen
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After connecting the router that will boot and after booting the following procedures will be adopted. Router> enable Now automatically prompt asking for password will appear on the screen like this: Password: Now write password over here. This is done to secure access to router. After this Router# will appear on the screen this shows that we are in privileged mode and now we try to enter in configuration mode. Router# configure terminal This is done to enter configuration mode. Now starts the configuration of router Now we will assign IP address to each and very interface connected to router. Subnet mask should be given with a proper care. Following steps are to be followed: For configuring ethernet interface: Router# config terminal Router (config)# interface ethernet 0 Router (config-if)# ip address 223.8.151.1 255.255.255.0 Router (config-if)# no shutdown Router (config-if)#exit For configuring serial interface: Router (config)# interface serial 0 Router (config-if)# ip address 204.204.7.1 255.255.255.0 Router (config-if)# no shutdown Router (config-if)#exit Router (config)# interface serial 1 Router (config-if)# ip address 199.6.13.2 255.255.255.0 Router (config-if)# no shutdown Router(config-if)# exit
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3.4
ROUTING PROTOCOLS
ROUTING INFORMATION PROTOCOL (RIP)

RIP is a dynamic, distance vector routing protocol. RIP uses UDP port 520 for route updates. RIP calculates the best route based on hop count. This makes RIP very fast to converge RIP sends full table updates at regular intervals specified by the route-update timer (30 seconds is the default). This means that a RIP router summarizes all routes it knows along classful boundaries and sends the summary information to all other RIP routing devices. RIP updates can contain up to 25 messages.
RIP TIMERS
TIMER update timeout for Flush DEFAULT 30 sec. 180 sec. CONTROLS Interval between route update advertisements Interval a route should stay 'live' in the routing table. This counter is reset every time the router hears an update this route. How long to wait from the time the route was received to delete a route (60 seconds after timeout).
240 sec.
The routing-update timer controls the time between routing updates. Default is usually 30 seconds, plus a small random delay to prevent all RIP routers from sending updates simultaneously. The route-timeout timer controls when a route is no longer available. The default is usually 180 seconds. If a router has not seen the route in an update during this specified interval, it is dropped from the router's announcements. The route is maintained long enough for the router to advertise the route as down (hop count of 16). The route-flush timer controls how long before a route is completely flushed from the routing table. The default setting is usually 120 seconds.
BASIC RIP CONFIGURATION

According to the recollection of InetDaemon, configuring a Cisco router for a basic RIP configuration would look something like this: router> enable Password: router# conf t router(config)#interface ethernet 0 router(config-if)# ip address 192.168.42.1 router(configif)# interface ethernet 1 router(config-if)# ip address 192.168.43.1 router(config-if)# exit router(config)# router rip router(config-router)# network 192.168.42.0 router(config-router)# network 192.168.43.0 router(config-router)# exit router(config-router)# ^z router#
The example above assumes that the interfaces that will be running RIP have IP addresses on them that fall
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within the 192.168.42.0, and 192.168.43.0 class C ranges.
IGRP IGRP is a distance-vector routing protocol that considers a composite metric which, by default, uses bandwidth and delay as parameters instead of hop count. IGRP is not limited to the 15-hop limit of RIP. IGRP has a maximum hop limit of 100, by default, and can be configured to support a network diameter of 255. With IGRP, routers usually select paths with a larger minimum-link bandwidth over paths with a smaller hop count. Links do not have a hop count. They are exactly one hop. IGRP is available only on Cisco routers IGRP will load-balance traffic if there are several paths with equal cost to the destination IGRP sends its routing table to its neighbors every 90 seconds. IGRP's default update period of 90 seconds is a benefit compared to RIP, which can consume excessive bandwidth when sending updates every 30 seconds. IGRP uses an invalid timer to mark a route as invalid after 270 seconds (three times the update timer). As with RIP, IGRP uses a flush timer to remove a route from the routing table; the default flush timer is set to 630 seconds (seven times the update period and more than 10 minutes). If a network goes down or the metric for the network increases, the route is placed in holddown. The router accepts no new changes for the route until the holddown timer expires. This setup prevents routing loops in the network. The default holddown timer is 280 seconds (three times the update timer plus 10 seconds). IGRP Timer Update Invalid Holddown Flush Default Time 90 seconds 270 seconds 280 seconds 630 seconds
IP ACCESS LIST
IP access lists cause a router to discard some packets based on criteria defined by the network engineer. The goal of these filters is to prevent unwanted traffic in the network whether to prevent hackers from penetrating the network, or just to prevent employees from using systems that they should not be using.
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Key features of access lists: Packets can be filtered as they enter an interface, before the routing decision. Packets can be filtered before they exit an interface, after the routing decision. Deny is the term used in Cisco IOS software to imply that the packet will be filtered. Permit is the term used in Cisco IOS software to imply that the packet will not be filtered. The filtering logic is configured in the access list. At the end of every access list is an implied deny all traffic statement. Therefore, if a packet does not match any of your access list statements, it is blocked. Access lists have two major steps in their logic: matching and action. Matching logic examines each packet and determines whether it matches the access-list statement. As soon as an access-list statement is matched, there are two actions to choose from: deny and permit. Deny means to discard the packet, and permit implies that the packet should continue on its way.
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4. FIREWALL
4.1 4.2 Introduction Configuring the Firewall 73 74
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4.1
As the limits of networking is increasing unfolded so the danger of information leaking in and leaking out increases. So a mechanism is required to keep good bits in and bad bits out. And for this we use FIREWALL. A firewall is a device of some kind that separates and protects our network - in most cases, from the Internet. It restricts traffic to only what is acceptable, and monitors that what is happening. Every firewall has at least two network interfaces, one for the network it is intended to protect, and one for the network it is exposed to. A firewall sits at the junction point or gateway between the two networks, usually a private network and a public network such as the Internet. It may be a Hardware device or a Software program running on a secure host computer. Hardware device means a physical devise connected at the gateway which checks every incoming or outgoing packet. Software program means that software is loaded in computer that determines as what to allow and what to reject. A firewall examines all traffic routed between the two networks to see if it meets certain criteria. A firewall filters both inbound and outbound traffic.
INTRODUCTION
Technologies
There are three different types of firewall technologies: 1) Packet Filtering 2) Proxy 3) Stateful Inspection
Packet Filtering
A packet filtering firewall simply inspects incoming traffic at the transport layer of the OSI model. The packet filtering firewall analyzes TCP or UDP packets and compare them to a set of established rules called as Access Control List (ACL). Packet filtering inspects packet nly for following elements Source IP address Source Port Destination IP address Destination Port Protocol
Proxy
When a firewall is installed then no PC makes direct connection to the outside world. In that case they use proxy i.e each PC first of all sends request to proxy which then forwards the request to the internet or outside world for connection or data transfer.
Stateful Inspection
It is a combination of Packet filtering and proxy services. This is the most secure technology and provides the most functionality because connections are not only applied to ACL, but are logged into a static table. After a connection is established, all session data is compared to the static table. If the session data does not match the state table information for that connection, then connection is dropped.
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4.2
Four basic commands are used to do a basic configuring of the firewall. 1. Interface Command 2. Nameif Command 3. Ip-Address Nat Command 4. Global Command
CONFIGURING THE FIREWALL
Interface Command
The interface command identifies the interface hardware card, sets the speed of the interface and enables the interface all in one command. SYNTAX: interface hardware_id hardware_speed [shutdown]
hardware_id Hardware_speed indicates interfaces physical location on the firewall. indicates connection speed.
There are various options provided to us by the firewall regarding speed. 1000sxfull Sets full-duplex Gigabit Ethernet. 1000basesx Sets half-duplex Gigabit Ethernet 1000auto Automatically detects ands negotiates full/half duplex 10full Sets 10Mbps full-duplex Ethernet 100full Sets 100Mbps full-duplex Ethernet. Shutdown This parameter administratively shuts down the interface.
Nameif command
It is used to name an interface and assign security level from 1 to 99. The outside and inside interfaces are named by default and have default security values of 0 and 100, respectively. By default, the interfaces have their hardware ID. Ethernet 0 is the outside interface, and Ethernet 1 is the inside interface SYNTAX: nameif hardware_id if_name security_level
hardware_id if_name security_level Examples: Indicates the interfaces physical location on the Firewall. The name by which we refer to this interface. A numerical value from 1 to 99 indicating the security level. nameif ethernet0 outside security0 nameif ethernet1 inside security100 nameif ethernet2 dmz security20
We can see the configuration by using show nameif command.
ip address Command
All the interfaces must be configured with an IP address. The ip address command is used to configure IP addresses on the interfaces. The ip address command binds a logical address (IP address) to the hardware ID.
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if_name ip_address netmask Example:
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SYNTAX: ip address if_name ip_address [netmask]

The interface name that was configured using the nameif command. The interfaces IP address. The appropriate network mask. If the mask value is not entered, the firewall assigns a classful network mask. ip address inside 10.10.10.14 255.255.255.0
We can see the configuration by using show ip command.
nat Command
The nat (Network Address Translation) command translates a set of IP addresses to another set of IP addresses. SYNTAX: nat ( if_name) nat_id local_ip [netmask]
(if_name) nat_id local_ip netmask The internal network interface name. The ID number to match with the global address pool. The IP address that is translated. This is usually the inside network IP address. Network mask for the local IP address.
There are two types of NATing: 1) Static: For ex. There is a google server and we dont want to make its IP address public so we change its IP address using nat command in firewall and now user will logon to this new IP . This results in more security as every time it has to pass through firewall. 2) Dynamic: If there are lots of PCs in a network and all want to access the internet , it is not easy that every PC is being provided with independent public IP so at firewall level we change every PCs pvt Ip with public IP.
Examples: nat (inside) 1 10.10.10.0 255.255.255.0 nat (inside) 1 172.16.1.0 255.255.255.0
global Command
The global command is used to define the address or range of addresses that the addresses defined by the nat command are translated into. It is important that the nat_id be identical to the nat_id used in the nat command. The nat_id pairs the IP address defined by the global and nat commands so that network translation can take place. SYNTAX: global ( if_name) nat_id global_ip | global_ip-global_ip [netmask]
(if_name) The external network where you use these global addresses. nat_id Identifies the global address and matches it with the nat command it is pairing with. global_ip A single IP address. When a single IP address is specified, the firewall automatically performs Port Address Translation (PAT). global_ip-global_ip Defines a range of global IP addresses to be used by the firewall to NAT. netmask The network mask for the global IP address(es).
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5. INTRUSION DETECTION SYSTEM(IDS)

5.1 Introduction 77
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5.1
An IDS is a security counter measure. It monitors network traffic and monitors for suspicious activity and alerts the system or network administrator. In some cases the IDS may also respond to anomalous or malicious traffic by taking action such as blocking the user or source IP address from accessing the network A firewall simply blocks openings into your network/system, but cannot distinguish between good/bad activity. Therefore, if you need to allow an opening to a system (like a web-server), then a firewall cannot protect against intrusion attempts against this opening. In contrast, intrusion detection systems can monitor for hostile activity on these openings.
INTRODUCTION
HIDS
Host Intrusion Detection Systems run on individual hosts or devices on the network. A HIDS monitors the inbound and outbound packets from the device only and will alert the user or administrator of suspicious activity if detected
NIDS
Network Intrusion Detection Systems are placed at a strategic point or points within the network to monitor traffic to and from all devices on the network. Ideally you would scan all inbound and outbound traffic, however doing so might create a bottleneck that would impair the overall speed of the network. When an unauthorized user logs in successfully, or attempts to log in, they are best tracked with host-based IDS. However, detecting the unauthorized user before their log on attempt is best accomplished with network-based IDS. There are four basic techniques used to detect intruders: 1) Anomaly detection 2) Misuse detection (signature detection) 3) Target monitoring Anomaly Detection Designed to uncover abnormal patterns of behavior the IDS establishes a baseline of normal usage patterns, and anything that widely deviates from it gets flagged as a possible intrusion. An example of this would be if a user logs on and off of a machine 20 times a day instead of the normal 1 or 2. Also, if a computer is used at 2:00 AM when normally no one outside of business hours should have access, this should raise some suspicions. At another level, anomaly detection can investigate user patterns, such as profiling the programs executed daily. If a user in the graphics department suddenly starts accessing accounting programs or compiling code, the system can properly alert its administrators.
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Misuse Detection or Signature Detection This method uses specifically known patterns of unauthorized behavior to predict and detect subsequent similar attempts. These specific patterns are called signatures. For host-based intrusion detection, one example of a signature is "three failed logins." Target Monitoring These systems do not actively search for anomalies or misuse, but instead look for the modification of specified files. This is more of a corrective control, designed to uncover an unauthorized action after it occurs in order to reverse it. One way to check for the covert editing of files is by computing a cryptographic hash beforehand and comparing this to new hashes of the file at regular intervals. This type of system is the easiest to implement, because it does not require constant monitoring by the administrator. Integrity checksum hashes can be computed at whatever intervals you wish, and on either all files or just the mission/system critical files
Passive IDS
A passive IDS simply detects and alerts. When suspicious or malicious traffic is detected an alert is generated and sent to the administrator or user and it is up to them to take action to block the activity or respond in some way.
Reactive IDS
A reactive IDS will not only detect suspicious or malicious traffic and alert the administrator, but will take pre-defined proactive actions to respond to the threat. Typically this means blocking any further network traffic from the source IP address or user. IDS is required to be properly configured to recognize what is normal traffic on your network vs. what might be malicious traffic and you, or the administrators responsible for responding to IDS alerts, need to understand what the alerts mean and how to effectively respond.
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6. WAN SOLUTION
6.1 6.2 Requirement Solution 80 80
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6.1
There is one CBC (Central Billing Center) which is required to be connected with 28 BGC (Bill Generation Center). As with each BGC location further locations are connected so it is required to use a router at each location. CBC Router must have these specifications: 4 numbers of10/100 fast Ethernet interfaces. 20 number of V.35 interface to receive the data from coming BGC Via optical fiber/Lease line 2 numbers of ISDN BRI ports. Four numbers of synchronous serial interfaces for 64 kbps lease line connectivity. BGC Router must have these specifications: 2 port 10/100 Mbps Ethernet Interface. Sufficient port Serial WAN Interfaces. Al the BGC locations are to be connected to the central location having a point to point connectivity. The BGC location are having a leased line connectivity of 128Kbps which can be up gradable to 2 Mbps. The leased Line connectivity is to be provided BY a ISP.
Requirement
6.2
As per the requirement the proposed solution is to have point to point connectivity between the central location and the 28 BGC locations. There is a Cisco 1841 Router at each of the BGC location. They are connected to a 2 Mbps Leased Line Modem Pair., HCLGateway 2M-2W, through the serial port. The modem at the customer end is connected to a modem at the ISP side. Like this way the central location having a Cisco 3845 Router is connected to 28 nos of 2Mbps Leased Line modem pair. The connectivity diagram and the bill of material required for the solution is given in the following pages.
Solution
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TRAINING REPORT
7. WLAN(WIRELESS LAN)
7.1 7.2 Introduction Topologies 82 83
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7.1
In a traditional LAN each computer physically connects to the network via wires and a network port. A Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) is a network that provides the same services but without the need for physical connections between the computers and the network. Wireless LANs offer many advantages over traditional wired networks, such as mobility, flexibility, scalability and speed, simplicity and reduced cost of installation. A WLAN typically uses radio waves, which allow network PC cards plugged into a PC/laptop to connect to a traditional Ethernet LAN. IEEE developed the 802.11 standards to provide wireless networking technology like the wired Ethernet.
Introduction
Standards
IEEE developed the 802.11 standards to provide wireless networking technology. With time-to-time development in the field of technology three standards has been finalized. 802.11(a), 802.11(b), 802.11(g) 802.11(b) Max. bit rate/Raw net 11Mb/s 5.5Mb/s Frequency Band 2.4 GHZ Range @ Max. rate 57 m Unit Cost Coverage Cost No. of channels 100% 100% 3 802.11(a) 54 Mb/s 22-26 Mb/s 5 GHZ 12m 120% 2000% 8 802.11(g) 54 Mb/s 17-22 Mb/s 2.4 GHZ 19m 110% 500% 4
IEEE 802.11a standard is the most widely adopted one because it operates at licensed 5 GHZ band while other are unlicensed and also it provides max. nof channels and max. bit rate than any other standards.
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7.2
There are two topologies on which WLAN works: 1) Infrastructure Network 2) Ad hoc Network
TOPOLOGIES
Infrastructure Network
It is useful for providing wireless coverage of building or campus areas. This is a topology used when there are many access points in a single location. By deploying multiple Access Points (APs) with overlapping coverage areas, organizations can achieve broad network coverage. . A laptop or other mobile device may move from AP to AP while maintaining access to the resources of the LAN. Each client is equipped with wireless network interface card (NIC) that consists of the radio transceiver and the logic to interact with the client machine and software. While the AP is essentially a radio transceiver on one side and the wired backbone on the other.
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Adhoc Network
2013
This topology is used when we have to interconnect mobile devices that are in the same area (e.g., in the same room). In this architecture, client stations are grouped into a single geographic area and can be Internet-worked without access to the wired LAN (infrastructure network). The ad hoc configuration is similar to a peer-to-peer office network in which no node is required to function as a server. In ad hoc there is no need of any AP as all devices are wirelessly connected to each other.
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8. INTEGRATED SERVICE DIGITAL NETWORK(ISDN)

8.1 8.2 8.3 Introduction ISDN Interfaces ISDN Function Group & Reference Points 86 87 88
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8.1
ISDNs primary goal is the integration of voice and nonvoice services.ISDN is actually a set of communication protocols proposed by telephone companies that allows them to carry a group of digital services that simultaneously convey data, text, voice, music, graphics, and video to end users, and it was designed to achieve this over the telephone systems already in place. There are two types of channels: 1) B channel 2) D channel
INTRODUCTION
B channel
Bearer channels (B channels) are used to transport data. B channels are called bearer channels because they bear the burden of transporting the data. B channels operate at speeds of up to 64 kbps.
D channel
D channels are used for signaling. They are used to establish the session before the data is actually transfer.
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8.2
Types of ISDN interfaces: 1) Basic Rate Interface (BRI) 2) Primary Rate Interface (PRI).
ISDN INTERFACES
Both BRI and PRI provide multiple digital bearer channels over which temporary connections can be made and data can be sent.
BRI: ISDN Basic Rate Interface (BRI, also known as 2B+1D) service provides two B
channels and one D channel. The BRI B-channel service operates at 64Kbps and carries data, while the BRI D-channel service operates at 16Kbps and usually carries control and signaling information.
PRI: According to American standards , the ISDN Primary Rate Interface (PRI, also known as
23B+D1) service delivers 23 64Kbps B channels and one 64Kbps D channel for a total bit rate of up to 1.544Mbps. And according to European standards, ISDN provides 30 64Kbps B channels and one 64Kbps D channel for a total bit rate of up to 2.048Mbps.
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8.3

Function group: Reference point: details
ISDN FUNCTION GROUPS & REFERENCE POINTS
A set of functions implemented by a device and software The interface between two function groups, including cabling
Router A is ordered with an ISDN BRI U reference point, referring to the I.430 reference point defining the interface between the customer premises and the ISP. Router B is bought with an ISDN BRI S/T interface, implying that it must be cabled to a function group NT1 device. An NT1 function group device must be connected to the ISP line through a U reference point; the S/T interface defines the connection to Router B. Router B is called a TE1 (Terminal Equipment 1) function group device. Non-ISDN equipment is called a TE2 (Terminal Equipment 2) device and is attached using the R reference point to a terminal adapter (TA) function group device. Alternatively, a TE1 can connect using an S reference point to an NT2 function group,
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Function Groups:
2013
1) TE1 (Terminal Equipment 1) ISDN-capable four-wire cable. Understands signaling and 2B+D. Uses an S reference point. 2) TE2 (Terminal Equipment 2): Equipment that does not understand ISDN protocols and specifications (no ISDN awareness). Uses an R reference point, typically an RS-232 or V.35 cable, to connect to a TA 3) TA (Terminal adapter): Equipment that uses R and S reference points. Can be thought of as the TE1 function group on behalf of a TE2. 4) NT1 (Network Termination): Connects with a U reference point (two-wire) to the ISP. Connects with T or S reference points to other customer premises equipment.
Reference Points:
R between TE2 and TA. S between TE1 or TA and NT2. T between NT2 and NT1. U between NT1 and ISP. .
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Training Report On CCNA (Cisco Certified Network Associate)

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Training Report On CCNA (Cisco Certified Network Associate)

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A PRACTICAL TRAINING REPORT

SUBMITTED BY:Pankaj Gill 11/CSE/168 VCE, ROHTAK

VAISH COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Pankaj Gill 11/CSE/168 C.S.E

Project Description 1. Basic Networking

DNS(Domain Name Servers)

Intrusion Detection System(IDS)

Integrated Service Digital Network(ISDN)

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

The Available Exams

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

The Material Covered In Each Exam

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

CCNA TRAINING REPORT

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

Every network includes:

Very common types of networks include:

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

Main Types of Physical Topologies

Linear Bus Topology

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

Tree or Expanded Star

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

Considerations When Choosing a Topology

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

Network can be divided in to two main categories: 1. Peer-to-peer. 2. Server based.

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

The OSI Model:

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol Telnet

Internet Message Access Protocol

Post Office Protocol

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

Introduction to TCP/IP Networks:

The Origins of TCP/IP

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

Transmission Media is of two types: 1. Wired 2. Wireless

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

Unshielded Twisted Pair Connector

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

Fiber Optic Cable

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

Fiber optic cable

Installing Cable - Some Guidelines

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

Ethernet RJ45 Pin Configurations

T568B RJ45 Connection

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

Network Interface Cards

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA

What is a Network Firewall?

TRAINING REPORT ON CCNA