Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Module 8.1
Pressure Control Applications
Condensate
Fig. 8.1.1 General arrangement of a direct operating, self-acting pressure reducing station
Safety valve
Separator
High pressure Low pressure
steam in steam out
Pressure
reducing
valve
Condensate
Fig. 8.1.2 General arrangement of a direct operating, self-acting pressure reducing station
Pressure
reducing Safety valve
valve
Separator
High pressure Low pressure
steam in steam out
Condensate
Fig. 8.1.3 General arrangement of a pilot operated, self-acting pressure reducing station
Separator
High pressure Low pressure
steam in steam out
Safety
valve
Condensate
Pneumatic controller
Pneumatic
pressure
reducing
valve
Separator
High pressure Low pressure
steam in steam out
Safety
valve
Pressure
transmitter
Condensate
Fig. 8.1.5 General arrangement of an electropneumatic pressure reducing station
Electronic
controller
Electronic
pressure
reducing
valve
Safety
valve
Separator
High pressure Low pressure
steam in steam out
Pressure
transmitter
Condensate
Fig. 8.1.6 General arrangement of an electric pressure reducing station
Safety
Pressure valve
reducing
valve
Safety
Pressure valve
reducing
valve
Separator
High pressure Low pressure
steam in steam out
Condensate
Fig. 8.1.7 Parallel pressure reducing station
Safety
valve
Pilot operated Pilot operated
reducing valves reducing valves
Separator
High pressure Low pressure
steam in steam out
Trapping
point
Condensate Condensate
Fig. 8.1.8 Typical series pressure reducing station
The trapping point between the two reducing valves (Figure 8.1.8) is to stop a build up of
condensate under no-load conditions. If this were not fitted, radiation losses would cause
condensate to fill the connecting pipe, which would cause waterhammer the next time the
load increased.
Desuperheaters
Desuperheating is the process by which superheated steam is either restored to its
saturated state, or its superheated temperature is reduced. Further coverage of desuperheaters is
given in Block 15.
The system in Figure 8.1.9 illustrates an arrangement of a pressure reducing station with a
direct contact type pipeline desuperheater.
In its basic form, good quality water (typically condensate) is directed into the superheated steam
flow, removing heat from the steam, causing a drop in the steam temperature.
Pressure
controller
Good quality water in
Temperature
Pressure
control valve
control Temperature
valve controller
Superheated
steam in Steam out
PT100
Desuperheater temperature
unit sensor Pressure
transmitter
It is impractical to reduce the steam temperature to its saturated value, as the control system is
unable to differentiate between saturated steam and wet steam at the same temperature.
Because of this, the temperature is always controlled at a value higher than the relevant saturation
temperature, usually at 5°C to 10°C above saturation.
For most applications, the basic system as shown in Figure 8.1.9 will work well. As the downstream
pressure is maintained at a constant value by the pressure control loop, the set value on the
temperature controller does not need to vary; it simply needs to be set at a temperature slightly
above the corresponding saturation temperature.
However, sometimes a more complex control system is required, and is shown in Figure 8.1.10.
Should there be a transient change in the superheated steam supply pressure, or a change in the
water supply temperature, the required water/steam flow ratio will also need to change.
A change in the water/steam flow ratio will also be required if the downstream pressure changes,
as is sometimes the case with certain industrial processes.
Pressure
controller
Good quality water in
Saturation
temperature
computer
Temperature
Pressure control
control valve Temperature
valve controller
Superheated
steam in Steam out
PT100
Desuperheater temperature
unit sensor Pressure
transmitter
Fig. 8.1.10 Steam atomising desuperheater station with downstream pressure / temperature compensation
The system shown in Figure 8.1.10 works by having the pressure controller set at the required
downstream pressure and operating the steam pressure control valve accordingly.
The 4-20 mA signal from the pressure transmitter is relayed to the pressure controller and the
saturation temperature computer, from which the computer continuously calculates the saturation
temperature for the downstream pressure, and transmits a 4-20 mA output signal to the temperature
controller in relation to this temperature.
The temperature controller is configured to accept the 4-20 mA signal from the computer to
determine its set point at 5°C to 10°C above saturation. In this way, if the downstream pressure
varies due to any of the reasons mentioned above, the temperature set point will also automatically
vary. This will maintain the correct water/steam ratio under all load or downstream pressure
conditions.
Safety valve
Separator
High pressure
supply
Low pressure to autoclave
Pilot
operated Automatic air vent
pressure reducing
Condensate valve
Autoclave
Condensate
Pilot operated pressure
reducing valve Condensate
Safety valve
High pressure
supply Multi-platen
press
Pilot operated pressure
reducing valve with on-off
function Low pressure
to press
Condensate
Fig. 8.1.13 Pressure control on a multi platen press
Safety
valve
Direct acting
pressure reducing
valve
Automatic
Jacketed pan air vent
High pressure
steam supply
Condensate
Pilot
operated Electropneumatic
pressure control system
reducing
valve Flow
Return
Condensate
Fig. 8.1.15 Constant pressure steam supply to a control valve supplying a plate heat exchanger
High pressure
steam in
Condensate
Differential
pressure
controller
Pneumatic
pressure
reducing
valve
Flash vessel
Surplussing control
Description
The objective is to maintain the pressure upstream of the control valve. Surplussing valves are
discussed in further detail in Module 7.3, Self-acting pressure controls and applications.
Applications:
1. Boilers on plants where the load can change by a large proportion over a very short period.
The sudden reduction in boiler pressure may result in increased turbulence and rapid flashing
of the boiler water, and large quantities of water being carried over into the pipework system.
2. Accumulators where surplus boiler output is used to heat a mass of water under pressure.
This stored energy is then released when the boiler has insufficient capacity.
Points to note:
1. Minimum pressure drop is usually required over the fully open control valve; this may mean
a line size valve is needed.
2. Not all self-acting controls are suitable for this application and it is important to consult the
manufacturer before use.
Surplussing valve
Condensate
Pneumatic
pressure
Surplussing reducing
valve valve
Overflow
Accumulator
Slave Master
controller 4-20 mA controller
Pneumatic
pressure
4-20 mA Safety
control
valve valve
Steam in
Pressure
sensor
Flow
Temperature
sensor
Return
4-20 mA
Steam flow
High Low
pressure Reducing / surplussing valve pressure
Typical settings
The output from the master controller is direct acting, that is, when the upstream pressure is at or
above its proportional band, the masters output signal is maximum at 20 mA; when at the
bottom of, or below the proportional band, the control signal is minimum at 4 mA.
When the control signal is 20 mA, the slave set point is the required downstream pressure; when
the signal is 4 mA, the slave set point is at a pre-determined minimum.
Consider the normal upstream pressure to be 10 bar g, and the maximum allowable
downstream pressure to be 5 bar g. The minimum allowable upstream pressure is 8.5 bar g,
which means that if this pressure is reached the valve is fully shut. The minimum reduced
pressure is set at 4.6 bar g.
These conditions are recorded in Table 8.1.1
Table 8.1.1
P1 P1 and Master Master output signal Master output signal Slave set point
bar g output signal mA and slave set point bar g
10.0 Output signal 20 Output signal 5.0
9.5 20 5.0
9.0 12 4.8
8.5 4 4.6
8.0 Upstream pressure 4 Slave set point 4.6
4-20 mA
Slave
Temperature sensor
Temperature sensor
Steam flow
Water Cream flow
Cream return
Condensate
Fig. 8.1.21 Schematic diagram showing a pasteuriser control using the cascade principle
Questions
1. What is MAWP?
a| Maximum attenuated working pressure ¨
b| Minimum allowable working pressure ¨
c| Maximum allowable with pressure ¨
d| Maximum allowable working pressure ¨
2. One large and one small steam-heated heat exchanger have exactly the same
heating duty. Which will operate at the lower pressure?
a| The smaller one ¨
b| The larger one ¨
c| They will both operate at the same pressure ¨
d| There is not enough information to answer the question ¨
4. What type of pressure reducing station is required when the pressure ratio
is greater than 10:1
a| A parallel station ¨
b| A pilot operated station ¨
c| A series station ¨
d| A surplussing station ¨
Answers
1: d, 2: b, 3: a, 4: c, 5: b, 6: b
Module 8.2
Temperature Control for
Steam Applications
High Vacuum
limit Control breaker Flow
Separator valve valve
Steam
supply
Calorifier Return
Spring loaded
cut-out unit
Condensate
Cold water
Fail-safe control system make-up
Condensate
Fig. 8.2.1 General arrangement of a direct operating, self-acting temperature control system
on a DHWS (Domestic Hot Water Services) storage calorifier
Pilot operated
temperature
control valve
Separator
Vacuum breaker
Steam in
Sensor
Injector
Condensate Tank
Fig. 8.2.2 General arrangement of a pilot operated, self-acting temperature control injecting steam into a tank
Pneumatic
Pneumatic controller
temperature
control valve
Temperature sensor
Separator Vacuum Hot water out
Steam in breaker
Heating calorifier
Condensate
Fig. 8.2.3 General arrangement of a pneumatic temperature control system on a heating calorifier
Pneumatic
temperature
control valve
Temperature sensor
Vacuum
Separator breaker
Hot water out
Steam in
Heating calorifier
Cold water in
Condensate
Condensate
Fig. 8.2.4 General arrangement of an electropneumatic temperature control system on a heating calorifier
Electronic
controller
Electronic
temperature
control valve
Temperature
sensor
Heating calorifier
Condensate
Fig. 8.2.5 General arrangement of an electric temperature control system on a heating calorifier
To temperature
Warm-up load valve leg sensor and controller
Separator
Steam in
To temperature
sensor and controller
Condensate
Fig. 8.2.6 General arrangement of a parallel temperature control station
Calorifier Return
Spring loaded
cut-out unit
Condensate
Cold water
Fail-safe control system make-up
Condensate
Fig. 8.2.7 General arrangement of a high temperature cut-out on a DHWS storage calorifier
Questions
3. In Figure 8.2.6, the warm-up valve is shown in the upper leg of the
parallel supply system. Is this logical?
a| Yes, otherwise condensate would tend to collect in the warm-up leg during low loads,
when the warm-up valve would be shut ¨
b| Yes, it makes maintenance easier ¨
c| No, either leg is acceptable ¨
d| Yes, the warm-up valve needs more installation space ¨
4. Is the fail-safe self-acting high limit temperature cut-out only suitable for
DHWS storage calorifiers?
a| Yes ¨
b| It is suitable for any application requiring high limit temperature control ¨
5. In Figure 8.2.5, a shell and tube heating calorifier uses electrical control.
Is this really suitable for this type of application?
a| No, it was the only example drawing available ¨
b| No, the valve would not react quickly enough ¨
c| No, an electropneumatic system should always be chosen for this type of application,
especially when steam is the energy provider ¨
d| Yes, because changes in load will occur slowly ¨
Answers
1: b, 2: c, 3: a, 4: b, 5: d
Module 8.3
Level and Flow
Control Applications
Rotary
pneumatic Solenoid
valve valve
Four element
conductivity
Water probe
supply
Tank
Fig. 8.3.3 General arrangement of a non-adjustable on /off level control system for a tank
Controller
On-off
control
valve
Water outflow
Fig. 8.3.4 General arrangement of an adjustable on /off level control system for a tank
Controller
Modulating
control
valve
Air supply
Water outflow
Fig. 8.3.5 General arrangement of a modulating control system maintaining the level in a tank
Pneumatic
control valve
Air supply
to valve
Separator Flowmeter
Steam Measured
supply steam flow
Differential
pressure
transmitter
Condensate
AC Vac
Controller
Fig. 8.3.6 General arrangement of a flow control system
Separator Flowmeter
Measured
Steam steam
supply flow
Pressure
transmitter
Differential
pressure
transmitter
Condensate
Flow
computer
AC Vac
Flow
controller
Fig. 8.3.7 General arrangement of a flow control system
Multiple inputs will mean that an additional flow computer (or PLC) containing a set of electronic
steam tables must process the signals from each of these flow, pressure and temperature sensors
to allow accurate measurement of saturated or superheated steam.
If a flow computer is not readily available to compensate for changes in upstream pressure, it
may be possible to provide a constant pressure; perhaps by using an upstream control valve, to
give stable and accurate pressure control (not shown in Figure 8.3.7).
The purpose of this pressure control valve is to provide a stable (rather than reduced) pressure,
but it will inherently introduce a pressure drop to the supply pipe.
A separator placed before any steam flowmetering station to protect the flowmeter from wet
steam will also protect the pressure control valve from wiredrawing.
Using a mass flow DP transmitter
By using a mass flow DP transmitter instead of a standard DP transmitter, the need for a computer
to provide accurate measurement is not required, as shown in Figure 8.3.8.
This is because the mass flow transmitter carries its own set of steam tables and can compensate
for any changes in saturated steam supply pressure.
However, a computer can still be used, if other important flowmetering information is required,
such as, the times of maximum or minimum load, or is there is a need to integrate flow over a
certain time period.
A controller is still required if flowrate is to be controlled, whichever system is used.
Air supply
Pneumatic control valve
to valve
Separator Flowmeter
Steam
flow
Mass flow
differential
pressure
transmitter
Condensate
AC Vac
Flow
controller
Fig. 8.3.8 General arrangement of a flow control system
The controller
Even if the output signal from the DP transmitter or computer is of a type that the control valve
actuator can accept, a controller will still be required (as for any other type of control system) for
the following reasons:
1. The output signal from certain flowmeters /computers has a long time repeat interval
(approximately 3 seconds), which will give enough information for a chart recorder to operate
successfully, but may not offer enough response for a control valve. This means that if the
controller or PLC to which the transmitter signal is being supplied operates at higher speeds,
then the process can become unstable.
2. PID functions are not available without a controller.
3. Selecting a set point would not be possible without a controller.
4. The signal needs calibrating to the valve travel - the effects of using either a greatly oversized
or undersized valve without calibration, can easily cause problems.
Summary
It is usually better to install the flowmetering device upstream of the flow control valve. The
higher pressure will minimise its size and allow it to be more cost effective. It is also likely that the
flowmeter will be subjected to a more constant steam pressure (and density) and will be less
affected by turbulence from the downstream flow control valve.
In some cases, the application may be required to control at a constant flowrate. This means that
features, such as high turndown ratios, are not important, and orifice plate flowmeters are
appropriate.
If the flowrate is to be varied by large amounts, however, then turndown becomes an issue that
must be considered.
The subject of Flowmetering is discussed in greater depth in Block 4.
Questions
1. Condensate has a conductivity of 0.1 µs /cm. Name the best choice of solid probe
to give on /off level control for this application.
a| A single tip conductivity probe ¨
b| Two single tip conductivity probes ¨
c| A four tip conductivity probe ¨
d| A capacitance probe ¨
Answers
1: d, 2: d, 3: d, 4: b, 5: a, 6: a
Module 8.4
Control Installations
Control Installations
The service life and accuracy of a control system is influenced not just by the component parts,
but also by the installation.
Temperature sensors
Sensor location
The position of the sensor is important, and it must be located where it can sense a representative
pressure, temperature or level.
The length of the sensor must also be considered. If the sensor to be used is large or long,
provision has to be made for this in the pipework into which it is installed.
Sensors for self-acting control systems can come in many different shapes and sizes. Generally,
the sensors for electronic and pneumatic control systems are smaller than those for self-acting
controls.
The next requirement is to position the sensor in a location where it is not susceptible to damage,
and perhaps to fit it in a pocket if necessary.
The pocket must be long enough to enable the whole sensor to be immersed in the liquid. If, in Figure
8.4.1, the stub connector were longer, the sensor might not be properly immersed in the fluid.
Self-acting sensor
Sensor element is immersed
well in the fluid flow
Fig. 8.4.1 A good installation with the sensor properly immersed in the fluid
Sensor protection
If the sensor is to be installed in a tank, it may be better to locate it close to one of the corners,
where the greatest wall strength might be expected, with less chance of flexing.
With some fluids it is necessary to protect the sensor to prevent it from being corroded or dissolved.
Pockets are usually available in various materials, including:
o Stainless steel.
o Mild steel.
o Copper and brass, which are suitable for the less severe applications.
o Heat resistant glass, which offers good general protection against corrosive products like acids
and alkalis, but these can be fragile.
Self-acting control capillary tubes can usually be supplied covered with a PVC coating, which is
useful in corrosive environments.
Where it is possible to fit the sensor through the side of the tank, the provision of a pocket also
allows the sensor to be removed without draining the contents.
A pocket will tend to increase the time lag before the control can respond to changes in solution
temperature, and it is important to make arrangements to keep this to a minimum. There will, for
instance, be an air space between the sensor and the inside of the pocket, and air is an insulator.
To overcome this, a heat conducting paste can be used to fill the space.
Controllers
The controller:
o Should be installed where it can be accessed and read by the authorised operator.
o Should be installed where it is safe from accidental damage inflicted by passing personnel
or vehicles.
o Must be appropriate to the environment in terms of enclosure rating, hazardous gases and/or
liquids.
o Must comply with standards relating to radio frequency interference.
Transmission of RFI
Radio interference can travel via two modes:
o Conduction.
o Radiation.
Conducted interference is communicated to the controller via mains supply cables. Having an
interference suppressor in the supply as close to the controller as possible can reduce its effect.
Radiated interference is a greater problem because it is harder to counteract. This form of
interference is like a broadcast transmission being picked up by aerials naturally formed by the
signal wiring, and then re-emitted within the controller box to more sensitive areas.
The electronic components within the controller can also receive transmissions directly,
especially if the interference source is within 200 mm.
Effects of RFI
Controller types respond to different forms of interference in different ways.
Analogue controllers will usually respond to continuous rather than transient interference but
will usually recover when the interference ceases. The symptoms of continuous interference are
not easily recognisable because they usually influence the measurement accuracy. It is often
difficult to distinguish between the effects of interference and the normal operation of the device.
Transient interference is more likely to affect relay outputs, as its occurance is faster than that
which the analogue circuits can respond.
Microprocessor based controllers are more subject to corruption from transient impulse
interference but have a higher immunity to continuous interference.
The first indication that interference has occurred is often that the display has locked up,
is scrambled or contains meaningless symbols in addition to the normal display.
More difficult symptoms to detect include measurement inaccuracies or incorrect actuator
position, this may continue undetected until the system is clearly out of control.
Signal wire
(unprotected)
Fig. 8.4.2 Unprotected signal wire
Screened cable (Figures 8.4.3) should only be earthed at one end, see Figure 8.4.3 (A and B);
earthing at both ends will lead to a deterioration in this situation.
Signal
wiring
Screen
A - Screened and earthed wiring
Earthed Earthed
Twisted pair
signal wiring
Screen
B - Twisted pair, screened and
earthed at one end
Earthed
Signal wiring
Conduit
C - Unprotected wiring in conduit
with other cables
Keeping wires separate from power wiring (Figure 8.4.4) can reduce pick-up via the signal
wires. BS 6739: 1986 recommends that this separation should be at least 200 mm for instrument
power wiring and 250 mm for other power cables.
Instrument power
wiring
200 mm 250 mm
minimum minimum
Signal wiring
It has been found in practice that signal wires can be run alongside / close to power wiring providing
they are contained within their own earthed screen, see Figure 8.4.5.
Conduit
Instrument power
wiring
Signal wiring
Impulse interference generated from electrical arcing can be reduced by means of an appropriate
suppresser connected across switch contacts.
Pick-up via direct radiation can be reduced by installing the controllers at least 250 mm away
from interference sources, such as contact breakers or mains switching relays.
Cable separation
The following information is reprinted from the British Standard Code of Practice for
Instrumentation in Process Control systems: installation design and practice BS 6739: 1986:
Paragraph 10.7.4.2.2 - Separation from power cables
o Instrument cables should be routed above or below ground, separated from electrical power
cables (i.e. ac, cables usually above 50 Vac with a 10 A rating).
o Parallel runs of cables should be avoided. However, where this is unavoidable, adequate
physical separation should be provided.
o A spacing of 250 mm is recommended from ac power cables up to 10 A rating. For higher
ratings, spacing should be increased progressively.
o Where it is unavoidable for signal and power cables to cross over each other, the cables should
be arranged to cross at right angles with a positive means of separation of at least 250 mm.
Paragraph 10.7.4.2.3 - Separation between instrument cables
1. Categories 1 and 2 spaced 200 mm.
2. Categories 2 and 3 spaced 300 mm.
3. Categories 1 and 3 spaced 300 mm.
Cables are categorised as follows:
1. Power cables ac - Cables usually above 50 Vac with a 10 amp rating.
2. Category 1. Instrument power and control wiring above 50 V - This group includes ac
and dc power supplies and control signals up to 10 A rating.
3. Category 2. High-level signal wiring (5 V to 50 Vdc) - This group includes digital signals,
alarm signals, shutdown signals and high level analogue signals e.g. 4 - 20 mA.
4. Category 3. Low-level signal wiring (below 5 Vdc) - This group includes temperature signals
and low-level analogue signals. Thermocouple wiring comes within this category.
Although it is not always practical, every effort should be made to achieve the recommended
separations given.
Protected against solid objects A large surface of the human body, like a hand, but
1
larger than 50 mm diameter. no protection against attempted deliberate access.
Protected against solid objects Fingers, or similar objects, not exceeding 80 mm in length.
2
larger than 12 mm diameter.
Protected against solid objects Tools, wires etc of diameter greater than 2.5 mm.
3
larger than 2.5 mm diameter.
Protected against solid objects Tools, wires etc of diameter greater than 1.0 mm.
4
larger than 1.0 mm diameter.
Ingress of dust not prevented, but does not enter in sufficient
5 Dust protected. quantity to interfere with satisfactory operation of the equipment.
6 Dust-tight. No ingress of dust.
The second figure (see Table 8.4.2) indicates the degree of protection against water intrusion.
The range commences with 0 meaning no protection against water. The highest is 8, giving
optimum protection for equipment being continuously immersed in water.
Table 8.4.2 Degrees of protection offered by the 2nd characteristic numeral
First
Degree of protection
characteristic
numeral Short description Definition
0 Non-protected. No special protection.
1 Protected against dripping water. Dripping water shall have no harmful effect.
Protected against dripping water Dripping water shall have no harmful effect when tilted at any
2
when tilted up to 15°. angle up to 15° from its normal position .
Protected against Water falling as a spray at an angle up to 60° from the vertical
3
spraying water. shall have no harmful effect.
Protected against Water splashed against the enclosure from any direction
4
splashing water. shall have no harmful effect.
Water projected by a nozzle against the enclosure shall
5 Protected against water jets.
have no harmful effect.
Water from heavy seas or water projected in powerful jets
6 Protected against heavy seas.
shall not enter the enclosure in harmful quantities.
Ingress of water in a harmful quantity shall not be possible
Protected against the effects
7 when the enclosure is immersed in water under defined
of immersion.
conditions of pressure and time.
The equipment is suitable for continuous submersion in water
8 Protected against submersion.
under conditions which shall be specified by the manufacturer.
Example 8.4.1
An electrical enclosure having the following IP34 rating can be defined as follows:
Code letters IP An enclosure which has been given an International Protection rating
1st characteristic numeral 3 Protects equipment inside the enclosure against ingress of solid foreign objects
having a diameter of 2.5 mm and greater.
2nd characteristic numeral 4 Protects equipment inside the enclosure against harmful effects due to water
splashed onto the enclosure from any direction.
It is not the intention of this Module to enter into detail regarding the subject of enclosure protection.
The subject is discussed in much further depth in International Standards, BS EN 60529:1992
being one of them. The reader is advised to refer to such standards if information is required for
specific purposes.
Explosion protected electrical equipment
It has been shown briefly how IP ratings cover two important areas of protection. There are,
however, numerous other types of hazard to contend with. These may include corrosion, vibration,
fire and explosion. The latter are likely to occur when electrical equipment produce sparks,
operate at high temperatures, or arc; thus igniting chemicals, oils or gases.
In practice, it is difficult to determine whether or not an explosive atmosphere will be present at
a specific place within a potentially hazardous area or plant. This problem has been resolved by
assigning an area within the plant where flammable gases may be present to one of the following
three hazardous zones:
o Zone 1 - An area where the explosive gas is continuously present or is present for long
periods of time.
o Zone 2 - An area where the explosive gas is likely to occur during normal operation.
o Zone 3 - An area where the explosive gas is not likely to occur during normal operation and
if it does, will exist only for a short period of time.
There have been many attempts to formulate internationally accepted standards of protection.
The IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) were the first to produce international
standards in this area, however, CENELEC (European, Electrical Standards Co-ordination
Committee) currently unites all the major European manufacturing countries under one set of
standards.
Measurement and control equipment is covered by an intrinsic safety protection method, which
is based upon the reduction of explosive risk by restricting the amount of electrical energy entering
a hazardous area, and therefore does not, in principle, require special enclosures.
There are two categories of intrinsically-safe apparatus defined by the CENELEC and IEC, namely,
EX ia and EX ib.
EX ia class
This classifies equipment as not being able to cause ignition under normal operational procedures,
or as a result of a single fault or any two entirely independent faults occurring.
EX ib class
This classifies equipment as not being able to cause ignition under normal operational procedures,
or as a result of a single fault occurring.
As with IP protection, this Module does not intend to discuss this subject in any great depth; it is
a complex subject further complicated by the fact that groupings of equipment can be different
in different countries.
It is suggested that, if the reader requires further information on this subject matter, he or she
studies the appropriate relevant standard.
Questions
2. What can be done to improve the heat transfer efficiency between the
process and the sensor when a sensor pocket is used?
a| Use a wider pocket ¨
b| Use a longer pocket ¨
c| Fill the sensor with distilled water ¨
d| Fill the sensor with a heat conducting paste or grease ¨
Answers
1: c, 2: d, 3: b, 4: c, 5: a, 6: c