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Algebra Formulas
1. Set identities
Definitions:
I: Universal set
A: Complement
Empty set:

Union of sets
{ } | A B x x x B r A o =

Intersection of sets
{ } | A B x x x B d A an =

Complement
{ } | A x I x A =

Difference of sets
{ } \ | B A x x B x A and =

Cartesian product
( ) { }
, | A B x y x A and y B =

Set identities involving union
Commutativity
A B B A =

Associativity
( ) ( ) A B C A B C =

Idempotency
A A A =

Set identities involving intersection
commutativity
A B B A =

Associativity
( ) ( ) A B C A B C =

Idempotency
A A A =

Set identities involving union and intersection
Distributivity
( ) ( ) ( ) A B C A B A C =

( ) ( ) ( ) A B C A B A C =

Domination
A =

A I I =

Identity
A A =

A I A =

Set identities involving union, intersection and
complement
complement of intersection and union
A A I =

A A =

De Morgans laws
( ) A B A B

=

( ) A B A B

=

Set identities involving difference
( ) \ B A B A B =

\ B A B A =

\ A A =

( ) ( ) ( ) \ \ A B C A C B C =

\ A I A =


2. Sets of Numbers
Definitions:
N: Natural numbers
N
o
: Whole numbers
Z: Integers
Z
+
: Positive integers
Z
-
: Negative integers
Q: Rational numbers
C: Complex numbers
Natural numbers (counting numbers )
{ } 1, 2, 3,... N =

Whole numbers ( counting numbers + zero )
{ } 0, 1, 2, 3,...
o
N =

Integers
{ } 1, 2, 3,... Z N
+
= =

{ } ..., 3, 2, 1 Z

=

{ } { } 0 . .., 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3,... Z Z Z

= =

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Irrational numbers:
Nonerepeating and nonterminating integers
Real numbers:
Union of rational and irrational numbers
Complex numbers:
{ } | C x iy x R and y R = +

N Z Q R C


3. Complex numbers
Definitions:
A complex nuber is written as a + bi where a and b are
real numbers an i, called the imaginary unit, has the
property that i
2
=-1.
The complex numbers a+bi and a-bi are called complex
conjugate of each other.
Equality of complex numbers
a + bi = c + di if and only if a = c and b = d
Addition of complex numbers
(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i
Subtraction of complex numbers
(a + bi) - (c + di) = (a - c) + (b - d)i
Multiplication of complex numbers
(a + bi)(c + di) = (ac - bd) + (ad + bc)i
Division of complex numbers
2 2 2 2
a bi a bi c di ac bd bc ad
i
c di c di c di c d c d
+ + + | |
= = +
|
+ + + + \

Polar form of complex numbers
( ) cos sin modulus, amplitude x iy r i r + = +

Multiplication and division in polar form
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
cos sin cos sin
cos sin
r i r i
r r i


( ( + + =

( = + + +


( )
( )
( ) ( )
1 1 1 1
1 2 1 2
2 2 2 2
cos sin
cos sin
cos sin
r r
r r



+
( = +

+

De Moivres theorem
( ) ( ) cos sin cos sin
n
n
r r n n ( + = +


Roots of complex numbers
( )
1
1
2 2
cos sin cos sin
n n
k k
r r
n n


+ + | |
( + = +
|
\

From this the n nth roots can be obtained by putting k = 0,
1, 2, . . ., n - 1

4. Factoring and product
Factoring Formulas
( )( )
2 2
a b a b a b = +

( )( )
3 3 2 2
a b a b a ab b = + +

( )( )
3 3 2 2
a b a b a ab b + = + +

4 4 2 2
( )( )( ) a b a b a b a b = + +

( )
( )
5 5 4 3 2 2 3 4
a b a b a a b a b ab b = + + + +

Product Formulas
2 2 2
( ) 2 a b a ab b + = + +

2 2 2
( ) 2 a b a ab b = +

3 3 2 2 3
( ) 3 3 a b a a b ab b + = + + +

3 3 2 2 3
( ) 3 3 a b a a b ab b = +

( )
4
4 3 2 2 3 4
4 6 4 a b a a b a b ab b + = + + + +

( )
4
4 3 2 2 3 4
4 6 4 a b a a b a b ab b = + +

2 2 2 2
( ) 2 2 2 a b c a b c ab ac bc + + = + + + + +

2 2 2 2
( ...) ...2( ...) a b c a b c ab ac bc + + + = + + + + + +



5. Algebric equations
Quadric Eqation: ax
2
+ bx + c = 0
Solutions (roots):
2
1,2
4
2
b b ac
x
a

=

if D=b
2
-4ac is the discriminant, then the roots are
(i) real and unique if D > 0
(ii) real and equal if D = 0
(iii) complex conjugate if D < 0

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Cubic Eqation:
3 2
1 2 3
0 x a x a x a + + + =
Let
3 2
1 2 3 1 2 1
3 2 3 2 3 3
9 27 2 3
,
9 54
,
a a a a a a
Q R
S R Q R T R Q R

= =
= + + = +


then solutions are:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 1
2 1
3 1
1
3
1 1 1
3
2 3 2
1 1 1
3
2 3 2
x S T a
x S T a i S T
x S T a i S T
= +
= + +
= +

if D = Q
3
+ R
3
is the discriminant, then:
(i) one root is real and two complex conjugate if D > 0
(ii) all roots are real and at last two are equal if D = 0
(iii) all roots are real and unequal if D < 0

Cuadric Eqation:
2
4
4 3
1 2 3
0 x a x a x a x a + + + + =
Let y1 be a real root of the cubic equation
( ) ( )
3 2 2 2
2 1 3 4 2 4 3 1 4
4 4 0 y a y a a a y a a a a a + + =

Solution are the 4 roots of
( ) ( )
2 2 2
1 1 2 1 1 1 4
1 1
4 4 4 0
2 2
z a a a y z y y a + + + =




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Functions Formulas
1. Exponents
... 0,
p
p
a a a a p N p a R if = >

0
1 0 i a f a =

r s r s
a a a
+
=

r
r s
s
a
a
a

=

( )
s
r r s
a a

=

( )
r
r r
a b a b =

r
r
r
a a
b b

=



1
r
r
a
a

=

r
s r
s
a a =


2. Logarithms
Definition:
( ) log , 0,
y
a
y x a x a x y R = = >

Formulas:
log 1 0
a
=

log 1
a
a =

log log log
a a a
mn m n = +

log log log
a a a
m
m n
n
=

log log
n
a a
m n m =


log log log
a b a
m m b =

log
log
log
b
a
b
m
m
a
=

1
og
log
a
b
l b
a
=

( )
ln
og og ln
ln
a a
x
l x l e x
a
= =




3. Roots
Definitions:
a,b: bases ( , 0 2 a b if n k = )
n,m: powers
Formulas:
n n n
ab a b =

nm m n n m
a b a b =

, 0
n
n
n
a a
b
b
b
=

, 0
m n
nm
n m
a a
b
b b
=

( )
p
n n m mp
a a =

( )
n
n
a a =

np
n m mp
a a =

m n mn
a a =

( )
m
n m n
a a =

1
1
, 0
n n
n
a
a
a
a

=

2 2
2 2
a a b a a b
a b
+
=

1 a b
a b
a b
=

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4. Trigonometry

Right-Triangle Definitions
Opposite
sin
Hypotenuse
=

Adjacent
cos
Hypotenuse
=

Opposite
Adjacent
tg =

1 Hypotenuse
csc
sin Opposite

= =

1 Adjacent
cot
Opposite tg

= =

1 Hypotenuse
sec
cos Adjacent

= =


Reduction Formulas
sin( ) sin x x =

cos( ) cos x x =

sin( ) cos
2
x x

=

cos( ) sin
2
x x

=

sin( ) cos
2
x x

+ =

cos( ) sin
2
x x

=

sin( ) sin x x =

cos( ) cos x x =

sin( ) sin x x + =

cos( ) cos x x + =


Identities
2 2
sin cos 1 x x + =

2
2
1
1
cos
tg x
x
+ =

2
2
1
cot 1
sin
x
x
+ =




Sum and Difference Formulas
( ) sin sin cos sin cos + = +

( ) sin sin cos sin cos =

( ) cos cos cos sin sin + =

( ) cos cos cos sin sin = +

( )
tan tan
tan
1 tan tan



+
+ =


( )
tan tan
tan
1 tan tan

=
+


Double Angle and Half Angle Formulas
( ) sin 2 2sin cos =

( )
2 2
cos 2 cos sin =

( )
2
2
tan 2
1
tg
tg

1 cos
sin
2 2

=

1 cos
cos
2 2
+
=

1 cos sin
tan
2 sin 1 cos

= =
+


Other Useful Trig Formulae
Law of sines
sin sin sin
a b c

= =

Law of cosines
2 2 2
2 cos c a b ab = +

Area of triangle
1
sin
2
K ab =



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5. Hyperbolic functions

Definitions:
sinh
2
x x
e e
x

=

cosh
2
x x
e e
x

+
=

sinh
tanh
cosh
x x
x x
e e x
x
e e x

= =
+

2 1
csch
sinh
x x
x
e e x

= =

2 1
sech
cosh
x x
x
e e x

= =
+

cosh
coth
sinh
x x
x x
e e x
x
e e x

+
= =

Derivates
sinh cosh
d
x x
dx
=

cosh sinh
d
x x
dx
=

2
tanh sech
d
x x
dx
=

csch csch coth
d
x x x
dx
=

sech sech tanh
d
x x x
dx
=

2
coth csch
d
x x
dx
=


Hyperbolic identities
2 2
cosh sinh 1 x x =

2 2
tanh sech 1 x x + =

2 2
coth csch 1 x x =

sinh( ) sinh cosh cosh sinh x y x y x y =

sinh( ) cosh cosh sinh sinh x y x y x y =

sinh 2 2sinh cosh x x x =

2 2
cosh 2 cosh sinh x x x = +

2
1 cosh 2
sinh
2
x
x
+
=

2
1 cosh 2
cosh
2
x
x
+
=



Inverse Hyperbolic functions
( )
( )
1 2
sinh ln 1 , x x x x

= + +

( )
1 2
cosh ln 1 [1, ) x x x x

= +

( )
1
1 1
tanh ln 1,1
2 1
x
x x
x

+
=

( ) ( )
1
1 1
coth ln , 1 1,
2 1
x
x x
x

+
=

2
1
1 1
sech ln (0,1]
x
x x
x

+
=



( ) ( )
2
1
1 1
csch ln , 0 0,
x
x x
x x

= +




Inverse Hyperbolic derivates
1
2
1
sinh
1
d
x
dx
x

=
+

1
2
1
cosh
1
d
x
dx
x

1
2
1
tanh
1
d
x
dx x

2
1
csch
1
d
x
dx
x x
=
+

1
2
1
sech
1
d
x
dx
x x

1
2
1
coth
1
d
x
dx x

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Integration Formulas
1. Common Integrals
Indefinite Integral
Method of substitution
( ( )) ( ) ( ) f g x g x dx f u du =


Integration by parts
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) f x g x dx f x g x g x f x dx =


Integrals of Rational and Irrational Functions
1
1
n
n
x
x dx C
n
+
= +
+

1
ln dx x C
x
= +

c dx cx C = +

2
2
x
xdx C = +

3
2
3
x
x dx C = +

2
1 1
dx C
x x
= +

2
3
x x
xdx C = +

2
1
arctan
1
dx x C
x
= +
+

2
1
arcsin
1
dx x C
x
= +

Integrals of Trigonometric Functions
sin cos x dx x C = +

cos sin x dx x C = +

tan ln sec x dx x C = +

sec ln tan sec x dx x x C = + +

( )
2
1
sin sin cos
2
x dx x x x C = +

( )
2
1
cos sin cos
2
xdx x x x C = + +

2
tan tan x dx x x C = +

2
sec tan x dx x C = +

Integrals of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
ln ln x dx x x x C = +

( )
1 1
2
ln ln
1
1
n n
n
x x
x xdx x C
n
n
+ +
= +
+
+

x x
e dx e C = +

ln
x
x
b
b dx C
b
= +

sinh cosh x dx x C = +

cosh sinh x dx x C = +

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2. Integrals of Rational Functions
Integrals involving ax + b
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
1
1
n
n
ax b
ax b dx
a
fo n
n
r
+
+
+ =
+

1 1
ln dx ax b
ax b a
= +
+

( )
( )
( )( )
( ) ( )
1
2
1
1
2
,
1
2
n n
a n x b
x ax b dx ax b
a n n
for n n
+

+
+ = +
+ +

2
ln
x x b
dx ax b
ax b a
a
= +
+

( )
( )
2 2 2
1
ln
x b
dx ax b
a ax b a
ax b
= + +
+
+

( )
( )
( )( )( )
( )
1
2
1
2
1
,
2
1
n n
a n x b
x
dx
ax b a n n
for n
ax b
n

=
+

( )
( )
2
2
2
3
1
2 ln
2
ax b
x
dx b ax b b ax b
ax b
a
| |
+
|
= + + +
| +
\

( )
2 2
2 3
1
2 ln
x b
dx ax b b ax b
ax b
a
ax b
| |
= + +
|
|
+
+ \

( ) ( )
2 2
3 3 2
1 2
ln
2
x b b
dx ax b
ax b
a
ax b ax b
| |
|
= + +
| +
+ +
\

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
3 2 1
2
2
3
2
1
3 2 1
1, 2, 3
n n n
n
ax b b a b b ax b
x
dx
n n
fo
n
a
r n
a
x b

| |
+ + +
|
= +
|
+
\

( )
1 1
ln
ax b
dx
x ax b b x
+
=
+

( )
2 2
1 1
ln
a ax b
dx
bx x
x ax b b
+
= +
+

( )
( )
2 2 2 3
2
1 1 1 2
ln
ax b
dx a
x
b a xb ab x b
x ax b
| |
+
= + |
|
+
+
\

Integrals involving ax
2
+ bx + c
2 2
1 1 x
dx arctg
a a
x a
=
+

2 2
1
ln
1
2
1
ln
2
a x
for x a
a a x
dx
x a
x a
for x a
a x a

<

+
=

>

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2
2 2
2
2
2
2 2
2
2 2
arctan 4 0
4 4
1 2 2 4
ln 4 0
4 2 4
2
4 0
2
ax b
for ac b
ac b ac b
ax b b ac
dx for ac b
ax bx c
b ac ax b b ac
for ac b
ax b
+
>

+
= <

+ +
+ +

=
+

2
2 2
1
ln
2 2
x b dx
dx ax bx c
a a
ax bx c ax bx c
= + +
+ + + +


( )
2 2
2 2
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
2 2
ln arctan 4 0
2
4 4
2 2
ln arctanh 4 0
2
4 4
2
ln 4 0
2 2
m an bm ax b
ax bx c for ac b
a
a ac b ac b
mx n m an bm ax b
dx ax bx c for ac b
a
ax bx c
a b ac b ac
m an bm
ax bx c for ac b
a a ax b

+
+ + + >

+ +
= + + + <

+ +

+ + =
+

( )
( )
( )( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1
2
2 2 2 2
2 3 2
1 2 1
1 4
1 4
n n n
n a
ax b
dx dx
n ac b
ax bx c n ac b ax bx c ax bx c

+
= +

+ + + + + +


( )
2
2 2 2
1 1 1
ln
2 2
x b
dx dx
c c
ax bx c ax bx c x ax bx c
=
+ + + + + +



3. Integrals of Exponential Functions
( )
2
1
cx
cx
e
xe dx cx
c
=

2
2
2 3
2 2
cx cx
x x
x e dx e
c
c c
| |
= +
|
|
\

1
1
n cx n cx n cx
n
x e dx x e x e dx
c c

=


( )
1
ln
!
i
cx
i
cx
e
dx x
x i i

=
= +

( )
1
ln ln
cx cx
i
e xdx e x E cx
c
= +

( )
2 2
sin sin cos
cx
cx
e
e bxdx c bx b bx
c b
=
+

( )
2 2
cos cos sin
cx
cx
e
e bxdx c bx b bx
c b
= +
+

( )
( )
1
2
2 2 2 2
1
sin
sin sin cos sin
cx n
cx n cx n
n n
e x
e xdx c x n bx e dx
c n c n

= +
+ +


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4. Integrals of Logarithmic Functions
ln ln cxdx x cx x =

ln( ) ln( ) ln( )
b
ax b dx x ax b x ax b
a
+ = + + +

( ) ( )
2 2
ln ln 2 ln 2 x dx x x x x x = +

( ) ( ) ( )
1
ln ln ln
n n n
cx dx x cx n cx dx

=


( )
2
ln
ln ln ln
ln !
i
n
x
dx
x x
x i i

=
= + +

( ) ( )( ) ( )
( )
1 1
1
1
1
ln 1 ln ln
n n n
for n
dx x dx
n
x n x x

= +

( )
( )
1
2
ln 1
n
1
1 l
1
m m
x
x xdx x
m
m
for m
+
| |
|
=
| +
+
\

( )
( )
( ) ( )
1
1
ln
ln
1 1
1 ln
n
m
n n
m m
x x
n
x x dx x x dx
m
r
m
fo m
+

=
+ +



( ) ( )
( )
1
ln ln
1
1
n n
x x
dx for n
x n
+
=
+

( )
( )
2
ln
ln
0
2
n
n
x
x
dx for n
x n
=

( )
( )
( )
1 2
1
ln ln 1
1
1
1
m m
m
x x
dx
x m x
m
for
x
m

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
1
1
ln ln n
1
l
1
1
n n n
m m m
x x x
n
dx dx
m
x m x x
for m

= +

ln ln
ln
dx
x
x x
=

( )
( ) ( )
1
1 ln
ln ln 1
!
ln
i i
i
n
i
n x
dx
x
i i
x x

= +

( ) ( )( )
( )
1
1
ln 1 ln
1
n n
dx
x x n
f
x
or n

( ) ( )
2 2 2 2 1
ln ln 2 2 tan
x
x a dx x x a x a
a

+ = + +

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
sin ln sin ln cos ln
2
x
x dx x x =

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
cos ln sin ln cos ln
2
x
x dx x x = +

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5. Integrals of Trig. Functions
sin cos xdx x =

cos sin xdx x =

2
1
sin sin 2
2 4
x
xdx x =

2
1
cos sin 2
2 4
x
xdx x = +

3 3
1
sin cos cos
3
xdx x x =

3 3
1
cos sin sin
3
xdx x x =

ln tan
sin 2
dx x
xdx
x
=

ln tan
cos 2 4
dx x
xdx
x
| |
= +
|
\

2
cot
sin
dx
xdx x
x
=

2
tan
cos
dx
xdx x
x
=

3 2
cos 1
ln tan
sin 2sin 2 2
dx x x
x x
= +

3 2
sin 1
ln tan
2 2 4 cos 2cos
dx x x
x x
| |
= + +
|
\

1
sin cos cos 2
4
x xdx x =

2 3
1
sin cos sin
3
x xdx x =

2 3
1
sin cos cos
3
x xdx x =

2 2
1
sin cos sin 4
8 32
x
x xdx x =

tan ln cos xdx x =

2
sin 1
cos cos
x
dx
x x
=

2
sin
ln tan sin
cos 2 4
x x
dx x
x
| |
= +
|
\

2
tan tan xdx x x =

cot ln sin xdx x =

2
cos 1
sin sin
x
dx
x x
=

2
cos
ln tan cos
sin 2
x x
dx x
x
= +

2
cot cot xdx x x =

ln tan
sin cos
dx
x
x x
=

2
1
ln tan
sin 2 4 sin cos
dx x
x x x
| |
= + +
|
\

2
1
ln tan
cos 2 sin cos
dx x
x x x
= +

2 2
tan cot
sin cos
dx
x x
x x
=

( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
sin sin
sin sin
2 2
m n x m n x
mx nxdx
n m n
m n
m
+
+
+
=

( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
cos cos
sin cos
2 2
m n x m n x
mx nxdx
n m n
m n
m
+

+
=

( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
sin sin
cos cos
2 2
m n x m n x
mx nxdx
m n m n
m n
+
= +
+

1
cos
sin cos
1
n
n
x
x xdx
n
+
=
+

1
sin
sin cos
1
n
n
x
x xdx
n
+
=
+

2
arcsin arcsin 1 xdx x x x = +

2
arccos arccos 1 xdx x x x =

( )
2
1
arctan arctan ln 1
2
xdx x x x = +

( )
2
1
arccot arccot ln 1
2
xdx x x x = + +

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Limits and Derivatives Formulas
1. Limits
Properties
if lim ( )
x a
f x l

= and lim ( )
x a
g x m

= , then
[ ] lim ( ) ( )
x a
f x g x l m

=
[ ] lim ( ) ( )
x a
f x g x l m

=
( )
lim
( )
x a
f x l
g x m

= where 0 m
lim ( )
x a
c f x c l

=
1 1
lim
( )
x a
f x l

= where 0 l
Formulas
1
lim 1
n
x
e
n

+ =



( )
1
lim 1
n
x
n e

+ =
0
sin
lim 1
x
x
x

=
0
tan
lim 1
x
x
x

=
0
cos 1
lim 0
x
x
x

=
1
lim
n n
n
x a
x a
na
x a

0
1
lim ln
n
x
a
a
x

=

2. Common Derivatives
Basic Properties and Formulas
( ) ( ) cf cf x

=
( ) ( ) ( ) f g f x g x

= +
Product rule
( ) f g f g f g

= +
Quotient rule
2
f f g f g
g
g

=




Power rule
( )
1 n n
d
x nx
dx

=

Chain rule
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
d
f g x f g x g x
dx
=

Common Derivatives
( ) 0
d
c
dx
=
( ) 1
d
x
dx
=
( ) sin cos
d
x x
dx
=
( ) cos sin
d
x x
dx
=
( )
2
2
1
tan sec
cos
d
x x
dx
x
= =
( ) sec sec tan
d
x x x
dx
=
( ) csc csccot
d
x x
dx
=
( )
2
2
1
cot csc
sin
d
x x
dx
x
= =
( )
1
2
1
sin
1
d
x
dx
x

( )
1
2
1
cos
1
d
x
dx
x

( )
1
2
1
tan
1
d
x
dx
x

=
+

( )
ln
x x
d
a a a
dx
=
( )
x x
d
e e
dx
=
( )
1
ln , 0
d
x x
dx x
= >
( )
1
ln , 0
d
x x
dx x
=
( )
1
log , 0
ln
a
d
x x
dx x a
= >

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3. Higher-order Derivatives
Definitions and properties
Second derivative
2
2
d dy d y
f
dx dx dx

=



Higher-Order derivative
( ) ( )
( )
1 n n
f f


=
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
n n n
f g f g + = +
( )
( )
( ) ( )
n
n n
f g f g =
Leibnizs Formulas
( ) 2 . f g f g f g f g

= + +
( ) 3 3 f g f g f g f g f g

= + + +
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( ) 1 2
1
...
1 2
n n n n n
n n
f g f g nf g f g fg

= + + + +

Important Formulas
( )
( )
( )
!
!
n
m m n
m
x x
m n

( )
( )
!
n
n
x n =
( )
( )
( ) ( )
1
1 1 !
log
ln
n
n
a
n
n
x
x a

( )
( )
( ) ( )
1
1 1 !
ln
n
n
n
n
x
x

=
( )
( )
ln
n
x x n
a a a =
( )
( ) n
x x
e e =
( )
( )
ln
n
mx n mx n
a m a a =
( )
( )
sin sin
2
n n
x x

= +



( )
( )
cos cos
2
n n
x x

= +








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Series Formulas
1. Arithmetic and Geometric Series
Definitions:
First term: a
1

Nth term: a
n

Number of terms in the series: n
Sum of the first n terms: S
n

Difference between successive terms: d
Common ratio: q
Sum to infinity: S
Arithmetic Series Formulas:
( )
1
1
n
a a n d = +
1 1
2
i i
i
a a
a
+
+
=
1
2
n
n
a a
S n
+
=
( )
1
2 1
2
n
a n d
S n
+
=
Geometric Series Formulas:
1
1
n
n
a a q

=
1 1 i i i
a a a
+
=
1
1
n
n
a q a
S
q

( ) 1
1
1
n
n
a q
S
q

1
1
1 1 fo
a
S
q
r q

< < =

2. Special Power Series
Powers of Natural Numbers
( )
1
1
1
2
n
k
k n n
=
= +

( )( )
2
1
1
1 2 1
6
n
k
k n n n
=
= + +

( )
2
3 2
1
1
1
4
n
k
k n n
=
= +

Special Power Series
( )
2 3
1
1 . . . 1 1 :
1
x x x x
x
for = + + + + < <

( )
2 3
1
1 . . . 1 1 :
1
x x x x
x
for = + + < <
+

2 3
1 . . .
2! 3!
x
x x
e x = + + + +
( ) ( )
2 3 4 5
ln 1 . . . 1 1
2 3 4 5
:
x x x x
x or x x f + = + + < <
3 5 7 9
sin . . .
3! 5! 7! 9!
x x x x
x x = + +
2 4 6 8
cos 1 . . .
2! 4! 6! 8!
x x x x
x = + +
3 5 7
2 17
tan . . .
3 15 315 2 2
: for
x x x
x x x
| |
= + + + + < <
|
\

3 5 7 9
sinh . . .
3! 5! 7! 9!
x x x x
x x = + + + +
2 4 6 8
cosh 1 . . .
2! 4! 6! 8!
x x x x
x = + + + +
3 5 7
2 17
tan . . .
3 15 315 2 2
: for
x x x
x x x
| |
= + + < <
|
\



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3. Taylor and Maclaurin Series

Definition:
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 1
2
( )
( )( )
( ) ( ) ( ) . . .
2! 1 !
n n
n
f a x a
f a x a
f x f a f a x a R
n


= + + + + +

( )
( )( )
( )
( )( ) ( )
( )
1
'
!
'
1 !
n
n
n
n
n
n
f x a
R Lagrange s form a x
n
f x x a
R Cauch s form a x
n

=

=

This result holds if f(x) has continuous derivatives of order n at last. If lim 0
n
n
R

= , the infinite series obtained is called

Taylor series for f(x) about x = a. If a = 0 the series is often called a Maclaurin series.

Binomial series
( )
( ) ( )( )
1 2 2 3 3
1 2 2 3 3
1 1 2
...
2! 3!
...
1 2 3
n
n n n n
n n n n
n n n n n
a x a na x a x a x
n n n
a a x a x a x



+ = + + + +
| | | | | |
= + + + +
| | |
\ \ \

Special cases:
( )
1
2 3 4
1 1 ... 1 1 x x x x x x

+ = + + < <
( )
2
2 3 4
1 1 2 3 5 ... 1 4 1 x x x x x x

+ = + + < <
( )
3
2 3 4
1 1 3 6 10 15 . 1 1 .. x x x x x x

+ = + + < <
( )
1
2 3
2
1 1 3 1 3 5
1 1 ...
2 2 4 2 4 6
1 1 x x x x x

+ = + +

<

( )
1
2 3
2
1 1 1 3
1 1 ...
2 2 4 2 4 6
1 1 x x x x x

+ = + + +

<

Series for exponential and logarithmic functions
2 3
1 ...
2! 3!
x
x x
e x = + + + +
( ) ( )
2 3
ln ln
1 ln ...
2! 3!
x
x a x a
a x a = + + + +
( )
2 3 4
ln 1 ...
2 3 4
1 1
x x x
x x x + = + <
( )
2 3
1 1 1 1 1
ln 1 ...
2 3
1
2
x x x
x
x x x
x
| | | | | |
+ = + + +
| | |
\ \

\



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Series for trigonometric functions
3 5 7
sin ...
3! 5! 7!
x x x
x x = + +
2 4 6
cos 1 ...
2! 4! 6!
x x x
x = + +
( )
( )
2 2 2 1
3 5 7
2 2 1
2 17
tan ...
3 15 315 2 ! 2 2
n n n
n
B x
x x x
x x
n
x

= + + + + + < <
( )
2 2 1 3 5
2 1 2
cot ...
3 45 94 2
0
5 !
n n
n
B x x x x
x
x
x
n

= < <
( )
2 2 4 6
5 61
sec 1 ... ...
2 24 7 2 20 2 ! 2
n
n
E x x x
x x
x
n

= + + + + < < + +
( )
( )
2 2
3
2 2 1
1 7
csc ... ...
6 360 2
0
!
n n
n
E x
x x
x
x n
x

= + + + + + < <
3 5 7
1
1 1 3 1 3 5
sin ...
2 3 2 4 5 2
1
4 6 7
1 x
x x x
x x

= + + + +

< <
3 5
1 1
1 1 3
cos sin ...
2 2 2 3 2
1
4
1
5
x x
x x x x


| |
= = + + +
|

<

<
\

3 2 3
1
3 5
3 5
...
3 5 7
1 1 1
tan ...
2
3 5
1 1 1
...
1
2
1
3
1
1
5
x x x
x
x
x
x x
if x
if x
if x
x
x x

+ + < <

= + +

+ +

<

3 2 3
1 1
3 5 7
3 5 7
.. .
2 3 5 7
1 1 1 1
cot tan
...
2
3 5 7
1 1 1 1
...
3
1
5 7
1 1
1
if x
if x
x x x
x
x x
x
x x x
x
x
i x
x
f
x

| |
+ + |
|

=
< <
=

+ +
<

+ + +

Series for hyperbolic functions
3 5 7
sinh ...
3! 5! 7!
x x x
x x = + + + +
2 4 6
cosh 1 ...
2! 4! 6!
x x x
x = + + + +
( )
( )
( )
1
2 2 2 1
3 5 7 1 2 2 1
2 17
tanh ... ...
3 2 15 2 2 15 3 !
n
n n n
n
B x
x x
x
n
x
x
x if

= + + < + < +
( )
( )
1
2 2 1
3 7
1 2
1 2
coth ... ...
3 45 945 2
0
!
n
n n
n
i
B x
x
f x
x x
x
x n

= + + + < + < +