Fuel Systems (ATA 28)

Fuel Properties

Relative (specific) density = weight per liter Caloric value = heat released per unit mass of fuel burnt in oxygen Distillation range = temperature range fuel evaporated and condensed from a sample of crude oil (limit 370oC cracking). Vapor pressure = pressure at the liquid surface. Flash point = temperature to flash with standard source of ignition. Spontaneous-ignition temperature ( AIT) = minimum temperature to promote spontaneous ignition.

Fuel Systems

Function: to supply the engines and APU with sufficient fuel at the required pressure under all normal and abnormal operating conditions Subsystems: Storage subsystem

Fuel Distribution subsystem

(Integral) Fuel tanks (incl. feed tanks) Tank ventilation system, ventilate and pressurize

Fuel Indication subsystem

Refuel and de-fuel system Fuel Transfer system Fuel supply system, transfer fuel to engine/APU Fuel Quantity Indication System (FQIS) Failure information

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Fuel Properties

Fuel Properties

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Airworthiness Requirements

Airworthiness Requirements
25.951 General. (a) Each fuel system must be constructed and arranged to ensure a flow of fuel at a rate and pressure established for proper engine and auxiliary power unit functioning under each likely operating condition, including any maneuver for which certification is requested and during which the engine or auxiliary power unit is permitted to be in operation. (b) Each fuel system must be arranged so that any air which is introduced into the system will not result in (1) Power interruption for more than 20 seconds for reciprocating engines; or (2) Flameout for turbine engines. (c) Each fuel system for a turbine engine must be capable of sustained operation throughout its flow and pressure range with fuel initially saturated with water at 80 F and having 0.75 cc of free water per gallon added and cooled to the most critical condition for icing likely to be encountered in operation. (d) Each fuel system for a turbine engine powered airplane must meet the applicable fuel venting requirements of part 34 of this chapter. 34 : "Fuel venting emissions" means raw fuel, exclusive of hydrocarbons in the exhaust emissions, discharged from aircraft gas turbine engines during all normal ground and flight operations.

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Airworthiness Requirements
25.963 Fuel tanks: general. (a) Each fuel tank must be able to withstand, without failure, the vibration, inertia, fluid, and structural loads that it may be subjected to in operation. (c) Integral fuel tanks must have facilities for interior inspection and repair. (d) Fuel tanks within the fuselage contour must be able to resist rupture and to retain fuel, under the inertia forces prescribed for the emergency landing conditions (e) Fuel tank access covers must : (1) All covers located in an area where experience or analysis indicates a strike is likely must be shown by analysis or tests to minimize penetration and deformation by tire fragments, low energy engine debris, or other likely debris. (2) All covers must be fire resistant as defined in part 1 of this chapter. (f) For pressurized fuel tanks, a means with fail-safe features must be provided to prevent the buildup of an excessive pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the tank.

Airworthiness Requirements
25.953 Fuel system independence. Each fuel system must meet the requirements of 25.903(b) by (a) Allowing the supply of fuel to each engine through a system independent of each part of the system supplying fuel to any other engine; or (b) Any other acceptable method. 25.954 Fuel system lightning protection. The fuel system must be designed and arranged to prevent the ignition of fuel vapor within the system by (a) Direct lightning strikes to areas having a high probability of stroke attachment; (b) Swept lightning strokes to areas where swept strokes are highly probable; and (c) Corona and streamering at fuel vent outlets.

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Airworthiness Requirements
25.981 Fuel tank temperature. (a) The highest temperature allowing a safe margin below the lowest expected auto ignition temperature of the fuel in the fuel tanks must be determined. (b) No temperature at any place inside any fuel tank where fuel ignition is possible may exceed the temperature determined under paragraph (a) of this section. This must be shown under all probable operating, failure, and malfunction conditions of any component whose operation, failure, or malfunction could increase the temperature inside the tank

Functional Requirements
Fuel used, e.g.: Kerosene (Carbon 8-16): Jet A (freezing -40C), Jet A-1 (freezing -47C, plus antistatic), where Jet A-1 = JP-8 Wide cut gasoline (naphtha, Carbon 5-15, cold weather): Jet B similar to JP-4 High flash-point kerosene Type JP-5 (Jet Propellant) AvTur (Aviation Turbine Fuel) similar to Jet B or JP-4 AvGas (Aviation Gasoline, for piston engine) Suitable for fuel and additives (anti-oxidant, icing-inhibitors, corrosion inhibitors, etc.) Useable fuel content for standard payload. Additional tank on center wing. Operating envelope (altitude, temperature, speed)

FUEL STORAGE

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Jet B: the naphtha-kerosene region for enhanced coldweather performance. It is lighter composition makes it more dangerous to handle, it is rarely used. A blend of approximately 30% kerosene and 70% gasoline, it is known as wide-cut fuel. It has a very low freezing point of 60 C (76 F) and a low flash point as well. [wikipedia]

Operating envelope

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Tank lay-out

FUEL STORAGE

To ensure continuous fuel supply to engine and APU under extreme conditions (manoeuvre, negative g) collector tank Effect on pitch and roll moments divide tank Off-load effect to structure reserve fuel in outer wing tank. Fuselage mounted engine (maximize tank volume)

Pitching Moment

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Rolling Moment

Flammability limits

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Flammability limits
Flammability limits refer to the range of compositions, for fixed temperature and pressure, within which an explosive reaction is possible when an external ignition source is introduced. This can happen even when the mixture is cold. Flammability limits are given in terms of fuel concentration (by volume) at a specified pressure and temperature. For example, the lean flammability limit for Jet A (aviation kerosene) in air at sea level is a concentration (by volume or partial pressure) of about 0.7%. The rich flammability limit is about 4.8% by volume or partial pressure. Flammability limits are not absolute, but depend on the type and strength of the ignition source. Studies on flammability limits of hydrocarbon fuels have shown that the stronger the source of the ignition stimulus, the leaner the mixture that can be ignited. Flammability limits also depend on the type of atmosphere (for example, limits are much wider in oxygen than in air), the pressure, and the temperature of atmosphere. http://www.galcit.caltech.edu/EDL/public/flammability.html (10-05-2010)

Flammable Vapor Zone

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Fuel Tank Inerting

Air Separation for Inerting using On-Board Inert Gas Generation System (OBIGGS)

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Lightning protection

Aircraft zones: (sensitive) wingtip, tail, propeller, nacelle) No sharp or pointed objects Flame arrester (heat sink)

Lightning protection

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Maximum temperature
Hot surface ignitn temp., oC Auto Ignition temp., oC

Wide-cut gasoline Kerosene MIL-H-5606 (Petroleum) MIL-H-83282 (Synthetic) MIL-L-7808 (Engine Oil)

495 480 515 580 545

240 225 225 355 385

Margin to AIT is 50oC Possible source of heat: Boostpump locked in dry tank Boostpump running in drytank Refuel valve solenoids continuously energized Use of thermal fuse (max component temp. 175oC).

Minimum Electrical Energy (flammable vapor)

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Water in fuel tanks

Maximum 30 ppm undissolved water during refueling (fig. next page) Adverse effects: Refreezing on screens of jetpump and boostpump inlet, fine filters of engine and APU Locking or damaging pump impeller Indication of FQIS fault Bacteria and fungus strontium-chromate tablets Corrosion poly-urethane coatings

Dissolved water

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Water Drain

Tank Ventilation

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Tank Ventilation

Fuel Quantity Indicating System (FQIS)

Ultrasonic probes, at the bottom, pulse-echo Capacitance probes: AC (prefered) or DC system AC systems: informasi besarnya capacitance disalurkan dalam modulasi voltase AC, karena itu rawan Electro Magnetic Interference (EMI) kabel coaxial rumit, mahal DC systems: Sinyal dari probe disearahkan dengan rangkaian dioda kemudian dikirim ke prosesor sbg sinyal DC analog. Sistem ini kurang disukai karena perlu tambahan komponen dalam tangki dan keandalannya kurang, relatif sistem AC.

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Fuel Quantity Indicating System (FQIS) Capacitance System

Fuel Quantity Indicating System (FQIS) Fo-100

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Fuel Quantity Indicating System (FQIS) Magnetic Level Indicator

B737 Dipstick

Refuel/Defuel System

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Refuel/Defuel System

Cross Feed System

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Engine/APU Supply System

Embraer Fuel Supply Sub-System

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Fuel Transfer

C.G. Trim

C.G. Trim and off-load effect

A340 Fuel System Control

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