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ANCIENT EASTERN NEAR ART

THEMETROPOLITAN MUSEUMOF ART

On the cover: The stag vessel with a frieze depicting a religious scene is a rare example of Hittitesilverware. It is part of a collection of silver and gold objects from Anatolia generously lent by Norbert Schimmel for the newly installed permanent galleries of ancient Near Eastern art. Inside covers: Reliefs from the Northwest Palace of Assurnasirpal 11 (883-859 B.C.). Above: Lion's-head dress ornament (see fig. 67).

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This Bulletin celebratesthe new installation of the Metropolitan's collectionof ancientNear Easternart.Itis dedicatedto the memoryof E.Crawford, inCharge Curator Vaughn formerly of thatdepartment, underwhose leadership the plansforthe new gallerieswere initiated. Hiseffortsand those of his colleagues now in a significant culminate achievementinthe of the Museum: oursubstantial holdhistory ings of ancientNearEasternartwillbe once againfullydisplayed. Formanyreaders,"ancientNearEastern art" reliefs bringsto mindthe monumental fromthe Assyrianpalace of Assurnasirpal II, whichcommandthe firstgalleryof the new otherswillthinkof the strong, installation; of Gudea,governor of compactsculpture lionsfromBabylon, orthe Lagash,the striding imposingsilverhead of a Sasanian king,all of previousinstallations. NowMuhighlights seum visitorswillhavethe chance to become withthe fullrangeof ancientNear acquainted Easternart,producedovera span of more thansix thousandyears and across a vast regionthatincludesancientMesopotamia, and otherlands.The Iran,Syria,Anatolia, visitor's tourof the chronologically arranged installation concludeswiththe splendidcourtly

artof the Achaemenidand Sasanian dynasties of Iran, housed ingalleriesleadinglogiwhose holdings callyto the Islamic department, date fromthe seventh centuryA.D. to the modern era. the Department of AncientNear Although EasternArtwas notofficially establisheduntil of the collectionbegan much 1956, the history earlierwithsubstantial giftsfromJ. Pierpont andJohn D. Rockefeller, Jr. Charles Morgan K.Wilkinson, a specialistinthe fieldaffiliated withthe Museumsince 1920, administered the in from1956 untilhis retirement department a prominent 1963, when Vaughn Crawford, tookcharge.Bothmen were Sumerologist, seasoned archaeologistsand each furthered the Museumexpeditionsindispensableto a Dr. of this art.Although deeper understanding Crawford died in 1981, he livedlongenough to and Bevsee the completion of the Raymond forAssyrianArt,which erlySacklerGallery opened in the springof thatyear.He was succeeded by PrudenceO. Harper, who has of the supervisedthe rest of the reinstallation collection. also to those The new galleriesare a tribute collectorswhose giftsand supporthaveenthe collection.We richedand strengthened

thankthe RightReverendPaulMoore,Jr., Bishopof the EpiscopalDiocese of New York, forthe long-term loanof the Mrs.William H. Moorecollectionof seals. Weare most gratefulforthe recentgiftsof glypticartfromDr.and Mrs.Martin and the two largegifts Cherkasky of seals, tools, weapons, and vessels of westernCentral AsiafromJudge Steven D. Robinson and SheldonLewisBreitbart. Special thanksgo to Norbert Schimmel,forhis great overa long pegenerosityto the department riodof time-reflected inthe numerousgifts and loans highlighting the galleries-and his roleinthe development of the important collection. Forthe installation itselfwe are deeply indebted to The HagopKevorkian James Fund; N.Spear;The Dillon the National EndowFund; mentforthe Humanities; and Raymond and BeverlySackler,whofundedthe expansionof the gallerythatbears theirnames. Onlya few of the manydonorsand supporters who have aidedthe growth of the department can be inthisbrief acknowledged space, butallshould take prideinthe new installation and the role they playedin itsformation. de Montebello Philippe Director

INTRODUCTION
Mesopotamia, the heart of the Near East and the land that has produced the first traces of civilization,lies between two great rivers,the Tigris and the Euphrates. These riverswere majorroutes of communication, opening the way to distant regions and encouraging contacts between the settle-

ments thatsprang up as earlyas the B.C.Intime, irrigation seventh millennium canals were constructedto divertthe to landswhere watersand bringfertility rainfall alone was notadequateto support agriculture. Twoimportant developmentsare often associated withthe beginningof civilizaof largepopulation tion:the establishment centers within cities, and the introduction of a system of writing. Archaeological excavationshave revealedthatthis stage inthe historyof mankind was reached shortlybefore3000 B.C.in southern centers replacedthe Urban Mesopotamia. pastoralvillagecultures,and specialized

societies withpriests,scribes, craftsmen, and farmerscame intoexistence. The people responsibleforthis urbanrevolution,as it has been called, were the Sumerians.They enteredMesopotamia and the fifthmillennium sometimeduring developedthe firstknownscript,a system thatlaterevolved into of pictographs signs. wedge-shapedcuneiform the millennia, southernMesoThrough center, potamiaremainedan important locatedon landand water strategically routesto Egyptand the Mediterranean worldinthe west, and to the IndusValley and CentralAsia inthe east. The capital cities of the Sumerians, Akkadians, Kassites, Seleucids, ParthBabylonians, ians, and Sasanians all lay in this fertile agricultural region.Because southern resources is poorin natural Mesopotamia -primarily metal,stone, and wood-the of Sumerestablishedconinhabitants tacts at an earlyperiodwithneighboring

countriesrichin rawmaterials.Excavationsof Uruk period(ca. 3500-3100 B.C.) settlementshave revealedthatthe Sumerianstradedwithpeoples livingin Anatolia, Syria,and Iran,and maintained outposts inthese lands. By the mid-third millennium B.C. gold, silver,tin,copper, and semipreciousstones (carnelianand fromthe relapislazuli)were imported gions east and west of Mesopotamia. This livelytradeis documentedinthe cuneiform texts and in the richand exotic burialsin the RoyalCemetaryat Ur(see develtextileindustry fig. 66). A thriving oped in Sumer,and the woven goods inthe south formedan manufactured partof its foreigntrade. important The Sumerianlanguagedoes not begroup, longto a recognizedlinguistic and consequentlythe ethnicoriginof the Sumeriansis not yet known.They were succeeded, however,by a Semitic who had entered people, the Akkadians,

Museumof ArtBulletin The Metropolitan Spring1984 VolumeXLI,Number4 (ISSN0026-1521) N.Y10028. Second-class postage paid at ? 1984 by The Metropolitan Avenueand 82nd Street,New York, Museumof Art,Fifth Publishedquarterly Offices. Subscriptions$18.00 a year.Single copies $4.75. Sent free to Museummembers. Fourweeks' notice N.Yand Additional New York, Mailing 313 N. FirstStreet,Ann Arbor, fromUniversity Microfilms, Michigan.Volumes requiredfor change of address. Back issues availableon microfilm, set or as individual I-XXVIII Publishers,Inc.,99 MainStreet, yearlyvolumes fromThe AyerCompany, (1905-1942) availableas a clothboundreprint in Chiefof the John P O'Neill,Editor Salem, N.H.03079, or fromthe Museum,Box 700, MiddleVillage,N.Y11379. GeneralManagerof Publications: The Metropolitan Musuemof ArtPhotographStudio. Design: Joanna Ekman.Photography: Bulletin: Joan Holt.Associate Editor: Gardiner, Lynton AlvinGrossman.
2

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from southernMesopotamia,probably the centuriesof Sumerian the west, during This new dynasty(2334domination. 2154 B.C.) expanded its controlwithin and made its presence felt, Mesopotamia tradeand military invasion,as far through as the "cedarforests"of Lebanon,the Taurusmountains,and "silver-bearing" The artsflourished the highlandsof Iran. the Akkadian era. Seal stones are during finelycarvedwithelaboratemythological scenes (see fig. 30); stone and metal are of highartistic andtechnical sculptures quality. This periodof brilliance ended with invasionsof Guti,tribesmenfromthe who disrupted the Zagrosmountains, course of lifeinsouthernMesopotamia. the following decades a few During Sumeriancity-statesgradually reestablishedtheirauthority over a limited area. One of these states, Lagash,was ruled in the by Gudea (fig.2), who is prominent of ancientNear Easternartbehistory cause of the largenumberof massive diorite sculpturesthathave survivedfrom the periodof his rule(2144-2124 B.C.). B.C. By the end of the thirdmillennium a new wave of Semiticpeoples, Amorites fromthe Arabian Desert, had spread into Mesopotamia and Syria. A common diawritten language,the OldBabylonian came intouse over a lect of Akkadian, widearea and opened the wayto increasThe most inglyefficientcommunications. is Hammurabi rulers famousof the Amorite of Babylon(1792-1750 B.C.),whose code of laws, based on earlierSumerianmodels, is a comprehensiverecordof legal documentfor practicesand an important the historyof Mesopotamian civilization. in the Near East, both Interconnections increasedduring peacefuland warlike, the second millennium. Assyrianmerchants fromthe northof Mesopotamia establishedtrading colonies inAnatolia in central (see fig. 73); Hittite kingsruling Anatolia married Hurrian, Babylonian, and Egyptian princesses; Elamitearmies fromsouthernIraninvadedMesopotamiaand carriedoffstatues of the kings and gods to the capitalat Susa. was a periodof The firstmillennium and in greatempires Assyria,Babylonia, AchaemenidIran. Assyria-or northern Mesopotamia-differsgeographically fromits southernneighbor, Babylonia. plains Cropsgrownon the fertilenorthern food forAssyriaand producedsufficient sustained her armiesand herempirein times of expansion.Stone and timber, whichthe south lacked,were also available inthe moretemperatemountain of the north.WhileBabylonia country

was to some extentborderedand enclosed by the Tigrisand Euphratesrivers, Assyriawas notclearlydefinedby natural features,and so its boundariesexpandedor contracteddependingon the balanceof powerwithin the region.Inthe firstmillennium B.C.-fromthe ninthto the seventh century-Assyria achieved supremepowerinthe NearEast.Assyrian rulerscontrolled the major traderoutes and dominated the surrounding states in and the Levant.LavAnatolia, Babylonia, ishlydecoratedpalaces were constructed inthe capitalcities of Nimrud, Nineveh, and Assur.The downfall of Khorsabad, this mightykingdom was finally achieved, at the end of the seventh century,by a long-standing rival,and by Babylonia, Medianand Scythianforces. Fora briefperiodBabylonia replaced Assyriaas a majorpower.Inthe seventh and sixthcenturiesB.C. Chaldeankings fromthe southernmost regionof Mesopotamiaunified a diversesociety and fended offattacksof westernSemites-Aramaean tribesmen.Butrebellionswithin the kingdom weakenedthe powerof Nebuchadnezzar'sdynasty(625-539 B.C.) and left and all Mesopotamia Babylonia open to attackand conquest by Iran. Southwestern Iran was Mesopotamia's closest neighbor, bothgeographically and The modern-day politically. provinceof Khuzistan-ancient Elam-in southwestern Iranis an extensionof the southern hisMesopotamian plain,and throughout inthis torythe developmentof civilization cultural and political centerwas important affectedby events thatoccurredinthe landbetweenthe Tigrisand Euphrates rivers.Inmoredistantareas, on the centralplateau,the eastern desert, and the northern highlandsof Iran,Mesopotamianinfluencewas alwaysweaker.DurB.C. millennia both ingthe fifthand fourth Khuzistan and the centralplateauwere sources of particularly striking pottery thatwas decoratedwithelaborategeometric, plant,and animaldesigns (see fig. recordsare lacking from 58). Since written before3000 B.C., it is impossibleto give a name or an ethnicidentification to the peoples who producedthese wares. Inthe latefourth millennium B.C., contacts withMesopotamia increasedas the Sumeriansbecame active inthe tradein semipreciousstones and metalsthat movedthrougheastern Iranand Afghanistan. UnderSumerianinfluencethe cuneiform scriptwas adoptedin Iran,and before3000 B.C.a major centerwas established in Khuzistan, at Susa, a site that has been excavatedby Frencharchaeologists. Thiscityand Anshan(modern

in neighboring Farsprovince, Malyan), were the most important and political cultural centers throughout the long hisworksof toryof the Elamites.OldElamite artproducedinthis regionduring the third and earlysecond millennia were influenced by the artof Sumerianand Akkadian The images, Mesopotamia. those of animals however-particularly and fantasticcreatures-are renderedin a distinctive Elamite style thatis characterizedby naturally renderedformsand decorative surfacepatterns. Contactswith landsfarto the northand east, in presentas wellas withpeoples day Afghanistan, livingalong the Induscoastline inthe to southeast, exposed the artistsof Iran cultures thatwereunfamiliar to theirMesopotamianneighbors,and this is reflected inthe characterand appearanceof their worksof art.Underkingsruling fromSusa inthe second halfof the second millennium B.C. Elambecame a major force political inthe Near East. Wheneversouthern was controlled Mesopotamia by weak or ineffective armiesinvaded leaders,Elamite the region,destroyedits cities, and briefly controlled the course of events there. Northwest of Khuzistan lies a region within the Zagrosmountain chainthatin was the home of semi-nomadic antiquity is knownof the history or peoples. Little cultureof the inhabitants of Luristan, as the regionis nowcalled. Inthe third, B.C.the second, and earlyfirstmillennia of the areaas a centerof horse importance breedingresultedin frequentcontacts betweenthe mountain people and their and sedentaryneighborsin Babylonia Elam.Bronzes made in Luristan during the thirdand second millennia B.C. illustratethe influenceof southernMesopotamiaand Elam.Inthe firstmillennium B.C.the florescence of a distinctive local of cast style is documentedbya profusion andhammered worksof art-the "Luristan bronzes"-for whichthis regionis justifiablyfamous. Excavationsin recentyears have uncoveredbuildings and tombs, but the ethnicorigin of the inhabitants andthe reason forthis richartistic production remainuncertain. Lateinthe second millennium B.C., the arrival of Indo-Europeans, the Iranians, of the began a new periodinthe history region.Bythe middleof the firstmillenniumB.C., Mesopotamia and Iran, underthe ruleof Achaemenidkings, were partof an empirethatexceeded in its geographical extentanything that had come before.Fromcapitalcities at Susa, Ecbatana,and Babylon,the Iranian rulerscontrolled an empirethat reachedfromTurkmenistan to the Mediterranean seacoast and Egypt.Inthe art
3

of the Achaemenidcourt,influencesfrom Assyria,Babylonia, Egypt,and Greece are apparentin bothstyle and iconography. The imperial ambitionsof the Achaemenids,whichled them twiceto attack the Greekmainland, were the cause of theirdownfall. In334 B.C. the Alexander GreatinvadedAsia fromMacedoniain Greece. Fouryears later,the victorious Greekarmyreached Persepolis in southern Iranand burnedthis greatceremonial centerto the ground.Achaemenidrulein the Near East was at an end. The Greekconquestof the Achaemenid the cultural empireinterrupted developmentof the Near East and alteredthe inthatregion.Earlier course of civilization invasions,inthe thirdand second millennia,had broughtpeoples fromdesert and mountain areas as well as fromthe steppes intothe fertilelands and urban centers of the Near East. The arrival of these seminomadictribesmenfromoutside the civilizedworlddid not radically transform the culturesthathad developed overthe millennia. New concepts and values were graftedonto existingtraditions, the societies were modified,and the fabricof civilization was enriched. The invasionof the Greeks, however, differed fromthese earlierincursionsbecause itbrought intothe NearEastforthe firsttime a people who had highly
4

developed culturaltraditions.Greek soldiersand merchantscame to livein and Iran; Syria,Anatolia,Mesopotamia, a new they foundedcities and introduced way of life.When,inthe latethird century the Iranian Parthians reclaimed MesoB.C., fromthe Seleucidspotamiaand Iran the successors of Alexander the Greatthe Greeksettlers and theirculture remained.The Orienthad adoptedthe intimes West,and forthe nextmillennium, of peace and war,the kingdomsof the Near East and the Romanand Byzantine empires inthe West maintained political and economicties as wellas commonculturaltraditions. A reassertionof a NearEasternidentity, an Iranian renaissance, is apparentin the artsat the beginningof the firstcenturyA.D., and itdeveloped underanother Iranian dynasty,the Sasanians, who ruled Mesopotamia,Iran,and partsof Syria and Anatolia fromA.D. 226 to 651. Forms and motifswere adoptedfromthe West, buttheirsignificancechanged, and they rather thanWestern expressed Oriental in the Iranian naconcepts. Similarly, tionalepic, the Shahnameh, originally compiledat the end of the Sasanian the Great period,a legendaryAlexander is half-Persian and half-Greek a by birth, modification of historythatmade events understandable and meaningful to the Near Easterner.

Anatolia and Syriaare geographically and culturally partof the Near East, butthey also face the West and are world,of neighborsof the Mediterranean Egypt,Cyprus,Crete,and Greece. Their to these lands affectedtheir proximity cultural development,and a distinctive characteris apparentinthe worksof art. civilizations flourishedin Manydifferent Anatolia and Syriaoverthe millennia, and new peoples enteredbothregionsat varioustimes: Hittites and Phrygians inAnatolia; and Hurrians, Mitannians, Aramaeansin Syria. Anatolia is richin metalore-notably gold, silver,and copper-and the skillof the Anatolian metalworker is evidentin findsdatingfromthe end of the third B.C. (see fig. 32). Vessels of millennium gold and silverfoundinthe tombs of local rulershave long,delicatespouts and handsome curvilinear designs on the bodies (see fig. 10), featuresthatare also seen on the exceptionally fine ceramicwares made inthis period.When the Indo-European Hittites enteredAnatoliaat the beginningof the second millennium B.C., they maintained many of the traditions in metalworking and potterymakingestablished by theirpredecessors. A spectaculargroupof gold and silverobjects inthe collectionof Norbert Schimmeldeserves special mentionhere bothas an illustration of the

skill of the Hittiteartist (see front and back covers, fig. 24) and as a rare example of the art made in court workshops. The Hittiteempire collapsed at the end of the second millennium B.C.in a period of foreign invasions and general chaos that also affected much of southwestern Anatolia and Syria. Inthe early first millennium B.C.,a number of smaller kingdoms replaced the Hittites as major political powers in Anatolia-notably Urartu,with its capital city at Lake Van, a rivalof Assyria from the ninth to the end of the seventh century B.C.(see fig. 74), and Phrygia, which in the eighth and seventh centuries B.C.occupied the earlier Hittite realm in central and western Anatolia and established its center at Gordion. Duringthe seventh century B.C.,nomadic tribesmen from the steppes north of the Caucasus mountains poured into Anatolia, destroying Phrygian power and disrupting life in western Anatolia. In eastern Anatolia Scythian tribes moved into Iranand Mesopotamia, where they joined with Median and Babylonian armies in their attack on Assyria late in the seventh century. The influence of the Scythians on the art of the Near East is apparent in works made in Iran,Anatolia, and Syria during this period. The objects are executed in a distinctive, beveled style and display a repertory of designs in which stags, panthers, birds of prey, and griffins are favorite subjects. By the beginning of the sixth century B.C. the Scythians had retreated from the Near East through Anatolia and had returned to the steppes around the Black Sea. The rising power of Achaemenid Iranreached into Anatolia, and in the middle of the sixth century, Persian satraps and officials, responsible to the Achaemenid king at Susa, extended their control as far as the Aegean seacoast. Syria, to the south of Anatolia and west of Mesopotamia, was a crossroads between the great civilizations of the ancient world and was often disputed by rivalpowers. The rulers who controlled this land held vitaltrade routes linkingthe Mediterranean worldand Asia. Evidence of trade between Syria and Mesopotamia in the late fourth millennium B.C.marks the beginning of direct contacts that increased over the centuries. Although foreigners, notably Mesopotamians, lived and traded in Syria continuously from the earliest times, its art had a distinctive character, which has been demonstrated in recent excavations of the third-millennium levels at such sites as Mariand Ebla. Inthe second millennium B.C.a truly international style developed

worldwere Egyptand the Mediterranean adoptedand passed intimefromSyria intothe artof Mesopotamia.Inthe first millennium B.C. Assyriaand Phoenicia replacedEgyptand the Myceneanand Minoan source of empiresas a major influencein Syrianart.Ivory carvings fromArslanTash-exhibited now inthe and BeverlySacklerGallery for Raymond a combinaArt-clearly illustrate Assyrian tionof variousartistic styles. The small plaqueswithreliefcarvingsof human, animal,and plantdesigns decoratedfurnitureand objectsof luxury. Egyptianizing motifsintroduced throughPhoeniciaare combinedwithstylisticand iconographic detailstakenfromthe artof Assyria. in the same galleryare ivories Exhibited in northern excavatedat Nimrud, Mesopotamia,where craftsmen,deportedfrom Syriaand Phoenicia,workedforthe AsTheAssyrians mustalso have syriancourt. receivedsome ivories,whichwere treasuredobjects,as tribute and bootyfollowingtheirconquest inthe earlyfirstmillenniumB.C. of towns inthe Syrianwest. The Assyriandomination of Syriawas followedby Babylonian conquests and finally by Achaemenidrule.Withthe invasion of Alexander the Greatinthe fourth century,a largepartof Syriafell into Greekhands, and latercame under Romanand then Byzantinecontrol.The borderbetweenthe westernempiresof Rome and Byzantium and the Parthian and Sasanian lands inthe east ranalong the centraland northern EuphratesRiver throughSyria. Fora thousandyears, fromthe last centuriesbeforeChrist to the comingof of the regionwas one Islam,the history of almostcontinual warfare as the great and Sasanian Iran empiresof Byzantium exhaustedtheir battledand ultimately resources inthe effort to controlthe rich traderoutesand cities of Anatolia and Arabarmiesfromthe westSyria.Finally, ern desert-followers of the prophet Muhammad-overranthe NearEast, and of the seventhcentury Mesobythe middle potamiaand Iranas wellas almosthalfof the ByzantineempirehadfallenunderIslamicrule.Withthe introduction of this new religion and way of lifeanotherperiodin the history of the Near East began.

ingof the universeand man'srelationship to the divinepowersare the religionsof and ZoroastrianJudaism,Christianity, ism. Ofthese faithsthe least familiar to us is the Zoroastrian the religion.During Sasanian period(third to seventh century inthe state religion A.D.)thiswas the official Near East, as Christianity became, under Constantine the Great(A.D.313-37), the of the ByzantineWest.The religion who mayhave lived prophetZoroaster, abouta thousandyears beforeChrist or somewhatlater,preacheda doctrinein whichthe powerof Good (personified by the god Ahuramazda, orOhrmazd) is confrontedbythe powerof Evil(personified or Ahriman). bythe god AngraMainyu, Man'snatural roleis to followGood, buthe is free to choose betweenthe two principles. Incontrastto otherearly NearEasternreligions,few of the deities are depictedin art.The most notable of Zoroastrian representations gods from the pre-lslamic era appearon rockreliefs carvedduring the Sasanian periodon the clifffaces of Iran.

fieldwork and the study Archaeological of ancientrecordsprovidethe means to reconstruct ancienthistoryand to understand the worksof art.Since the early firstwentto Iran, 1930s, whenexpeditions the Museumhas continuedto mountand excavationsinthatcountry as well support as Iraq, A porJordan,Syria,and Turkey. tionof thisBulletin is devotedto thiswork. Inscribed clay tabletswere amongthe firstNearEasternantiquities the Museum andthe presentcollection acquired, ranges in date fromaround2600 B.C.to the first The written texts and the centuryA.D. sealsdesigns on stamp and cylinder objectsof exceptionalinterestand oftenof greatbeauty-document aspects of Near Easternlifeand culturethatwouldotherwise remainunknown. Works of artfromMesopotamia and Iran formthe majorpartof the exhibition inthe new galleriesof the Department of AncientNearEasternArtand are the The artof primary subjectof this Bulletin. Anatolia and the Levant,as wellas the collectionof seals and tablets, is represented by a smallerselection of objects. Galleriesforthe displayof these artifacts are plannedforthe future. one of man'sprimary Allof the curatorial membersof the Throughout antiquity concernswas his relationship to the gods. have contributed to this Department Statues of the deities, generallyin human Bulletin: OscarWhiteMuscarella, Holly form,were set up intemples and carried A. Porter, Barbara and myself. Pittman,
in processions celebrating special occasions. Ancient man believed that the gods controlled the forces of nature and governed the course of events in daily life. Notable exceptions to this understandA section on writingis by IraSpar, Associate Professor of Historyand Ancient Studies at Ramapo College. PRUDENCE 0. HARPER Curator,Ancient Near Eastern Art
5

inthis region.Motifsand designs from

period, Beginninginthe earlyNeolithic representationsof humanfigures in stone, or bone were made all terracotta, overthe Near East. We cannotoftentell whetherthe figuresrepresentdeities or humans,or if indeed such distinctions were intended.Butbythe latefourthand scemillennia B.C., background earlythird and activities neryor physicalattributes were includedthatcan sometimes help us to distinguish gods frommen. Itis however,to tell an ordinary difficult, citizen-a priest or a worshiper,for example-from a ruler. Inthe course of the thirdmillennium B.C.variousNear Easternstates were engaged in organizedtradeand imperial and ecoconquest, and then, politically secure, theirrulersbegan to nomically have themselves portrayed unambiguously and sometimes withinscriptions. secular, Theywere depictedperforming and religiousfunctions,and the military, formsemployedwere statuaryinthe seals and roundor carvingson cylinder reliefs,usuallyin stone. here are clearly Thefiguresreproduced as such eitherby inscriprulers,identified Possitions or theirregalcharacteristics. blythe earliestis the heavy,almost and solid-casthead (fig. 1), masterfully subtlyexecuted to indicatecalm dignity and inherentpower.The heavy-lidded butnotoverlarge eyes, the prominent mouth,and the intrinose, the full-lipped catelycoiffedbeardare all so carefully and skillfully modeledthatthe head may of a almostcertainly wellbe a portrait, then the head is Ifthis is a portrait, ruler. uniqueamong Near Easternartifacts. Some scholars date itto the second millennium B.C., othersto the latethird the B.C., which,considering millennium The makerand style, seems more likely. as the date of the piece remainunknown, of this king,whose does the identity muteand nameless, nevrepresentation, ertheless remainsone of the greatworks of ancientart. The seated stone figure(fig.2) represents Gudea (2144-2124 B.C.), the ensi, or governor, of the ancientSumerian state of Lagash,whose name and title A are includedinthe long inscription. number of stone statues of Gudea,seated or standing,were excavatedat Tello insouthernMesopotamia, (ancientGirsu), fromTello,surwhileothers, presumably faced on the artmarket; manyfromboth sources are fragmented, lackingheads or bodies. The Museum'sGudea is comcharacteristiplete and depictsthe ruler hatdecorated callydressed in a brimmed withhairlike spiralsand a longgarment thatleaves one shoulderbare. His hands
7

are clasped in prayer-appropriately so, forthe inscription informs us thatthe statuewas placedin a templeto represent Gudea in supplication beforethe gods. The Museumalso possesses a stone head, whichwas joinedto a body inthe of Ur-Ningirsu, the son of Gudea; Louvre, the completestatue (fig.69) is exhibited at the Metropolitan and the Louvrein alternating three-yearperiods. B.C. the firstmillennium Assyrian During and PersianAchaemenidkingsruled manynationsand peoples. Theywere which mastersof political propaganda, was expressed in numeroustexts and in variousformsof art.The Assyrianpalaces were embellishedwithstone wall reliefs(see insidecovers) depictingroyal activitiesinwar,the hunt,and domestic and religiousceremonies. On the illustratedrelieffromNimrud (fig.3), the king holds a 11 (883-859 B.C.) Assurnasirpal bow-a symbolof his authority-and a ceremonialbowl.Facinghim,an attendantholds a flywhiskand a ladlefor the royalvessel. The peacereplenishing ful,perhapsreligious,natureof the scene is reflectedinthe calm, dignified composure of the figures. The Achaemenidkings(550-331 B.C.) and artisticiconogemployedthe political warlike raphyof earlierperiods.Although activitiesdo not appearon theirpalace reliefs,the Persiankingsdid represent seals vanquishing themselveson cylinder enemies. On the seal at the lowerleft(fig. 4) an Achaemenid kingholdsa bow,again a symbolof authority, andthrustshis spear intoa soldier,identified as Greekby his The naturalism of the helmetand clothing. that the artist and details carving suggests was eithera Greekworking forthe Persians or a Persiantrainedin the West. to sevThe PersianSasanians (third enth centuryA.D.)consideredthemselves and political heirsto the the spiritual of Achaemenidkings. Representations Sasanian rulersappearon coins, vessels, and rockreliefs,and in stucco busts. On the coins each kingis named by an and wears a personalized inscription crown,whichusuallyhelps to identify other,uninscribed Unfortunately, portraits. this is notthe case withthe Museum's head (fig.5), which slightlyunder-life-size was hammeredfroma single piece of silver.Because of slightvariationsinthe crownand the presence of the striated globe headdress, we can inferthathe was a fourth-century king,whose controlledfierceness characterizesa posWe do not turedepictedformillennia. knowthe function of the piece, butit is a rareexampleof a Sasanian kingportrayedin the round. O.W.M.

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Mudbrick,unbakedand baked,reed, wood, and stone were the chief building materials of the ancientNear Eastern world.The collapse of successive mudbrick wallsgradually led to the formation of mounds,whichmarkthe sites of human occupationinthe Near East (see figs. 44, 49, 51). Because stone is rarein southern Mesopotamia,mudbrickand reeds were used to fashionstructures.Wood was also generallylackinginthe south, where the onlycommontree was the date palm(see figs. 4, 39). InSyriaand Anatolia,however,wood formedan integralpartof all largestructures.On a clay culttowerprobably made in Syria(see fig. 22), sizable wooden beams are represented betweenthe two stories and in of the building. the framework The wallsand doorwaysof most importantroyaland cultbuildings were embellished withdifferent materials,stone, metal,and paintedplaster.Claybricks moldedintofigural and plantformsfirst appearas a type of decorationin architecture of the second millennium B.C. in

and Syria.Some of the Mesopotamia most impressiveexamples of molded brickscome fromthe cityof Babylon. The wallsof gateways,the royalbuildings, and a long processionalroad,built the reignof Nebuchadnezzar II during
(604-562 B.C.), were faced with molded
7
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brickscoveredwithyellow,blue, black, and redglazes. The lions (see fig.

11

the greatMesopota9), symbolsof Ishtar, miangoddess of love and war(see fig. 27), are fromthe wallsof the processional roadleadingto the BitAkitu, or house of the New Year'sFestival (see p. 23). taste formoldedand The Babylonian and in glazed bricksspreadto Iran, the Achaemenidperiod(550-331 B.C.) the wallsof the palaces at Susa had coloredglazed surfaces. The brightly Achaemenidarchitecture, mostfamiliar
12

to representthe forepartsof various however,is at the site of Persepolis,in southwesternIran.Manyof the stone animals: bulls,andhuman-headed griffins, the entrancegates, bulls.The head of a bull(fig.6) inthe sculpturesdecorating still Museum'scollectionis partof one of stairs,and wallsof the royalbuildings stand, butthe mudbricksthatformedthe these blocksand combines realisticand wallsof these buildings have longsince decorativeformsinthe typicalstyle of the crumbled Achaemenidroyalworkshops.The aniaway.Some of the hallsat Persepolishad huge stone columnsover mal'sears and horns,now lost, were made fromseparate pieces of stone. sixtyfeet high.On the tops of these columnsand the capitalssurmounting were conRoyaland cultbuildings structedwithconsiderable care and them, impostblocksheldthe wooden The groundchosen fortemceilingbeams. These blockswere carved deliberation.

was clearedbeforeconstrucpie buildings tionand the soil speciallyprepared.One customarypractice,datingfromas early millennium as the mid-third B.C., was the of foundation burial figuresat selected pointsbeneaththe temple.A nude male a box (fig.7) may have figuresupporting served this purpose.Foundaoriginally tionfiguresoftenend in a taperednaillikeformso that,in a sense, they secure in place. This is trueof many the building Sumerianfigures(see fig. 45) and of a

particularly striking example (see fig. 35), fromnorthern probably Mesopotamia, toppedwitha snarlinglion. The conquest of the Near Eastern lands inthe fourth centuryB.C. by the Greekruler of Macedon Alexander brought foreigncraftsmenin considerable numbersto the NearEast, and the architecture soon reflected theirpresence. Stone was used morefrequently forbuildand Greekcapitals, ings of importance, columns,and moldingsbegan to trans-

formthe appearanceof buildings. A beardedmale head of Parthian date (first to second centuryA.D.) providesevidence of westerninfluenceinthe rather realisticstyle and the function of the The piece as a waterspout (fig.8). person however,has the moustache, portrayed, long, loose locks of hair,and prominent nose of a Near Easterner, an probably Iranian. The head was originally glazed, and the beardstillretainstraces of iron pyrites. P.O.H.
13

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Vessels fashionedfromsilverand gold were made in several areas of the Near East as earlyas the middleof the third B.C.Ores producing silver millennium exist in Iran, and silverwas broughtback fromAnatolia by merchantsfromnorthern Mesopotamia(Assyria)in the early B.C. Goldcame to second millennium froma varietyof sources, Mesopotamia the Taurus and Caucasus mounincluding and Egyptin the tains inthe northwest southwest.Textsalso recordthe shipmentof gold fromthe Induscoastline in the east. (Meluhha) Some of the most spectacularand earliestobjects in gold come fromthe RoyalCemeteryat Ur(ca. 2500 B.C.)in Mesopotamia(see fig. 66). Neithergold and norsilveris nativeto Mesopotamia, the appearanceof these materialsindicates thatan effectivesystem of trade had developed by this time. Slightlylaterin date thanthe objects discoveredat Urare gold vessels found in royaltombs in north-central A Anatolia. ewer made of hammeredgold (fig. 10) had a longspout thatprojected originally the second fromthe narrow neck. During B.C. spoutedjugs became exmillennium tremelyelaborateand elegant in form.A of a cultscene on a Hittite representation cup (see backcover)shows one of these jugs in use at a ceremonywhere a liquid is being pouredout beforea god. offering One vessel type thathad a long history inthe ancientNear East incorporates the head orforepart of an animal.A spectacularexample (see frontcover)comes from Anatolia and was made during the period of Hittite rule(fifteenth to thirteenth centuryB.C.). The handledcup is inthe of a recumbent shape of the forepart animal an commonlyrepresentedin stag, and associated witha the artof Anatolia stag god,whocan be seen on the bandenthe neck of the vessel (see back circling cover).The meaningof this cultscene is butthe associationof certain uncertain, vessels withparticular animal-shaped texts. is describedin Hittite divinities Religiousor cultscenes of the type on foundon the Hittite cup are unknown latervessels of gold or silverthatare preservedfromthe periodof Achaemenid rulein Iran.Ingeneral,the decorationof these worksof artis fairly simple. Bodies are oftenflutedand decoratedwitheggshaped bosses (see fig. 72), designs that appearon Near Easternceramicsand in the second and earlyfirst metalwork B.C. Stylizedplantmotifsinmillennia clude lotuses, palmettes,and rosettes. AnAchaemenidcup made of silveris inthe shape of a horse'shead (fig.12). The bridleand the fileof birdsaroundthe
15

male figure,beardedand partially nude. The vine scrolland the nude male figure (an unusual subjectinSasanianart)reflect the influenceof Dionysiacimagery. The significanceof the Dionysiacmotifsin Iranian artis unknown. Theyare commonon silverware of late Sasanian date thatperiod,mayhave reand, during ferredto Iranian courtfestivalsrather thanto specific Dionysiaccultpractices. Although royalimages do notappear on the gold and silvervessels thathave survivedfromthe Achaemenidperiod, names of kingswere inscribed on some examples aroundthe rim(see fig. 72). On latervessels, notably those of the (ca. first century B.C.)and is much influSasanianperiod, thereare no royal inscripenced, informand style, bythe artof the tions butthe kinghimselfis represented, late Hellenistic West.The panther wears scene (see fig. 63). usuallyin a hunting a grape-and-leaf vine woundaroundits plates decoratedinthis fashion Silver-gilt chest, and an ivywreathencirclesthe rim were probably intendedas giftsforneighof the vessel. These motifsare symbols boringrulersorformembersof the king's of the Greekwine god Dionysos,whose own court. cultspreadeastwardat the timeof the Ancient textsstate thatgoldsmiths fashinvasionof Alexander the Greatinthe ioned notonlyvessels butalso statues of latefourth centuryB.C. Dionysiacimages kingsand divinitiesand manysmall ob-panthers, grapevines,and dancingfejects, such as jewelryand otherdecoramales (see fig. 26)- continueto appear tions forthe clothingof the kingand god. on the silverware of the Sasanian period Onlya smallnumberof these treasured (A.D. 226-651). On an oval bowl(see fig. objects have survived,butthe remains 11) datingfromthe end of this perioda wares that providea glimpseof the luxury with were used at the royalcourtand dedicurling grapevinescrollis populated birdsand animalsand framesa small cated by rulers to their gods. P.O.H. A

neck are coveredwithgoldfoil.This of gold and silverwas combination of the commonlyused on metalwork Achaemenidperiod,and the fashionconand tinuedon laterworksof Parthian Sasanian date. Another Achaemenid vessel (fig.14) of a lion.The mouth ends inthe forepart of the lionis open, and incharacteristic NearEasternfashionthe tongue protrudesfrombetweenthe teeth. The vessel is madeof seven different parts,almost joined. invisibly A gildedsilverrhyton (fig.13), hornshaped and havinga smallspoutfor dates fromthe Parthian pouring, period

13

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17

Weaponsare documentedinthe archaeologicalrecordsof the NearEast fromat least the Neolithic period.Theywere made of stone and probably wood, initially and as soon as metallurgy was exploited, they were fashionedof copper,then bronze,and lateriron.Ourknowledgeof weapons and theiruse in warand the huntis based on findsfromcemeteries, settlements,and on representations. Sennacherib,kingof Assyria(704-681 at warwithhis B.C.), was frequently andhis palacewallsat Nineveh neighbors, were linedwithstone reliefsdepictinghis victories.Manyof the battlescenes are others, likethe bloodyand dramatic; Museum'sfragmentary example (fig. 15), illustrate troopson the march.Heretwo cavalrysoldiersare shown wearingheland boots;theycarryspears, mets, armor, swords,and bows forbothclose- and combat.Because of the rough long-range terrain-mountainsand a spring-the soldierswalktheirhorses, an exampleof The Assyrianconcernforverisimilitude. horses weartassels, fordecoration,and noise during bells, to create a terrifying us of charges. The reliefsnotonly inform historical events, butthey also yielddocumentation of contemporary artifacts-in this case, weapons, clothing,and equestrianparaphernalia. finds Archaeological oftenmatchitemsdepictedon the reliefs,

whichplayan important role indating and attribution. approximately eightyexamAlthough ples of ironswords likethe Museum's (fig.16) are known,notone is represented in artor has been excavatedby the culture archaeologists.Fortunately and generaltimeof theirmanufacture are revealedby stylisticanalysisof both the figuresand the blade shape. The two beardedmale heads thatprojectfromthe pommeland the crouchinglionson eitherside of the ricassoresembleLuristan styles fromthe late eighthand early
seventh centuries B.C., and the willow-leaf

blade is paralleled on plainswords excavatedfromLuristan tombsof the same period. The placementof the blade at right angles to the hiltandthe complexmethod of construction makethis class of sword unique.Eachswordwas individually and consists of aboutten hand-forged separate pieces neatlyjoinedto give the thatthe swordwas cast in impression one piece. Whythese swordswere so made is unknown, butthe painstakingly number that large suggests they may have signaledthe special rankof their bearers. Identical inform,they were inone place. probablymanufactured The swordwitha giltbronzeguardand a hollowgold hilt(fig.17) is moredifficult

to attribute to a specificarea. The iron blade (notshown) is preservedin a gold scabbarddecoratedwitha stampedor on the obverse punchedfeatherpattern and withfive pairsof spiralwireson the reverse.The hiltand the two mountswith P-shapedflanges are decoratedwith and garnetand glass inlays. granulations These mountsheld leatherstrapsthat allowedthe swordto hang froma beltfor a "quick draw." Morethan a half-dozenotherexamples of this formof swordand scabbard are known,butnone are so elaborately decorated;a few are also representedin art.The double P-shapedmountsare foundon swordsrecovered fromEurope to the Eurasiansteppes, including and Iran, are associated withthe nomadicTurkishspeakingAvarsof the sixthand seventh A rockreliefat Taq-i centuriesA.D. Bustanin Iranprovidesthe only known exampleof a Sasanian kingwearinga similar swordand mounting; otherrepresentationsof Sasanian swords depicta different form of attachment. we Therefore, cannotbe certainwhetherourswordwas once inthe armory of a Sasanian king, or whetheritand its mates were once in the possession of an Avarchief. O.W.M.

15 18

16

17

19

The peoples of the Near East, likethose of othercultures, were of preoccupiedwiththe world( Iand spiritual mysterious eternally ic demonicforces. Theirartisti ssed expre, impulseswere largely and dociJinconceptualizing

beliefs, interpretamentingtheirmanifold tions, and fears. AncientNear Eastern artand textualmaterial eloquentlyreveal howover the millennia these people resolved theirneed to relateto and placate the ever-presentspiritsand deities that manifestedthemselves in natureand in dailylife. The gold necklace (fig. 19) is a good example of how decorativeand spiritual functionswere oftencombined.Itis composed of doubleand triplestrandsof hollowbeads withseven pendants,each inthe formof a deityor a symbolof a deity.Although complete,the apparently reconstruction of the morethantwo hundredpieces is modern,so the original positionof each element is not absolutely certain.The two hornedfemales in long

flounceddresses most probably represent Lama,a protective goddess; the centraldiskwithraysemanatingfroma boss representsShamash, the sun god; the crescent, the moon god, Sin;and the forkedlightning Adad, symbol, probably the stormgod. The two disks withgranulatedrosettes may be purelydecorative. Whileno otherelaborateexample exists in completeform,wallreliefsdepict B.C. Assyriankingsof the firstmillennium wearingnecklaces likethis one withpendantdivinesymbols, indicating thatthey were to be wornby royalty. The necklace was most probably apotropaic-that is, it protectedthe royalwearerfromharm. Similar individual elements excavatedat Larsain Mesopotamialead us to assume thatthis necklace was made in the early

19

20

B.C., and as Assyrian second millennium examples attest, necklaces withapotropaicfeatureshad a long historyin the region. The bronzehelmet(fig.20) withfour raisedfiguresprominently positionedon value in addition its fronthad apotropaic function.Each to its immediatepractical of the figureswas sculptedfroma bitumen core overlaidwithsilverand gold and then fastened to a bronzeplateriveted to the helmet.Inthe centralposition as a is a beardedmale deity,identified on a the scales mountain-water by god and the waterflowing conicalbackground fromthe vessel he holds. He is flanked goddesses and protected bytwo identical The fromabove by a giantraptor. inreverhands their hold open goddesses

ence beforetheirbreasts. They,too, are withscales, placed againstbackgrounds whichsuggests thatthey may be mountaindeities associated withthe male god, who is probably dominant since his crown of has multiple horns whiletheirs pairs have onlysingle pairs.Because of the of the figures style and deportment depicted,and the special techniqueof the helmetmaybe attribmanufacture, utedto the Elamitesof the fourteenth centuryB.C. Thatourhelmetwas wornby a personof rankis suggested bythe used and the complexpreciousmaterial Itssymbolicand ityof the construction. is impliedby value protective spiritually the presence of the deitiesinsuch a prominentand chargedposition. The Neo-Assyrian seal (fig. cylinder

18) depicts a religiousscene commonly foundon these ubiquitous objects.A is in reverencebefore humanworshiper the stormgod Adad,who stands on a bull,the animalusuallyassociated with one of manymixedhim.A bull-man, creaturespiritsdepictedby ancientNear Easterners,appears in attendancebehindAdad,and varioussymbols of other and deities-the standardsof Marduk the dots the seven Nabu, representing Pleiades, and the wingedsun disk-are the distributed throughout unobtrusively mixes the scene, whichinterestingly formsof the gods and anthropomorphic theirsymbols.Whilethe ownerprobably used this device to seal documentsand cargo, he no doubtalso carrieditas his O.W.M. personaltalismanand sign of piety.

21

his gods was not personal diateone of manymodernbelievers. Instead,itwas distantand formal,definedessentiallythroughthe perforAncientman's mance of elaboraterituals. was to serve function on earth primary the gods, whose decisions and actions determined the outcome of all events and mankind's ultimate fate. Itseems thatthe common manwas excludedfromall butthe majorreligious was festivals;in most ritualsparticipation the privilege and the responsibility of of the king. priestsand, most important, These ritesare not clearlyunderstood, and whatlittlewe knowcomes largely invariousdialects, texts written through visual representations, and archaeological remains. deities were conceived Mesopotamian in humanformand were believedto reside in images erected in cultbuildings. This imagewas the focus of the cultand was carefully nurtured throughmanypreforfeeding,clothcisely prescribedrituals and in the hope thatthe ing, washing, god mightthen be pleased and disposed to act favorably towardhis subjects. Cuneiform texts tell us thatmost of the cultimages-none of whichare entirely preserved-were madeof preciouswoods and were eitherdressed in elaborate garmentsor covered entirelywithgold. They had staringeyes inlaidwithprecious stones, often lapis lazuli,forthe pupiland shell or alabasterforthe surwhite.Statues of otherdeities rounding and of important, often royal,worshipers were frequently placed in the temples. The gypsumstatue (fig.21) was foundat TellAsmarinthe SquareTemple,which was builtshortlybeforethe middleof the thirdmillennium an B.C.Itis probably not a deity; imageof a piousworshiper, his hypnotically staringeyes may resemble those of his reveredgod. of foodanddrink were brought Offerings to the deityeveryday;they were "consumed"by it behinddrawncurtains.In addition to the ritual feeding, libations were offered,usuallyof water,wine, beer, animal. oil, or the bloodof a sacrificial These liquids were pouredfroma special vessel onto an altaror intoanothersacred receptacleor object.Such a ceramic vessel (fig.22), probably fromSyria,is in the shape of a two-storied towertopped by a humanfigurewearinga conicalcap and restraining twofelines bytheirtails. Betweenthem is a narrow-necked openwhicha blessed liquid was ing through poured,to flowfromone of the two doors cut intothe frontof the towervessel.
22

Across the top of the towera cylinderof the seal impressionshows a variation scene. presentation of a kneelingbull(fig.23), The figurine is magnififromearlythird-millennium Iran, in silver (see p. 46). Itis centlysculpted clothedas a human,in a textiledecoand holds a ratedwitha stepped pattern, tall,spoutedvessel in its outstretched We hooves inthe postureof a supplicant. of knownothingof the religiousrituals millenIran fromthe beginningof the third
nium B.C. Contemporary Proto-Elamite

seals do show animalsin human cylinder posturethatmaybe engaged in some kindof ritual activity. Inaddition to the dailyrituals surroundingthe cultimage,the Mesopotamian calendarwas fullof special days on which riteshad to be observed by the particular priestsand the king.The most important of these was the New Year'sFestival, the which,aftermanychanges through in was the millencelebrated first ages,
nium B.C.during the spring month of

Nisan. InBabylon, the kingand priests

foreleven days;the rituals performed the of festival occurredwhen point high the cultstatues of Marduk-the chief Babylonian god-and otherdeities were paradedalongthe ProcessionalWay leadingfromthe templeprecinctto the Akitu house. Outsidethe magnificent Ishtar Gate, the wallsalongthe waywere linedwithcolorful images of glazed-brick lions(see fig. 9) striding boldlytoward where a mysthe sacred destination musthave teriousand crucialritual takenplace. H.P.

22

23

23

Some of the most elaboraterepresentations of females inthe artof the ancient Near East are images of divineand cult figureswhose association withcertain aspects of lifemade them essential to the welfareof mankind.Fertility, procreation, the growthof crops and livestock,and such natural phenomenaas thunderstormsand rainwere among the basic withfemale divinities concepts identified by ancientpeoples. Representationsof nude females in clay,stone, and metal arethe simplestand mostobviousexpression of these concepts, and such figures in many antiquity appearedthroughout example regions and periods.A striking in clay fromnorthwestern Iran(fig.25) is served as a cult hollowand probably vessel as well as a sacred image.The exaggeratedwidthof the pelvis may be intendedto emphasize the roleof women as childbearers. One of the most important Mesopotaa divinity miangoddesses was Ishtar, who combinedin her natureaspects of bothlove andwar.She is frequently represented on cylinderseals (fig.27) with

25

24

2/

weapons risingfromher shouldersor lion-headedweapon. holdinga distinctive Herright foot rests on a lion,her animal attribute. Ishtar is a goddess to whom and vicrulersturnedforaid, protection, toryin battle. A smallgold pendant(fig.24) represents a goddess worshipedin Anatolia. The Hittite figureholds a childon her lap, thus underscoring her roleas a mother of this divinity regoddess. The identity mains uncertain, butthe wide, disklike headdress may representthe sun and the figure therefore maybe a sun goddess. the enthroned figurerests on a Although flatpodiumor base, a loop attachedto the backof the headdress indicatesthat this was a pendant,once suspended, to perhapsfroma necklace similar the examplefromMesopotamiainthe Museum'scollection(see fig. 19). On thatnecklace, smallfiguresof another benevolentgoddess, Lama,are included amongthe pendants. Dancingfemale figuresdecorate a Sasanian silver-gilt ewer (fig.26), a ceremonialor cultvessel of a type datableto the sixthor earlyseventh centuryA.D. The appearanceof these images was influencedby Romanrepresentations of maenads, female worshipersassociated withthe cultof the Greekwine god whose worDionysos,a complexdivinity ship was particularly widespreadinthe ancientworld.On the Sasanian vessels the females are alwaysin a dancingpose and holda select groupof objects, includbranches,birds,aniing grape-and-leaf mals, and vessels. No texts remainfrom this periodto explainthe appearanceor of these females in the Sasanian function world,and we can onlysuppose that they were associated withsome court festivalof the Iranian year. P.O.H.

26 25

28 29

Forancientman the worldwas full of supernatural spirits,beneficentand malevolent,who had to be constantly appeased or repelled.By the thirdmillenniumB.C. a few of these spiritshad been representedintangibleformsthat,alless thoughmonstrous,were probably when their than previously, frightening formwas leftsolely to a believer'simagiof most of nation.The specific identity these creaturesis not knownbecause there is so littlecoincidence of textual descriptionand visual representation. Butoftentheirfunctionis suggested by theirappearanceor fromthe contextin whichthey are depicted. Whenrepresentedin art,these supernatural creatureswere alwaysmade up formscombined of naturally occurring manner.Wingswere in an unnatural a realcreature often used to transform intoa fabulousone, as was the mixingof humanand animalfeatures (see fig. 64). Until the last halfof the thirdmillenniumB.C. onlya few such mixedcrea26

tureswere represented; amongthemwere the bull-man, the human-headedbull, and the lion-headedeagle, Imdugud. But the Akkadian during dynasty(2334-2154 B.C.)a richvarietyof these fabulouscreatureswere placedintothe artistic repertory. On the illustrated seal (fig.30) is carved the snake god, whose formis human above and reptilian below;he is apfrom front and behindby minor proached deitieswithscorpionsor snakes forhands and feet. One of these divinities is winged, whilethe otherhas felines emergingwinglikefromits back.The domainof the snake god was the underworld, and because he is often associated withgrowing vegetationor,as here, withscorpions and felines and the gatepost of Inanna (the Sumeriangoddess of love and war), he is thoughtto be a fertility deity,perhaps of Iranian inspiration. Monstrous images were often borrowedfromothercultures,eitherwithor The image without theiroriginal identity. of the sphinx-a creaturewitha lion's

bodyand a humanhead-was borrowed fromEgyptand adaptedby the cultures of westernAsia. Fromthe OldAssyrian comes palace at the site of Acemhoyuk an ivoryfigurine of a female sphinxwearcurls(fig.29). Allof its ing Hathor elements are Egyptian, butthey are combinedina completely manner. un-Egyptian This ivorysupportis one of a groupof fourthatmost probably served as decorationfora throne. Anexpertlycast silveraxe withgoldfoilgilding(fig.28) is decoratedwith elements of the livelyiconography of heroes and demons that superhuman was developedduring the Middle Bronze Asia. The heroic Age inwesternCentral demon, composed of a humanbodywith birds' heads, talons, and wings, is a creaturemost probably borrowed fromeastern Iran.Itis shownsometimesenthroned withnatural and sometimes struggling or fantasticcreatures.Itsopponenton the axe is a dragonlike creaturedistinguished by a single horn,a curledbeard, a ridgedruff, staggeredwings, a feline's talons. This same creabody,and bird's turealso served as a symbolof the Iranian Shimashkidynastyof the late
third millennium B.C.

of fabulouscreatures Representations served notonlyas images of numinous spirits,butalso as heraldicsymbolsfor the propaganda of the secular state. its meaningis not understood, Although the hornedand wingedlionoccurs in AchaemenidPersianiconography, frewiththe king.On a quentlyinconjunction gold plaqueof this period(fig.31) are two wingedand hornedlions,each rearingwithits head turnedback.The plaque was most probably sewn on a soft cloth or leatherbackingthatserved as partof the resplendent of an Achaemenid panoply
courtier. H.P.

27

34

32

Eveninthe densely populatedcities of the ancientNearEast naturewas never farfrommen'sdailylives. This is reflectedinthe art,where images of animalswere used fromthe earliesttimes. forms, Theywere representedas natural as symbolsof abstractconcepts, or as of one of the manyNear Eastattributes ern deities. Alongwithdomesticated sheep, goats, and bovids,images of wild animalspredominate: lions,caprids, mountain sheep, and wildbullsare especiallyimportant. millennium As earlyas the latefourth societies werefirstformB.C., when urban ing inthe lowlands,the lionwas clearly

associated withpower,bothsecularand divine.The forepart of a lionemerges froma bronzepeg-shaped foundation figurine (fig.35). The platebeneaththe withthe lion'sextended paws is inscribed inthe name of Tishatal,a kingof Urkish, a non-Indoof the Hurrians, language European,non-Semitic people who, from the second halfof the third millennium B.C., were presentinthe northern partsof and Syria.Stylistic features Mesopotamia peg-frightsuggest thatthisfoundation ening enough to scare offevildoers-was artistor by made eitherby an Akkadian one within the Akkadian sphere of influence.

The yokedpairof long-horned bulls served as a decorative finial, (fig.32) perhapsfora ceremonialstandardor chariotpole. Itis reportedly froman Early BronzeAge royalburial at the site of These bulls HoroztepeincentralAnatolia. are examples of how important animal featuresare oftenemphasized in ancient Near Easternart.Herethe hornsare morethanone and one-halftimes the lengthof the animal'sbody,impossiblein nature,butan effectivestylisticconvention.The identification of these earlybulls as sacred or divineis based onlyon an bullsthatwere associanalogywithHittite ated withthe weathergod Teshuba
29

30

later. millennium Near Easternartistsmust have carethe fullyobserved animalsin nature; capturetheiressence either renderings or stylizedconventhroughnaturalistic tions. A fine sculptureof a wildmountain sheep (fig.36), or mouflon,identical to several foundat MohenjoDaro(an urbansite of the thirdmillennium B.C. inthe valleyof the IndusRiver),shows the animalresting;his hindquarters are stronglytwistedto receivethe full weightof his body.The physicalpower of this creatureis emphasized bythe closed outlinethatincorporates his sweeping hornsintothe massive volume of his chest. Thethree-dimensional, sculptural qualityof these animalscontrastswiththe two-dimensional bodintricately patterned, aroundthe ies of the gazelles striding side of a lovelygold cup (fig.34). The heads at a rightangle to the bodies are a featureshared by several similar Dashtand Marlik, cups foundat Kalar
second-millennium B.C. sites of royal

burialssouth of the CaspianSea. Fromthe earliesttimes in Mesopotamiahunting wildbeasts was a religious the prowthatdemonstrated responsibility Fromthe time ess and potencyof a ruler. of the Neo-Assyrian II, kingAssurnasirpal such hunting scenes were depictedon the carvedstone reliefsinthe palaces; excerptsfromthese compositionswere copied in minorartsbothin Assyriaand inthe lands underits domination. On an ivorypanel (fig.33) fromnorthwestern Iran,a male figure,possiblyroyal,is seen aboutto thrusta spear intothe breastof a chargingwildbullchased by a royalchariot. H.P.

36

31

Inthe ancientNear East plantmotifs were incorporated intodesigns on the decoratedpottery of the prehistoric richly periods.Theycontinuedto be represented, ina stylizedfashion,on a variety of objectsthroughout the millennia. Favorite designs includedsprigpatterns,rows of trees, stylizedflowers,and chains of leaves and buds.A schematicrepresentationof rowsof date palmsappears in three registerson a finelycarvedchlorite vase (fig.39) of the firsthalfof the third millennium B.C.The date palmof the oases and river areas of southernMesopotamia and nearbyIranwas a majorsource of forlightconstruction, and food, of timber of frondsformats. The reed, nativeto the marshes of southernMesopotamia, is represented the Uruk during period(3500-3100 B.C.) on cylinder seals, whichalso depictother plantsand palmtrees in decorative, nonrealistic designs. Inthe Akkadian period (2334-2154 B.C.) trees and plants

were morerealistically combinedwith natural featuresto give the impressionof actuallandscape.AnAkkadian seal (fig. scene in whicha 37) shows a hunting manseizes a hornedanimal.Firtrees and moundswithimbricated patternsindicate thatthe setting is a mountainous the forestlandsto the region,probably north or east of Akkad. The ivory carvingsfromthe NeoAssyrianpalaces at Nimrud incorporate manyplantformsas decorativeelements inthe designs. On one example executed in Syrianstyle (fig.38) a goat is naturalistically portrayed rearingup on its hindlegs and nibbling at the leaves of a tendrils. highly stylizedshrubof intertwined The sacred tree was alwaysa popular motif.Thisimaginary, decorativeplant, leaves and composed of ornamental waterlike was repeatedmany tendrils, times on the ninth-century B.C. reliefsof the Northwest Palace at Nimrud (see insidefrontcover). Frequently, attending divinities are shown administering some substance witha date palm purifying spathe and a bucket.The sacred tree was a symbolof vegetallifeandfertility-a to most significancethatwe attribute plantmotifsand designs inthe artof the ancientNearEast. B.A.P.

38 32

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41

43

The Scythianswere one of the nomadic tribesthatroamedthe steppes northof and Anatoliainthe Iran,Mesopotamia, firstmillennium B.C. They are known to us fromthe writings of theirneighbors,the earliestrecordsbeing those of the Assyriansand Urartians. By the timeof the AssyriankingEsarhaddon (681-668 B.C.) intothe Scythiannomads had infiltrated rich,settled lands south of the Caspian. the fifth-century GreekhistoHerodotus, rian,who wroteaboutthem in Book IV of his monumental tells of sumphistory, tuous royalburialsof Scythianchieftains, whichhave been confirmed bythe discoveriesof burial moundsin southern Russia. The tombs covered by the moundswere filledwithweapons and horse equipmentas wellas intricately and lavishlycraftedpieces of jewelry, vessels, and combs. drinking of Scythianartis the so-called Typical animalstyle, whichchieflyrepresented such creaturesas stags, panthers,boars, and birdsof prey.The animalsare rendered in a decorative,stylizedfashion, as illustrated appliques by griffin-shaped (fig.41), partof a groupof ornaments that has been attributed to a fifthin centuryB.C.treasurefoundat Maikop the KubanRiverregionnorthof the Black Sea. The Scythianswere great horsemen and theirpassion foradornment extendedto the harnesses wornby their horses. The boarclasp (fig.42) of carved bone coveredwithgold is probably a decorative elementforthe strapsof a harness. The Scythiananimalstyle influenced the artof othernomadictribes.This is reflectedin a rareexampleof fourthcentury B.C.Thracian workmanship, a

silverbeaker(fig.40) probably made in the regionof present-dayRumania or Similar beakershavebeen found Bulgaria. in a princely tombat Agighiol,nearthe Danubedelta in eastern Rumania.The Museum'scup depicts several animals, some realand some fantastic.Aneightin legged stag has antlersterminating birds' heads, whichform partof the decorative borderaroundthe rim. A bronzebeltclasp (fig.43) has an intricate openwork design witha horse and smallerfiguresof a foal, a dog, and a bull-all enclosed bya framewithbosses. Manybeltclasps of this same type and style have been foundin ancientColchis, nowwesternGeorgiainthe Soviet Union. Recentlyit has been suggested thatthey date to the firstto thirdcenturyA.D.These small,portable,and highlydecorative objects preservedmanyof the featuresof the earlier,nomadicanimalstyle. B.A.P.
35

Beginninginthe early1930s and continuingto the present,the Metropolitan Museumhas been a sponsor of archaeologicalexcavationsinthe Near East. WarIIthe MuseumsupBeforeWorld portedexcavationsat Qasr-iAbuNasr in Iran,and at Ctesiphonin and Nishapur the 1950s its concernwith during Iraq; increaseddramatiactivity archaeological cally.Inthe past threedecades excavations and researchhave been conducted at fourteensites in withotherinstitutions two each in Syriaand five in Iraq, Iran, The Museum Jordan,and one inTurkey. has helpedto financethese projects,and staffhaveserved membersof itscuratorial of several or codirectors as directors excavations.As a resultof its support, the Museumhas acquiredmuchmaterial frommanyculturesand periods,butits supporthas not alwaysbeen contingent on receivingobjects in return. MuseumfirstparticiThe Metropolitan

patedin excavatinginthe NearEast in 1931-32, when itjoinedforces withthe GermanState Museumsat the site of Andfrom1932 to 1934 Ctesiphonin Iraq. the Museumitselfsponsoredthree seasons of excavationsat Qasr-iAbuNasr,a few miles southeast of Shirazin southwesternIran. The site consists of a large townand fortressand dates fromthe late Sasanian and earlyIslamicperiodsfrom A.D.Remains the sixthto the eighthcentury of earlierAchaemenidarchitecture and from carvingsthathad been transported nearbyPersepoliswere also recovered. The Achaemenidmaterial was subsequentlyrestoredto Persepolis,and a of objectscame to the largenumber Museumas its share of the finds.These includeseals and sealings, coins, pottery, and objectsof glass, stone, bone, and metal.One of the metalobjectsacquired is a bronzestand (fig.46) thatprobably helda lampor candle. Qasr-iAbuNasris

44

36

a significant site because itdates to the fromthe Sasanian to the Istransition lamicperiod,and the extensivearchitecus withevidence tureand objectsfurnish thisperiodof change. of the culture during was in southernMesopotamia Nippur cenfirstexploredinthe mid-nineteenth turyand firstexcavated,bythe University from1889 to 1900. Comof Pennsylvania, in to mencingagain 1948 and continuing 1961, seven campaignswere sponsored Institute of the University bythe Oriental of Pennsylof Chicagoandthe University in latter 1953 the vania, bythe replaced Research. Schools of Oriental American MuseumactivelyparticiThe Metropolitan patedinthe campaignsof 1957-58 and 1960-61. was Ancient texts indicatethatNippur thana centerrather a majorreligious secularstate, and the archaeopowerful remains documentthatreputation. logical A largetempleprecinct called the Ekur

witha templeof the god Enlil witha ziga templeof the goddess Inanna that gurat, was rebuilt manytimes overthe millennia are the (fig.44), and scribalquarters mainarchitectural and cultural featuresat the site. Seven brick foundation boxes of the kingShulgiwere discoveredbeneath the templeof Inanna,whichdates from the Third Dynastyof Ur(2.112-2004 B.C.), and three boxes of his father,Urnammu, were discoveredbeneaththe Ekur foundations;they are amongthe most notable artifacts foundthere. Each box containeda bronzepeg statuetteof the king, a basketof mortar representedcarrying forthe ritual of the temple.One building of the Shulgistatuettes(fig.45) is inthe collection. Museum's A massive area withfortification walls five miles longsurrounding an area of some nine hundred acres, the Assyrian in northern site of Nimrud Mesopotamia has concernedarchaeologistssince

46

48 37

4950

50

1845-54, when AustenHenryLayard excavatedthere. He was followedby William KennettLoftusin 1854-55, and George Smithin 1873 and 1876, and of a centurylaterby Max three-quarters E. L.Mallowan, who conductedthirteen between 1949 and 1963. The campaigns Museumsupportedeleven Metropolitan of these campaigns,from1951 to 1963its longestand most fruitful involvement in archaeologicalresearchinthe NearEast. Nimrud has manypreservedpalaces and temples builtby variousAssyrian of artifacts. kings,each yieldingquantities The Citadel,inthe southwestcorner,and the military area called FortShalmaneser, inthe southeast, are particularly interesting because fromthe palaces, fort,and wells were recoveredthe most extraordiivories: naryfindsat the site, the Nimrud thousandsof carvingsin reliefand inthe and genre round,depictingbattle,ritual, scenes, executed inthe styles of the cultures,in Assyrianand neighboring
38

particular Syrianand Phoenician.Forits the Museumreceivedaboutone support hundred fortyivories,two of whichare illustrated on p. 37. One is masterfully sculptedin Phoenicianstyle and depicts a Nubian an oryxand a monkey bringing as giftsto the Assyrianking(fig.48). The other,in Syrianstyle, is the head of a womanwithnecklace and braidedhair (fig.47). Eachshows the skilland precision of ancientartistswithdifferent backgrounds. Hasanlu(fig.49) in northwestern Iran was excavatedin 1936 by AurelStein; from1956 to 1974 bythe University of and from 1959 with on, Pennsylvania; the Metropolitan. Itwas settled inthe sixthmillennium B.C. and was occupied the Bronzeand Iron through Age periods. The mostextensivelypreservedlevel is PeriodIV,or Iron Age II,datingfromthe twelfth or eleventhcenturyB.C.to close to
800 B.C., when the site was violently

destroyed.The precedinglevel, PeriodV, IronI,dates frombetweenthe fourteenth andthe twelfth or eleventhcenturyB.C. The continuity of cultureof the two periods is indicated features by architectural andmonochrome commonto both. pottery made of terraThousandsof artifacts cotta, bronze,iron,gold, silver,and ivory were foundinthe monumental PeriodIV whichare characterized buildings, by a columnedcentralhallsurrounded by storageroomsand an entrancethrough Within a grandportico. each hallare hearths,benches, and a raisedthrone

area. Whetherpalaces or temples,the buildings clearlyhad a majorstate function. TheMuseum has acquired manydiverse some of whichare characteristic artifacts, of Hasanluand notfoundelsewhere. Amongthese are bronzelionsjoinedto ironshanks (fig.50), whichare associated withvictimsat the largestbuilding II.The lion uncovered,BurnedBuilding pinswere worntwo or threeto a garment. Because the artifacts recoveredfrom PeriodIVwere in use at the timeof the destruction, archaeologistshave a significant and preciselydatedcorpusof material. In1967,1970,1973, and 1974, the Museumand the British Metropolitan Institute of PersianStudiesjointly excavatedthe site of Nush-iJan, forty-two miles south of HamadaninwesternIran. Built on the summitof a natural shale metershigh,the site outcropthirty-seven dominatesthe surrounding dramatically plain(fig.51). Threeperiodsof occupationwere revealed,the earliestof which is Median,datingfromthe lateeighth
century to about 600 B.C.,followed by

donmentof the site, the templewas filledwithstones and mud, painstakingly the building to be preservedto a allowing heightof eight meters.Whythis "burial" occurredis a mystery. The adjacentFort identified as such by its butBuilding, tressed wallsand arrowslots, had four parallel magazines,suggesting thatit also served to store goods. Ina passageway a hoardof 200 silverobjects and double -earrings, bars, quadruple spirals(fig.52)-was discoveredin a bronzebowl.The OldWesternBuilding, one of the earliest,also has an altarand mayhave been a temple.This building was not buriedbutallowedto decay beforethe finalabandonment. The fourth is rectangular and has a colbuilding umnedhallof the same basic planas the hallat nearbyGodinTepe contemporary and those at the earliersite of Hasanlu. Nush-iJan is significant forits unique and well-preserved Medianremains. Atpresentonlyone otherprobable Mediansite has been excavated,Godin Tepe;the capitalcityat Hamadan
remains unexcavated. O.W.M.

levels. The Achaemenidand Parthian best preservedis the Median,containing fourlargemud-brick buildings. The Central Templeat Nush-iJan is inthe Near architecturally unparalleled East. Lozenge-shaped,it has a freestandingfirealtar,suggestingthatthe was a templeforfire-worshiping building ceremonies.Sometimebeforethe aban-

Inthe late1920s, largequantities of bronze artifacts began to circulateinthe art and by 1930 theirsource was market, a mountainous recognizedas Luristan, Mesoregionin westernIran,bordering potamiaand Elam.Aside froma few archaeologicalcampaigns, especially those of ErichSchmidtat SurkhDumin 1938 and LouisVandenBergheat many sites from1965 to 1979, the great majorbronzes derivefromclanityof Luristan destinedigging. The Metropolitan Museum has in its collectionforty-one objects, of them bronzes,fromSurkh twenty-four Dum.Because so manybronzes have been dispersed so widely,it is impossible to estimatethe numberin existence, but there mustbe thousands. We do not knowthe ancientname and or whythe bronzes languageof Luristan, were made, or whatconstitutedthe econIt omy thatsupportedtheirmanufacture. is also difficult the fullrangeof to identify cultural artifacts and to establishtheir

56

40

chronology. Nevertheless, we are able to recognize as classic Luristantypes the stylized standards and finials, horse cheekpieces, hammered and cast pins, bracelets, whetstone handles, weapons, and quivers. And although ancient cultures existed in the region from as early as the thirdmillennium B.C., the typical Luristanbronzes did not appear untilthe early first millennium B.C.They reached full production in the eighth and seventh centuries B c and mysteriously terminated a century before the advent of the Persian empire. Each of the four objects shown here is a typical Luristanbronze, representing one of a variety of forms for its class. The openwork pin (fig. 54), was excavated at Surkh Dum along with other examples, some enclosed within walls, others stuck in cracks or joints. This pin depicts a squatting female who holds at bay two horned animals, represented only by their heads and necks that curve into a frame.

The female may be in a birthingposition, and because it came from a sanctuary, the pin may have been dedicated by a woman seeking a healthy delivery. Horse bits with figured cheekpieces (fig. 56) and iconic finials are ubiquitous and represent the most characteristic forms of the Luristancorpus. The cheekpieces are in the shape of horses, lions, mouflons, goats, or fantastic creatures. If they were in fact buried in graves, then it was probably the custom for an individual to carry his personal bit with him to the next world, to serve for future ridingor symbolically to represent the horse itself. Finials were also presumably taken by their owners to their graves. Mounted on bottle-shaped supports, a number of which survive, they occur in a great variety of forms, often depicting heraldic animals or a central figure between two animals. On the Museum's example (fig. 53) a detached male head is held by two heraldic felines. Because of the large

number known, we may assume that finials existed in most Luristanhouseholds. serving as icons or representations of the many spirits and deities who required to be placated and worshiped constantly. The quiver plaque (fig. 55) was once attached to a leather backing and is decorated with seven uneven horizontal panels in repousse with superbly rendered mythological scenes. Rampant winged bulls flanking a tree and a procession of antelope frame three narrative panels. At the top are horned and winged humanoids holding a lion at bay, followed by rampant lions flanking a small figure who holds lions and a central figure seemingly threatened by two bulbousnosed creatures. We cannot interpret these scenes, but clearly they represent mythological or cultic events of some importance. A small number of other Luristanquiver plaques exist, but none is so richlyembellished as the present example. O W.M

41

57

Clay, so abundant and useful a resource, was developed and exploited throughout Near Eastern history. The great potential

of fired clay was first understood in the seventh millennium B.C. From that point on, pottery was the most common type of object to come from the ancient ruins of Near Eastern civilizations. In the Chalcolithic period of the fourth millennium B.C., painted decoration on pottery flourished, particularlyin Iran.Artisans first painted geometric designs in dark brown or black on buffclay vessels, which were made on a slow wheel. Gradually they included more and more animal figures in their decorative schemes. A large storage jar (fig. 58) is similar in shape, fabric, and painted decoration to ones found at the central Iraniansite of Tepe Sialk in levels III6-7. Ithas on its side schematic silhouettes of three mountain goats, whose enormous ridged horns arch majestically over their bodies. The zigzag-and-band decoration separating the goats is typical of Sialk pottery of this early period. More than a thousand years later, from

the site of Tureng Tepe in the Iranian Gurgan Plain just to the east of the Caspian Sea, a completely different but equally successful variety of pottery (fig. 57) was produced. Its gray-colored surface-the result of firing in a reducing rather than oxidizing kiln-is textured with six registers of crisscross patterns made by burnishing the surface to a high polish. Duringthe second millennium B.C.the technology was developed for both the glazing of pottery and the manufacturing of glass vessels. A large jar (fig. 59) glazed with green, blue, brown, yellow, white, and black and decorated with petals above bulls kneeling before trees is one of three in the Museum's collection reportedly from the early first-millennium B.C site of Ziwiye in northwestern Iran. It is similar in shape and decoration to examples excavated at the Assyrian city of Assur on the Tigris. H.P.

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Inantiquity the manymountain rangesof the Taurus of the NearEast, including the Zagrosof western easternTurkey, and the Caucasus betweenthe Iran, Blackand Caspianseas, were richin B.C. ores. Atseventh-millennium metallic sites such as Cayonu,TellRamad,and AliKoshthe earlieststages of metalworkingtechnologyare documented. millenToward the end of the fourth
nium B.C., the burgeoning urban centers

inthe lowlandsbegan to demandmetals elite and for to makeobjectsforthe ruling the growing templecomplexes. Bythis of some nonfertime,the basic properties rous metals-especially copper,gold, silver,and lead-were understood.Itwas known,forexample,thatthe shape of

metalcouldbe alteredby heatingitto a it intoa mold,and state, pouring liquid lettingitcool and harden.Metalswere also shaped by alternately hammering and heatingthem in a process nowcalled annealing.Artisanshad learnedas well -probably bytrialand error-that when some metals are mixedintheirliquid state, they combineto forma metallic thatis often,when alloy,a new material morefluidand, when cool, harder liquid, than its components. malleThe properties of meltability, and miscibility are the basis of two ability, of the most important techniquesof ancient metalworking-hammeringand was used to make casting. Hammering orto finishall kindsof objects.Vessels,

such as the elaborately decoratedone were made en(fig.62) fromLuristan, The shape was tirelyby hammering. formed orsinking the bronze-a byraising hammer blows. copper-and-tin alloy-by This particular vessel was made intwo parts,joinedin the middleby bronze rivets.Six registersof birds,trees, and hornedand striding animalswere hammeredup fromthe vessel's surfaceinthe repousse technique.The bodies were then elaborately decoratedwithchased lines createdby a dulltoolthat,when struck,pushed the metalto eitherside. Goldis a soft metal,easily workedby A westernIranian hammering. trapezoidal plaqueof the firstmillennium B.C. (fig. 64) was made inthe same way as

60

62 44

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the decorated bronze vessel: by hammering, repousse, and chasing. A most impressive example of the hammering technique is the lovely silver figurine of an antelope (fig. 61), which is identified here on the basis of stylistic and iconographic traits as the creation of a ProtoElamite master of the third millennium
B.C. Boththe gazelle and the contempo-

the earliest examples of the more complex technique of lost-wax casting around a central ceramic core. A handsome silver plate (fig. 63), a product of the last part of the Sasanian

to earlysixthcenturyA.D.), period(fifth
combines the metalworking techniques described above with others. The plate itself was hammered into its final shape from a cast ingot. The low-relief decoration was formed by carving away the background close to the figures, while the higher relief of the bodies of the king, his horse, and the rams was made from separate cast or hammered pieces that were crimped into place. The linear details were either chased into the silver or engraved-a process of cutting instead of pushing away strips of metal. A ring base was attached with solder to the bottom of the plate. Except for the king's face and hands, all the decoration is gilded with an amalgam of gold and mercury. Niello, a shiny black, hard compound of silver and sulphur, accents the king's quiver and bow, and the rams'

rary kneeling silver bull (see fig. 23) were made from separate pieces of silver hammered into shape; each piece was then fitted into the other and finallyjoined by silver solder. By the fourth millennium B.C., lost-wax, as well as open- and bivalve-mold casting had been developed. Inthe ingenious lost-wax process the desired image is sculpted in wax, which is then surrounded with a clay investment that hardens into a mold when baked. The mold has a negative space, corresponding to the burnt-wax image, into which is poured molten metal that hardens into the shape of the original wax model. The thirdB.C. ibex stand (fig.60), millennium

of copper alloyed with arsenic, is among

horns,tails, and hooves.

H.P.

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65

Pieces of jewelryare mentionedin ancient Near Easterntexts as royalgifts, and booty. dowries,tribute, partsof bridal They are also recordedin the inventories there of templesandworkshops. Although musthave been manysuch precious objects,only a few have been preserved. A majorexceptionis the jewelrydating B.Cfound millennium fromthe mid-third Woolleyin his excavaby SirLeonard The tions at UrinsouthernMesopotamia. headdress ornament(fig.66), made of gold pendantsinthe formof poplarleaves and carnelianand lapis-lazuli beads, belongedto one of the lavishlyadorned Tomb." female attendantsin the "King's She also woretwo necklaces of gold and lapis lazuli,gold hairribbons,and two silverhairrings,allof whichare now in the Museum'scollection.The largenumberof objects made of preciousmaterials attestsnotonlyto greatwealthand sophisbutalso to a ticatedtechnicalability, tradenetwork: the materials far-reaching intosouthernMesohad to be imported potamia(see p. 15). A rareexample of second-millennium is the gold necklace B.C.craftsmanship on withpendants(see fig. 19) illustrated is particularly page 20. The granulation jewelryelements finelyexecuted. Similar of gold-medallions, crescents, and beads-found in recentexcavationsat Larsain southernMesopotamia suggest thatthe Museum'spiece maydate from the nineteenthor eighteenthcenturyB.C. Ourknowledgeof jewelryof the first

B.C. is augmentedby detailed millennium on the stone reliefsfrom representations the Neo-Assyrian palaces. Forexample, inthe relief(see fig. 3) fromthe Northwhichshows west Palace at Nimrud, IIand an attendant, the kingAssurnasirpal one can see the richarrayof jewelry worn-necklaces, bracelets,armlets,and crescent-shapedearringswithpendants. Plaques sewn on garments-also called bracteates-were commonin the fifth-century Scythiangravesof southern Russia (see fig. 41). Goldappliqueswere in AchaemenidPersia.The also popular lion-headbracteates(fig.67) have five themto ringson the back,allowing be attachedto clothgarmentsor tent hangings. The gold necklace (fig.65) is made up of elements fromthe Achaemenidperiod, a head of Bes-an Egyptian including god-plaques of a male figurewitha Similar horse, and lotusterminals. jewelryelements were excavatedat Pasargadae,where morethanone hundredthirty images of Bes, humanheads in profile, and the heads of ibexes and lionswere foundtogetherin a jar. The sumptuousobjectswornbythe Persiansare confirmed by Herodotus 83): "Ofallthe troopsthe Persians (VII, were adornedwiththe greatestmagnifialloverwithgold, cence.... they glittered of whichthey wore about vast quantities theirperson."Herodotus also tells us that at PlateainGreece Persiantentscaptured withgoldandsilver." B.A.P. were"adorned

Ns

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in the Near East was commonly Clothing made of goat's hairand sheep's wool.A formof dress frequently representedin Sumerianand Akkadian artis the calflengthskirtcoveredwithtuftsof wool aroundthe (see figs. 21, 70). Wrapped lowerbodyand occasionallydrapedover one shoulder,this distinctive garment was wornthroughout the thirdmillennium B.C. in Mesopotamia.Intime, longergarments (see figs. 2, 69) made of a single piece of wool or linenfabricreplacedthe earlierskirt.The robes had fringedborders or severalhorizontal bands of fringes (see figs. 20, 27). Sleeved garmentsand shawls (see fig. 3, inside covers) of the
Neo-Assyrian period (883-612 B.C.)re-

tainedthisfringedborderand were also enrichedwithwoven and embroidered designs and metalappliques. On a relieffromthe Achaemenidpalace at Persepolis(fig.68), one figureis in Persiandress and wears a longfullsleeved tunicof a lighttextile.A second figureis in Mediandress, a knee-length tunicand close-fitting trousersof thick wool or leather-clothing appropriate for a horseman.The folds of a similar tunic and trouserswornbythe Sasanian king (see fig.63) indicatethat inthis case the fabricis thin,perhapssilk. Impractical as this material was forhunting wear,itwas representedto symbolizethe luxuriousness of royaldress. the millennia, in the artof the Through Near East, a cap decoratedwithbull's horns(see figs. 20, 27) signifiedthatthe wearerwas a god. Onlyrarelydidhuman rulers claim divinityand adopt this headgear. A headdress wornby southern Mesopotamian rulersin the latethird B.C. is a wool and earlysecond millennia cap (see figs. 2, 69). Laterinthe second millennium B.C. andearlyinthe firstmillenniumB.C.a high,fezlikecap (see fig. 3) was wornin Mesopotamia by nobles and kings.Underthe AchaemenidPersiansa new crownwithstepped crenellations made its appearance.This form,enrichedby many elements such as crescent moons, sun rays,wings, and globes, became the royalcrownof Sasanian 70 ^^^^9 P.O.H. kings(see fig. 5).

69
51

About3000 B.C. writing was inventedin

Mesopotamia as a method of recording and storing primarilyeconomic information. In Egypt early records were kept on papyrus. But since Mesopotamia was located along the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates, where clay was plentifuland inexpensive, this material was used for the earliest documents. Writingwas done with a reed or bone stylus on small pillowshaped tablets, most of which were only a few inches wide and fit easily into one's palm. The stylus left small marks in the clay that we call cuneiform, or wedgeshaped, writing. The earliest script was pictographic -rendering realistic drawings of objects familiarin everyday life. It is not certain who developed this picture writing;we can only inferfrom archaeological records that it was the Sumerians, who soon after developed a system in which drawings in clay were replaced by signs

representing the sounds of the Sumerian language. Cuneiform was adopted by other cultures, and its use quickly spread throughout the Near East. The early Elamites, who lived to the east of Mesopotamia (in the area of modern-day Iran), and various groups of Semitic-speaking peoples, who dwelt along the Tigris and Euphrates, also used cuneiform signs in their writing. By the second millennium
B.C.,

cuneiform was widelyused writing

by many cultures in the Near East. Later the Urartians,in the northernmost parts of Mesopotamia, also used cuneiform, which can be seen on the band above the second arcade on the Urartianbell (fig. 74) inscribed with the king's name, Argishti. Hundreds of thousands of cuneiform tablets have been excavated in the Near East, while countless others still lie buried beneath the rubble of ancient, unexcavated cities. The Museum has over five

52

hundred texts and inscriptions dating fromearlySumeriantimes (ca. 2800 B.C.) until the firstcenturyA.D. MostMesopotamian tabletsare records of commercial,legal,or administrative activities.One of the earliest Mesopotamian legal documentsinthe Museum'scollectionis a smallSumerian stone stele (fig.71), probably fromthe E-nunTempleof the god Sharaat Umma. The stele has been interpreted as either a recordof the purchaseof properties and commoditiesbythe priestUshumgal or as a recordof his bequest of these and commoditiesto various properties his daughter. people, including The clay envelope of a tablet(fig.73) dates to the OldAssyrianColonyperiod inAnatolia(1920-1750 B.C.). The actual tabletcontainedin the envelope is a legal theft,swornin a depositionregarding courtof law.The clay envelope is impressed on each side (herethe obverse) fivetimeswithtwodifferent seals. cylinder Recordsand inscriptions also commemoratedroyalachievements,such as the building of a palace, or extolledmilitaryvictories.The rimof the Achaemenid gold bowl(fig.72) is inscribed"Darius, the great king"in OldPersian,Elamite, and Neo-Babylonian. The written recordfromthe ancient NearEast is extensive. The documents needed to underprovideinformation standthe political, economic,social, legal, and religioustraditions of intellectual, mankind's firstcivilizations. i.s.

73

74
53

Seals were prized possessions in the ancient Near East and served as propitious amulets for their owners. They were impressed on the clay that sealed doors, storage jars, and bales of commodities as well as on clay tablets and envelopes (fig. 73). They are miniature works of art carved with designs whose style and iconography vary with period and region. Seals first appeared in northern Syria and Anatolia during the late sixth millennium B.C. in the form of stamps. In Mesopotamia, from the mid-fourthmillennium untilthe first millennium B.C., the cylinder was the preferred shape. The cylinder seal (fig. 75) depicting women with their hair in pigtails was excavated in the Inanna Temple at Nippur. Similar seals with pigtailed figures of the late Urukand Jemdet Nasr periods (ca. 3200-2900 B.C ) have been found at sites from Egypt to Iran. The Akkadian period (2334-2154 B.C.) produced some of the most beautiful and

iconographically varied seals in the ancient Near East. The lapis-lazuli seal (fig. 76) depicts the struggle of a nude hero and his allies, bull-men, to protect the herd animals from lions. Many seals of the Third Dynasty of Ur through the Old Babylonian period (2112-1595 B.C.)show scenes of presentation and worship. On an amethyst example (fig. 77) are a male figure with a mace and a suppliant goddess, both of whom are represented on many contemporary seals in virtuallythe same manner. The ownership of the seal is indicated by the inscription: "NurShamash, comptroller in the palace, son of Dummuqum, servant of Rimsin [king of Larsa].' The carnelian seal (fig. 78) with a design of two lion-griffinsattacking a mountain goat belongs to the Middle Assyrian period (1350-1000 B C ), when a naturalistic style was favored. The rest of the design includes a bird, a star, and

a thistlelike flower. Landscape elements were frequently depicted on seals of this period. The seventh-century B C Neo-Assyrian seal (fig. 79) was found in the Nabu Temple at Nimrud. Seals were frequently deposited as offerings in temples, which were also centers of economic activity. From the Neo-Assyrian period (883612 B C ) stamps began to be used along with cylinders. This was apparently due to the adoption in Mesopotamia of the Aramaic script, written on papyrus or leather that was sealed with small clay dockets, more easily impressed with a stamp. In the Neo-Babylonian period (625-539 B.C.) symbols of gods were a major part of the seal design. The example below (fig. 80) is engraved with a male worshiper standing before an altar surmounted by a spade, symbol of Marduk,chief god of the Babylonian pantheon, and the stylus of Nabu, god of writing. B.A.PR

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54

Mesopotamia (South) 3500 B.C. Uruk 3500-3100

Mesopotamia (North)

Iran
Proto-Urban Susa II

Levant

Anatolia

Egypt

3500 B.C.

Chalcolithic

3000 B.C.

Jemdet Nasr 3100-2900 Early Dynastic I-lila 2900-2500

Proto-Elamite

Susa III

Archaic 3100-2686

3000 B.C.

Sumero-Elamite Susa IV

Early Bronze

Troy II

Old Kingdom 2636-2160

2500 B.C. -

Ib Early Dynastic II 2500-2334 Akkad Dynasty 2334-2154 Neo-Sumerian period Gudea of Lagash 2144-2124 Third Dynasty of Ur 2112-2004 Isin-Larsa period 2017-1763 Old Babylonian period 1894-1595 Hammurabi 1792-1750

2500 B.C. Akkad suzerainty in Susa Alaca Hiuyk royal tombs

Old Elamite

i'" ,ffNnv' luu R V0

First Intermediate 2160-2060 Assyrian Colony period 1920-1750 Middle Bronze Old Hittite Empire 1650-1400 Middle Kingdom 2060-1786 Second Intermediate 1786-1570 Hyksos 1667-1559

2000 B.C.

Old Assyrian period

1500 B.C. Kassite Dynasty 1595-1157 Mitannian Empire 1600-1350 Second Dynasty of Isin 1156-1025
IUU D.C.

1500 B.C. Hittite Empire 1400-1200 Late Bronze Middle Elamite Iron I Destruction of Uqarit by Sea Peoples Iron Age NE eo-Hittite and Kingdoms of Israel Ar ramaean states and Judah Phoenicians UrartianKingdom 850-600 Phrygian Kingdom 775-690 New Kingdom 1570-1085

Middle Assyrian period 1350-1000

ThirdIntermediate
1000 B.C. Third Intermediate 1085-656

Hasanlu IV ca. 1200-800 Neo-Assyrian Empire 883-612 Neo-Babylonian Empire 625-539 Neo-Elamite Median Empire

Iron II Iron III

Late Dynastic 656-332 500 B.C.

500 B.C.

Achaemenid Empire 550-331 Alexander the Great 331-323 Capture of Babylon 331 Seleucid Empire
_

0 B.C./ A.D.

Seleucid Empire Parthian period Sasanian Empire

Alexander the Great Capture of Tyre 332 Antigonid and Seleucid Empires Roman period Roman period

Macedonian period 332-305 Ptolemaic period 305-30 Roman perno 30 B.C.-A.D. 325
M, -

0 B.C./ A.D.

Parthian period 200 B.C.-A.D. 224 Sasanian Empire 226-651 500 A.D.

Byzantine Empire

Byzantine Empire

Coptic period 325-641

~~~~~~~~~~~--~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~----

500 A.D. II~~~~~~~~~~~~~

CREDITS
Front cover: Stag vessel. Silver with gold inlay Anatolia, Hittite,Empire period, 15th-13th century B.C.L. 611/16in. (17 cm.), H. 71/16 in. (18 cm.). Lent by Norbert Schimmel (L.1983.119.1) Back cover: Detail of frieze on the stag vessel depicted on front cover showing a male god standing on a stag and facing a man who is pouring liquid from a spouted vessel. Inside front cover: Relief with two registers of sacred tree attended by divinities. Alabaster. Northern Mesopotamia, Nimrud, Northwest Palace of Assurnasirpal 11 (883-859 B.C.),Neo-Assyrian period. H. 893/4 in. (227.9 cm.), W.83 in. (210.8 cm.). Giftof John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1932 (32.143.3) Inside back cover: Relief of bird-headed divinity Alabaster. Northern Mesopotamia, Nimrud, Northwest Palace of Assurnasirpal II(883-859 B.C.), NeoAssyrian period. H. 905/8(230.2 cm.), W. 713/8in. (181.3 cm.). Giftof John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1931 (31.72.3) 1. Head of a dignitary Arsenical copper. Western Asia, late 3rd millennium B.C.H. 131/2in. (34.3 cm.). Rogers Fund, 1947 (47 100.80) 2. Seated statue of Gudea. Diorite. Southern Mesopotamia, probably Tello, Neo-Sumerian period, 21442124 B.C.H. 175/16 in. (44 cm.) HarrisBrisbane Dick Fund, 1959 (59.2) 3. Relief of king and attendant. Alabaster. Northern Mesopotamia, Nimrud, Northwest Palace of Assurnasirpal 11(883-859 B.C.),Neo-Assyrian period. H. 92 in. (233.7 cm.), W.901/4in. (229.2 cm.). Giftof John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1932 (32.143.4) 4. Cylinderseal and modern impression. Chalcedony Iran,Achaemenid period, 550-450 B.C.H. 7/8in. in. (1.1 cm.). Collection of Mrs. (2.2 cm.), Diam. 7/16 WilliamH. Moore, Lent by Rt. Rev. Paul Moore, Jr. (L.55.49.126) 5. Head of a king. Silver,with mercury gilding. Iran, Sasanian period, A.D.4th century H. 153/4in. (40 cm.). Fletcher Fund, 1965 (65.126) 6. Bull head. Limestone. Southern Iran, Persepolis, Achaemenid period, ca. 5th century B.C.H. 181/2in. (47 cm.). Rogers Fund, 1947 (47.100.83) 7. Statuette of man carrying box on head. Arsenical copper. Mesopotamia, Sumerian, Early Dynastic II period, 2750-2600 B.C.H. 147/8in. (37.8 cm.). HarrisBrisbane Dick Fund, 1955 (55.142) 8. Male head used as a spout. Ceramic, originally glazed. Iran,Parthian period, ca. A.D.1st-2nd century H. 81/4in. (20.9 cm.). Giftof WalterHauser, 1956 (56.56) 9. Panel with striding lion. Glazed brick. Southern Mesopotamia, Babylon, Processional Way, Neo-Babylonian period, reign of Nebuchadnezzar II (604-562 B.C.).W.891/2in. (227.3 cm.), H. 381/4in. (97.2 cm.). Fletcher Fund, by exchange, 1931 (31.13.2) 10. Ewer.Gold. North-centralAnatolia, late 3rd millennium B.C.H. 7 in. (17.8cm.), Diam. 43/4in. (12.1 cm.). Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1957 (57.67) 11. Oval bowl. Silver with mercury gilding. Iran, Sasanian period, A.D.6th-7th century L. 93/16 in. (23.3. cm.), W.43/8in. (11.1 cm.). Fletcher Fund, 1959 (59.130.1) 12. Vessel in shape of horse's head. Silver with gold foil. Iran,Achaemenid period, ca. 5th century B.C. L. 81/16 in. (20.4 cm.). Rogers Fund, 1947 (47.100.87) 13. Rhyton with forepart of a panther. Silver with mercury gilding. Iran,Parthianperiod, ca. 1st century B.C. H. 107/8in. (27.5 cm.). Purchase, Rogers Fund, Enid A. Haupt, Mrs. Donald M. Oenslager, Mrs. MurielPalitz, and Geert C. E. Prins Gifts; Pauline V Fullerton Bequest; and Bequests of MaryCushing Fosburgh, Edward C. Moore, and Stephen Whitney Phoenix, by exchange, 1979(1979.447) 14. Vessel with forepart of a lion. Gold. Iran, Achaemenid period, ca. 5th century B.C.H. 63/4in. (17.1 cm.). Fletcher Fund, 1954 (54.3.3) 15. Relief with cavalrymen in the mountains. Alabaster. Northern Mesopotamia, Nineveh, Palace of Sennacherib (704-681 B.C.),Neo-Assyrian period. H. 22 in. (55.9 cm.), W.34 in. (86.4 cm.). Giftof John D. Rockefeller, Jr., 1932 (32.143.16)

55

16. Sword.Iron withcarnelianinlays.Iran, Luristan, ca. 750-650 B.C. L. 193/4 in.(50.1 cm.). Giftof H. DunscombeColt,1961 (61.62) 17. Detailof swordhiltand scabbard. Goldover wood withgarnetand glass paste jewelsand giltSasanianperiod,ca. A.D. 7th bronzeguard.Iran, in. (100.3 cm.). RogersFund, I. 391/2 centuryFull 1965 (65.28) Yellow seal and modernimpression. 18. Cylinder chert.Mesopotamia, period,ca. 9thNeo-Assyrian 8th centuryB.C. H. 17/16in. (3.7 cm.), Diam. 5/8in. W.Bruce,1907 (07.155.1) (1.6 cm.). Giftof Matilda Meso19. Necklacewithpendants.Gold.Southern in. L. 1615/16 ca. 19th-18thcenturyB.C. potamia, Fund,1947 (47.la-h) (43 cm.). Fletcher foilover Bronzewithgold and silver 20. Helmet. ca. 1300 B.C. Southwestern bitumen. Elamite, Iran, W. in. 811/16 H.61/2 in.(16.5 cm.), (22.1 cm.). Fletcher Fund,1963 (63.74) 21. Standing malefigure.Gypsum.SouthernMesopoShrineII, tamia,Tell Asmar, Sumerian, SquareTemple, Early DynasticIIperiod,2750-2600 B.C. H. 115/8 in. (29.5 cm.). Fletcher Fund,by exchange, 1940 (40.156) 22. Cult Ceramic. vessel inshape ofa tower. (?), Syria in.(31.4 cm.), W.31/4 ca. 19thcenturyB.C. H. 123/8 in. (8.3 cm.). RogersFund,1968 (68.155) Southwest23. Kneelingbullholdingvessel. Silver. Proto-Elamite ern Iran, period,ca. 2900 B.C. H.67/16 in. (6.3 cm.). Purchase, in. (16.3 cm.), W.21/2 Bequest, 1966 (66.173) Joseph Pulitzer 24. Pendantof seated goddess holdingchild.Gold. Anatolia, Hittite, period,15th-13thcentury Empire Schimmel B.C. H. 11/16in. (4 3 cm.). Lentby Norbert 19.3). (L.1983.1 Ceramic. ca. 900B.C.H. 125/16 25. Femalefigure. Iran, in. (15.9 cm.). Harris Brisbane in.(31.3 cm.), W.61/4 DickFund,1964 (64.130) Sasanian Silver withmercury 26. Ewer. gilding.Iran, in.(34 cm.). H. 133/8 period,ca. A.D. 6th-7th century. Giftand and Mrs.C. DouglasDillon Purchase,Mr. RogersFund,1967 (67.10) Hematite. seal and modernimpression. 27. Cylinder OldBabylonian period,ca. 1850-1700 Mesopotamia, H. Moore,Lentby Rt.Rev. of Mrs.William Collection PaulMoore, Jr.(L.55.49.180). withgold foil.Northern axe. Silver 28. Shaft-hole in. (15,cm.). ca. 2000-1750 B.C.L.57/8 Afghanistan, BrisbaneDickFund,James N. Purchase,Harris Inc.Gifts,1982 Spear and SchimmelFoundation (1982.5) Anaof femalesphinx.Ivory ornament 29. Furniture H.5 in. (12.7 ca. 19thcenturyB.C. tolia,Acemhoyuk, cm.), W.11/2 in.(3.8 cm.). Giftof Mrs.George D. in memory 1936 (36.70.8) of GeorgeD. Pratt, Pratt, Metaseal and modernimpression. 30. Cylinder Akkadian diorite.Mesopotamia, period,2334-2154 Giftof Walter Hauser,1955 (55.65.5) withconfronted leoninecreatures. 31. Ornament Achaemenidperiod,ca. 6th-5th century Gold. Iran, W. in. (9.8 cm.). in. H. 37/8 B.C. 53/8 (13.6 cm.), RogersFund,1954 (54.3.2) bulls.Arsenical withtwo long-horned 32. Standard from Anatolia, reportedly copper.North-central BronzeAge period,2300-2000 Horoztepe.Early in. (14.6 cm.). in.(15.9 cm.), W.53/4 B.C.H.61/4 Purchase,Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, 1955 (55.137.5) 33. Panelwithbullhunt.IvoryNorthwestern Iran, H.21/4 B.C. ca. 8th-7th century from Ziwiye, reportedly in. (15.8 cm.). Fletcher in. (5.7 cm.), W.63/16 Fund, 1951 (51.131.5) 34. Cupwithfourgazelles. Gold.Northwestern Iran, H.to rim21/2in. (6.3 cm.), Diam.of rim ca. 1000 B.C. in. (8.5 cm.). RogersFund,1962 (62.84) 33/8 35. Foundation Syria peg withlion.Bronze.Northern ca. 2200 B.C. H.45/8 in. or Mesopotamia, Hurrian, in. (7.9 cm.). Purchase,Joseph (11.7 cm.), W.31/8
Pulitzer Bequest, 1948 (48.180)
B.C. H. 11/4in. (3.2 cm.), Diam. 11/16in. (1.7 cm.). B.C. H. 11/16 in. (2.7 cm.), Diam. 9/16 in. (1.4 cm.).

8th centuryB.C.H.65/16in.(16 cm.). RogersFund, 1961 (61.197.6) or Iran, 39. Vase.Chlorite. Mesopotamia Early Dynasin. (23.5 tic 1/I11 period,2750-2334 B.C.H.91/4 1917 (17.190.106) cm.). Giftof J. Pierpont Morgan, 40. Beaker. Silver. Lower Danuberegion,Thracian, ca. 4thcenturyB.C. H. 73/8 in.(18.7 cm.). Rogers Fund,1947 (47.100.88) 41. Griffin dress ornaments. Gold.Northern Black Sea region,reportedly fromMaikop, Scythian,ca. 5thcenturyB.C.H. 1 in. (2.5 cm.). FletcherFund, 1924 (24.97.50, 51) 42. Boarclasp. Goldon bone core withsilverbackin. (7 cm.), H. ing. Scythian,ca. 500 B.C. L.23/4 13/8in. (3.5 cm.). Gift of Christos G. Bastis,1979 (1979.352.1) 43. Beltclasp. Bronze.Caucasus, ca. A.D.1st-3rd in.(14.6 cm.). centuryL.6 in.(15.2 cm.), H.53/4 RogersFund,1921 (21.166.7) 44. Deep soundinginthe Inanna Templeat Nippur Uruk periodlevels. showingthe workmen uncovering Thisviewwas takenduringthe 1960-61 season of to Nippur of the Oriental Institute the JointExpedition and the American Schools of Oriental Research, Oriental Institute, Baghdad.(Photograph: of Chicago) University 45. Foundation Mesopofigurine. Copper.Southern Inanna tamia,Nippur, Temple,Neo-Sumerian period, UrIII dynasty,reignof Shulgi(2094-2047 B.C.).H. in. (31.3 cm.). RogersFund,1959 (59.41.1) 125/1A6 AbuNasr,Sasanian 46. Stand.Bronze.Iran, Qasr-i in. (41.9 period,ca. A.D.6th-7th centuryH. 161/2 1934 cm.). RogersFund, (34.107.1) 47. Femalehead. IvoryNorthern Mesopotamia, Burnt Nimrud, Palace, Neo-Assyrian period,ca. 8th centuryB.C.H.2 in. (5 cm.). RogersFund,1952 (52.23.3) Mesobearer.IvoryNorthern 48. Figureof a tribute Fort Shalmaneser, Neo-Assyrian potamia,Nimrud, period,ca. 8thcenturyB.C.H. 55/16 in. (13.5 cm.), in. (7.2 cm.). RogersFund,1960 (60.145.11) W.213/16 of Hasanlu of thecentral mound 49. Aerial photograph taken innorthwestern Iran as seen from the southwest University duringthe 1962 season. (Photograph: of Pennsylvania) Museum,University 50. Lion-shaped pin.Bronze,iron.Northwestern II, Iran, Hasanlu,Citadel,BurnedBuilding 9th centuryB.C.L.5 in. Gatewayarea, LevelIV, in. (3.8 cm.). Mrs.Constantine (12.7 cm.), H. 11/2 Sidamon-Eristoff Gift,1961 (61.100.10) taken 51. Viewof TepeNush-iJan inwesternIran duringthe firstseason of excavations(1967).(Photoof PersianStudies) Institute graph:British Nush-iJan, Western 52. Doublespiral.Silver. Iran, L.2 in. (5.1 cm.), W. Medianperiod,7thcenturyB.C. in.(2.9 cm.). H. DunscombeColtGift,1969 11/8 (69.24.1) ca. 8thcenturyB.C. Bronze.Iran, 53. Finial. Luristan, in.(4.4 cm.). Giftof in.(8.5 cm.), W.13/4 H.33/8 D. 1932 (32.161.20) George Pratt, SurkhDum,ca. 8th 54. Pin.Bronze.Iran, Luristan, centuryB.C.L.55/8in.(14.3 cm.). RogersFund, 1943 (43.102.1) 55. Quiver ca. 8th-7th Luristan, plaque.Bronze.Iran, L.21 in.(53.3 cm.), W.6 in. (15.3 cm.). centuryB.C. RogersFund,1941 (41.156) 56. Bitand cheekpieces fora horse. Bronze.Iran, ca. 8th-7th centuryB.C. Luristan, in.(11.5 cm.), W.51/8 in. (13 cm.) a. H.41/2 in.(21.5 cm.) [mouthpiece]. c. L.81/2 1957(57.51.40a-c) Burnett, Bequestof CoraTimken 57. Jar.Ceramic.Northeastern Iran, Tureng Tepe, in.(21.7 cm.), Diam. ca. 1900 B.C.H.81/2 in. (15.8 cm.). RogersFund,1948 (48.98.24) 61/4 58. Jar.Ceramic.Central ca. 3100 B.C. H.207/8 Iran, in.(53 cm.). Purchase,Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, 1959 (59.52) 59. Jar.Glazedceramic.Northwestern Iran, reportca. 8th-7th centuryB.C.H. 171/4 edly fromZiwiye, in.(43.5 cm.), Diam.of rim43/8in. (11 cm.). Purchase,Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, 1955 (55.121.2) 60. Vesselstandwithibexsupport. Arsenical copper withshelland lapis-lazuli inlaySouthern Mesopotamia, Sumerian, Early DynasticIII period,2600-2334 B.C.
H. 1511/16 in. (40 cm.). Rogers Fund, 1974 (1974.190) in. (10.6 cm.), W.51/8in. (13 cm.) b. H. 43/16

62. Vase. Bronze.Northwestern ca. 10th-9th Iran, centuryB.C.H. 1311/16 in. (34.8 cm.), Diam.of rim 4 in. (10.2 cm.). Purchase,Joseph Pulitzer Bequest, 1964 (64.257.la) 63. PlatewithPerozor KavadI hunting rams.Silver Sasanianperiod,A.D.late5thgiltwithniello.Iran, early6thcenturyH. 11/16 in.(4.3 cm.), Diam.85/8 in.(21.9 cm.). Fletcher Fund,1934 (34.33) 64. Plaquewithfriezes.Gold.Northwestern Iran, fromZiwiye, ca. 8th-7th centuryB.C.H. reportedly in.(21.2 cm.), Max. w.105/8 in. (27 cm.). Top 83/8 Annand GeorgeBlumenthal Fund,1954 fragment: (54.3.5). Bottom fragment: RogersFund,1962 (62.78.1a,b) 65. NecklacewithBes head and figuredplaques. Gold Iran, Achaemenidperiod,ca. 5th-4th in.(4 cm.), L.141/8in. centuryB.C.H. 19/16 (35.9 cm.). Dodge Fund,1965 (65.169) 66. Headdressornament. and lapis Gold,carnelian, lazuli.Southern Ur,Royal Mesopotamia, Cemetery, Grave789, Sumerian, Early Dynastic Ilaperiod, in.(38.5 cm.). Excoll.: 2600-2500 B.C. L.153/16 The University of Pennsylvania. Museum,University Dodge Fund,1933 (33.35.3) inshape of lionheads. Gold. 67. Dressornaments Achaemenidperiod,ca. 5th-4th centuryB.C. Iran, in.(4.7 cm.), W.21/4 in.(5.7 cm.) and H. H. 17/8 in.(6 cm.) respectively 2 in.(4.9 cm.), W.23/8 Giftof Khalil Rabenou,1956 (56.154.1,2) food. Limestone. 68. Reliefwithservantscarrying Southern Iran, Persepolis,Achaemenidperiod,ca. 4th centuryB.C.H.341/16in.(86.5 cm.), W.251/2 in. (64.8 cm.). Harris BrisbaneDickFund,1934 (34.158) MesoSouthern Chlorite. 69. Statueof Ur-Ningirsu. Tello,Neo-Sumerian period,ca. potamia,probably H.215/8 in. (55 cm.). Head:Rogers 2123-2119 B.C. Fund,1947 (47.100.86).Body:Lentby Museedu Orientales des Antiquites Louvre, (inv. Departement A. 0. 9504) (L.1984.1) seal and modernimpression. 70. Cylinder Lapis Akkadian lazuli.Mesopotamia, Kish,Early period, Diam. in. 5/8 H. B.C. 11/6 ca. 2334-2278 (2.8 cm.), H. Moore, of Mrs.William in. (1.6 cm.). Collection Jr.(L.55.49.17) Lentby Rt.Rev.PaulMoore, MesoSouthern Alabaster. 71. Stele of Ushumgal. DynasticI period,2900Early potamia,Sumerian, from various Funds in.(22.4 cm.). 2750 B.C.H.813/16 donors,1958 (58.29) Achaemenidperiod, 72. Inscribedbowl.Gold.Iran, in.(11.4 cm.), ca. 6th-5th centuryB.C.H.41/2 BrisbaneDick in. (19.6 cm.). Harris Diam.73/4 Fund,1954 (54.3.1) 73. Envelopefortablet.Ceramic.Anatolia, Kultepe, in. Gr.h. 71/2 OldAssyrian period,ca. 1900 B.C. and Mrs. (19 cm.), D. 11/8in. (2.8 cm.). Giftof Mr. 1966 (66.245.5b) J. J. Klejman, ca. 74. Inscribedbell.Bronze.Anatolia, Urartian, and in.(8.7 cm.). Giftof Mr. 8thcenturyB.C.H.37/16 Mrs.Nathaniel Spear,Jr.,1977 (1977.186) Pink seal and modernimpression. 75. Cylinder Inanna limestone.Mesopotamia, Temple, Nippur, Nasrperiod,ca. LateUruk-Jemdet LevelXVB, in. 3200-2900 B.C.H. 3/4in.(2cm.), Diam.13/16 (2.1 cm.). RogersFund,1962 (62.70.74) seal and modernimpression. 76. Cylinder Lapis Akkadian lazuli.Mesopotamia, period,ca. Early in. (3.8 cm.), Diam.7/8in. H. 11/2 2334-2279 B.C. H. Moore,Lent of Mrs.William (2.2 cm.). Collection Jr.(L.55.49.178) by Rt.Rev.PaulMoore, seal and modernimpression. 77. Cylinder Amethyst. Isin-Larsa period,reignof Rimsin Mesopotamia, 1971 C. Baker, (1.7 cm.). Bequestof Walter (1972.118.20) Carnelian. seal and modernimpression. 78. Cylinder Middle Assyrianperiod,14th-13th Mesopotamia, centuryB.C.H. 11/4in. (3.2 cm.), Diam.5/8 in. H.Moore,Lent of Mrs.William (1.1 cm.). Collection Jr.(L.55.49.90) by Rt.Rev.PaulMoore, Steatite. seal and modernimpression. 79. Cylinder NabuTemple,Neo-Assyrian Nimrud, Mesopotamia, H. 13/8 in.(3.5 cm.). period,ca. 8th-7th centuryB.C. in.(2.4 cm.). RogersFund,1958 Seal h. 15/16 (57.27.8) 80. Stampseal and modernimpression. Graychalperiod,ca. Neo-Babylonian cedony Mesopotamia,
6th century B.C.L. 7/8 in. (2.2 cm.), W.3/4in. (1.8 in. in. (3.3 cm.), Diam. 1/16 (1822-1763 B.C.). H. 15/16

Marble. IndusValleyca. mouflon. 36. Recumbent in.(28 cm.). Anonymous 2500-2000 B.C. L. 111/16 Giftand RogersFund,1978 (1978.58) seal and modernimpression. 37. Cylinder SerpenAkkadian tine.Mesopotamia, period,2334-2154 B.C. 1941 (41.160.192) of W.Gedney Beatty, 38. Plaquewithgoat. IvoryNorthern Mesopotamia, Fort Shalmaneser, Nimrud, Neo-Assyrian period,ca.
56

H. 11/8 in. (2.8 cm.), Diam. 11/16 in. (1.8 cm.). Bequest

61. Antelope.Silver. Proto-Elamite Iran, period,ca. L.4 in. (10.2 cm.). RogersFund,1947 2900 B.C. (47.100.89)

cm.). Fundsfromvariousdonors,1893 (93.17.100)

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