Environmental Geochemistry and Health (2006) 28:11–17
Springer 2006

DOI: 10.1007/s10653-005-9006-0

A survey of lead pollution in Chhattisgarh State, central India

K.S. Patel1,4, K. Shrivas1, P. Hoffmann2 & N. Jakubowski3

1
School of Studies in Chemistry, Pt. Ravishankar Shukla University, Raipur, CG, India
2
Chemical Analytics, Department of Materials and Earth Sciences, Darmstadt Technical University,
Petersenstrasse 23, D-64287 Darmstadt, Germany
3
Institute for Analytical Science (IAS), Bunsen-Kirchhoff-Strasse 11, D-44139 Dortmund, Germany
4
Author for correspondence (e-mail: patelks55@hotmail.com)

Key words: Central India, lead pollution, soil, sediment, water

Abstract
Lead (Pb) is of major environmental concern due to its toxicological importance. The anthropogenic
emission of Pb is at least 100 times higher than natural emissions. Soil and dust are significant sources
of Pb exposure. Lead is generally immobile in soil and accumulates in the upper layers. Lead particles
may enter homes via shoes, clothes, pets, and windows. Central India is rich in deposits of natural
resource materials such as coal, pyrite, dolomite, and alumina that contain Pb and other heavy metals
at the trace levels, and the substantial exploitation of these materials has tended to increased con-
tamination of water and geological formations. Here we present data on Pb concentrations in the water,
soil and sediment samples (n=158) collected from 70 locations in Chhattisgarh state, Raipur region.
Lead concentrations in the surface water (n=44), groundwater (n=44), soils (n=60) and sediments
(n=10) ranged from 6 to 1410, 3 to 52, 12.8 to 545, and 31 to 423 lg g)1, with mean values of 305, 16,
102 and 190 lg g)1, respectively. Most of the Pb fractions of >80% can be leached out with the
chemical extractants EDTA, acetic acid, and hydroxylamine hydrochloride. Lead has accumulated in
the soil clay fraction due to its relatively large surface area and decreases with increasing depth in the
soil profile.

Introduction some regions of the world (Reeder & Shapiro

Lead (Pb), an extremely stable element, is very
toxic to humans and animals. It is a neurotoxin
and lead poisoning is one of the most common
pediatric health problems in India. The average
concentration of Pb in the Earth’s crust is around
13 lg g)1 but there is considerable variability in
natural concentrations because of inputs from
mineralized deposits of Pb. However, a major
feature of the environmental chemistry of Pb is the
general diffuse pollution in topsoils from a range
of sources, including mining and smelting,
recycling of sewage sludge and from motor vehicle
exhausts. Consequently, Pb is known to show
significantly enhanced levels in surface soils of
2003). Because Pb is not biodegradable, once soil
has become contaminated it remains a long-term
source of Pb exposure.
There are heavy deposits of fossil fuels such as
coal and of minerals such as pyrite, alumina, and
dolomite in central parts of India, including
Chhattisgarh state. There are several thermal
power plants for energy production, heavy indus-
tries such as steel, aluminum and cement plants.
These heavy industries tend to increase the
deposition of Pb and other metals in the environ-
ment. Here, we present the results of a preliminary
survey on the distribution, speciation, mobility
and sources of Pb in Chhattisgarh state, Central
India.
12 k.s. patel et al.
Materials and methods
Study area
Chhattisgarh is 146,361 km2 in area and is one of
the mineral-rich states of India. It is situated in a
peninsular plateau at 17–22N, 80–82E at alti-
tudes of ‡300 meters above sea level (Figure 1)
and has a population of 20 millions. It is richly
endowed with natural resources including a 43%
forest cover and has rich deposits of limestone,
iron ore, copper ore, rock phosphate, manganese
ore, bauxite, coal, and asbestos. The State pro-
duces substantial amounts of rice grain and sup-
plies food grain to 600 rice mills. Some details of
major industries, thermal power plants, mines and
rice mills in operation are summarized in Table 1.
Sampling
Water, soil and sediment samples were collected
from different locations in urban and industrial
sites of Chhattisgarh state between January and
February 2003 using procedures described by
Keith (1991). Surface water and groundwater
samples were collected from 100 points and stored
in pre-cleaned 500-ml polyethylene bottles. The
pH of the sample was immediately measured and
Fig. 1. Map of Chhattisgarh state showing location of Raipur and Korba regions.
the sample was then acidified with 1% (v/v) ultra
pure nitric acid. All the samples were filtered
through Whatman no. 42 filter paper.
Soil and sediment samples were collected from
70 sites and placed in polyethylene bags. The
samples were air dried and passed through a 0.2-
mm sieve prior to analysis for total Pb, Ni, and Cu.
Reagents
Analytical grade acetic acid, hydroxylamine
hydrochloride in ethylenediaminetetra-acetic acid,
hydrochloric acid, and nitric acid were used for
leaching of the metals. Standard Pb, Cu and Ni
solutions (1000 mg l)1) supplied by E. Merck were
used for calibration.
Soil properties
The soils of this region have pH values of around
neutral to slightly acidic in the range 4.6–7.8 and
most have low P status, usually <10 mg kg)1.
Extraction
Four extractants, 0.11 M acetic acid (AA), 0.1 M
hydroxylamine hydrochloride (HAHC) in HCl
(pH=2), 0.1 M ethylenediaminetetracetic acid
 pb pollution in central india 13
Table 1. List of emission sources in Chhattisgarh state.

Industry Consumption year)1 Production

Thermal power plants 15 MT coal 5000 MW electricity

(National Thermal Power Corporation), Korba
Cement plants (6) 15 MT dolomitic limestone 11 MT
Bhilai Steel Plant, Near Raipur 5 MT iron ore 3.153 MT
Rice mills (>600) 4 MT 1 MT of raw rice and
1.8 MT of parboiled rice in this area
Aluminum plant (BALCO), Korba 4 MT bauxite 1 MT aluminum
Ferro alloys 0.8 MT
Sponge iron 1.3 MT
South-Eastern Coal Fields Korba 9 underground and 38 MT coal
open-cast mines extending
over 21627 ha

(EDTA) and aqua regia, were used for leaching of
acid-soluble, reducible, complexed and total frac-
tions of the metal in soil and sediment samples
(Chen et al. 2001). A 0.50-g soil or sediment sample
was transferred to a 25-ml centrifuge tube and a
10-ml aliquot of extractant was added. The mixture
was shaken for 16 h at room temperature by shaker
and all the extractants were decanted off and
retained for analysis of metals: Pb, Ni and Cu. For
the determination of total metals, the sample was
placed in a 100-ml round bottom flask equipped
with a water condenser fitted with a U-tube (filled
with dilute nitric acid). A 10-ml aliquot of aqua
regia was added and the sample was digested over a
sand bath for 4 h. After digestion, the extract was
transferred into a 25-ml volumetric flask and made
up to volume with Milli-Q water.
Analysis
A flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer
(GBC, AAS-932) was employed for analysis of Pb,
Ni, and Cu using an air–acetylene flame. The
wavelength, slit and lamp current used are sum-
marized in Table 2. A graphite furnace atomic
absorption spectrophotometer (GBC, AAS-932
equipped with GF-3000) was used to determine Pb
in water samples. A 20-ll aliquot of the sample
solution was used. The ashing and atomization
temperatures were 400 and 2000C. A blank was
used to avoid contamination from the sample
preparation and chemical reagents. An inductively
coupled plasma-mass spectrometer (ICP-MS) PQ
II Turbo Plus (VG Elemental, Winsford, UK) was
used at the Institute for Analytical Science (IAS),
Dortmund, Germany to compare some of the data
Table 2. Operating parameters for the acetylene – air flame
AAS determination of Pb and other heavy metals.
Element Wavelength Slit (nm) Lamp current
(nm) (mA)
Pb 217 1 5
Ni 324.7 0.5 4
Cu 244.8 0.2 5
with the results of AAS. A Meinhard nebulizer
and a Scott type spray chamber made of quartz
were used. The peristaltic pump (Gilson Minipulse
3) had a sample delivery rate of 0.7 ml min)1,
tuning was performed on 140Ce, and the forward
power was 1400 W. The flow rates of argon gas
used were 16, 0.9 and 1.0 l min)1 for cooling,
auxiliary and nebulizer gas, respectively. Conven-
tional Ni cones were used. An external calibration
with six standard samples was carried out using a
multi-element standard solution (E. Merck) with
subtraction of a blank value. The work: leaching
of the heavy metals with extractants (i.e. AA,
HAHC and EDTA), and analysis of the metal
contents in the extract was carried out in the TU
Darmstadt, Germany using technique: Perkin
Elemer 4100-ZL graphite furnace atomic absorp-
tion spectrophotometer.
Results
Lead has unique chemical properties and is found
in many common consumer products and many
sites in the environment. Lead from these many
different sources can enter and contaminate the
surroundings. Large amounts of effluents are
14 k.s. patel et al.

Table 3. Distribution of lead in water, soil and sediment samples.

Site Soil (lg g)1) Sediment (lg g)1) Surface water (lg l)1) Groundwater (lg l)1)

Steel plant 320 121 13

Power House 545 146 28
Bhilai-3 271 115 18
Bhilai, Sector-I 295 315 105 21
Bhilai, Sector-II 246 423 84 13
Bhilai, Sector-III 230 87 11
Bhilai, Sector-IV 234 79 14
Hudco 265 111 17
Supela 178 105 19
Civic Centre 271 98 16
Durg-I 86 66
Durg-II 72 88
Durg-III 101
Durg-IV 61
Durg-V 51
NTPC-1 (Korba) 198 267 1200 41
NTPC-II (Korba) 212 1050 30
BALCO (Korba) 125 1205 36
CSEB-East (Korba) 120 990 17
CSEB-West (Korba) 161 208 1110 15
Korba city 176 298 1345 51
Kusmunda (Korba) 92 1260 33
Gevra (Korba) 87 885 19
Manikpur (Korba) 67 1410 52
Dipka(Korba) 102 776 16
Tatibandh (Raipur) 99 61 12
Ashram (Raipur) 64 50 13
Tatyapara (Raipur) 76 39 8
Jaistambh (Raipur) 134 70 14
Main Hospital (Raipur) 88 62 11
Shankar Nagar (Raipur) 79 40 7
Telibandha (Raipur) 112 65 8
Railway station (Raipur) 121 89 13
Bus stand (Raipur) 98 65 9
Industrial area (Raipur) 129 150 99 15
Dabhara 13
Sakti 14
Nandghat 21
Bilaspur-I 31 50 29 17
Bilaspur-II 27 25 13
Dalli-rajhara 25 12 3
Rajnandgaon-I 28 31 10 5
Rajnandgaon-II 24
Dongargarh 20 8 4
Chikola 19
Kurud 18
Bankundpur 23 13 7
Ambikapur 15 6 3
Baladela-I 45
Baladela-II 40 18 9
Pithora 25 15 8
Basana 23 13 5
Saraipali 20 8 4
Mulethitola 17
Bhadsena 20 7 3
Meregaon 15
Kaudikasa 19 11 4

Table 3. Continued.
Site Soil (lg g)1) Sediment (lg g)1)
Sonsaytola 13
Joratari 20
Thailitola 21
emitted by stagnant point sources such as steel
plants, cement plants, and thermal power plants to
the environment of Central India and subse-
quently deposited in the geosphere and the
hydrosphere.
Lead in surface soils
Lead is immobilized by the organic soil components
and Pb deposited from the air is generally retained
in the upper 2–5 cm of undisturbed soil (USEPA
1986). Urban soils and other soils that are disturbed
or turned under may be contaminated down to
far greater depths. We collected 60 soil samples
for the analysis of Pb from various locations.
The total Pb concentration ranged from 12.8 to
545 lg g)1 with mean and median values of 102
and 73.9 lg g)1, respectively and a very high value
of standard deviation (SD±103 lg g)1), possibly
due to large heterogeneity in the distribution and
content of mobile and static sources (Table 3). The
spatial variation of Pb in the soil was studied. The
highest Pb concentrations were observed in the
soils of the iron smelting (Bhilai) and coal burning
(Korba) sites, perhaps due to emission of efflu-
ents from, inter alia, pyrite smelting (capacity
5 MT year)1) and coal burning (capacity
15 MT year)1). The mean soil Pb concentration
(n=15) in the iron smelting sites ranged from 51.0
to 545 lg g)1 with mean, median and SD values of
215, 234 and ±132, respectively. The soil Pb
concentration of the coal burning sites (n=10)
ranged from 67.4 to 212 lg g)1 with mean, median
and SD of 134, 122.5 and ±50, respectively. The
SD value was at least 2-fold less than for the coal
burning sites, possibly due to the distribution of
high frequency emission sources (thermal power
plants, aluminum plants, and coal mines) over a
large area. The soil Pb concentrations in urban
and rural sites ranged from 64.5 to 129 and from
12.8 to 31.3 lg g)1 with mean and SD values of
100±22.2 and 23.6±7.7 lg g)1, respectively.
Seasonal variation in soil Pb contamination was
examined at one site, Bhilai-3. The highest con-
pb pollution in central india 15
Surface water (lg l)1) Groundwater (lg l)1)
centration of Pb (271 lg g)1) was observed in the
winter (December–February) due to higher depo-
sition and lower volatilization of Pb. The lowest
concentration (231 lg g)1) was observed in the
rainy season (July–September), possibly due to
dilution by rainfall. The lower concentration of
(250 lg g)1) observed was in the summer season
(April–June) may be due in part to higher vola-
tilization of the organic Pb.
Lead in sediments
The total Pb concentration in sediment samples
derived from 10 different ponds ranged from 31 to
423 lg g)1 with mean, median and SD of 190, 179
and 133, respectively (Table 3). The total Pb con-
centrations in sediments are generally higher than in
the soils, perhaps due to leaching. The sediments of
Central India are much more contaminated than
other sites worldwide (Donazzolo et al. 1981; Neto
et al. 2000; Tam & Wong 2000), and this may be due
to intensive exploitation of natural resources such
as coal, pyrite, alumina, and dolomitic limestone.
Lead in surface waters
Lead has a tendency to form compounds of low
solubility with the major anions found in natural
waters. In the natural environment, the divalent
form (Pb2+) is the stable ionic species. Hydroxide,
carbonate, sulfide, and, more rarely, sulfate groups
may act as solubility controls in precipitating Pb
from water (USEPA 1986). The total Pb concen-
tration in stagnant surface water ranged from 6 to
1410 lg l)1 with mean, median and SD of 305, 74
and ±463 (Table 3). Very high concentrations of
Pb were observed in water samples from steel and
thermal power plant sites, probably due to atmo-
spheric deposition and leaching from contami-
nated sediments.
Lead in groundwater
Percolation of Pb species in the groundwater of
contaminated sites such as Korba may be due to
16 k.s. patel et al.

Table 4. Examples of lead contamination in soils and sediments worldwide.

Location Sample material Pb (lg g)1) References

Belize Soil <5450 Reeder and Shapiro (2003)

Murcia, Spain Soil 1572 Walker et al. (2003)
Naples city, Italy Urban soil 100 Imperato et al. (2003)
Brazil River sediment 64–174 Neto et al. (2000)
Elbe river, Germany Estuary sediment 25–142 Shoer et al. (1982)
Ganges Estuary, India Estuary sediment 12–115 Subramanian et al., (1988)
Gulf of Venice, Italy Gulf sediment 5–84 Donazzolo et al. (1981)
Hawaii, USA Road sediment 4–1750 Sutherland (2003)
Marmorilik, W. Greenland Sediment 8922±622 Larsen et al. (2001)
North sea, UK Estuary sediment 52–207 Smith and Orford (1989)
Sai Kung, Hong Kong Estuary sediment 85.5 Tam and Wong (2000)
Central India Soil 12.8–545 This study
Pond Sediment 31–423

the extensive exploitation of coal deposits. Lead Leaching of Pb, Cu and Ni

also diffused into groundwater of urban sites with
aquifers with a low water table. The Pb concen-
tration ranged from 3 to 52 lg l)1 with mean and
SD values of 16, 13, and ±12, respectively
(Table 3).
Discussion
Size distribution and mobility of Pb
The Pb content of soil and dust varies dramatically
as a function of particle size (Duggan & Inskip
1985). Several studies have reported that the Pb
content of soil, street dust, city dust, and house
dust increases as the particle size decreases.
Accumulation of Pb and other metals (Ni and Cu)
in different size range categories of soil particles
(2–0.05 mm) was examined. Lead accumulation in
clay particles increases as the mesh size decreases
(r=)0.81) with slope and intercept of )150.5 and
327. Similarly, Ni (r=)0.99) and Cu (r=)0.73)
concentrations increase as the particle size
decreases, with slope and intercept of )82.7,
)435.5 and 158.4, 780.5, respectively. Slope and
intercept increase in order: Ni Pb Cu, perhaps
due the high adsorption efficiency of the mud.
Lead accumulation in soil particles decreases as
the depth profile increases, perhaps due to atmo-
spheric deposition and lower solubility of the Pb
compounds in water. In the soils of Central India,
Pb accumulation shows a strong negative correla-
tion with depth of profile (r=)0.98) with slope and
intercept values of )2.89 and 233.7, respectively.
Metallic Pb is not itself toxic to humans (Wallace
and Wallace, 1994). Bioavailable forms of Pb are
toxic because they are easily taken into the body
and cause plumbism (acute lead poisoning). Four
fractions of Pb from weakly held to strongly held
in the soil were extracted with four chemical
extractants, AA, HAHC, EDTA and AR, respec-
tively. The largest fraction of Pb (>80%) was
extractable with EDTA (50.0–72.7%) and HAHC
(7.5–32.0%) whereas a small fraction was
extracted with AA (4.0–7.0%) compared with AR
(‘total’ Pb). Similarly, >80% Cu was leachable
with the extractants EDTA, HAHC and AA,
unlike Ni (data not shown).
Correlation of Pb with other heavy metals
Lead showed good correlation with Ni and Cu
both in soils and sediments. The mean (n=5)
concentrations of Pb, Ni and Cu in surface soils
observed were 122, 60 and 236 lg g)1, respec-
tively. The mean (n=5) concentrations of Pb, Ni
and Cu in the pond sediments were 119, 141 and
279 lg g)1, respectively. The Pb concentrations in
sediments and surface soils are very similar but Ni
and Cu were at least two fold higher in the sedi-
ments.
Sources of Pb
Several major sources of lead exposure have been
identified. The important sources of lead exposure
in this region of the country would be expected to

be mineral smelting and coal burning. The con-
centration of Pb in the surface soil of Central India
was found to range from 13 to 545 lg g)1 with a
mean value of 115 lg g)1, and is probably elevated
by addition from anthropogenic sources. The Pb
concentration in soils and sediments shows good
positive correlations with the ferro-alloying metals
Ni, and Cu. The static point sources such as iron
ore smelting are much more prominent than other
sources with coal burning observed to be the sec-
ond most prominent static anthropogenic source.
Lead contamination in soils and sediments
Lead is a stable and immobile metal. Soils and
sediments of various sites worldwide contaminated
with high levels of Pb are summarized in Table 4.
Very high Pb concentrations (>100 lg g)1) have
been reported in soils in, for example, Belize, Italy,
and Spain. Estuaries, gulfs, roads and river sedi-
ments at sites in Brazil, Hawaii, Greenland, North
India, and UK are contaminated with elevated
levels of Pb. In Central India, a large area
(4.0104 km2) is thought to be contaminated with
Pb due to human activities such as metal smelting,
energy production, and coal and iron mining.
Conclusions
High and variable Pb concentrations (13–545
lg g)1) have been found in the environment of
Central India. The major fraction (>80%) of Pb is
in leachable forms. In contaminated sites, the
stagnant surface water is also contaminated with
Pb above the tolerance limit (15 lg l)1) and Pb has
percolated into the groundwater aquifers. Iron ore
smelting and coal burning processes are considered
to be prominent emission sources of Pb and other
heavy metals (Sahu 1987). Young children are more
likely to play in dirt and to place their hands and
other objects in their mouths, thereby increasing
the opportunity for soil ingestion. The Pb incor-
porated into dust and soil may become a long-term
source of Pb exposure for children in this region.
Acknowledgements
We thank the Alexander von Humboldt Founda-
tion, Bonn, for providing a Fellowship to K.S.P.
pb pollution in central india 17
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