0231159765

GE OR GE S V I GA R E L L O
G
eorges Vigarello maps the evolution
of Western ideas about fat and fat
people from the Middle Ages to the pres-
ent, paying particular attention to the
role of science, fashion, tness crazes,
and public health campaigns in shaping
these views. Although hefty bodies were
once a sign of power, today those who
struggle to lose weight are considered
poor in character and weak in mind.
Vigarello traces the eventual equation
of fatness with inrmity and the way we
have come to dene ourselves and oth-
ers in terms of body type.
Vigarello begins with the medieval art-
ists and intellectuals who treated heavy
bodies as symbols of force and prosper-
ity. He then follows the shift during the
Renaissance and early modern period to
courtly, medical, and religious codes that
increasingly favored moderation and
discouraged excess. Scientic advances
in the eighteenth century also brought
greater knowledge of food and the
bodys processes, recasting fatness as the
relaxed antithesis of health. The body-
as-mechanism metaphor intensied in
the early nineteenth century, with the
chemistry revolution and heightened at-
tention to food-as-fuel, which turned the
body into a kind of furnace or engine.
During this period, social attitudes to-
ward fat became conicted, with the
bourgeois male belly operating as a sign
of prestige but also as a symbol of greed
and exploitation, while the overweight
female was admired only if she was work-
ing class. Vigarello concludes with the
tness and body-conscious movements
of the twentieth century and the prolif-
eration of personal confessions about
obesity, which tied fat more closely to
notions of personality, politics, taste,
and class.
GEORGES VIGARELLO is research director
at the cole des hautes tudes en sci-
ences sociales (EHESS) in Paris. He has
published prolically on topics ranging
from Concepts of Cleanliness: Changing At-
titudes in France Since the Middle Ages and
the cultural history of sports to The Histo-
ry of Rape: Sexual Violence in France from the
Sixteenth to the Twentieth Century and The
History of the Body: From the Renaissance to
the Enlightenment.
C. JON DELOGU is professeur des univer-
sits in the Department of English at
the Universit Jean Moulin, Lyon 3 in
France. He has also taught at Boston
University, Connecticut College, Dart-
mouth College, Hampshire College,
and the University of Southern Maine.
continued on back ap
continued from front ap
JACKET DESI GN: DAVI D DRUMMOND
COLUMBI A UNI VERSI TY PRESS New York
CUP. COLUMBI A. EDU
Praise for
THE METAMORPHOSES OF FAT
Throughout the Western world, fatness is deemed such a social sin that it is perfectly
legitimate to stigmatize and discriminate against the very heavy. In this lively history
from a master historian of the body, we learn that this disgust for fatness has been
with us since medieval times. Georges Vigarellos history of obesity is at heart a his-
tory of condemnation, how its shape has shifted in response to larger social, cultural,
economic, and scientic transformations. A powerful and disturbing read that high-
lights the role of modern science in dening the very heavy as unt for membership
in the community of valued citizens.
SUSAN GREENHALGH, HARVARD UNIVERSITY
Gluttonywhether perceived or realhas become the ultimate deadly sin in our
secularized Western world. The Metamorphoses of Fat tackles with depth and breadth
the history of obesity from the Middle Ages to the present from a wide interdisci-
plinary and cultural perspective.
JEAN-JACQUES COURTINE, UNIVERSITY OF AUCKLAND
The Metamorphoses of Fat presents a historical spectrum of fat in all of its medical,
social, cultural, and aesthetic contexts. Focusing on Western Europe (and its North
American colonies), Georges Vigarellos study moves from the world of medieval
and early modern corpulence to our contemporary obesity epidemic, illustrating
how shifts in the denition of fat form its cultural representation and how these
cultural representations impact the lived experiences of fat people. A remarkably
readable and engaging book for all readers!
SANDER L. GILMAN, AUTHOR OF Obesity: The Biography
EUROPEAN PERSPECTI VES: A SERI ES I N SOCI AL THOUGHT AND CULTURAL CRI TI CI SM
PRI NT E D I N T HE U. S. A.
ISBN: 978-0-231-15976-0
9 780231 159760
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THE METAMORPHOSES OF
FAT
Furopcan PcrspccLivcs
EUROPEAN PERSPECTI VES
A Series in Social Thought and Cultural Criticism
Iawrcncc D. KriLzman, FdiLor
Furopcan PcrspccLivcs prcscnLs ouLsLanding books by lcading Furopc-
an Lhinkcrs. WiLh boLh classic and conLcmporary works, Lhc scrics aims
Lo shapc Lhc major inLcllccLual conLrovcrsics o our day and Lo aciliLaLc
Lhc Lasks o hisLorical undcrsLanding.
For a complcLc lisL o books in Lhc scrics, scc pagcs :66.
FAT
A History of Obesity
Georges Vigarello
Translated from the French by C. Jon Delogu
coiursit uNivcrsi1v rrcss Ncw vorx
COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS
Publishers Since
Ncw York ChichcsLcr, WcsL Susscx
cup.columbia.cdu
CopyrighL :o Columbia UnivcrsiLy Prcss
Ccorgcs Vigarcllo, Les metamorphoses du gras: histoire de lobsit (Paris: Scuil, :oo)
CcL ouvragc a bcncc du souLicn dcs Programmcs daidc la publicaLion dc lInsLiLuL
Franais. Tis work, publishcd as parL o a program o aid or publicaLion, rcccivcd
supporL rom Lhc InsLiLuL Franais.
All righLs rcscrvcd
Iibrary o Congrcss CaLaloging-in-PublicaLion DaLa
Vigarcllo, Ccorgcs.
[McLamorphoscs du gras. Fnglish]
Tc mcLamorphoscs o aL: a hisLory o obcsiLy / Ccorgcs Vigarcllo,
LranslaLcd rom Lhc Frcnch by C. 1on Dclogu.
pagcs cm.(Furopcan pcrspccLivcs: a scrics in social LhoughL and culLural criLicism)
Includcs bibliographical rccrcnccs and indcx.
issN ,8-o-:-,8-,6-o (cloLh: alk. papcr), issN ,8-o-:-o- (c-book)
. ObcsiLySocial aspccLsHisLory. I. TiLlc.
RC6:8.V :o
6:.6'8dc: :o:o:,
Columbia UnivcrsiLy Prcss books arc prinLcd on pcrmancnL and durablc
acid-rcc papcr.
Tis book is prinLcd on papcr wiLh rccyclcd conLcnL.
PrinLcd in Lhc UniLcd SLaLcs o Amcrica
c o 8 , 6 :
p o 8 , 6 :
Covcr Dcsign: David Drummon
Rccrcnccs Lo Wcb siLcs (URIs) wcrc accuraLc aL Lhc Limc o wriLing.
NciLhcr Lhc auLhor nor Columbia UnivcrsiLy Prcss is rcsponsiblc or URIs
LhaL may havc cxpircd or changcd sincc Lhc manuscripL was prcparcd.
CONTENTS
Introduction ix
PART 1 THE MEDIEVAL GLUTTON
1. The Prestige of the Big Person 3
SponLancous Vigor
WhaL InsulLs` 6
From Big Lo Vcry Big ,
2. Liquids, Fat, and Wind 10
MaLLcrs o FaL o
Tc DcviaLions o Wind and WaLcr :
CouL and CouL Sucrcrs
Tc SimpliciLy o FvacuaLions
3. The Horizon of Fault 17
Tc Clcrical Modcl 8
Tc Mcdical Modcl
Tc CourLly Modcl :
4. The Fifteenth Century and the Contrasts of Slimming 23
Tc Asccndancy o Imagcs :
A Social DisLincLion` :
IicsLylcs and ConicLs :6
Tc Iaborious Placc o BcauLy :8
vi Contents
PART 2 THE MODERN OAF
5. The Shores of Laziness 33
Modcrn AcLiviLy and PassiviLy
From PrivaLc InsulL Lo Public Codc 6
RcsisLanccs and FascinaLions 8
Tc Rcusal o All Skinnincss
6. The Plural of Fat 45
DramaLizing Lhc TrcaL
Fcar o Apoplcxy ,
FaL Talk, an AbsLracL Discoursc
Spcciying Hydropsy
Spcciying Lhc Fxccss o CouL
7. Exploring Images, Dening Terms 55
Imagcs and Rcalism o FcaLurcs
Tc Choicc o Rubcns ,
Tc Powcr and Powcrlcssncss o Words
8. Constraining the Flesh 64
Tc Bcginning o an FvaluaLion 6
Only Lhc High Sizc 6,
DicLs and Modcrn RcsLrainLs 6
Drying OuL ,
Vincgar and Chalk ,
BclLs, Bladcs, and CorscLs ,
PART 3 FROM OAFISHNESS TO POWERLESSNESS:
THE ENLIGHTENMENT AND SENSIBILITY
9. Inventing Nuance 79
Tirclcss Mcasuring and FruiLlcss Mcasuring ,
WaisL or WcighL` 8
InvcnLing Lhc Mcans 8:
Tc FirsL SpccicaLions o Forms 8
Masculinc CraviLy and Social CraviLy 8,
10. Stigmatizing Powerlessness 90
InLroducing a Ncw Word, Obesity
Tc Bad SympLom: InscnsiLiviLy
Tc CriLicism o Lhc AucnL
Tc Big Bad Husband ,
Contents vii
11. Toning Up 99
Tc VirLuc o Tonics
Tc VirLuc o FxciLanLs o
FlccLric Drcams o:
Tc Ncrvc Rcgimcn o
PlanLs or McaLs` o
Tc ChcmisLry RcvoluLion o6
PART 4 THE BOURGEOIS BELLY
12. The Weight of Figures 111
Tc Prcscncc o Numbcrs
Figuring Lhc WaisL-WcighL RclaLion :
Tc QucsLion o Scl-Wcighing
13. Typology Fever 116
CasLrophoric Mcn, Adiposc Womcn ,
Tc Bourgcois and Lhc Avowcd Bclly :o
Tc Bourgcois and Lhc Iampooncd Bclly :
RomanLically Tin` :
14. From Chemistry to Energy 125
Tc Aqucous and Lhc Adiposc: Ncw DisLincLions :
FaL and Firc :,
FaL and Morbid Immincncc :
15. From Energy to Diets 131
Tc Conscqucnccs o Fncrgy
Tc QucsLion o CrcaLing an ArL o Iiving Wcll
Tc Archaic and Lhc Modcrn
Tc MisorLunc and Mc: Tc Ncw SLaLus o ObcsiLy
PART 5 TOWARD THE MARTYR
16. The Dominance of Aesthetics 141
Tc Sprcad o Wcighing :
Tc FirsL ConicLs BcLwccn CharLs
Tc Fxposurc o Bodics
Tc Asccndancy o Womcns Hips 6
From Lhc Masculinc WaisL Lo Lhc Muscular Discovcry 8
From AcsLhcLics Lo Lhc ConicL o Imagcs
viii Contents
17. Clinical Obesity and Everyday Obesity 154
Forms and Numcrically Mcasurcd Dcgrccs
RcLarding NuLriLion and Fxccss NuLriLion 6
Tc DcgcncraLivc Obscssion 8
Tc Fxplosion o DicLs
Tc Socializing and ChcmisLry o Spa Iic 6:
Tc Asccndancy o AdvcrLiscrs 6
18. The Thin Revolution 166
Tc DcccL o CivilizaLion 6,
Tc Dashing Slcndcr Malc 68
Tc Dashing Slcndcr Fcmalc 6
Tc CraduaLcd AnaLomy ,o
Tc CrcaLion and Lhc MonsLrous ,
19. Declaring the Martyr 174
RcvoluLionizing Lhc FirsL Dcgrccs ,
Tc MulLiplicaLion o PaLhologics ,6
Tc MulLiplicaLion o Tcrapics ,,
Tc Fvidcncc o TcrapcuLic Failurcs ,
BcLwccn Trial and MarLyr 8
PART 6 CHANGES IN THE CONTEMPORARY DEBATE:
AN IDENTITY PROBLEM AND AN INSIDIOUS EVIL
Tc ArmaLion o an Fpidcmic 86
CounLcraLLacks` 8,
Tc Dynamics o Tinncss, Lhc Dynamics o ObcsiLy 88
Tc FccLs o Tinncss 8
A MulLiacLor Univcrsc o
Tc Scl, Lhc Trial, and IdcnLiLy
Conclusion 197
Notes
Index
INTRODUCTION
In onc o hcr lcLLcrs rom Lhc cnd o Lhc scvcnLccnLh ccnLury, FlizabcLh
CharloLLc, Lhc PalaLinc Princcss, givcs Lhc rcadcr Lhis imagc o hcrscl: my
waisL is monsLrously widc, I am as squarc as a cubc, my skin is rcd, spcck-
lcd wiLh ycllow.
Tis LcsLimony is prccious bccausc physical scl-dcscrip-

Lion is rarc in old rcgimc Francc. IL supposcs a disLancc, an objccLicaLion
o Lhc scl, a dominaLing judgmcnL LhaL only a slow proccss o culLural
labor could makc possiblc. Tc LcsLimony is cspccially valuablc bccausc
iL conrms LhaL a dcniLivc changc in Lhinking has occurrcd: big is now
only bad. Tc princcss insisLs on Lhc disgracc, Lhc hcavincss, Lhc irrcmcdi-
ablc dcsccnL rom caLhcry Lo aL LhaL placcs hcr among Lhc ugly.
:
Tcn
comc anccdoLcs naming Lhc sympLoms o various Lroublcs and ailmcnLs:
splccn pain, colic, vapors, and a loss o balancc worscncd by bumpy
carriagcs. Bcing big is a disadvanLagc, pcrhaps cvcn a cursc.
Tc big pcrson, howcvcr, was noL always so sLrongly dcnounccda
acL LhaL jusLics hisLorical inquiry. Massivc bodics can bc praiscd in Lhc
Middlc Agcs, or cxamplc, as dcnoLing powcr and asccndancy. Similarly,
in Limcs o hungcr, admiring praisc is accordcd Lo lands o plcnLy [pays
de cocagne] wiLh all-you-can-caL banqucLs and visions o cndlcssly sLu-
ing oncscl. Forcc is associaLcd wiLh Lhc largc hcarLy mcal. AccumulaL-
ing pounds is sccn as hcalLh insurancc. And social privilcgc is signicd
Lhrough a display o oncs own sizc. Tcsc idcas arc probably complicaLcd
as wcll, Lhough, bccausc cvcn in Lhc Middlc Agcs Lhcy arc conLcsLcd by Lhc
scrmons o clcrics and Lhc rcscrvaLions and bclics o docLors and cvcn
x Introduction
by Lhc dclicaLcly phrascd dcmands o courLly codcs. NcvcrLhclcss, Lhcy
arc imprcssivc, immcdiaLcly rccognizablc signs LhaL lcnd Lhc big pcrson
powcr and convicLion.
A dcniLivc brcak howcvcr Lakcs placc wiLh Lhc advcnL o modcrn
Furopc. Tc closcly conLcmporary LcsLimonics o SainL-Simon in Francc
and Samucl Pcpys in Fngland dcnigraLc a lazy, aL pricsL,
dcridc a aL
child callcd Punch, a word o common usc or all LhaL is Lhick and
shorL,
big, aL crcaLurcs,
and aL and lusLy and ruddy courLicrs,

6

whilc Madamc dc Scvignc cars abovc all bccoming a aLLcncd aLLy.
,

Tc big pcrson [le gros] is now only a aL pcrson [le gras]indolcnL and
collapscd.
8
PrcsLigc and modcls changc. Tc rough Lablcs o oldcn Limcs
hcapcd wiLh ood arc no longcr classy, and accumulaLing pounds o csh
is no longcr a sign o orccul rcscrvcs buL raLhcr o a ccrLain loss o con-
Lrol and grossncss.
Tc hisLory o bcing big is Lhc sLory o Lhcsc rcvcrsals. Tc dcvclop-
mcnL o WcsLcrn socicLics promoLcs a Lcndcncy Loward slimmcr bodics,
a kccncr supcrvision o physical conLours, and an incrcasingly alarmcd
rcusal o hcavincss. Tis o coursc brings changcs in whaL counLs as big
and a barcly impcrccpLiblc buL sLcady privilcging o lighLncss. Tis in
Lurn sLrongly cxaccrbaLcs conLcmpL or big pcoplc, who nd Lhcmsclvcs
incrcasingly discrcdiLcd. Voluminous individuals all urLhcr and urLhcr
bclow sLandards o rcncmcnL, whilc bcauLy is cvcr morc associaLcd wiLh
Lhc Lhin and slcndcr.
Tis samc discrcdiL Lakcs on a dicrcnL conLcnL ovcr Limc and Lhcsc
changcs urLhcr jusLiy a hisLory o bigncss. Tc vision o Lhc aulL shiLs,
Lhus rcvcaling how much Lhc bodys appcarancc, wiLh iLs rcal or supposcd
aws, is linkcd Lo a hisLory o culLurcs and scnsibiliLics. Mcdicval criLi-
cisms, ormulaLcd by clcrics and diuscd wiLh somc succcss in Lhc our-
LccnLh and LccnLh ccnLurics in advancc o our modcrn cra, insisL on Lhc
capiLal or dcadly sins. Tcsc criLicisms assail Lhc passions, singlc ouL Lhc
gluLLon, and dcnouncc his lack o digniLy. Tcy condcmn avaricc, whilc
modcrn criLicisms insisL on a lack o dcxLcriLy and ccicncy. Tc big, now
aL, pcrson bccomcs a gurc o Lhc inapL, Lhc unLabby and incrL.
Tcir aulL is a dcciL o doing, an insucicncy o powcr and acLion. Anni-
bal Carrachcs caricaLurc porLraiLs rom Lhc scvcnLccnLh ccnLury arc Lhc
bcsL illusLraLions: groups o mcn wiLh ovcrsizcd sLomachs and shorL limbs
sLuck in poscs o hcavincss.
Tc aw o Lhc aL pcrson in modcrn Limcs

is lack o dynamism and a capaciLy or doing. Tc dominanL idca bccomcs
fat = no power. Tc aL pcrson can also provokc collccLivc dcnunciaLions,
as whcn Lhc ull chcsLs o Lhc wcalLhy arc poinLcd Lo as a sign ciLhcr o
Introduction xi
Lhcir rapaciousncss or Lhcir Lruc inccicncy. WiLh Lhcir round Lummics
and dcgradcd bodics, arisLocraLs and abboLs aL Lhc cnd o Lhc cighLccnLh
ccnLury arc Lhc classic cxamplcsproLccrs LhaL rcvoluLionary idcas
will squcczc down, Lhcn ouL, Lhus cxposing Lhcir usclcssncss.
CriLicisms also bccomc morc psychological as socicLics acccnLuaLc
individualism and valorizc auLonomy and scl-armaLion. Tc loscrs in
Lhcsc accounLs arc morc inLimaLc, cmoLional cascs. Hcncc Lhc apaLhy
o

LhaL wcighLy anaLomics arc rcproachcd or in norLhcrn counLrics in Lhc
laLc cighLccnLh ccnLury, or Lhc cgoism
hcld againsL Lhc aL pcrson

in Lhc proLo-sociological porLraiLs o RomanLic liLcraLurc, or cxamplc,
Lhc young bullicd kid, aL and sad, as dcscribcd by Cranvillc in his Small
Miseries of Human Life (8).
:
Sizc comcs dcniLivcly Lo bc LhoughL o as
corrclaLing wiLh individual aLLiLudcs and pcrsonaliLy LraiLs and cvcn ways
o Lhinking. AL Lhc cnd o Lhc nincLccnLh ccnLury, Manucl Icvcn gocs
so ar as Lo wriLc up a long scrics o LrcaLiscs associaLing ncurosis and
obcsiLy.
Tc criLicism o Lhc aL pcrson Lhus parLicipaLcs in Lhc immcnsc

shiL wiLhin WcsLcrn socicLics LhaL dccpcns Lhc spacc givcn ovcr Lo psy-
chologicsLaking disLancc rom oldcr moral classicaLions and insLcad
dcvcloping an inniLc array o pcrsonal dicrcnLiaLions and Lypcs
o bchavior.
In oLhcr words, Lhis sLigmaLizaLion rcccLs abovc all an acccnLuaLion
o norms LhaL in WcsLcrn socicLics dicLaLcd cvcr sLricLcr rulcs and prccisc
guidclincs or physical appcarancc and Lhc cxprcssion o scl. IL can also
rcccL dicrcnccs LhaL arc uphcld bcLwccn malc and cmalc gcndcrs as
wcll as bcLwccn social groups. For cxamplc, public condcmnaLion is morc
scvcrc Loward Lhc cmalc body, which has bccn LradiLionally cxpccLcd Lo
bc supplc and uid. Invcrscly, judgmcnLs havc bccn morc LolcranL Loward
Lhc dominanL scx whosc asccndancy has LradiLionally allowcd or a morc
imposing voluminous sizc. Tc courL o Lhc grcaL king in Lhc scvcnLccnLh
ccnLury, or cxamplc, docs noL lack or princcs o a ccrLain roLund sLaL-
urc, jusL as in Lhc nincLccnLh-ccnLury world o Lhc bourgcois Lhcrc is no
shorLagc o gurcs whosc prcsLigc is markcd by a ccrLain hcLy, noL Lo
say hcavy, allurc. Hcrc, Loo, social and culLural polariLics, Lhc dicrcnccs
consLrucLcd bcLwccn mcn and womcn, incviLably Lravcrsc boLh posiLivc
and ncgaLivc judgmcnLs.
Obviously Lhc hisLory o Lhc big and Lhc aL is also Lhc hisLory o Lhc
valuaLions o bodily orms and Lhc work Lhcyrc puL Lo. For a long Limc
Lhcsc judgmcnLs rcmain imprccisc bccausc o a lack o mcasurablc, sLa-
LisLical criLcria. For a long Limc Lhc inLcrmcdiary sLagcs or Lypcs bcLwccn
normal and vcry big arc noL clcarly dcscribcd. IL Lakcs a slow, gradual
xii Introduction
invcnLion o a scL o Lcrms and diminuLivcs bcLwccn Lhc sixLccnLh and
scvcnLccnLh ccnLurics Lo suggcsL a scalc o chubbincss, posiL Lypcs, and
aLLcmpL Lo ormalizc Lhcm dcspiLc Lhc incviLablc pcrsisLcncc o imprcci-
sion.
Tc incrcasing varicLy o Lcrms LcsLics Lo Lhc incrcasing discrimi-

naLion o Lhc cyc, cvcn Lhough iLs judgmcnL rcmaincd raLhcr approximaLc
and cvcn disappoinLing by Lodays sLandards or quiLc a whilc. Wc may
noLc Lhc insisLcnL armaLion in a Dictionnaire de mdecine rom 8:, LhaL
aLncss prcscnLs a mulLiLudc o dcgrccs.
A hisLory o Lhc body musL

givc an accounL o boLh Lhcsc cvaluaLions o appcaranccs and Lhc hisLory
o Lhcir cvcr morc cxpliciL claboraLion.
A sign o Lhis growing cxacLiLudc is Lhc sLaLisLical calculaLion and rcporL
o body wcighL LhaL bccomcs cusLomary by Lhc cnd o Lhc nincLccnLh ccn-
Lury, jusL as an incrcasingly indusLrious vision o bodics and anaLomics is
also Laking hold. IL will Lakc Limc bcorc Lhc baLhroom scalc and rclaLcd
pcrsonal Lools arrivc in privaLc spaccs in Lhc LwcnLicLh ccnLury, mark-
ing a ncw rcquircmcnL or scl-mainLcnancc LhaL Lhc cvidcncc o pcriodic
scl-wcighing ullls. Tc prcscncc o Lhc scalc has bccomc parL o cvcry-
day lic, almosL naLural, so sponLancous LhaL iL can makc us orgcL how
much our judgmcnLs o wcighL dcvclopcd and rcncd Lhcmsclvcs bcorc
Lhc advcnL o numbcrs and LcsLs. BuL iL is Lhis rcncmcnL and iLs divcrsi-
caLion and individualizaLion LhaL arc ccnLral Lo a hisLory o big pcoplc.
Finally Lhcrc arc Lhc Lncss LacLics and sLraLcgics or ghLing aL as
prioriLy is gradually givcn ovcr Lo slimming wiLhin WcsLcrn socicLics.
Tcsc pracLiccs also accclcraLc Lhrough Lhc modcrn cra, divcrsiying ovcr
Limc, rcvcaling LhaL Lhc ghL againsL wcighL is noL a ncw invcnLion buL
accompanics Lhc gradual rcncmcnL o judgmcnL abouL bodily curvcs and
Lhcir modicaLions. For a long Limc Lhis baLLlc had as iLs rsL principlc
Lhc consLrainL cxcrLcd on Lhc skin iLscl: Lhc corscL, Lhc girdlc, and sLraps
o all sorLs. As Lhough Lhc bodys orms had Lo obcy Lhc mosL maLcrial
manipulaLions, as Lhough Lhcy had Lo yicld Lo Lhc LighLcsL sLricLurcs. AL
boLLom Lhis is noLhing buL Lhc cxprcssion o an archaic bclic LhaL LargcLs
Lhc body as a passivc cnscmblc, a consummaLcly mallcablc objccL, a maLc-
rial submissivc Lo Lhc simplcsL mcchanical corrccLions.
Tis ghL againsL aL has a ncw dimcnsion LhaL has noL rcccivcd much
hisLorical aLLcnLion dcspiLc iLs impacL, namcly, LhaL a projccL o gcLLing
Lhin can cncounLcr limiLs and cvcn impossibiliLics. NoL LhaL iL is always
dccicnL. Succcsscs conLinuc Lo mulLiply, linkcd Lo Lhis or LhaL scicnLic
brcakLhrough. BuL Lhc rcsisLanccs also mulLiplycurvcs and wcighL go
unchangcd dcspiLc Lhc accumulaLion o LrcaLmcnLs. Tc obsLrucLion can
Lhcn bccomc an obscssion, a siLc o growing worry as knowlcdgc dcvcl-
Introduction xiii
ops Lo sophisLicaLcd lcvcls, and alarms ring as dicL proccdurcs bccomc
an obligaLory pracLicc. Tc sLigmaLizaLion Lhus shiLs rom a dcnigraLion
o aL Lo a dcnigraLion o powcrlcssncss, Lhc inabiliLy Lo changc. Tc rcp-
robaLion bccomcs morc psychological, morc inLimaLc, Lhcy arc no longcr
accusaLions o awkwardncss or gluLLony, buL o nonmasLcry, a lack o
powcr ovcr oncscl as onc kccps an impassivc and ugly body whcrcas
cvcryLhing says iL oughL Lo changc. Tc hisLory o obcsiLy is also Lhc
hisLory o Lhcsc incrLias, o a body cvcr morc idcnLicd wiLh a pcrson
in WcsLcrn hisLory, and ycL LhaL body cscapcs rom ccrLain aLLcmpLs,
apparcnLly simplc, Lo adapL and modiy iL. An cnLircly singular imagc o
Lhc obcsc pcrson Lhus cmcrgcsonc LhaL Lhc growing norms or gcL-
Ling Lhin along wiLh Lhc ill-undcrsLood diculLy Lo rcspccL Lhcm drivcs
Loward a singular hardship.
6
Tc laLcsL ncw caLurc is LhaL Lhis hardship
can cxprcss iLscl mosL casily in a socicLy LhaL avors inLimaLc concssion
and psychologizing.
Tc hisLory o aL pcoplc is rsL Lhc hisLory o a condcmnaLion and iLs
LransormaLions across dicring culLural conLcxLs and socially LargcLcd
rcjccLs. IL is also Lhc hisLory o Lhc parLicular diculLics cxpcricnccd by
Lhc obcsc pcrson: a hardship LhaL has probably bccn acccnLuaLcd by Lhc
rcncmcnL o norms and Lhc growing aLLcnLion Lo psychological sucr-
ing. Finally iL is Lhc hisLory o a body LhaL undcrgocs modicaLions LhaL
socicLy rcjccLs and LhaL Lhc will is noL always ablc Lo modiy.
FAT
Bigncss is imposing righL away in ancicnL inLuiLions.
1
IL imprcsscs. IL
scduccs.ILisalsosuggcsLivcasiLincarnaLcsabundancc,dcnoLcswcalLh,
and symbolizcs hcalLh. Dccisivc signs in a univcrsc markcd by consLanL
hungcr and prccariousncss. Tis is dcmonsLraLcd in Lhc carlicsL ablcs:
gluLLonousLhroaLs,rcpasLsogrcaLsizc,ovcrowingcasLs,Lhcplca-
surc o sLung oncs sLomach, all you can caL and drink mcals.
2
Tc
bodyisunLhinkablcwiLhouLllcdupcsh.HcalLhcarciLsclandLhcrsL
rcsponscLosickncsscannoLbcLhoughLcxccpLinLcrmsoabundanLood.
TcwoundcdoxinLhcRoman de Renart,orcxamplc,rccovcrshisorcc
by ingurgiLaLing many oods and drinks.
3
Tc gcncrous silhoucLLc pro-
LccLs,convinccs,anddominaLcsorccullyinaconusionoaLandcsh.
TisconLour,howcvcr,canalsoprovokcworryorcvcndisgusL,cspc-
cially i iLs dimcnsions grow. ILs maLcrials arc alrcady composiLc, sug-
gcsLingboLhsoLncssandrmncss.TcscsLaLcscanalsoprovokcsubLlcr
rcsponscs including Lhc condcmnaLion o clcrics and docLors as wcll as
LhaLoLhccourLcliLcwhoarcquiLcscnsiLivcLoLhcoddwordhcrcorLhcrc
abouLdimcnsionsandrcscrvc.DuringLhcMiddlcAgcsadoubLLakcshold
asLoLhcvirLucobigncss,aconLcsLbcLwccnconicLingimagcs.ILisnoL
LhaL Lhc prcsLigc o Lhc big, Lhc massivc, or Lhc plump suddcnly disap-
pcars.AmoralisLicunivcrsc,howcvcr,docsspcndmorcLimcconLcmplaL-
ing Lhc dangcrs o cxccss. An alrcady old, sLrongly cdiying criLicism
ocuscsonLhcgluLLonandLhcovcrcaLcrwhogcLcarricdaway.ILisacriLi-
cismobchaviormorcLhanoncoacsLhcLicsormorbidiLy.
PART 1
THE MEDIEVAL GLUTTON
TcprcsLigcoLhcbigpcrsondcrivcsrsLoallromaccrLainconLcxL.
Tcworldinooisoncohungcr,scvcrcrcsLricLions,andoodshorLagcs
LhaLrccuraLlcssLhanvc-ycarinLcrvals.ForscvcralccnLuricsduringLhc
Middlc Agcs, poor dcgradcd soils, inadcquaLc sLoragc, slow and diculL
LransporLaLionncLworks,andvulncrabiliLyLoinclcmcnLwcaLhcrallcon-
LribuLcLoraisingLhcaccumulaLionocaloricsinLoanidcal.DuringLhcsc
Limcs,landsoplcnLy,Lhcso-callcdpays de cocagne,alsobccomcmarvcl-
ous symbols.
1
Tcsc cLional worlds arc dcscribcd as carLhly paradiscs
llcdwiLhspiccs,aLLymcaLs,andwhiLcbrcad,dizzyinglandscapcswhcrc
bccrandwincowlikcrivcrs,sLcwsandroasLssccmLopopupouLoLhc
soil,andhillsidcsarcpcrumcdwiLhabulousnccLars.FaLingLhisworld
isasoLcningdrcamncxLLoLhchardrcaliLyobadharvcsLs,cxorbiLanL
priccs, and morLaliLy.
2
Tc collccLivc imaginaLion drcams o accumula-
Lion. HcalLh mcans a ull sLomach. Vigor is rcprcscnLcd in Lhc compacL
hcL o csh. Tcsc carly LruLhs havc Lo bc kcpL in mind Lo ully undcr-
sLandLhcuLurccriLicismsoLhcaL.
3
BuLoncmusLrsLLakcsLocko
LhcprcsLigcovolumcandbigsizcs.
Spontaneous Vigor
Tc words uscd Lo dcscribc bcauLiul womcn in Lhc oldcsL mcdicval
LalcsarccnLirclyclcaronLhcmaLLcr.FachoncisaL,whiLc,andLcndcr
1. The Prestige of the Big Person
4 THE MEDI EVAL GLUTTON
oraL,Lcndcr,andbcauLiul,
4
andLhcgcnLlc,bcauLiulmaidcninLhc
Romance of the RoseisraLhcrbig.
5
TcwordsarcLhcsamcordcscrib-
ing rcsplcndcnL hcalLh. Tc hcroincs in Lhc Lalc Te Heart Eaten, rccd
aLcr LormcnLs and misorLuncs, arc alivc Lo Lhc poinL o drunkcnncss
and, ccding on blood and csh, bccomc big and aL and Lhus morc
aLLracLivcLhancvcrinLhisncwappcarancc.
6
TcrcarcalsoLhccompari-
sonsbcLwccnhorscsandyoungwomcninLhcParisians Household Man-
ual rom Lhc ourLccnLh ccnLury LhaL calls or boLh Lo havc bcauLiul
loinsandbigboLLoms.
7
TcscpronounccmcnLsabouLcmalcaLmusL
bcrcadcarcullyasdcnoLingalackolcanncssmorcLhanabigovcrall
sizc.FaLcanimplyullwiLhouLncccssarilymcaningbig,whichcon-
LribuLcs Lo Lhc ambiguiLy o Lhc Lcrms and Lhc judgmcnLs and pcrccp-
LionsLhaLgoalongwiLhLhcm.
SimilarwordscropupindcscripLionsomcn,LhoughpcrhapswiLhlcss
nuanccandmorcarmaLion.NoLcwhaLisscducLivcabouLLhcclcricsor
LhcbourgcoiscwomanoOrlcansinLhcLhirLccnLhccnLury:
TcclcricswcrcvcrybigandaL
BccauscLhcyprobablyaLcaloL
TcywcrchighlycsLccmcdinLhcciLy.
S
NoLcLhcgcnLlcmanslamcnLaLioninTe King of NavarreromLhcLhir-
LccnLhccnLurywhosayshcrcgainshisaLbyrcgainingposscssionohis
lovcs,
0
orLhcwhiningabouLhungcrinLhcFasLouldArrasLhaLwillpro-
duccbiLLcrncssandprcvcnLaLLcningup.
1u
FvcnmorcsLrikingarcLhc
mid-LhirLccnLh-ccnLury SouLhcrn pcasanLs who nd no bcLLcr Lcrm o
praiscLhanoxoSicilyLodcscribcLhcbcauLyoSainLTomasAquinas
asLhcyabandonLhcirlaborsLobcLLcradmirchim,
11
pushcdLowardhim
byhisimposingsLaLurcmorcLhanbyhissainLlincss.
12
McdicvalmyLhssayLhcsamcLhing.TcirgianLsarcoimmcnscsizc,
consLanLly dcvouring and unsurpasscd in powcr. CcrgunL, or cxamplc,
LhcsonoBclcn,whoscLcrriyingorccisdcscribcdbyCirauddcCam-
bricinLhcLwclLhccnLury,dominaLcsCrcaLBriLainbcorcCacsar.
13
Tc
paLronymics associaLcd wiLh him arc Lhcmsclvcs symbols LhaL all poinL
LoLhccLymologyoCarganLua:Gurguntius,Gurgant,Gremagoth.Tcsc
namcs all conLain Lhc phoncmc [grg] prcscnL in all Indo-Furopcan lan-
guagcsLocxprcssLhcidcaoingurgiLaLion.
14
TcsoundrcinorccsLhc
idcaovigor,orLhcsourccoLhcgiganLicormsisnoLhingclscbuLcon-
sLanL swallowing. Tis cxamplc mixcs LogcLhcr morc subLly and conus-
inglyLwodisLincLcaLcgorics:LhcvolumcomusclcLissucandLhaLoaL.
The Prestige of the Big Person 5
Mcdicval Lravclcrs show Lhis in wriLings LhaL idcnLiy improb-
ablc araway inhabiLanLs whosc prodigious orcc dcrivcs rom Lhcir
immcnscsizcandunchcckcdappcLiLcs.Forcxamplc,LhcmcnoZanzi-
bardcscribcdbyMarcoPoloinLhcLhirLccnLhccnLuryarcLallandbig
and morc widc Lhan Lall,
15
and cach placcs in his cnormous mouLh a
volumcooodLhaLcxcccdsLhcLoLalquanLiLyowhaLscvcralnormal
mcnwouldcaL.WhcnccdcrivcsLhcimmcasurablcorccLhaLisaLLrib-
uLcdLoLhcm,LhcirrcsisLanccinbaLLlc,andLhccapaciLyocachoncLo
dccaLsinglc-handcdLhcaLLackoouroLhcrmcn.
16
NoblcrccrcnccscxLcndLhispromoLionobigncssurLhcrsLill.Tc
knighLinLhcromanccsoLhcLwclLhandLhirLccnLhccnLuricsosLcnLa-
Liously indulgcs in massivc quanLiLics o ood. Moniagc RcnoarL puLs
awayvcpLcsandvccaponsalongwiLhLwogallonsowinc.
17
Inan
insLanLOgicrLhcDanccaLsupancnormoussidcobccLhaLcouldhavc
cd Lhrcc lowly carL-pullcrs.
1S
QuanLiLy mcans boLh asccndancy and
powcr.McdicvalromanccslingcrovcrLhcinLcrminablcmcalsonoblc-
mcnwhcrconcdishaLcranoLhcrrcinorccsLhcidcaopowcr.Tcrcis
a succcssion o Lccn courscs aL Lhc casL o Pcrccval bcginning wiLh
sLag scrvcd wiLh spicy pcppcr,
10
an accumulaLion o vcnison, pork,
andwildboarinAmis et Amiles,
2u
ancxLcnsivcdivcrsiLyomcaLsinLhc
Gerbers de Metz, vcnison, dccr LcsLiclcs, crancs and oLhcr rivcr birds,
sLucd bcar and many spiccs.
21
Hcrc orcc calls orLh Lhc accumula-
Lionooods.TcmanncrsoLhcgluLLonLakcprcccdcnccovcrLhosco
LhcgourmcL.
TcimagcoLhccndlcssmcalisLhcproducLodrcam,buLisalsosym-
bolic. In a socicLy rulcd by warriors who raisc physical orcc Lo myLhic
sLaLus,LhcpowcrulcaLLoLhcirull. . . .TconcwhocaLsaloLrulcsovcr
cvcryoncclsc.
22
WhcnccLhcprivilcgcgivcnLoquanLiLyaswcllasLoLhc
prcciscLypcoood:cshisprccrrcdovcrvcgcLablcs,orcxamplc,and
blood ovcr musclc bcr. In Lhc LhirLccnLh ccnLury, HclmbrcchL, Lhc old
pcasanLoWcrmcr,cxprcsslyacknowlcdgcsconninghimsclLoadicLo
grains.HcsaysLohissonLhaLhclcavcsmcaLandshorLhcdicLoLhc
locallord.
23
WhcrcasAldcbrandinoSicnna,aLhirLccnLh-ccnLurydocLor,
praiscsbloodyoodsbccauscLhcyarcmorcnourishing,aLLcning,and
givc orcc.
24
Tcy makc onc big and cshy. Tus Lhcrc is a grcaL divcr-
siLyoanimalsconsumcd(chickcnsoallsorLs,gccsc,pigs,shccp,lambs)
duringLhcbricsLayoQuccnPcLronilaoCaLaloniaandAragoninLhc
bishopspalaccinBarcclonabcLwccn,and8.
25
Tcpcrsuasivcncss
comcs rom Lhc prousion as wcll as rom Lhc Lypc o oods lisLcd. Tc
cumulaLivccccLandLhcbloodingcsLcdmakcsorvigor,cvcniLhcrcaliLy
docs noL always corrcspond Lo Lhc idca, or cxamplc, Lhc garbagc hcaps
oLhcpowcruloLhcLimcdonoLrcvcallargcquanLiLicsoanimalboncs
(onlyvcpcrccnL,orcxamplc,odccrboncs).
26
TcprcsLigcoLhcbcarcrownsLhishonoringobigncss.Aroyalrccr-
cnccinArLhurianlcgcnd,LhcbcarisLhccmblcmograndcurinancicnL
Lalcs.Hcisbigandorccul,hcavybuLalsoagilc.MichclPasLourcauhas
undcrscorcdLhcimporLanccoLwclLh-ccnLuryLcxLsLhaLmagniyLhcsc
imagcsshowingLhcbcarsmanicsLwcighLLobcaccompanicdbyagiliLy,
quickncss, and a LalcnL or scampcring bcLwccn obsLaclcs.
27
An omniv-
orous animal, likc man, and capablc o sLanding up as wcll, Lhc bcar is
praiscd or bcing boLh adroiL and powcrul, rapid and massivc. Royal
wcighLmcanswcighLasmodcl.Tclcgcndobcar-likcroyalLy,inacL,
consLrucLsahybridgurc:achildonoblcbloodLhaLachainoobscurc
circumsLanccslcadsLobcnurscdonbcarsmilkbcorcasccndingLoLhc
LhroncbccomcsurryandsLronglikcLhcanimal.
2S
NoLc Lhis simplc and rcvcaling gcsLurc: whcn Lhc counL o Foix alls
inLo apoplcxy onc day in , scrvanLs aLLcmpL Lo rcLurn him Lo his
normal scl by placing in his mouLh brcad, waLcr, spiccs, and all man-
ncr o comorLing oods.
20
Only a largc quanLiLy is considcrcd capablc
o rcsLoring orcc and movcmcnL. Tc licsLylc o Lhc counL and his ali-
mcnLarysplcndorprovidcsurLhcrillusLraLionswiLhhisLablcsdrcsscd
wiLhabundancc,
3u
cxLcnsivchoursormcals,anovcrwhclmingamounL
ooodanddrink,andawishorgrandcnjoymcnL.
31
FroissarLdirccLly
linksquanLiLyandgrandcur.HcadmircsiLandarmsiL.
What Insults?
TclargclyposiLivcorccoamassivcphysicalappcaranccandpowcr-
ul caLing has a parLicular cccL: Lhc big pcrson is rarcly Lhc objccL o
insulLinLhcmiddlcccnLuricsoLhcmcdicvalpcriod.Hisimagcisrarcly
aLLackcd,asiLwillbclaLcr,wiLhanarscnaloinsulLsandocnscs.Tcrc
is,howcvcr,LhcmadncssoLhcmouLh,LhcanimaliLyoLhcgluLLon,Lhc
gula,whichLakconncgaLivcvalucs.BuLcvcnhcrc,LhcwordspoinLmorc
LocxccssdcsircLhanLoLhcphysicalprolc,LoakindocvcrmorcLhan
LoLhcwcighLiLscl.
Tc Lcrms lecheor, lechiere, and lechieresseall having Lo do wiLh lick-
ingsLrikingly rccur as signs o gluLLony, in oLhcr words, bchavior
is morc Lhc ocus Lhan bcing hcavy pcr sc. IL is as Lhough Lhc big pcr-
son is incapablc o bcing disgraccd. All Lhc words ocus on Lhc ovcrall
appcLiLc, Lhc aLLracLion, Lhc croLic qualiLy cvcn, morc Lhan on body
lincs. All ocus on morals. In Lhc prosc vcrsion o IanccloL, Lhc cxprcs-
sion lecheor is uscd abouL a man living wiLh a marricd woman, iL is
also addrcsscd Lo Cauvain in Lhc book o ArLus Lo dcnouncc his abusc
o amorous liaisons and plcasurcs.
32
WhaL counLs is Lhc Lransgrcs-
sion o a norm, o a propcr aLLiLudc Loward Lhings and pcoplc, morc
Lhan Lhc physical characLcrisLics, which arc noL Lakcn scriously inLo
accounLhcrc.
Wc may also noLc Lhc Lcrms cras and crais and Lhcir probablc disLanL
rclaLion Lo Lhc big or Lhc aL.
33
BuL Lhc disgusL or Lhc abjccL dominaLcs
morc Lhan Lhc rcjccLion o Lhc hcavy. Hcrc again Lhcrc is a moral allu-
sionraLhcrLhanaphysicaldcnunciaLion,saysNicolcConLhicrinhcrlong
invcnLoryomcdicvalinsulLs.
34
TccrasquicklybccomcsLhccroy,inacL,
and Lhus providcs a nuancc Lo Lhc immoraliLy, dcsignaLing as croy chosa
LhcinLolcrablcscxpoL,LhcconLcmpLiblcwomanwhoovcrridcsallrulcs
wiLhhcrowncrranLsLrangcncss.
IL is imporLanL Lo insisL on Lhis asccndancy o Lhc moral. Big pcoplc
arc noL ycL aLLracLing LhaL sorL o aLLcnLion. Tc moral asccndancy cor-
rcspondsLoavcryspccic,almosLinLuiLivcwayovicwingLhcbody,onc
whcrcbchavioralvalucsrcmaindominanLandmosLlyLakcprioriLyovcr
allindicaLionsoormorwcighL.ILisnoLLhcwcighLomanbuLLhcways
omanLhaLmosLlycomcinorinsulLsLhcbawdy,LhcbasLardsandLhc
idioLs,hcrcLics,prosLiLuLcs,andsodomiLcs.
From Big to Very Big
TcprcsLigcoLhcbigcanyicld,howcvcr,bcorcLhccxccssoLhcvcry
bigwhcnLhccnormousbccomcsLhcdcormcd,LhculLimaLcphysical
disgracc.TcrcisnoprcciscmcasurcoLhisLhrcshold,nodcniLion,jusL
LhcallusionhardlycvcrdiscusscdinLwclLh-ccnLuryIaLinchroniclcsLhaL
disLinguishpinguis(big)andpraepinguis(vcrybig).TcrcisapcnalLy,
Lhough, whcn iL comcs Lo ccrLain gcsLurcs, placcs, and siLuaLionsLhc
impossibiliLy o mounLing a horsc, diculLy moving, powcrlcssncss Lo
do or accomplish somcLhing, and inapLiLudc aL war whcn iL comcs Lo
PhilipLhcFirsLasnoLcdbyOrdcricViLalaLLhccndoLhcclcvcnLhccn-
Lury.
35
Tc paLhology is undcniablc. Tis dcormiLy has always cxisLcd,
jusLasiLhasalwaysbccnpoinLcdouL.TccriLicismsoLhcvcrybigcon-
ccnLraLcsolclyonLhcidcaocxccssLrucbigncssisLhaLwhichhampcrs
mobiliLyLoLhcpoinLoprohibiLingiL.OnlyLhcphysicalimpcdimcnL,Lhc
diculLymovingbccomcprimaryLraiLs.AgrayarcapcrsisLs,ycLLhcbig
pcrsoncanbcpraiscd,whcrcasLhcvcrybigpcrsonmaybccondcmncd.
TcoldcsLchroniclcscvokcLhcsLigmaoLhccxLrcmcwhcnLhcircccLs
LouchLhclivcsoLhcpowcrul.WilliamLhcConqucrorwassocnormously
aLino8,LhaLLhcFrcnchkingwaslcdLosayLhaLLhcFnglishmanmusL
bcabouLLogivcbirLh.
36
IouisLhcFaLwassoinLcnsclyhcavyin:LhaL
hcconLracLcdanillncssLhaLlcLhimabsoluLclysLiinhisbcd.
37
Quccn
BcrLhcoFranccscxLrcmcaLncssprovokcdhcrgivingupLhccrownin
o:.
3S
ChroniclcsalsoLclloaccidcnLsanddcaLhsLhaLallcgcdlyollowcd
romsuchcxLrcmcsLaLcsincludingLhcdcaLhoWilliamLhcConqucrorin
o8,andLhaLoIouisLhcFaLin.Tcyarcallusivc,imprcciscdcscrip-
Lions, howcvcr, LhaL suggcsL an imagc-llcd world and an obscurc logic
wiLhinwhichLhisLoomuchndsamcaning.
Tc cxplanaLion givcn or Lhc dcaLh o William Lhc Conqucror is in
LhiswayrcprcscnLaLivc,cvcniLhcchroniclcrshcsiLaLcabouLLhcprccisc
circumsLanccsaallromahorsc,abrusquchiLagainsLLhchornoLhc
saddlcduringLhcuryocombaLncarNanLcsin1ulyo8,,oracollapsc
ducLosummcrhcaL.TcrcporLsarcinconclusivc.
30
InboLhcascs,how-
cvcr,LhcaccumulaLcdaLwouldhavcmclLcdinsidcLhcbody.Tcbodily
cnvclopc would havc lcL iLs maLLcr dissolvc likc buLLcr, crcams, or gcls.
TcConqucrorwouldsupposcdlyhavcbccnsubmcrgcdromLhcinsidc,
ovcrLakcn by a brcakdown o subsLanccs. Tc dcscripLion o Lhc dcaLh
oIouisLhcFaLinisalmosLidcnLical.TckingisnolongcrablcLo
mounLahorscaLagcorLy-six.HchasbccomcLhcFaLinLhcprimco
lic, Lhus conrming a clcar physical wcakcning.
4u
Iouiss ricnd IAbbc
Sugcr,LhcmosLaLLcnLivcandlaudaLorycommcnLaLorinLhcmanuscripL
wriLLcn on Lhc rulcrs lic, dcscribcs Lhc growing soLcning and posiLs
causcsandconscqucnccs:dyscnLcry,cvcrs,wcakncsscs,anddisordcrsall
aLLribuLcdLohiscxccssivclyLhickandhcavymass.
41
FxLrcmclywcighcd
down,LhcbodyoLhckingsupposcdlysuocaLcs,losingood,blood,and
waLcrslcakingouLodisLcndcdorgans,provokingsLomachmovcmcnLs
anddiarrhca.
42
Two Lypcs o bigncss Lhcrcorc cxisL in Lhcsc old accounLs: Lhc
onc rclaLcs Lo orms and orccs, compacL csh and vivaciLy, Lhc oLhcr
cxLrcmc onc, Lhough wiLhouL cxacL numbcrs, smoLhcrs viLal warmLh
LhroughiLsirrcmcdiablccxccss.TcrsLisasignoopulcncc,Lhcscc-
ond o disabiliLy. Tc bordcr bcLwccn Lhc Lwo is, o coursc, unccrLain,
or Lhc disLincLion makcs usc o a changcablc scnLimcnL o immcdi-
aLc ccacy linkcd Lo wcighL: mass and dcnsiLy cliciL drcams o hcalLh
and vigor. Tc bordcr is signicanL, howcvcr, sincc Lhc disLincLion
conrmsLhaLinLhcmiddlcccnLuricsoLhcmcdicvalpcriodLhcprcsLigco
bigncss rcally cxisLcd. IL also conrms Lhc bclic in Lhc valuc o cnor-
mouscasLsandcndlcsscaLing.
SLill, numcrous ambiguiLics cxisL whcrc alongsidc Lhc apparcnL dcn-
siLy o Lhc big pcrson, Lhcrc arc soLcr, mushicr volumcs LhaL combinc
improbablcliquidswiLhairandwaLcr.TcarchcologyoLhcbigmusLalso
conLcndwiLhLhcscopaqucvolumcs.TusadoublccquivocaLioncmcrgcs
LhaLwilllongbcaparLoLhcmodcrnvisionobigncss:Lhcconuscddc-
niLionosubsLanccsandLhcconuscddcniLionoLhrcsholds.
2. Liquids, Fat, and Wind
An iniLial ambiguiLy ariscs around Lhc vcry cxisLcncc o Lhc adiposc.
HippocraLcsiscarculLodisLinguishLhcbigsizcoLhcaLhlcLcromLhaL
oLhcaLman.TcrsLwcighLcddownbycsh,LhcsccondbyaL.
1
Tc
disLincLionissomcLimcsdiculLLopindown,howcvcr.CacliusAurclia-
nus,oncoLhcrarcIaLinauLhorsLocommcnLonphysicalsizcs,groups
LhcmLogcLhcrundcrLhcgcncricLcrmesh(superua carnis incrementa),
2
LhusmixingLogcLhcraLandLhaLwhichisnoLaLcxacLly,andassimilaL-
ing Lhis cxccss Lo cachcxia or wasLing syndromc whcn hc insisLs on Lhc
slowncssomovcmcnLandLhcdcbiliLyprovokcd.
TcrcisnodoubLhowcvcrLhaLmcdicvalLcxLsrccrLoaL:anoily,pliablc
andundamcnLallyaqucousmaLcrial,somcLimcsmorccompacLdcpcnding
onLhclocaLion,andoacomposiLc,somcwhaLobscurcnaLurc.WhaLarciLs
proporLionsowaLcr,oil,blood,orphlcgm`WhaLisiLsconsisLcncy,iLsdcn-
siLyÌLrcmainsdiculLLospcciyiLsoriginandconLcnL.AllLhaLisccrLainis
LhcimmcdiaLccvidcncc:colors,odors,rcsisLancc,andcxLcnsionLhaLlump
LogcLhcrmanypossiblcsubsLanccsassourccsoaLncss.FvcnairmusLbc
considcrcdsincciLisLhoughLLomovcLhroughLhcbodyprovokingswclling
andpuncss,aby-producLobodyhcaLasmuchassmokcromrc.
Matters of Fat
McdicalLcxLshardlyconccrnLhcmsclvcswiLhLhisaL.ILisnoLparLoLhc
organsLhcmsclvcs,buLiLisjudgcduscul.ILsdisappcaranccisoLcnasign
Liquids, Fat, and Wind 11
oillncss.ILshapcs,orms,prcvcnLsdryncss,aidsdigcsLion,andproLccLs
romLhccold.ILalsocauscsaccrLaindclicaLcmoisLurc.ALLhcbcginning
oLhcourLccnLhccnLury,HcnridcMondcvillcocrsLhisraLhcrpocLic
dcscripLion: iL pcrmiLs ccrLain parLs o Lhc body Lo bc humidicd and
baLhcd in iLs uncLuosiLy.
3
FaL scrvcs and mainLains Lhc bodys appcar-
ancc.TisaddsLoiLsprcsLigc,cvcnLhoughiLscxccssivcprcscnccguaran-
LccscnccblcmcnL.HowisiLsprcscnccinLhcbodyLobccxplaincdiLhis
maLcrialissupposcdLobcusclcssÌLwasimpossiblcLoimaginchuman
anaLomywiLhouLiL,impossiblcLoimagincLhcbodypropcrlyproLccLcd.
TcscvicwsarcocourscarromLhconcswchavcLoday.AllLhcmorc
considcringLhaLinLhoscancicnLLimcsbodyshapcwasnoLauncLiono
musclc,buLoobscurclaycrsocshymixLurcs.
TcsubsLancc,howcvcr,sccmsimpcncLrablc.BoLhancccssaryandycL
dcgradcd maLcrial, aL is a wasLc producL. IL is whaL rcmains, an acci-
dcnL,undigcsLcdblood,saysBarLholomacusAnglicusinLhcLhirLccnLh
ccnLury, who supposcs Lhc subsLancc bccamc dcnsc bccausc o supcr
abundancc or cxccssivc cold.
4
IL is considcrcd as onc o Lhosc solidicd
subsLanccsLhaLsupposcsaccrLaincoldcnvironmcnLLhaLhardcnsiLlikc
coagulaLcd milk or rozcn dcw. IL also rcscmblcs phlcgm, alLhough Lhc
dicrcncc bcLwccn Lhcsc Lwo bodily componcnLs is noL clcarly csLab-
lishcd. Phlcgm rcsulLs rom insucicnLly cookcd blood, hal-cookcd
saysBarLholomacusAnglicus.
5
ILisoncoLhcourbodilyhumorsalong
wiLh blood, bilc, and mclancholy LhaL LogcLhcr makc Lhc rsL naLural
bcginning o Lhc body.
6
Tc milky appcarancc and Lhick consisLcncy o
phlcgm conLribuLcs a ccrLain round uncLuousncss as wcll. ILs a sorL o
grcasyaL,cvcnLhoughLhisassociaLionisncvcrarmcd.Adccisivccluc
LhaLconrmsiLsliquidnaLurcisLhaLphlcgmaLicpcoplcdrcamowaLcry
landscapcs,osLrcams,rivcrs,oggylands,andhorizonscovcrcdinsnow
andrain.
7
DucLoLhcirsizc,LhcyarcplungcdinLoawaLcryunivcrsc.
ALLhisLimcphlcgmissLillLhcdominanLhumoroLhccmalcbody.IL
accounLsoriLswhiLcncssandmcdiumdcnsiLy,whilcbloodisLhcdomi-
nanL humor o Lhc malc body and accounLs or iLs darkncss and rm-
ncss. Phlcgm would sccm Lo bc all Lhc morc closcly linkcd Lo aL sincc
iLsvcryincrcascandprousiondcrivcsromaLLyoods.DoLhcynoLall
produccagrcaLphlcgmàsksAldcbrandinoSicnnain:6.Hildcgardc
oBingcnocrsasimilarimagcwhcnshcorcsccsLhcmosLirasciblcgluL-
Lons accumulaLing a dangcrous and vcnomous phlcgm.
S
Iikc aL, Lhis
humorrcsulLsinawcighLy,slowbody,
0
asoLLonguc,hcavy,slccpy
cycs,
1u
LowhichisaddcdspiLLlcandarumblingLummy.
11
Onc sccs Lhc incviLablc conLradicLion o Lwo possiblc aLLiLudcs. A
largcsizcwhichbyiLsvcryimposingmassprovokcsrcspccLasasigno
aLLracLivcncss and hcalLh vcrsus a largc sizc whosc wcighLy swollcn-
ncsssapscncrgyandcvcndisablcs.TcrcsabordcrlincmosLlikclyLhaL
pcrmiLs Lhc gianL pcrson o oldcn Limcs Lo bc apprcciaLcd so long as
sizc docs noL impcdc mobiliLy, as wcll as a laLcnL conusion LhaL allows
aL Lo connoLc dcnsiLy on Lhc onc hand and swollcnncss and ragiliLy
on Lhc oLhcr. Finally, Lhcrc is Lhc cccL o undicrcnLiaLcd subsLanccs
LhaL allows bigncss Lo bc dcscribcd in Lhc mosL gcncral Lcrms as somc-
Lhing rcplcLc wiLh humors,
12
as Michacl ScoL puLs iL in Lhc LhirLccnLh
ccnLury in his book on physiognomics whcrc hc dcncs Lhc aL pcr-
son as having an cxccss o humors LhaL swcll Lhc sLomach and slow
Lhcbody.
13
In oLhcr words, Lhc maLcrial polcs o bigncss rangc rom Lhc
mosL compacL Lo Lhc mosL porous, rom Lhc mosL condcnscd Lo Lhc
mosLspongy.
The Deviations of Wind and Water
Tc ambiguiLy is compoundcd by anoLhcr sizc acLor LhaL is apparcnLly
common,oraLlcasLrcqucnLlyciLcd,namcly,hydropsy(nowmorccom-
monlycallcdcdcma),adcormaLionoLhcbodyducLoliquidsubsLanccs
alonc.TcdiagnosiswasapaLhologylinkcdLowaLcr.CcrLainLcsLimonics
cvokcwhaLmodcrnmcdicinccallsasciLcs,acondiLionalrcadydcscribcd
in Lhc sccond ccnLury by ArcLcc dc Cappadocc as including a sizcablc
Lumor o Lhc sLomach, swollcn ccL, and a moisL appcarancc o Lhc
arms and Lrunk.
14
Tis cxccss o cspccially abdominal uid is cxplaincd
LodayasoriginaLingrominccLion,canccr,orcardiacandarLcrialcauscs
LhaL accL cspccially Lhc kidncys and urinary uncLion. Tc mcdicval
cxplanaLion was simply LhaL a wcak livcr was pumping waLcr insLcad o
blood.ALLcnLion,howcvcr,wasocuscdonLhcsympLomandLhcunmis-
LakablcrcscmblanccLoaLncss.
OLhcr mcdicval accounLs mcnLion a swclling o Lhc wholc body,
15
anasarca, a dcormaLion callcd a univcrsal Lumor,

16
a gcncral ovcr-
owingLhaLsoundsabiLlikcwhaLLwcnLy-rsL-ccnLurymcdicincmighL
call a scrous invasion o ccllular Lissuc or whaL iL mighL also call obc-
siLy, an adiposc invasiona sympLom LhaL was aLLribuLcd in ancicnL
LimcssolclyLoLhcprcscnccowaLcr.
17
InaddiLion,Lhcrcwasalsolcuco-
phlcgmasia,ancxaggcraLcdswcllingoLhcbodyssuraccsandarLicula-
Lions.
1S
ILisocourscimpossiblcLospcciyurLhcranycorrcspondcnccs
wiLhLodayssympLomaLology.TcolddcscripLionsrcLainLhcirobscuriLy.
Howcvcr,oncLhingisccrLain.TishydropsyinvariousguiscsissysLcm-
aLically cxplaincd as a disLurbancc and, going way back, is ascribcd Lo
LhclivcrsccrcLingLhisinsipidliquidinsLcadoLhcblood,whichaccord-
ing Lo ancicnL Lhinking iL oughL Lo producc and circulaLc Lhrough Lhc
body.
10
InsLcadoLhclaLLcrLhcrcisawaLcrLhaLinvadcsLhcbodyLoLhc
poinLoagcncralinammaLion.
2u
Fxccssdrink,morcovcr,issomcLimcs
cvokcdliquidsLhaLaLLackLhcsLomach,inlLraLcLhclivcr,andimpcdc
LhcpassagconuLriLivcmaLcrialLoLhcoLhcrorgans.
21
Tc imagc o swollcnncss is imporLanL Lo kccp in mind. Mcdicval
dcscripLions and cxplanaLions rcly on immcdiaLc pcrccpLions and
imaginaryoncsLooLhcarchaicimagcorcccpLaclcsandconLaincrs,
swollcnbodics,blownuplikcabladdcrorball,organsLhaLundcrgoa
proccss o rounding ouL. Tcrc is, or cxamplc, Lhc imagc suggcsLcd
by Lhc LhirLccnLh-ccnLury miraclc o SainL Doucclinc whosc sacrcd
hands savc a young rcligious Marscillaisc girl rom an inammaLion
o Lhc lcgs and abdomcn so scrious LhaL Lhc skin had crackcd.
22
Such
accounLs conLribuLc Lo Lhc inLuiLivc vision o liquids causing a dcor-
maLionoconLours.
TcrcisalsoLhcvisionooLhcrswcllingsaLLribuLcdLowind,brcaLh,
and air. Tis is cvidcnccd by LympaniLcs and iLs winds,
23
a spccial
Lypc o hydropsy rccognizablc by Lhc characLcrisLic sound produccd
whcn Lapping oncs ngcrs againsL a disLcndcd abdomcn. In Lhc Lhir-
LccnLhccnLuryArnauddcVillcncuvccvokcsanimprisonmcnLocxccs-
sivcmovingwindsinsidcLhcbody,
24
LhcdiculLyocvacuaLingairs,
and spasms LhaL inamc all limbs.
25
Wind is onc o Lhc maLcrials o
Lhc body jusL as iL consLiLuLcs onc o Lhc maLcrials o Lhc world. IL is
bornromhcaL,dispcrscs,grows,andsprcadsincviLablyLhroughouLLhc
organslikcasmokcLhaLcscapcsabundanLlyromgrccnwoodLhrough
LhcacLionoalowrc.
26
TcmcdicvalouLlookbclicvcsinswcllingsandLhcpossiblcrolcoair.
IL bclicvcs in brcaLhs LhaL disLcnd Lhc skin as much as in quasi-occulL
causcs.TcrcisLhcsccncdcscribcdinTe Knight of Landry Tower(,),
orcxamplc,whcrcayoungwomanispunishcdorhcrsumpLuousncss
by Lhc invasion o hcr body. An cdiying Lalc indccd. Wcrc rsL Lold
o Lhc cxccsscs commiLLcd by Lhc coqucLLc, Lhcn o Lhc nccklaccs
and jcwcls, Lhc makc-up worn Lo church, and Lhc disrcgard o calls or
morc humiliLy. Tc sccond momcnL is Lhc shock o Lhc punishmcnL: a
hoL wind inlLraLcs Lhc guilLy onc and disgurcs hcr shapc. Tc Lhird
momcnLisLhchumiliaLingavowal:SccLhcvcngcanccoCod. . . .Scc
whaL I havc bccomc. I am aLLcr Lhan a bladdcr.
27
Or considcr Lhcsc
sccncsdcscribcdinLhcVisionsoChrisLincdcPisanacwdccadcslaLcr:
LurbulcnLnoblcmcninLhcrcignoCharlcsVIarcpunishcdbyawind
romLhcmounLainsLhaLcauscsLhcirbodicsLoswcllcnormouslysoas
LobcLLcrrcvcalLhcirindigniLics.
2S
TcrcisprobablynoLhingrcalinLhcscvisionsChrisLincrclaLcs.Allis
inLhcrcprcscnLaLionowaLcrandairwhichboLhoccupyanimporLanL
placcinLhcmcdicvalimaginaLion.TcyguidcLhcphysicalpcrccpLiono
cxccsscsaswcllasoLhcirpossiblccrasurc.
TcrcrcmainsLhisambiguiLybcLwccnappcaranccswhicharcncvcr-
Lhclcss dicrcnL: on Lhc onc hand cshy buL rm, on Lhc oLhcr csh
LhaLsswollcn,soL,andblownupbyliquidsandwindsconLaincdwiLhin.
Gout and Gout Suferers
Finally, Lhcrc is a Lypc o discrccL, quasi-invisiblc aLncss, considcrcd
Lo bc linkcd as wcll Lo cxccss ood and humors: gouL. ILs sccrcLions
aLLackLhcooL,inamcLhcncrvcs,inlLraLcLhcjoinLs,andswcllupLhc
accLcd parLs immcnscly.
20
Tc condiLion o gouL sucrcr (podagre), in
LhcabscnccoLhcrccrcnccLouricacidLhaLuLurcbiochcmisLswillidcn-
Liy, has long bccn known as a sLigma o opulcncc. In a LwclLh-ccnLury
LranslaLionoLhcBiblc,LhckingAsabccomcsgouLyorpodagreinoldagc
andisanguishinginpain.
3u
TcpouacreinplaysoLhcourLccnLhccnLury
isavilcbcar,vil et ors.
31
AndBarLholomacusAnglicusinhisdcscripLions
o gouL rom Lhc LhirLccnLh ccnLury LargcLs Lhosc who livc dcliciously
andovcrlyscdcnLarily.
32
Tc causcs arc liquids o coursc: bad humors LhaL dcsccnd Lo Lhc
anklcs,
33
highcrhumorsdcsccndingLoLhcccL,
34
andphlcgmprovokcd
by waLcry mcaLs on which Lhc sick pcrson is nourishcd.
35
FrraLic sub-
sLanccs,mixLurcsLhaLrcsulLromailcddigcsLion,LhcscaqucousLhings
circulaLcinLhcbodywiLhLhcirobscurcorigins,LhciracidiLics,Lhcirlocal-
izaLion in lowcr parLs, susccpLiblc o aLLacking hips, known as Lhc loin
condiLion or cxamplcLhc sciaLica o uLurc nosographs, Lhc wooly
condiLionoRuLcbcuinLhcLhirLccnLhccnLury,amosLvillainousgouL,
alsocallcdgoute de rain.
36
Tcoriginsarcmurky,cvcniLhccoloroLhcinammaLionsomcLimcs
hclpsdicrcnLiaLcLhccauscs:bloodwhcnLhccolorisrcd,phlcgmwhcn
iL is milky, angcr whcn iL is ycllow. Tc solc acL, howcvcr, LhaL womcn
cannoL bc podagre, purgcd as Lhcy arc by Lhcir owcrs,
37
conrms Lhc
possiblc varicLy o Lhcsc mixLurcs owing hcrc and Lhcrc.
3S
A vcry
parLicularsurpluscxisLsinLhcabsorpLionooods,aLravclingaccumu-
laLion LhaL, wiLhouL provoking a visiblc incrcasc in sizc, docs provokc a
sLrongnoxiousncss.TcproposalocuringiLwiLhapurgcorbloodlcLLing
conrms LhaL iL has Lo do wiLh somcLhing LhaL is Loo much, a vision o
ccrLaincxccss.
TcgouLypcrson,whilcnoLbcingcxpliciLlyaaLpcrson,ncvcrLhclcss
rcvcalswhaLcouldbcgoingonwiLhinLhclaLLcr,namcly,liquidsovary-
ingdcnsiLicsmovingabouL.TcaddiLivcsarcdivcrsc,morcorlcssvis-
iblc,hcavy,andpainul.TcyallbclongLoLhcmixcdcaLcgoryoLhcaL
pcrson. Tcy arc all rclaLcd Lo maLcrials whosc rcprcssion sccms LoLally
simplicd:cxpulsion,rcjccLion.
The Simplicity of Evacuations
Tc imagc o rcducing, o cvacuaLion and cmpLying, imposcs iLscl as
amaLLcrocoursc.AllLhcmorcsosinccLhcvcrybigpcrsonisbuLan
cxLcnsionoLhcnormalpcrson.TconlyrccourscLhcnisadryingouL,
Lhc crasurc o Lhis Loo much by cxpulsivc, anLi-inammaLory mcans,
powdcrs, biLLcrs, asLringcnLs LhaL arc inLcndcd Lo rcducc humidiLics
andrmupLhccsh,suchaswiLhLhcLrcaLmcnLgivcnLoIouisLhcFaL,
orcxamplc,in.SugcrinsisLsonLhcpracLiccoLighLcning,praising
LhccouragcoLhckingwhowascondcmncdLopuLupwiLhLhcsLrongcsL
andmosLdisagrccablcpoLionsandLhcmosLinLcnscbiLLcrsadminis-
LcrcdLodryouLLhcinLcrior.
30
TcscarchoraconsLricLionisLhusaddcd
LoLhaLoancvacuaLion.
TcrcrcmainsLhccurcorhydropsyLhaLwassomcLimcsmorcinvolvcd,
buLwiLhasimilargoalinLhccnd:LhcrclcascoairandwaLcr.1chanYpcr-
man givcs Lhc gcncral insLrucLions: bloodlcLLing, lccchcs, laxaLivcs,
hoLomcnLaLionswiLhparslcyandgrccnwccd,
4u
andLhcusualcvacuaL-
inggcsLurcs.CuydcChauliacmcnLionswindyabsccsscswhoscsmoky
maLcrial circulaLcs LhroughouL Lhc body,
41
againsL which hc proposcs
a doublc LrcaLmcnL: dicLing, Lhus limiLing Lhc producLion o air coming
rommcaLsullovaporsromhcaLing,
42
andLhcapplicaLionocvapo-
raLingandcxLirpaLingsubsLanccsLocliminaLccxccssair.
43
Tcprocc-
durcscanbcabrupL,as,orcxamplc,wiLhLhcincisionsmadcinlimbsLicd
bcorchandabovcandbclow,picrccdwiLharazorLoalloworbcLLcr
cscapingoLhcwind,
44
LhcncauLcrizcdnallywiLhoilsandgclsLobcLLcr
rm up Lhc skin.
45
Tc smokc is Lhus libcraLcd likc LhaL rclcascd rom
somcprcssurizcdconLaincr.
46
Tc imaginary o air, waLcr, bladdcrs, and conLaincrs, as wcll as Lhc
looscncss and LighLncss o cnvcloping skin, all suggcsL curaLivc prac-
LiccswiLhouLcvcracLuallyspcciyingLhccxacLprolcoLhcsickpcrson
inqucsLion.Tcyarcallsimplcmcasurcshowcvcr:lcLouLwhaLisLoo
much.TisshowsLowhaLcxLcnLLhinningdownisnoLconsidcrcdLobca
problcm:rcducingmcasurcscansolvccvcryLhing.Tcirsucccssisguaran-
Lccd,cxccpLocourscwhcnLhccondiLionisLooadvanccd.
3. The Horizon of Fault
ManyLypcsobigncsscocxisLinLhcMiddlcAgcs.OncisasickncssducLo
liquidlaxncssandhydropsy,asccondisasickncssducLoLhcworrisomc
cxLrcmiLyobcingLoobig,andaLhird,Lhcbigpcrson,isLhcpicLurc
o hcalLh wiLh a orccul appcarancc. Tc laLLcr gurc is also Lhc mosL
imporLanL, bcing Lhc ouLcomc o asccndancy and linkcd Lo Lhc prcsLigc
oaccumulaLionandaLolcranccorcnormousmcalsandcndlcssdrink-
ing.
1
ILisagurcLhaLLranslaLcspowcrandccrLainLy.
NcxL Lo noLhing is said, howcvcr, abouL Lhc passagc rom bcing big
Lo vcry big. In Lhc clcvcnLh ccnLury Lhc widc and robusL corpulcncc
o William Lhc Conqucror is long considcrcd a sign o vigor,
2
bcorc
abrupLlychanginginLoasignowcakncss.TcsamcisLrucorPhilippc,
WilliamsconLcmporary,whogocsromphysicalclcgancc(elegantiscor-
poris sanitate)LoaLoLalbrcakdownwiLhouLanydisLinguishingoorms
orsLagcs.
3
Howcvcr,inLhcmiddlcccnLuricsoLhcmcdicvalpcriod,achangcin
aLLiLudc occurs around Lhc big pcrson associaLcd wiLh cxccssivc caLing
anddailyroLundiLy.CriLicismoLhcordinarybigpcrson,nomaLLcrhow
vagucly dcncd, sLarLs Lo build. Prcssurcs risc. DicrcnL criLcria comc
inLoconicL.DicrcnLgroupsacccnLuaLcwhaLisorLhcmanaLhcma:Lhc
clcrgy prcachcs conLrol and rcsLrainL, docLors do Lhc samc, insisLing on
LhcdangcrsoaL,andLhcmcdicvalcourLsculLivaLcrcncmcnL.
The Clerical Model
TcclcrgysdiscourscandiLsimpacLchangcsduringLhcmiddlcccnLurics
o Lhc mcdicval pcriod. In Lhc LwclLh and LhirLccnLh ccnLurics clcrical
ausLcriLy,orlongconncdLoabbcysandsimilarisolaLcdspaccs,sprcads
inLo Lhc hcarL o ciLics LhaL havc bccn Lransormcd. Tc urban owcr-
ingaLLhccndoLhcLwclLhccnLuryrcncwcdLhccommuniLy.
4
TcciLy
modicd human sociabiliLy. Prcaching can rcach ouL, and conLincncc
canbccomcasccularmodcl.PoorriarsinLcnsiyLhcirmcssagc,simpliy-
ingiLLomakciLmorcacccssiblc,poinLingouLLhcabuscoLhcsLomach
asagcncralindicaLorooLhcrsins.
5
TusoncgcLsLhcdramaLicimagcsin
LhclongpocmonLhcquarrclbcLwccnLhclimbsandLhcsLomachbor-
rowcdromLhcancicnLablco1ohnoSalisbury,LhcbishopoCharLrcs
whodicdin8o.TcrcLhcsLomachisdcpicLcdasabcllowsllcdwiLh
inccLiouswind,asackllcdwiLhgarbagc,adirLychasm,oulrcccp-
Laclc,aninamousswollcnvcsscl.
6
TcconclusiondocsnoLchangc:Lhc
sLomachisindispcnsablcLoLhclimbs,iLnourishcsandupholdsLhcm.
TcscvcriLy,howcvcr,isdccidcdlymorcpronounccd.
Tc Lhcmc sharpcns in Lhc LhirLccnLh ccnLury. Tc organizcrs o
concssion LargcL cspccially Lhc ncw urban public. Tcy rcorganizc Lhc
avowaloaulLs,playingonsimplicaLionsandconcrcLizaLions.
7
Apcd-
agogical corL, says Mircillc VinccnL-Casscy: voraciousncss musL bc
conLcxLualizcd, cxccss visualizcd, suggcsLing siLuaLions and objccLs.
Tis givcs Lo gluLLony and iLs symbols a clcar dcpicLion LhaL Lhcy or-
mcrlydidnoLhavc,righLupLoLhcbcsLiaryassociaLingLhcaLpigand
LhcaLpcrson,mudandmassivcncss.
S
Tcimagc,unknownbcorcLhc
LhirLccnLhccnLury,oLhcabusivccaLcrasLridcapigdcnounccsamorc
vulgar, morc passivc sinncr, carricd o by Lhc cvil LhaL posscsscs him.
Mcanwhilc Lhc bcar, who will soon bc subsLiLuLcd or Lhc pig in Lhis
samc imagc, has iLs prcsLigc conLcsLcd. Tc crocious wild animal LhaL
hadbccnasymboloorccisnowonlyasymbolocxccss.HccarricsLhc
gluLLonandishisrcccLion.
WhaL also cnlivcns Lhc cvocaLion o bodily orms in moralizing
spccchcs and scrmons is LhaL allusion Lo Lhc voluminous now implics
ovcrcaLing and avaricc. Tc argumcnL o various exempla clcarly shows
LhiswiLhinancwgcnrcoLalcmadcLoconcrcLizcLhcdocLrinc.Tus,ina
LalcscLaround::obyFLicnncdcBourbon,monkswhoarcincccLivcaL
clccLingLhcirabboLLurnLhcLaskovcrLoLhckingPhilippcAugusLc.Tc
kingacccpLs,walksamongLhcm,inspccLingLhcirbodics,andmakcshis
dccision. Who is clccLcd` Tc onc whosc asccLic skinnincss Lriumphs
The Horizon of Fault 19
ovcrLhcrcdundanLmassivcncssoLhcoLhcrs.
0
WhaLgcLsrcjccLcdarc
cxccssivcconLours.
TcrcisnoLhingacsLhcLicabouLLhcsccriLicisms.UglincssisnoLccn-
LralLoLhcdcbaLc.WhaLisccnLralisvicc:avaricccondcmncdbyLhcbodys
alling aparL, Lhc graviLy o sin bcorc all clsc. Howcvcr, Lhcrc may bc a
nuancc o opposiLion, Lhough limiLcd, or Lhc clcric may compromisc
somcwhaLandyicldLoLhcprivilcgcd,granLingapossiblcnormalcyLoLhc
big pcrson. Tomas dc Chobbam shows Lhis in his LhirLccnLh-ccnLury
proposal o subsLiLuLc pcniLcncc or Lhosc whosc sLaLus would rcndcr
absLincnccdiculL:OnLhcpowcrulandLhcrich,whoarcaccusLomcd
Lo Lhc richcs o a good Lablc, onc cannoL imposc an ovcrly sLrong pcni-
Lcncc or dicL, also or Lhosc who, bccausc o bad habiLs or pcrhaps also
bynaLuralconsLiLuLion,cannoLlivcwiLhouLdclicaLcoods,Lhcrccanbc
imposcdasubsLiLuLcpcniLcnccinLhcormodonaLionsandpraycrs.
1u
SainL-IouishimsclyicldswiLhouLhcsiLaLionLoLhcncccssiLyonoblc
Lablcs,dcspiLchisscnsiLiviLyLoLhcabsLincnccdiscourscoLhcclcrgy,iL
bcingimpossiblcLocscapcoccasionsocasLing.
11
Tc slow work o mcdicval clcrics rcmains consLanL, howcvcr, dius-
ingLhcvalucoabsLincnccagainsLLhcculLurcocasLs,mulLiplyingLhcir
LcxLs and scrmons. WhaL conLinucs cspccially is Lhc dominancc o Lhc
moralriskascvokcdbyChrisLincdcPisanwhocondcmnsgluLLonyaLLhc
bcginning o Lhc ourLccnLh ccnLury by assimilaLing aLLcncd csh Lo
asLubbornhorscLhaLiLsmasLcrcannolongcrconLrol.
12
Tcmcdicval
LransgrcssionisabovcallgcLLingcarricdaway.FaLis,abovcall,passion.
Tis Loo volupLuously cd body would rcmain or ChrisLinc dc Pisan a
losLinsaLiablcobjccL,
13
slidingLowardancvcrgrowingdissipaLion.Oncc
again,LhcqucsLionisnoLoncoacsLhcLicsbuLoamoralailingandiLs
insurmounLablcconscqucnccs.
The Medical Model
DocLors,anoLhcrgroupwiLhiLsparLicularculLurc,imposcLhcirvicwsin
Lhc middlc ccnLurics o Lhc mcdicval pcriod, cspccially in opposiLion Lo
LhcpracLiccoaccumulaLion.NoLLhaLLhcdcniLionowhaLconsLiLuLcd
bigwasanymorcprcciscornumcricalorLhcm.ALLhcLurnoLhcour-
LccnLh ccnLury, Hcnri dc Mondcvillc, Lhc pcrsonal surgcon o Philippc
Ic Bcl, rcrains rom dcscribing Lhc big pcrson, cvoking Lhc manicsL
cvidcncc o such a sLaLc, Lhc convicLion iL produccs imposcd by sighL
and Louch.
14
Howcvcr, Lhc docLor acquircs morc prcscncc as mcdicval
civilizaLionadvanccs.HispronounccmcnLsarcnolongcrmcrclyaddrcsscd
Lo a singlc grand pcrsonagc surroundcd by adviscrs. Tcy bccomc morc
gcncral,dirccLcdLowardapublic,andarcsupporLcdbyamorcormalizcd
univcrsiLydiscourscinLhccourscoLhcLhirLccnLhccnLuryduringwhich
LhcidcaoahcalLhyrcgimcbccomcsmorcwidcsprcad.
15
TcoriginaliLyonccagainisaqucsLionorhcLoric.McdicalLcxLsaLLhc
cndoLhcLhirLccnLhccnLurydonoLpuLorwardagcncralcondcmnaLion
oLhcbigpcrson.TcyspcciyLriggcrsandwarningsigns.TusAldcbran-
dinoSicnnawriLcsLhaLmanmusLcaLinsuchawayLhaLhcdocsnoL
cclhcavyaLcrcaLing,norcclshissLomachLobcswollcnornoisy,and
canbrcaLhdccply.
16
BcrnarddcCordonwriLcsLhaLLhcquanLiLyoood
oughL Lo bc such LhaL oncs brcaLhing docsnL alLcr, nor oncs pulsc . . .
andLhaLonccclsnciLhcrwinds,conLorLions,graviLy,orwcakncss.
17
I
sizc is hardly dcncd, Lhc palpablc ncgaLivc sympLoms arc closcly sur-
vcycd. SobricLy is Lhc ccnLral conccrn, and a scnsaLion o hcavincss is
whaLLhrowsiLo.
And whcn a clcarcr dcniLion o aL is aLLcmpLcd by docLors in Lhc
middlc o Lhc ourLccnLh ccnLury, Lhc imagc o an cxLrcmc condiLion,
odroopingcsh,rcmainsLhcimagcmosLrcqucnLlygivcn.Tcbodyis
callcdaLaccordingLoLhcLrcaLiscoCuydcChauliacin6whcnLhc
pcrsonhasLurncdinLosuchamassocshyaLLincssLhaLhccannolon-
gcrwalknormally,norLouchLhcground,norpuLonhisshocsonaccounL
oLhcgirLhohissLomach,norcvcnbrcaLhwiLhouLdiculLy.
1S
Tisis
a dccisivc LcxL LhaL shows Lhc diculLy sLill in Lhc ourLccnLh ccnLury
Lo discuss prccisc gradaLions o bigncss, including cxacL amounLs o aL
and csh. Cuy dc Chauliac, Lhc surgcon o Lhc Avignon popcs, dcncs
Lhc aL pcrson as Lhc ulLimaLc, objccLiying Lhc Lhickncss in qucsLion
ascnormousandunbcarablcinlighLoacLionsLhaLarcvisiblyimpcdcd
morc Lhan Lhc orms and conLours Lhcmsclvcs. Hc gocs or Lhings LhaL
arc casicr Lo dcscribc obviously, such as Lhc diculLy mounLing a horsc
mcnLioncd in Lhc clcvcnLh ccnLury Lo dcscribc Lhc sizc o Philippc Lhc
FirsL.CuydcChauliaccxLcndsandalignsLhisproccdurcwiLhLhcgcsLurcs
owalkingandLouching.InLhccndhccvokcsLhcriskLhaLarLcricsand
vcinswillbcconsLricLcdbyLhcmassocshandLhcbodywillsucraloss
onaLuralhcaLducLoLhcabscnccobloodandspiriLs.
InLhisrcgard,iLisclcarlyLhcvcrybigpcrsonandonlyLhispcrson
LhaL is bcing singlcd ouL by Lhc docLor o Lhc Avignon popcs. Tis con-
rms oncc again Lhc pcrsisLcnL ambiguiLy and diculLy o Lhc oldcsL
dcniLions. Tc rcsulL is Lhc crasurc o a wholc rangc o dcgrccs o big-
ncss. Tc mcnLal mcans LhaL would lcad Lo a dcsignaLion o sLagcs and
The Horizon of Fault 21
gradaLions is pcrhaps lacking. Tcrc arc no imagcs or words Lo charac-
Lcrizc Lhc mcdium-big pcrson. No cxccssivc volumc, no Loo big orm
is namcd, cxccpL or LhaL which is approaching invalid sLaLus. Tis acL
allowsaccrLainnoLablchcavincssLobcacccpLablcorcvcnadvanLa-
gcous,LhoughiLwillbcrcjccLcdonccLhcarLomakingncrdisLincLions
isinvcnLcd.
The Courtly Model
Tc Lhird culLural prcssurc comcs rom Lhc mcdicval courLs and Lhcir
socialsccnc.AppcarancciLsclundcrgocsrcncmcnLinLhcmiddlcccn-
LuricsoLhcmcdicvalpcriod.TclancccarricrandLhcmanonhorscback
arcincviLablyconronLcdwiLhLhcincrcasingdcmandsordcxLcriLyand
lighLncss.ModclsarcaLoddsinLhcworldocombaL.
10
Tcrcisagrow-
ingcxpccLaLionLhaLpowcrandlighLncssbcuniLcd,anassociaLionobig
andslim,cvcnLhoughsocialasccndancyissLillassociaLcdwiLhalimcn-
LaryaccumulaLion.OncshowsoncsorccwiLharavcnousappcLiLcand
oncsdcxLcriLywiLhamorcslcndcrgurc.TrisLan,orcxamplc,alrcady
inLhcLwclLhccnLuryhasasingularprolc:sccinghimsonoblcandso
proud,hisbroadshouldcrsandslcndcrhips,allcomplimcnLcdRohaulL
hisaLhcr.OrconsidcrRaynauL,LhclovcrobcauLiulrcmbourc,in
aLwclLh-ccnLurypocm:bigshouldcrs,aLsLomach.
2u
Whcncccomcs
Lhc impliciL limiL imposcd on volumc: cxccss ariscs whcn an acLiviLy, a
movcmcnL,orvigorarcimpcdcd.
TcarLoLhcknighLconvcrgcswiLhiLsimagcs.Forcxamplc,Lhcorcc
andhcLLhaLjousLingdcmands,LhcassaulLolanccagainsLlancc.WcighL
is o major imporLancc, as iL allows onc Lo Lhrow Lhc opponcnL o bal-
anccandunscaLhim,causinghimLolcavchissLirrups.VigorandhcLarc
uniLcdinCalahadinLhcQuest of the Holy GrailwhcrchcrcsisLsLhcaLLack
oLhrccknighLs,noLbudgingromhissaddlccvcnLhoughLhcorccoLhc
lanccshadbroughLhisgallopinghorscLoasLandsLill.
21
BcsidcsLhis,Lhcrc
isLhcindispcnsablcagiliLyLhaLonlynarrowhipscouldmakcpossiblc.Tis
cxplains Lhc rcpcLiLion o Lhc alliancc o widc and narrow, big and lighL
LhaLbccomcsLhcsLandardwayocvokingacondiLionoadroiLhcLincss.
TcprcsLigcoLhclioncomcsLocompcLcwiLhLhaLoLhcbcarbcorc
cvcnLuallyrcplacingiL.TcroyalanimalhasapowcrulchcsLandmanc
posiLioncdaLopanksLhaLarcasagilcasLhcyarcslcndcr.InLhcromancc
byChrcLicndcTroycs,IionisLhcnicknamcoYvain,hcwhoscblows
crushopponcnLsspcarsLoLhcbrcakingpoinL.
22
Morc gcncrally, Lhc mcdicval courLs iniLiaLc a gcncral socializaLion
wiLhdanccs,Lablcmanncrs,looks,anddrcss.Tcrcisaparallcldicrcncc
inouLlookorLhccmalcbody,allLhcwhilcmainLainingimporLanLdi-
crcnccswiLhLhcmalcbody:anaddiLionodclicacyandragiliLyLoLhc
limbs and an oricnLaLion o Lhc gazc upward morc Lhan down. Yvains
damsclisLall,Lhin,andsLraighL.
23
Tccmalcbodyisdcscribcdasmorc
vulncrablc, looscr, aL Lhc samc Limc suggcsLing a ccrLain cshincss. A
mixLurcorcncmcnLandLcndcrcsh,ograccandaL.OnlyaLLhccnd
oLhcLhirLccnLhccnLuryinFranccdidbcauLybcginLobcassociaLcdwiLh
aslimwaisLandrclaLivclygcncrousbusL.
24
TclovcroIgnaurcinaLhir-
LccnLh-ccnLury pocm promoLcs Lhc imagc o a long and chubby ncck,
somcwhaL widc hips, a Lhin waisL, and rm small brcasLs.
25
In Lhc
Romance of the Rose,alsoromLhcLhirLccnLhccnLury,ForLcmhasalacc
LicdaroundhcrwaisLLhaLshcraiscsLosupporLhcrbrcasLs.
26
Mcanwhilc,
NicolcLLcallowsoncLosupposcrmbrcasLswiLhsuchancwaisLLhaL
yourLwohandscouldcloscaround.
27
InoLhcrwords,Lhinncssbccomcsan
obligaLorycriLcrion.
4. The Fifteenth Century and the
Contrasts of Slimming
Tc criLicism o ordinary bigncss incrcascs in Lhc LccnLh ccnLury.
Acccss Lo imagcs wiLh idcnLiablc sizcs in illuminaLcd manuscripLs and
rcscocsoccursorLhcrsLLimcbyLhccndoLhcmcdicvalpcriod,and
Lhis brings abouL a slow buL cxpliciL aLLcnLion Lo conLours, including
aLLcmpLs Lo spcciy and sLigmaLizc cxccss. Tc Lhcmc Lakcs on impor-
LanccinLhcLccnLhccnLury.FaLpcoplcwhoarcnowprcscnLiniconog-
raphyorLhcrsLLimcundcrsLandablygivcriscLoancwwayolooking
aLLhcm.
Bigncss,oralongLimc,washardlycvcrrcprcscnLcdinLhcmcdicval
univcrsc. I Lhc Lhcmc o Lhc big or aL pcrson was prcscnL in Lhc lan-
guagc, iL was ncvcrLhclcss ncglccLcd in drawings and oLhcr rcprcscnLa-
Lions. Tc Baycux LapcsLrics LhaL wcrc madc aL Lhc cnd o Lhc clcvcnLh
ccnLuryLocclcbraLcLhcconqucsLoFnglanddcpicLinnumcrablchcroic
gurcs,boaLs,baLLlcs,marchcs,andbanqucLs,buLhardlycvcrdisLinguish
bodyLypcs.TcprolcoWilliam,whoisknownLohavcbccnrcallyaL,is
similarLoLhaLohisLhinncrcompanions.TcsilhoucLLcsarcallidcnLical,
wiLhcoaLsomailLhaLmouldconLoursbcingLhcmosLvisiblc.
1
IsLhisa
signoindicrcnccLoLhickncssorsclccLivcaLLcnLion`
RcalismbccomcsimporLanL,howcvcr,inLhcLccnLhccnLuryasLhc
carly usc o pcrspccLivc givcs bodics a dcnscr morc Lhrcc-dimcnsional
qualiLy.AnumbcrosccncsplaccgurcshcrcorLhcrcinamanncrLhaL
undcrscorcs an aLLcnLion Lo conLours. Tc world o imagcs is morc dis-
criminaLing abouL dicrcnccs o appcarancc and sizc. WiLh Lhcsc ncw
Lcchniqucs o display, Lhc bodys volumcs cxisL dicrcnLly, rcvcaling
dcccLsandsuggcsLingcxccss.
Tcrcarc,howcvcr,poinLsorcsisLancc.ModclsorcsLrainLorrcnc-
mcnL do noL imposc Lhcmsclvcs all aL oncc. Tc orcc inLuiLivcly linkcd
LoquanLiLicsooodaswcllasLhclinkbcLwccnasccndancyandphysical
wcighLdonoLyicldimmcdiaLclyLovigorousscrmonsandmcdicaladvicc.
ALLhcdawnoLhcmodcrncra,LhcsubjccLprovokcsconicLs.TcgrcaLcr
awarcncssophysicalormsishardlymcLwiLhacorrcspondingunanimiLy
abouLLhcirmcaningorarcjccLionoLhcbig.
The Ascendancy of Images
ConLrasL cmcrgcs abrupLly in Lhc iconography o Lhc LccnLh ccnLury.
AsLomachcanshowaccrLainampliLudcandLhcovcrallormcanacccn-
LuaLc conLours. In 6o a gurc accompanying Lhc king in Te King of
Babylon Giving His Land to His Two Sons has a silhoucLLc LhaL is curvcd
cxaggcraLcdlyinLhcronL.
2
YcLiLisaposiLivcclcmcnL,aroundcdcgy
ccrcmoniously accompanying Lhc rulcr. King Rcnc in Nicolas FromcnLs
Burning Bush rom ,6 is shown wiLh a massivc acc and hcavy doublc
chin.
3
BuL Lhis is hardly dcnunciaLion or ironyhcavincss hcrc rcmains
LhcsignoasccndancyandauLhoriLy.NcvcrLhclcss,conLrasLsdoappcar
bcLwccn silhoucLLcs and drawings LhaL conrm a hcighLcncd rcalisLic
aLLcnLionLoLhcdisordcrsoLhccsh.
Tc incrcascd aLLcnLion Lo physical LraiLs is accompanicd by a morc
poinLcd criLicism o sizc. Tis can bc sccn in Lhc imagc o Lhc dclighLcd
obscrvcr dcpicLcd in Lhc wcdding o Lhc Virgin in Te Book of Hours
of tienne Chevalier rom Lhc mid LccnLh ccnLury.
4
Tc swollcn
acc, closcd cycs, shorL ncck, round shouldcrs, and promincnL sLom-
ach connc Lhis pcrson Lo bcing a ridiculous ouLsidc wiLncss o Lhc
marriagc bcLwccn Cod and Lhc Virgin, an awcsLruck ciLy dwcllcr clcarly
cxcludcd rom bcing considcrcd cligiblc. Tc imporLancc, o coursc, is
LhiscxclusionalongwiLhLhccxclusiviLyoLhcsacramcnLwhichLogcLhcr
disavor Lhosc who up unLil Lhcn pursucd marriagc buL now no longcr
can.TcdcprcciaLingcccLoLhcmassivcconLoursisclcar:Lhcawkward
hcavincss,LhcrusLicappcarancc,andgroLcsqucgapcsayiLall.Asimilar
mcaningisaLLachcdLoLhcsilhoucLLcsoLhcsacriccrsLhaLsurround
PilaLclaLcrinLhcsamcmanuscripL:grcaLlydilaLcdaccs,hcadshunchcd
inLo slumping chcsLscvcry LraiL conrms lack o inLclligcncc and wis-
dom. Tc criLicism o Lhc aL pcrson is cvcn morc ccnLcr sLagc wiLh Lhc
The Fifteenth Century and the Contrasts of Slimming 25
dcpicLion o Lhc gluLLon in Lhc LccnLh ccnLury Parade of Vices. Tc
cxccssovolumcisprimary.TcbcarandLhcbourgcoiswhoridcsaLop
LhcgluLLonousanimalappcarassymbolsinLhcMiroir historialminiaLurc
rom6.
5
TcsLrikingassociaLionoindolcnccandaLdcniLivclyuniLc
LhcbcarandLhcgluLLon.
Tc miniaLurc Lakcs on morc picLurcly dcLail in Lhc LccnLh ccnLury
and Lhc objccLs dcpicLcd bccomc morc dicrcnLiaLcd. Tc criLicism o
sizc, howcvcr, rcmains largcly moralLcasing ovcr bchavior and poinL-
ingouLaulLsmorcLhananacsLhcLicjudgmcnL,cvcniLhclaLLcrisncvcr
LoLallyabscnL.Hcrc,big=sin.
SLoricsgoalongwiLhLhcsccriLicismsas,orcxamplc,whcnCommyncs
aL Lhc cnd o Lhc LccnLh ccnLury mocks Lhc Fnglish king Fdward or
havingbccnancxaggcraLcdlybigcaLcr,andLhckingdicsin8chokcd
by his wcighL: Hc Look plcasurc morc Lhan onc oughL, caring no onc,
bccamcaLandull,andaLayoungagchiscxccsscsovcrLookhimandhc
dicdsuddcnlyoapoplcxy.
6
Bcingbigisclcarlyadangcrousailing.
A Social Distinction?
TcscconLrasLingconLoursalsohavcsocialconnoLaLions.OncnoLcs,or
cxamplc,LwoLypcsogurcsrcprcscnLcdinLhcLccnLh-ccnLuryminia-
LurcillusLraLingLhccollccLivcbanqucLinLhcBook of the HuntoCasLon
Phocbus.
7
FirsL, Lhc aidcs: ordinary pcoplc, valcLs, bcaLcrs, grooms, and
various oLhcr assisLanLs shown making animaLcd gcsLurcs and wcaring
loosc,simplccloLhcs.Sccond,LhcrcisLhclordandhiscnLouragcmaking
morcconLrollcdgcsLurcsandwcaringcloLhcswiLhurandvclvcL.Tosc
oLhcrsLgroupoLcnhavcroundshouldcrs,hcavyaccs,andsomcLhick
sLomachsLhaLconLrasLmarkcdlywiLhLhcposLurcsandlincsoLhclord
and his associaLcs who arc scrvcd aL a scparaLc Lablc looking Lhin wiLh
long accs and bclLs LighLcncd. Popular pounds on Lhc onc sidc vcrsus
disLinguishcdslimncssonLhcoLhcr`TcphysicalaLLiLudcswouldsccm
LoconrmLhis,asoncnoLiccsinLhcrsLgroupaccrLainvoraciousncss
wiLhvalcLsandoLhcrassisLanLsscaLcdonLhcground,LcaringaparLmcaL
wiLh Lhcir barc hands, sharing Lhc samc mcal, drinking rom Lhc spouL
oacaskwiLhhcadslcaningbackasignoLhcabundanccprovidcdby
Lhc masLcr buL also o Lhc simplc sponLanciLy and abandon o common
pcoplc.AvariccisbchindLhcgcsLurcsjusLasaLisundcrncaLhLhccon-
Lours.TcsccaLurcsarcinsLarkconLrasLLoLhcking,whoisscaLcdaLa
highLablc,posscsscsaknicandoLhcruLcnsils,approachcsLhcoodwiLh
rcscrvc,caLssmallporLions,andcvcnsccmsLopushadishawayLoavoid
anychanccocxccss.OncalsonoLcsLhcraiscdngcroanoLhcrgurcLo
hisrighLwhomighLbcLhchisdocLorgivingadviccandcspcciallyprcach-
ingsobricLy.
IllusLraLions rom Lhc LccnLh ccnLury dcpicL spccic groups wiLhin
popular culLurc, noLably procssions LhaL arc synonymous wiLh bigncss:
cooks,bakcrs,andbuLchcrs.AllsuchgurcsarcclcarlyshownwiLhlargc
bodicsinLccnLh-ccnLuryminiaLurcssuchasinBoccaciosDecameron,or
cxamplc.OnccannoLcLhccookscrvingCuigliclmoRossiglionc:Lhickacc,
sLomach hanging ovcr his bclL, and ovcrall hcavy looking.
S
Or Lhc bakcr
CisLi,inLclligcnLandlovcdbyall,
0
walkinginLhcsLrccLsoFlorcnccwiLh
hisroundLummyouLronL.HcrcLhcpopularcnjoymcnLosizcbccomcsa
moLivcLoliLcrallydrawaLLcnLionLoiL.
Tcrc is noLhing morc culLural, pcrhaps, Lhan Lhcsc opposiLions
bcLwccnLhcpopularandLhcdisLinguishcd.TcyalldcclarcLhcdcsircor
disLancc,orasocialcodcLhaLuscsLhcscphysicalmarkcrs.TcscdisLinc-
LionscxLcndallusionsLhaLarcalrcadyprcscnL,Lhoughrarc,inmcdicval
abliaux whcrc Lhc villain is big and sLupid
1u
or a Lcrriblc gluLLon.
11
Abovc all, Lhcy csLablish a social rccrcncc poinL whcrc Lhc low and Lhc
popular arc associaLcd wiLh hcavincss and Lhc high and disLinguishcd
wiLh lighLncss. Tc sLigmaLizing gazc is socially oricnLcd, and a numbcr
orccrcnccpoinLsgcLLransormcd.
Lifestyles and Conicts
ConicLs rcmain, howcvcr, including among Lhc privilcgcd. Tc prcsLigc
oaccumulaLionopoundsdocsnoLalwaysyicldLoLhcnormsoclcrics,
docLors,orcourLicrs.OnLhcconLraryopposiLionconLinucsinLhcour-
LccnLh and LccnLh ccnLurics. Tc cxchangc o lcLLcrs bcLwccn Lhc Flo-
rcnLincmcrchanLFranccscodiMarcoDaLiniandhisdocLor,IorcnzoSas-
soli dc PraLo, around 8o illusLraLcs boLh social and culLural rcsisLancc.
TcgrcaLcloLhmcrchanLwhoscproducLsLravcrscLhcscaspracLiccsLhc
popular LradiLion. Hc counLs on Lhc hcalLh LhaL comcs wiLh accumula-
Lion,LakcscarcohisassociaLcswiLhmcaLs,scndsLhrccpairsoguinca
hcnsLocomorLasickscrvanL,andsLrcsscshisprcscripLioninapcrsonal
noLc:TakccarcLocaLLhcmallbccauscyouwonLndanyLhingbcLLcror
hcalLhicrLollyou,andIwillconLinucLoscndyoumorc.
12
TcwcalLhy
Franccsco bclicvcs in Lhc virLucs o caLing cnormously: good soup,
crcamychccsc,rcshcggs,mcaLs,goodsh,andlargcquanLiLicso
ullyripcgs.HcrchcalLhcomcsromLakingcarcLhaLoncisgcncrously
andrcgularlycd.ClcarlyLhcoldLradiLionhasnoLbccncrascd.
Tc docLor, on Lhc oLhcr hand, cxcrLs prcssurc Lo corrccL Lhcsc cus-
Loms, csLablish rcsLrainL, and associaLc gluLLony wiLh shamc as hc
LricsLoscrmonizcLhcmcrchanLwiLhalcadingqucsLion:IsiLpropcrLo
praisc a maLurc man by Lclling him hc is a vicLim o ovcrcaLing`
13
Tc
docLors missivcs arc casL as rulcs or living, makc appcals Lo moralisLs
andLhcologians,andcvokcLhcgrcaLcsLsinagainasmuchamoralas
amcdicalvisionoabodywhoschumorsmusLbcrcgulaLcd.Tccxchangc
o lcLLcrs highlighLs Lhc diamcLrically opposcd rccrcncc poinLs or Lhc
mcrchanLandhisdocLor.
Tc Lcnsion is Lhc samc in , whcn Iudivico Sorza sccks ouL a
docLor rom wiLhin Lhc Milan nobiliLy. Tc princc wanLs Lo imposc a
low-aLdicLonhisownson,Cianranccsco,judgcdLooaLbyLhcaLhcr,
which alrcady provcs his acccpLancc o Lhc principlcs o rcsLrainL. Tc
docLor acccpLs, proposcs a LrcaLmcnL, obLains Lhc conscnL o Lhc son,
buL ails Lo gcL Lhc job donc. ILs impossiblc Lo succcssully carry ouL
LhccurcoraclcarsocialrcasonLhaLLhcdocLorrclaLcsinsimplcLcrms:
TakinginLoaccounLLhcvaricLyandamounLooods,andaLcrhaving
prcscnLcd Lo him many argumcnLs abouL how ovcrcaLing was harmul
andunncccssary,hisFxccllcncypromiscdLocuLbackaLhisownLablc,
buL hc Lold mc LhaL hc did noL wanL mc Lo imposc rcsLricLions aL Lhc
LablcsogcnLlcmcn.
14
TcdocLormadchiscascandcvcnparLiallycon-
vinccdhispaLicnL,buLsLillcncounLcrcdanobsLaclc:Lhcgcncrousmcal
rcmainsormanyinLhcLccnLhccnLuryanimagcoorcc.TcLablcs
ogcnLlcmcnarcLhcsocialsLagc,andabundanccLranslaLcsasccndancy
andpowcr.
OLhcr signs undcrscorc Lhc pcrmancncc in Lhc LccnLh ccnLury o a
drcamocndlcssingcsLionoood:drinksowlikcrivcrs,dishcsarcovcr-
sizcdandpilcdonLopooncanoLhcraLbanqucLsoLhcnobiliLysuchas
LhcmarriagcoPhilippcLhcCoodandIsabcloPorLugalinBrugcsino
whcrcwincallslikcaounLainnighLandday,paLcsarclikcbuildings
LhaLparLiallyblockLhcvicwomcnandanimals,andLhcLablcsLorcccivc
allLhcoodhavcvclaycrscachLwoandhalccLLall.
15
OnlyosLcnLaLious
abundancciscapablcosigniyingplcniLudc,asccndancy,andhcalLh.
16
OLhcr cxamplcs, howcvcr, show Lhc rcaliLy o Lhc curc and iLs acccp-
Lancc. Around o, Conrad HcingarLcr prcscribcs a rcgimcn or 1chan
dc la CouLLc, a ricnd o Lhc Dukc o Bourbon, whosc grcaL sizc (clcarly
noLcd: homo pinguis) bccomcs Lhc ocus o mcdical aLLcnLion.
17
Conrad
HcingarLcr spcaks o big (pinguis) and noL vcry big (praepinguis)
subLlcdicrcnccsLhaLarcnoLcdbuLnoLclcarlydcncd.TcprccauLions
prcscribcdconrmLhcspccialLargcLingoabodyLhaLissupposcdLoshcd
waLcr:donoLcaLordrinkLoomuch,avoidslccpingonyourbackLoprc-
vcnLhumorsromsLagnaLing,donoLslccpwiLhshocsoninsummcrso
asLoallowsmokcandvaporsLorcclylcavcLhcbody,washyouraccand
handswiLhhoLwaLcrinLhcwinLcrLoaidcvacuaLionLhroughLhcporcs,
bcginmcalswiLhLcndcrandcvcnaLoodsLoaciliLaLcLhcabsorpLiono
LhcncxLoodsandavoidblockagcs.InaddiLion,purgcsandbloodlcLLings
arcprcscribcdLolighLcnLhcinLcrior(medicine laxative frequenter).
ClcarandaqucousprinciplcsprcdominaLc.TcsuggcsLionoLaking
ooncsshocsaLnighLinsummcrcvokcsachangcinlicsLylc(rompos-
siblywearingoncsshocsLobcd)asmuchasabclicabouLLhcccicncyo
allcvaporaLionnomaLLcrhowparLialorlocalizcd.FliminaLingsmokcand
vapors is supposcd Lo puriy Lhc skin. In sum, iLs a widc assorLmcnL o
rccommcndcdbchaviorsprcdicaLcdonLhcamiliarcxpcricnccorclcas-
ingLrappcdwaLcr.
BuLanambiguiLyrcmains,andwillrcmainoralongLimc,abouLwhaL
cxacLlycounLsasbigandwhaLisunacccpLablcbccauscLoobig.How
muchisLoomuch`TisambiguiLyismorcacuLcinLhccascomcnwhcrc
Lhc imposing sLaLurc blcnds wiLh a massivc auLhoriLy and blocks ouL
all oLhcr considcraLions. Tcrc arc counLlcss imagcs rom Lhc LccnLh
ccnLurywhcrcaullacc,roundchccks,anddoublcchincspcciallyor
mcnarcsupposcdLocvokcnobiliLy,noLgluLLony.VanFycksMadonna
of Chancellor Rolin,romLhcmiddlcoLhcLccnLhccnLury
1S
,orcxam-
plc, or Lhc digniLarics who accompany Iorcnzo Lhc MagniccnL in Lhc
Procession of the MagibyBcnozzoCozzolirom,
10
orLhcscl-porLraiL
byPicLroPcruginoaLLhcCollcgiodclCambioinPcrugiawiLhhisinLcnsc
cycs,volunLarysLincss,andhcavyaLncck.
2u
The Laborious Place of Beauty
Onccagain,Lhough,LhcrcisnomcnLionobcauLyinLhiswillLorcducc
Lhcbigpcrson.TconlyclcarlydcsignaLcdaimsarcgoodmoralsandgood
hcalLh,noLgoodlooks.Forcxamplc,LhcShepherds Calendar romLhccnd
oLhcLccnLhccnLurydcncsLhchcalLhymanasnciLhcrLooaLnor
Looskinny.
21
TcmcdicvalLrcaLiscsonbcauLydonoLLakcupLhcsubjccL
oLhcbodyscnvclopcandiLspossiblcrcducLion.LicnncdcFougcrcss
Book of Mannersrom,isconccrncdwiLhonlyourpracLiccsapplying
makcup,carcoLhccycs,dcpilaLion,andskincarcandLoLallyignorcs
Lhcbodysprolc.
22
LAmiriabyIconc-BaLLisLaAlbcrLirom,oandGli
experimentibyCaLcrinaSorzaromoonlyconsidcrLhcaccandskin
carcwiLhnowordabouLLhcacsLhcLicaimobodilyorms.
23
TcrcsnodoubLLhcaimcxisLs,buLiLisrarclyicvcrdiscusscd.Tcrc
arc Lhc hoL Lubs o Isabcau dc Bavicrc, or cxamplc, rom Lhc LccnLh
ccnLury, and drinks considcrcd morc puriying Lhanks Lo Lhc prcs-
cnccoboilcdgoldLhaLarcsupposcdLoconLribuLcLoLhchcalLhoLhc
quccn.
24
TcyarcprobablymcanLLocnhanccbcauLyaswcllbyrcducing
hcr considcrablc sizc, which was known Lo all. BuL Lhc laLLcr aim is noL
namcd,iLisadomcsLicissucLhaLdocsnLbcarcommcnLary.Pcrscvcring
workononcsanaLomicalaLLracLivcncsssccmsnoLycLablcLobcacknowl-
cdgcd.AllrccrcnccsLoIsabcaushoLLubsandgoldcnliqucursLrcaLLhcm
sLricLlyasmaLLcrsohcalLh.
Onc musL look Lo morc indirccL, simplc, and immcdiaLc pracLiccs Lo
dcLccLanyconccrLcdcorLaLslimminginLhcLccnLhccnLury,suchas,
orcxamplc,wcaringLighLlybclLcdcloLhcsLoholdincsh.InoAnnc
o Francc Lclls o a young woman who is so LighLly sLrappcd inLo hcr
cloLhcsLhaLhcrhcarLgivcsouL.
25
TcrcisalsoLhcwidcbclLLhaLsLran-
glcs Lhc waisL o high-sLaLus womcn in Lhc LccnLh ccnLury, Lhc Lwo-
sidcdsLrongbclLonoblcwomcninRcncdAnjousBook of Tournaments
rom 6o,
26
and a similar onc worn by rcligious womcn in Lhc Tside
o Vicnna rom 8o.
27
In oLhcr words, Lhcrc is noLhing wiLh which Lo
conLainaLncssbuLasorLoshcaLhapplicddirccLlyandphysicallyLoLhc
cshowomcnsbodicsmorcLhanmcns.HcrcLooLhcacsLhcLiccodcis
ollowcdwordlcssly.
ILisworLhrcpcaLingonccmorcLhcrclaLivclyindcLcrminaLcnuanccs
bcLwccnnormalandLoobigancspcciallyscnsiLivcsubjccL,ocoursc,
whcniLcomcsLomcnwhoscamplcrobcsandcoaLsallowoaLingvol-
umcs Lo appcar as normal parLs o Lhc anaLomy o amplc mcn.
2S
Tcrc
isasccncinLhcHistory of Brittany,romLhccndoLhcLccnccnLury,
dcpicLing Lhc giL o Lhc manuscripL Lo 1can dc MalcsLroiL surroundcd
byhiscnLouragc.
20
Tcull-accdmcnwcaringlargcrobcsinconLrasLLo
LhcwomcnsLranglcdbyLhcircloLhcsispcrhapsmcanLLoundcrscorcLhc
asccndancyoLhcormcr.
PART 2
THE MODERN OAF
CriLicism o Lhc aL pcrson changcs during Lhc Rcnaissancc, bccoming
morcccnLcrcdonLhcslowncss,lazincss,andignoranccabouLLhingsand
pcoplc.CarcorLhcaLpcrsoninLcnsicsaswcll,bccomingmorcccn-
LcrcdondicLsandphysicalconsLrainLs,cspcciallybclLsandcorscLsLhaL
arcapplicddirccLlyovcrLhccsh.
Tc culLural pcrspccLivc shiLs. Iargc physical sizc mcans abovc all
hcavincss. To bccomc roundcr is Lo all bchind, Lo bc unadapLcd Lo a
worldwhcrcacLiviLyLakcsonancwvaluc.NoLLhaLwcakncssorslowncss
had up unLil Lhcn bccn ncglccLcd or ignorcd, iLs simply LhaL mcdicval
aLLcnLion was mosL conccrncd wiLh Lhc moral dimcnsion o ovcrcaLing
andgluLLony.ILwasxaLcdoncapiLalsins.TcmodcrnmindisinsLcad
worricdabouLabbincssandccicncy.IaFonLaincswcasclcasLingin
Lhcgranary,whobccomcsaLandroundLoLhcpoinLonoLbcingablc
Lo gcL ouL Lhrough Lhc holc by which shc cnLcrcd,
1
capLurcs Lhc no cxiL
prcdicamcnLanddisabiliLyLowhichLhcbigpcrsoniscondcmncd.WhaL
wasormcrlyaallingoisnowworsc,bccomingsLigmaandrcjccLion.
Tcrc is liLLlc changc, howcvcr, abouL Lhc rcprcscnLaLion o Lhc sub-
sLanccs, in parLicular aL. SixLccnLh- and scvcnLccnLh-ccnLury docLors
sLillgivcraLhcrproximaLcaccounLsoiLscomposiLion,whilcconLinuing
wiLhLhcmosLLradiLionalmcLhodsoriLscvacuaLionromLhcbody:pur-
gaLionandbloodlcLLing.TchcighLcncddcnunciaLionisnoLaccompanicd
bymorcknowlcdgc,alLhoughagrcaLcrdisLincLionismadcbcLwccninLcr-
nalaLandwaLcr.
32 THE MODERN OAF
AvcryslowculLuralslimming,howcvcrcnrichcsLhcpcrccpLionoLhc
bodys lincs and LraiLs during Lhc sixLccnLh and scvcnLccnLh ccnLurics.
AcwncwcxprcssionsanddiminuLivcscnLcrinLocirculaLionLosuggcsL
dicrcnLsLaLcsobigncss.TcsubjccLisundamcnLal,cvcniLhcrcgu-
lar Lcndcncy rcmains dcscribing Lhc aL pcrson in Lcrms o Lhc vcry
aLpcrsonwhcrcLhcdisLincLionismosLlylaLcnL,opaquc,glimpscdmorc
LhansLudicd.
5. The Shores of Laziness
Rcnaissancc sLoryLcllcrs pausc rsL ovcr Lhc awkwardncss o Lhc
oa: or cxamplc, Lhc aL clcric who provokcs a all and impcdcs
an cscapc in a sLory rom Lhc Heptameron
1
or Lhc big, hcavy DuLch-
man whosc hcavy drinking and gcncral hcavincss rcndcr all acLiv-
iLy impossiblc in a Lalc rom Lhc Hundred New Stories.
2
Morc clcarly
sLill, Lhcrc is Vaubans rcusal in Lhc scvcnLccnLh ccnLury Lo givc
jobs Lo big caLcrs and aL pcoplc who arc judgcd incapablc o
good scrvicc and noL Lo bc LrusLcd wiLh imporLanL aairs.
3
Tc
polcs o aLLcnLion changc. WhaL maLLcrs now mosL is incapaciLy
andawkwardncss.
NoLhingycLspccicsLhcsLagcsoLhisaLinvasion.NoLhingycLspcci-
cs Lhc Lhrcsholds. Tc sLigmaLizaLion o hcavincss, howcvcr, and Lhc
aulLs aLLribuLcd Lo Lhc aL pcrson, dcspiLc Lhc silcncc whcn iL comcs Lo
dcLailsoacLualmcasurcmcnLs,disrupLcvcryoncsouLlookinLhccnd.
Modern Activity and Passivity
ILisLhccriLicismoLhchcavyandcnormouspcrsonLhaLchangcsin
Lhc sixLccnLh ccnLury. Indolcncc displcascs. Tc usclcss is disquicLing.
IazincssbccomcsLhcplagucohumanundcrsLanding.
4
Oncrcprcscn-
LaLionoLhisarcLhcbcggarsccingLhccounLrysidc,Lhcncwpoorwho
34 THE MODERN OAF
arcpushcdLowardciLicsinLhcsixLccnLhccnLuryasarcsulLoLhcwidcn-
ingcconomicgapbcLwccnLownandcounLry.AnoLhcrarcLhcvagranLs
mcnLioncdbySixLcQuinLin8,whoovcrrunallLhcsLrccLsandpublic
squarcs o Lhc ciLy looking or brcad.
5
Iazincss is bcing LargcLcd hcrc,
along wiLh loiLcring, inacLiviLy, and wcakncss. Tc Rcnaissanccs largcr
urbanccnLcrsbccomcncwplaccsorcugcorLhosccondcmncdLopov-
crLybyagcncralscarciLyorcsourccs.
DidLhcanaLhcmaLowardlazincssandunproducLivcncssconLribuLcLo
LhcincrcascinLhcdcnunciaLionohcavincss`TcrcisapparcnLlynocon-
nccLion bcLwccn Lhc powcrlcssncss o Lhc aL pcrson and Lhc wcakncss
o Lhc bcggar. IL is ccrLain, howcvcr, LhaL Lhc insisLcncc on acLiviLy and
purposcul mobiliLy would noL comc wiLhouL conscqucnccs. Onc noLcs,
or cxamplc, Lhc admiring obscrvaLion o Claudc Scysscl who mcnLions
LhcmulLiplicaLionomcrchanLsandprocssionsasasignoLhcLimcs
growingromoncLoLybcLwccnLhcLimcoIouisXIandLhcbcgin-
ningoLhcsixLccnLhccnLury.
6
OnccanalsonoLcLhcincrcasinglymadc
connccLion bcLwccn Lhc lazy and Lhc big, Lhc slow and Lhc hcavyan
associaLionsomcLimcscxLcndcdLoalinkbcLwccnLhcpassiviLyandLhc
physical wcighL o Lhc bcggar. Around ,o Ambroisc Parc rclaLcs LhaL
womcnbcggingwillLclllicsLooolpasscrsbyabouLLhcirLrucinrmiLy.
All arc supposcdly aL and lazy and all usc arLicc Lo hidc Lhcir disguisc
Lhcir incrLia. Tc chubby, aL-boLLomcd, buxom wcnch says shcs rom
NormandyandbcgsoralmsprcLcndingshchasasnakcinhcrsLomach.
7
OrLhcbigchubbylazypcrson . . .prcLcndingLohavcaninccLionoLhc
brcasLwholicssprcadouLaLLhccnLranccLoachurchwhcnrcallyLhcrcs
noLhing wrong wiLh hcr.
S
A cw dccadcs laLcr, Lhcrcs Lhc cngraving o
NicolasCucrardoTe LazysLigmaLizingaccnLrallackLhaLisconvcycd
inLhcrcsponscoLhcbcggarLoLhcLhrcaLsoLhcpoliccman:ncvcrLirc
oncsclouLorupscLoncssLomach.
0
ILsaparadox,ocoursc,aLaLimcoinLcnscsocialscgrcgaLionandLhc
nobiliLysconLcmpLormanuallabor,buLiLisLrulyLhcidcaoinacLiv-
iLy, doing noLhing, and soLncss LhaL is sLigmaLizcd morc Lhan LhaL o
work.
1u
AnassorLmcnLorccrcnccscondcmningparalysisaddsLoLhc
ironyo1acqucs-AugusLcdcTou,orcxamplc,whcnhcridiculcswomcn
aLcourLwhomusLridcincarriagcsbccauscLhcirovcrlylargcbrcasLsprc-
vcnLLhcmromridinghorscback.
11
TcnoblcmanFarcLmakcsLhccriLi-
cism o volupLuous, abby individuals who donL know how Lo occupy
LhcmsclvcsinhisTe Art of Pleasing at CourtromLhcbcginningoLhc
scvcnLccnLh ccnLury, noLing Lhc ncccssiLy o sccming Lo bc consLanLly
movingandbusy.
12
The Shores of Laziness 35
Tc courL scrvcs as an imporLanL modcl. Tc cxLcnsion and divcrsi-
caLion o Lhc sovcrcigns cnLouragc in Lhc modcrn sLaLc rcinorccs Lhc
principlcs o socializaLion. Cood manncrs bccomc obligaLory.
13
In Lhc
sixLccnLhandscvcnLccnLhccnLuricsLhccourLmulLiplicscodcsopoliLc-
ncss,culLivaLcsparLicularlooks,soLcnsbodics,andincrcascsLhcsLakcs
o appcarancc whcrc ormcrly a warrior codc was morc dominanL. Tc
courLicrisnolongcrLhcknighL.AnimposingprcscncccounLsmorcLhan
Lhcormcrhcavincss,asoncnoLcswhcnTomasArLusmakcsunoLhc
worricdappcaranccooldbaronsinLhccnLouragcoHcnryIII,mocking
Lhcirslimmcddownbodics,pinchcdshouldcrs,LighLlybucklcdbclLs,and
LhchcalLhylookLhaLsupposcdlyrcplaccsLhccxccssoLhcirormcrcshy
accs.
14
TccxcrciscspursucdconrmLhischangcaswcllnolongcrjusL
miliLaryLrainingbuLaLLcnLionLopromoLingcascomovcmcnL,posLurc,
andcvcryLhingbclongingLorcncmcnL.Tcirvalucissymbolic,socially
condiLioncd,andLodaysLudicdandcxplorcdalrcadyahundrcdLimcsin
worksdcvoLcdLoLhccourLlyworld.
15
Tc mcal as spccLaclc, Lhc casL, and noblc csLivals do noL disappcar
howcvcr. Nor do Lhc massivc rcprcscnLaLions addrcsscd Lo Lhc gucsLs
and Lo wriLLcn and picLorial mcmoralizaLion such as Lhc mcal ocrcd
aL Vcrsaillcs on 1uly 8, 668, LhaL prcscnLcd dishcs Lransormcd inLo
immcnsc consLrucLions pilcd high bcorc Lhc widc-cycd sLarcs o Lhosc
aLcourL.
16
FclibicndcscribcsiLwcll,rcmarkingLhcrsLLablcsoLhccasL
o668asasignorigorouslyorchcsLraLcdprcsLigc:HcrcwasasorLo
mounLain whcrc in all kinds o liLLlc cavcrns Lhcrc wcrc dicrcnL sorLs
ocolddishcs,LhcrcwasLhcaadcoapalaccbuilLrommarzipanand
oLhcrsugarycubcs,hcrcaLablccovcrcdwiLhpyramidsocandicdruiLs,
anoLhcrwiLhpiLchcrsllcdwiLhallsorLsoliqucurs,andoncmorccov-
crcdwiLhcaramcls.
17
A modcl o Lhinncss imposcs iLscl in modcrn social rccrcnccs. Tc
word light (lger) in parLicular is rcpcaLcd rcqucnLly in Baldassar CasLi-
glioncsBook of the Courtierrom:8:lighLandadroiL,sLrong,limbcr,
andlighL,orccandlighLncssacquircdLhroughpracLiccarcsomcoLhc
dcsircdqualiLicsLhaLpaLicnLapprcnLiccshipwillproduccaccordingLoLhc
LrcaLiscs.
1S
Tis is summarizcd by Nicolas FarcL in his Art of Pleasing at
Court:prccrablyLhinncrLhanLooaL,wcll-ormcdlimbs,sLrong,supplc,
limbcr.
10
Tc lighLncss rccommcndcd is hardly cvcr dcncd in acL, buL
uncLionsasadcnunciaLionohcavincssandlargcvolumcs,asorcxam-
plc,LhcaLmcmbcroLhcrcigningMcdiciamilyoFlorcnccwhoisciLcd
inCasLiglioncsLcxLwiLhconLcmpLasacounLcrcxamplc,cvcninodcLail
indicaLingLhcprcciscsizcoLhcprinccisgivcn.
2u
TcrcisalsoLhchunLing
36 THE MODERN OAF
and miliLary booL o Lhc Dukc o Saxony: so cxLrcmcly largc LhaL iL is
broughL as a Lrophy Lo Charlcs V aLcr a vicLory againsL Lhc ProLcsLanL
princcs in ,, provoking hilariLy aL Lhc courL againsL Lhc dukc, who is
judgcd Loo big, aL and ull.
21
An imprccisc dcscripLion, ccrLainly, buL
aLncssisclcarlybcingrcjccLcd.
From Private Insult to Public Code
AmorcprooundncwdcvclopmcnLisLhaLLhcinLcnsicaLionoconLcmpL
Louchcs Lhc languagc, building ncw cxprcssions and displacing Lhc hori-
zonowords.AncgaLivcculLurcsurroundingsizcissLaLcdmorcLhancvcr
bcorc,LhoughsLillindicrcnLLoprcciscindicaLorsandquanLiablcmca-
surcmcnLs.InLhcsixLccnLhccnLuryLhoscwiLhwidcwaisLsarcrcpcaLcdly
spokcn o in sLrongly ncgaLivc Lcrms as lacking spiriL, knowing vcry
liLLlc,anddisplcasing.
22
ILsnoLcvcnLhaLLhcyarcrcallyalwaysaL,buL
LhcyarcconsidcrcdsobyallusionsandmcLaphors:slowandhickopcr-
aLcasshorLhandorphysicalrccrcnccs.TcinsulLplaysonimagcs,sug-
gcsLing somcLhing visiblc, whcrcas Lhc Middlc Agcs ignorcd iL. Hcavy
gcLsloadcdwiLhpossiblcassociaLions,dcsignaLingLhoscwhodonLundcr-
sLandmuchorwcll,LhoscwhoshowalackoinLclligcnccorsubLlcLy.Tc
hcavyscLarcLhcaLhcadsinLhcHundred New Stories,LhcsimplconcswiLh
no disccrnmcnL. Tc spousc o Lhc knighL o Haynau, or cxamplc, is a
naivc woman, choscn prcciscly on accounL o hcr slighLly widc waisL
23
so LhaL shcll bc morc casily dirccLcd and shapcd by hcr husband.

24
Or
Lhc pcoplc o Champagnc wiLh gcncrous waisLs who arc unLhinking and
unawarc, likc Lhc counLry mcrchanL rom Rcims who was long incapablc
ophysicalinLimacywiLhhiswicbccauschcwasLooignoranLorsLupid.
25
From Lhc sLarL o Lhc sixLccnLh ccnLury, Lhc word heavy (lourd) clic-
iLslinguisLicinvcnLivcncss,sLigmaLizingawkwardncssandLorpor.Many
variaLionsarccrcaLcd,lourderie,lourdise,lourdet,andlourdautLhclaLLcr
dcsignaLinginBonavcnLurcDcsPcricrssNew Recreations and Joyous Esti-
mates,romLhcmiddlcoLhcsixLccnLhccnLury,abadlycducaLcd,impru-
dcnLpcrson,amanlackingprinciplcsandprccauLion.
26
TcrcisalsoLhc
pcrsondcscribcdasgrosse lourdireormorcsimplyasgrosse loudireinLhc
invcnLorydoncbyLicnncPasquicrin6oLodcscribchcavincssaswcll
asvulgariLy(grossiret).
27
AndLhcrcisadccisivcaccumulaLionoinsulLs
LowardShakcspcarcsFalsLaaLLhccndoLhcsixLccnLhccnLurywhcrc
PrinccHcnrypoursouLancndlcssbaLLcryoinsulLsonhisaLvicLim:
Hownow,wool-sack!whaLmuLLcryou`(Henry IV,parL,acL:,sccnc
,:)
. . .
Why,youwhorcsonroundman,whaLsLhcmaLLcr`()
. . .
TcsclicsarclikcLhciraLhcrLhaLbcgcLsLhcm,
grossasamounLain,opcn,palpablc.Why,Lhou
clay-braincdguLs,LhouknoLLy-paLcdool,Lhou
whorcson,obsccnc,grcascLallow-kccch(::6)
. . .
IllbcnolongcrguilLyoLhissin,Lhissanguinc
coward,Lhisbcd-prcsscr,Lhishorscback-brcakcr,
Lhishugchillocsh(:::)
. . .
TouarLviolcnLlycarricdawayromgracc:
LhcrcisadcvilhaunLsLhccinLhclikcncssoan
oldaLman,aLunomanisLhycompanion.Why
dosLLhouconvcrscwiLhLhaLLrunkohumours,LhaL
bolLing-huLchobcasLlincss,LhaLswollcnparccl
odropsics,LhaLhugcbombardosack,LhaLsLucd
cloak-bagoguLs,LhaLroasLcdManningLrccoxwiLh
Lhcpuddinginhisbclly,LhaLrcvcrcndvicc,LhaL
grcyiniquiLy,LhaLaLhcrruan,LhaLvaniLyin
ycars`Whcrcinishcgood,buLLoLasLcsackand
drinkiL`WhcrcinncaLandclcanly,buLLocarvca
caponandcaLiL`Whcrcincunning,buLincraL`
WhcrcincraLy,buLinvillany`Whcrcinvillanous,
buLinallLhings`WhcrcinworLhy,buLinnoLhing`(::)
2S
Tc dominanL imprcssion is onc o ovcrall hcavincss, an invasivc
cncroachmcnLwcllbcyondLhcsLomachinvolvingLhccnLircbody.
38 THE MODERN OAF
ILmusLbcsaidLhaLpopularsongsalsoparLicipaLcinLhcdcnigraLiono
unplcasanLaLncss.Acomplainingsongrom6,orcxamplc,lisLsLhc
displcasingcaLurcsoLhcBcauLiulAlisonwhosccvcrybodilycaLurc,
byvirLucoiLscxccsssizc,dcmoralizcshcrhusband:
Shchaschubbyarms
IikcamusLardbarrcl
HcrsLomachisarozcncabbagc
AndhcrLhighslikchalbcrds.
20
By Lhis Limc a sLandard sLylc has Lakcn hold LhaL uscs sLupidiLy wiLh
hcavincss,sLigmaLizcsLhcusclcss,andcrLilizcsLhclanguagcwiLhahosL
o Lcrms LhaL can ornamcnL Lhc rcligious diaLribcs or Lhc possiblc pas-
sionsoliLcraryLcxLs.InSagondocsnoLhcsiLaLcLocallMaroLalazy,
hcavy, cowardly ass, a aL ass, and an ignoranL cal.
3u
A cw dccadcs
laLcr, Lhc CaLholics o MonLauban rcadily dcscribc Lhc dcaLh o PasLor
DaniclChamicrasLhcbrcakingoasLucdbcllyorroLLcnbclly.
31
IllusLraLionsalsoconrmLhisLcndcncy.Inrcligiouspolcmic,orcxam-
plc,CaLholiciconographyrcprcscnLsBiblcscrushcdundcrIuLhcrssLom-
ach, which is so big LhaL hc nccds a whcclbarrow Lo gcL around,
32
whilc
ProLcsLanLiconographyrcprcscnLsLhcpopcblownupLogroLcsquclyhugc
proporLionsbyadcvilwhosccshisiLsclsaggingallovcr.
33
SoLncss,buL
alsodcbauchcryandlLhLhcaLpcrsondcniLclyocuscsLhcncgaLivc,
incarnaLinginhisappcaranccdisablcdmovcmcnLandadisablcdsLaLcin
gcncral.ILissLillamaLLcroopposiLionbcLwccnLhinncssandaLncss
whosc limiLs arc clL morc or lcss inLuiLivcly. Tis opposiLion sharpcns
conLrasLs. IL plays wiLh cxccsscs morc Lhan iL spccics acLual LraiLs. IL
mosLlikclyLargcLsLhcvcryaL.ILdcnounccsLhaLcaLcgorywiLhplcnLyo
orcc,buLwiLhliLLlcdcniLionornuancc.
Resistances and Fascinations
Tis allows Lhc Rabclaisian gianLs Lo bc symbols o mocking rcsisLancc.
Tc gurc o CarganLua, wiLh his good acc wiLh cighLccn chins, his
immcnsc sLomach, his bclL o Lhrcc hundrcd clls and a hal o silkcn
scrgc,hismarvclouslyphlcgmaLiccomplcxion,sLandsouLallLhcmorcas
LhcironiccounLcrillusLraLionomodcrnLhinncss.ILrcvivcsLhcoldasci-
naLionorlandsoplcnLy,gcncrouscasLs,andcndlcsscaLing.ILliLcrally
incarnaLcsadirccLionlincagcwiLhmcaLycasLing.TcvcrybirLhoLhc
gianL,hisarrivalinLhcworld,isprovokcdbyLhclargcquanLiLyoLripc
ingcsLcd by Cargamcllc, his moLhcr, onc aL Tucsday, Lhc Lhird day o
Fcbruary,whichcxcrLcdsuchcxLrcmcprcssurconLhcsLomachLhaLLhc
childwaspushcdouL.TcquanLiLyoLripc,comingromo,,ogcncr-
ously aLLcncd cows, suggcsLs LhaL pcrhaps Lhc birLh Look placc as Lhc
rcsulLoachallcngcorcaLingconLcsL.
34
AnoLhcr ironic rcmindcr is Lhc sLomach as rsL moLor. CasLcr, Lhc
noblcmasLcroarLs,LhcbcllypowcrgodoLhcCasLrolasLrcsinbook
,islcdLoLhcmosLnoblcinvcnLionsbyordinaryandmassivcappcalso
Lhcbclly:allarLs,allmachincs,allprocssions,allLoolsandsubLlcLics
arciniLiaLcdbyiL.
35
TcabdomcnasulLimaLcsourccoinvcnLivcncss.
Rabclais aLLcns his LcxL Lo bursLing wiLh an accumulaLion o aL
rcmarks. A simplc mcal makcs inniLc associaLions bcLwccn words and
oods: Lhc dozcns o hams, Lhc smokcd bcc Longucs, Lhc boLargo
andchiLLcrlingssausagcsLhaLollowdcliciousmcaLsaccompanicdby
drinks wiLhouL cnd or mcasurc ollowcd by largc quanLiLics o mus-
LardshovclcdconLinuouslyinLoLhcgianLsmouLhbyourohismcn.
36
Tis inniLy o oral dcsirc sLands as a accLious counLcrpoinL aL a Limc

whcnLhcobligaLionLobccomclighLcrisasscrLingiLsclmorcandmorc.
Bcroaldc dc Vcrvillc Lransposcs Lhis idca Lo a cosmic LhcaLcr a cw
dccadcs laLcr in his How to Succeed, magniying a world in which cvcry-
LhingisaL,includingLhcdaysoIcnL.TcrcarccnormousamounLs
o ood and ouLragcous characLcrs, cspccially Monsicur IcnL, a Lradi-
Lional modcl o Lhinncss, who has bccomc so big LhaL Lhc aL spurLcd
romhiscycslikccasjumpinginLoanovcnswcaLingromcold.
37
Vcr-
villcLakcsplcasurcLoarcicalcxLrcmcs,LhusconrmingLhaLLhcdrcam
oaninLcrminablcinLakcoooddocsnoLdisappcarinLhcmodcrncra.
Sancho Panza plays a vcry similar rolc in CcrvanLcss Don Quixote
rom Lhc bcginning o Lhc scvcnLccnLh ccnLury. Tcasing, big o-color
jokcs,andvulgariLicsarcallvchiclcsLorccallLhcvalucosomccarLhly
rcalism,andcspcciallyLhcrcasonablcpoiscLhaLcomcswiLhLhccnjoy-
mcnLoLhingsandaullbclly.HisprolcisrighLawaysuggcsLivc:big
sLomach,smallsizc,Lhinbowcdlcgs,asarchishabiLs:consLanLlycaL-
ing,anddcsirc,IcLsalllivcandcaLinpcacc.TcsLoryisLhcrapcuLic
abouL ood inLcndcd Lo comorL Lhc hcarL and Lhc brain. As govcrnor
ohisimaginaryisland,SanchoLhrowsinLoprisonadocLorwhoisLoo
rcscrvcd abouL mcaL and drink, Lhus invcrLing Lhc mcdical advicc o
Lhcday.
3S
IL is worLh pausing, howcvcr, ovcr a parLicular imagc LhaL shows Lhc
pcrsisLcnL ambivalcncc abouL Lhc big pcrson.
30
Tc subjccL bccomcs
40 THE MODERN OAF
cxpliciLinLhisrsLgrandliLcrarynarraLivc.TcbodyoLhchcavypcas-
anL who is promoLcd Lo bccomc Lhc squirc o a knighL cncloscs a mind
LhaLisboLhobLuscandclcvcr.
4u
ILsLhcmindoaLrickyrcalisL,aliLLlc
maliciousandwiLhaLouchoplayulncss.
41
TcrcarccounLlcsssccncs
whcrcSanchosbanalpragmaLismconLrasLswiLhLhcsLrangcdivagaLions
o his masLcr. Hc bccomcs Lhc man o immcdiaLc plcasurcs, wiLh cvcr
naLuralsimpliciLy,
42
whoisalwayscaLinginsLcadodrcaming.PushcdLo
LhccxLrcmcocaricaLurc,hcisLhcroundcirclc,LhcopposiLcoLhcLhin
linc, hc cmbodics Lhc groundcd LruLh o Lhc carLh in opposiLion Lo Lhc
ighLsoLhcimaginaLion.IaminnosLaLcLogivcanaccounLomyscl
byrccounLingsLorics. . . .MyhousckccpcriswaiLingormc.WhcnIhavc
nishcddinncr,IwillrcLurnandbcrcadyLosaLisyYourCraccandLhc
wholcworld.
43
RccrcnccsLoLhcbigpcrsoncanbcmomcnLsorpraising
LhcbonvivanLwhoisinLuiLivcandimprccisc,andLhisambiguousblcnd-
ingpcrsisLsovcrLimccvcniacriLicismoaLncssisclcarlydominanL.
Tc imagc o Lhc laughing aL pcrson lingcrs haunLingly in a numbcr
opicLurcsandsLoricsaLLhcbcginningoourmodcrniLy.TccroLic,or
cxamplc, wanLs Lo display inniLics o csh so as Lo Lransposc a LacLilc
andscnsualabsoluLcassomcLhingalwaysbcginningancw.BranLmchas
aLalcnLorcvokingwomcnasbig,aL,andcshyurnaccswiLhbigproud
sLomachs,womcnwhoscLoLalullncsscqualsLoLalscducLivcncss.Tcir
cshaboundsLomaLcrializcallLhcbcLLcrLhcscnsualanddisplayiLsorcc
andinLcnsiyLhcinLimacy.
44
SixLccnLh-ccnLurysLoryLcllcrsknowhowLo
mix Lhc big wiLh Lhc low. For cxamplc, during a diculL voyagc a carL
pullcr in Lhc scvcnLh o Lhc Hundred New Stories who sharcs Lhc bcd o
hismasLcrsbccomcsashoLasamarcromconLacLwiLhLhcbigback-
sidc o Lhc wic.
45
Onc may also rccall Lhc ordinary pcoplc who sLand
ouLLhcmosLinBrucghclsvillagcsccncs,hcavyscLmalcandcmalcdanc-
crsandharvcsLcrsdisplayingabundanLcshandovcrowingrobcs.
46
Or
DurcrsvillagcwomaninaLrcaLisconproporLionromLhcbcginningo
LhcsixLccnLhccnLury,whichopposcshighlyroundcdlincswiLhLhcLhin-
ncrnormsorcncdcgics.
47
Modcls, howcvcr, dcniLivcly changc. Now Lhc aL pcrson is no morc
LhananamusingorpopularLouchonosLalgiaLorcinorccncwmodcsand
disLincLions. Fvcn BranLmc dcscribcs Lhc grcaL narrowncss o waisL
andsizcasancxamplcorcalizcdbcauLy.
4S
TinncssalsobccomcsLhc
lcadingaLLribuLcoanolddocLorinlovcwiLhaLccn-ycar-oldscrvanLin
asLorybyCiraldiCinzio.
40
SixLccnLh-ccnLuryLalcscanclcarlymarkoppo-
siLions, as in Lhc cxamplc o Cianranco SLraparolas sLorics rom .
CasLorio,anuprighLyoungman,admircsSandro,LhcruddypcasanLrom
Carignano who has bccomc so aL LhaL his skin looks likc lard.
5u
Ovcr-
comcwiLhjcalousy,CasLorioasksLhcpcasanLwhaLdidhcdoLobccomc
soaL.HcanswcrswiLhaLcrriblcdcclaraLionLhaLLhcnaivcyoungman
acccpLswiLhouLqucsLion:byhavinghisLcsLiclcsrcmovcdbyanablcsur-
gcon. ALcr somc Lcrriblc pain, Lhc opcraLion is a succcss, and CasLorio
aLLcns up as hc dcsircd. BuL Lhcn comcs Lhc jcsL. Tc poor man is
Lcascd and doubly so, rsL or Lhc abominablc pain hc undcrwcnL and
LhcnorLhcridiculousrcsulLohiscorLs.
51
TcyoungidioLwaiLsinvain
orcommiscraLion.
MorcimporLanL,iLisindccdasocialmodclLhaLlinksLhcaLandLhc
vulgar(gros et grossier)morcLhancvcrbcorcamodclLhaLbcliLLlcsLhc
cnormousandLurnsiLinLovulgariLy.TisdcccLismosLhighlighLcdby
classicism, buL Lhc sixLccnLh ccnLury is alrcady poinLing ouL Lhc LraiLs:
big-LhroaLcd ingcsLions and cxaggcraLcd drinking arc or ArcLin aLLi-
Ludcsocldworkcrsandmulcdrivcrs,hcavy-ooLcdclunkygcsLurcsarc,
orPicrrcdcILoilc,associaLcdwiLhpcasanLsandidioLs.
52
Tcyarccvi-
dcnL in somc o Lhc kings as ycL uncducaLcd Swiss guards LhaL amusc
mcmbcrsocourLin6o::
IookingaLLhcscorcigncrspass
WiLhruddyskinandbigbuLLs
ILhoughLIwassccingaparadcoBacchuscs
ComingLoharvcsLgrapcs.
53
TcincrcascodisLrusLLowardbigsizcsisadcniLivcmarkcromodcr-
niLycvcnilimiLsandLhrcsholdsarcsLillhardlycvcrcvokcd.
The Refusal of All Skinniness
AL any raLc, iLs impossiblc Lo undcrsLand Lhc objccL o Lhc sLigmaLiza-
Lion o Lhc aL pcrson wiLhouL Laking inLo accounL Lhc cqually Lrou-
blingvisionoLhcskinny(maigre)andLhcarmaLionoanobligaLory
cquilibrium. Onc may noLc, or cxamplc, Lhc rcmark o 1can IicbaulL
in,:,ObcsiLyismorcLLingLobcauLyLhanskinnincss.
54
Tcdangcr
o skinnincss is LhaL iL rcmovcs whaL a normal amounL o aL is sup-
poscd Lo highlighL, namcly, volumc and a modulaLion o orms. Tus
onc gcLs Lhc sLrongly alarmcd dcscripLion o skinnincss as an cxLrcmc
cxLcnuaLion o Lhc body rccognizablc rom Lhc looscncss o Lhc skin,
which, whcn pullcd upwards by Lhc ngcrLips, dcLachcs casily rom Lhc
42 THE MODERN OAF
csh.
55
TiscxplainsLhcpossibiliLyorsocialsancLionoLhisskinnincss
suchaswhcn1osscClichLovcissummarilydroppcdasroyalconcssor
in , or bcing Loo skinny,
56
or BranLmcs irony abouL womcn who
arc so lacking in bodily volumc LhaL all possiblc plcasurc and LcmpLa-
Lion abouL Lhcm is soon lacking Loo,
57
or ArcLins dry mock abouL Lhc
convcnLhussyconsidcrcdsoslighLandgracclcssLhaLhcrskinnincss
wouldLurnhcrinLoaposscsscdgurc.
5S
AdiusccarsurroundsLhcimagcoskinnincss,LhcmaskodcaLh
cvokcdinsLoricsandLrcaLiscs.
50
SkinnincssisalarmingiLrccallsam-
inc, Lhc plaguc, and wasLing away. IL suggcsLs dryncss, roughncss, and
wcakncss,whichinLhcoldcrcollccLivcimaginaLionarcallopposcdLoLhc
springs o lic. IL poinLs Lo Lhc incviLablc, Lo Lhc paLh o aging, and Lo
dcaLh.TcrcisnoLhingLhaLdricsoncouLlikcaging,cvcniiLhappcns
slowly.
6u
TcparchmcnL-likcskinoanoldpcrsonconLrasLswiLhababys
moisLskin.
SkinnincssalsoconLribuLcsLoimpoLcncc,orcxamplc,asanimpcdi-
mcnLLochildbcaring,aswiLhQuccnIouiscdcVaudcmonLinLhc6os
who was considcrcd by Lhc ILalian ambassadors as having a vcry wcak
complcxion,raLhcrskinnymorcLhananyLhingclsc.
61
ILcancvcnbcasso-
ciaLcdwiLhmadncss,as1canIndagincasscrLs,noLingLhcbloodlcssmcn
aLCharlcsVscourLwiLhlongncckscxLcndcdlikcsLorksconsidcrcdby
LhcCcrmanphysiognomisLasLoLallyscnsclcssandsLupid.
62
Skinnincss incarnaLcs Lhc ambiguiLy o mclancholics whosc carLhly
humor and dry complcxion push Loward wcakncss and LormcnLcd
LhoughLs.TcgrcaLccnLuryomclancholy,LhcccnLuryinLroduccdbyLhc
mcdiLaLivccngravingoDurcr,
63
LhcccnLuryoLhcwarsoLhcRcnaissancc
oughLinLhcnamcoCodandoLhcsickncsscsoLimc
64
calamiLics
judgcdallLhcmorcunbcarablcasLhcdisasLcrsoLhcMiddlcAgcssccmLo
soLcninpopularmcmoryisalsoLhcccnLuryLhaLwiLncsscsLhccmcr-
gcnccoLhcidcaogcnius,LhcgrandcuroLhcarLisLasLorLurcdvision-
ary: Lhc cducaLcd class opprcsscd by black bilc, dcLachcs iLs LhoughLs
rom Lhc body and bodily Lhings Lo uniLc iLscl wiLh Lhc incorporcal.
65
BuLblackbilciswhaLdricsouLLhcbody,provokingwcakncssandskin-
nincss.ILcndangcrslic.TiscxplainsLhcprolicraLionobooksonmcl-
ancholyinLhcsixLccnLhccnLurywiLhLhcirinsisLcncconLhcdangcrso
cxccssivcLhinncssandsuggcsLionsonhowLolimiLiLscccLs.Tcrcarc
supcrviscddicLsormcnolcLLcrs,LhcadviccoAndrcduIaurcnsaL
Lhc cnd o Lhc sixLccnLh ccnLury counscling LhaL onc surround oncscl
wiLhbrighL,plcasanLcolorsrcd,ycllow,andgrccnLoavoidLroublcs
o Lhc mind and black vapors LhaL pass conLinually Lhrough Lhc ncrvcs,
vcins, and arLcrics bcLwccn Lhc brain and Lhc cyc.
66
Tcrc arc also Lhc
suggcsLionsoTimoLhyBrighLwhocounsclsingcsLingquanLiLicsoliq-
uidoodsLomodiyLhcdryncssandhumoroLhcbody.
67
Tc dcscripLion o Lhc Lhin pcrson bccomcs morc dcvclopcd in Lhc
wriLings o Ia Bruycrc, illusLraLing clcarly how Lhc drying ouL cxLcnds
Lo somcLhing moral wiLh hollow cycs, a hoL looking acc, and pos-
siblcsLupidiLyLhaLissaidLoaccompanylowncssandLimidiLy.
6S
Incon-
LrasL is his dcscripLion o CiLon, a man wiLh a ull acc, a rich man
whosc bcaring is rm and dclibcraLc Lhanks Lo his broad shouldcrs
and high sLomach, and whosc condcnL manncr supposcs Lhickncss
anddcnsiLy.IaBruycrccmphasizcsconLrasLs:orccvcrsusragiliLy,ull-
ncssvcrsuscmpLincss,LhcunorLunaLc,vulncrablcsiLuaLionoLhcLhin
pcrsonvcrsusLhcassuranccandscrcniLyoLhcrichpcrson.HisaccounL
wouldsccmLorccallLhcoldasccndancyoLhcbig.TcLhcmcrcccivcs
an original LrcaLmcnL, Lhough, wiLh ncw dcLails addcd by Lhc moralisL.
ForLhcrsLLimchcinsisLsonacriLicismopossiblcprcLcnsion.CiLon
inauguraLcsaparLicularcharacLcr:oncwhoscdiscrccLroundncssLrans-
laLcsanunacccpLablcpowcr,LhcbodyLransormcdinLorcdundancy,a
sLaLusLransormcdinLoabusc.Morcovcr,hiscnjoymcnLisprcsump-
Lion.
60
NolongcrLhcpopularvulgariLy,iLsccms,buLanimpcrialLhick-
ncss, Lhc cxubcrancc o Lhc powcrul. Tus onc gcLs a rcoricnLaLion o
LhccriLicism.ALLhcsamcLimc,LhcLhcmcisoriginaloranoLhcrrcason
LhaLLouchcsonLhcambiguiLyoLhrcsholds.CiLonisLhickwiLhouLbcing
cxpliciLlyaL,imposingwiLhouLbcinganimposiLion.HcishcavyscLwiLh-
ouLallingcnLirclyinLoLhcLrulyhcavy.Tcrcis,howcvcr,abusc,adis-
crccLcxccss,impossiblcLoclcarlycvaluaLc,asnciLhcrmcasurcmcnLsor
prcciscwordsspcciyLhcmaLLcr.AncwLypcooashncssisbornLhough
noLcnLirclydcncd.
YcLanoLhcrormoLhickncss,morccasilyacccpLcdcvcniiLisrarcly
ciLcd,isprcscnLinsomcoSainL-SimonsinniLcnumbcrodcscripLions,
onc LhaL suggcsLs a possiblc nobiliLy cmanaLing rom a mcasurcd big-
ncss.NoLLhaLoLhcPrinccoMonaco,orcxamplc,whoisalsocvokcd
byLhccssayisLasaLasahogshcadandunablcLosccLhccndohissLom-
ach,
7u
buLraLhcrinsLcadLhaLoMonscigncur,amanoroyalblood,on
LhcLallsidc,vcrybig,buLnoLwiLhpilcsoaL,wiLhahighandnoblcair
wiLh noLhing rough abouL him. His hcighL no doubL pcrmiLs Lhc loosc
appcaranccLhaLmakcshimhandsomconhorscbackwhcrcMonscigncur
wasinhisclcmcnLandlookingvcrywcllindccd.
71
Tcrcsanindcscrib-
ablcdcnsiLy,morcacharacLcrisLicomcnLhanowomcn,LhaLcvcnLually
allowsasLcadybcaringLoimposciLscl.TcapproximaLionoaLhrcshold
44 THE MODERN OAF
hcrcbcspcaksLhccnLircambiguiLyoLhcmaLLcr.Tcrcisawayormcn
LoarmamarLialairLhaLblcndsarclaLivcbigncsswiLhanunconLcsLcd
grandcur.TisundcrscorcsaninsisLcnLLcndcncyinLhcmyLhologicalrc-
crcnccs Lo Lhc bodics o Lhc powcrul, namcly, Lhc sLakcs o bigncss
LhcsadsoLncssoLhcswollcn,buLLhcindcLcrminaLcamplcncssoLhc
sLrong (forts). All Lhcsc disLincLions arc shown morc Lhan commcnLcd
upon,pracLiccdmorcLhanrcndcrcdcxpliciL.
HcrcaLLhcdawnomodcrniLy,iLrcmainsLhccascLhaL,Lobcundcr-
sLood,LhcncccssarybuLimprcciscprcscnccoaLLhaLissupposcdLogivc
orm Lo bodics rcquircs an undcrsLanding o Lhc concrcLc, LhrcaLcning,
andcquallyimprcciscrcaliLyoLhinncss.
6. The Plural of Fat
DocLorsoLhcsixLccnLhandscvcnLccnLhccnLuricsuscaLLoacccnLuaLc
Lhcir cmphasis on a norm. Tcir cxamplcs bccomc morc prccisc. Tcir
rcpcrLoryosympLomsbccomcsmorcdivcrsc.TcobscrvaLionsarcmorc
numcrouscvcnLhoughLhcysLillavoidqucsLionsabouLpossiblcsLagcs
obigncssandLhcirpossiblcgradaLions.
Tcrc is no cxLcnsivc LransormaLion o Lhc imagc o aL, which is
sLill sLricLly limiLcd Lo inLuiLivc markcrs, buL Lhcrc arc ncw aLLcmpLs
Lo spcciy iLs origin, iLs sLaLcs, and iLs parLiculariLics. All argumcnLs,
sLaLcmcnLs, and cvcn wild idcas conrm a hcighLcncd prcoccupaLion
wiLh bigncss. Hydropsy and adiposiLy arc disLinguishcd, plcLhora and
apoplcxybccomcmorcprccisclydcncd.Knowlcdgcincrcascs,Lhough
noLhingprovcsiLsusculncss,andLhcLradiLionalvisionandLrcaLmcnL
oLhcaLpcrsondonoLchangc.
Dramatizing the Threat
Tc docLors o Lhc sixLccnLh ccnLury rcsorL Lo alarming dcscripLions:
inLolcrablcwcighL,impcdcdbodymovcmcnLLhcaLpcrsonbccomcsa
ocusoridiculcinordcrLobcLLcrimprcssonLhcpublicsmindajusLi-
caLion o sobricLy, whilc a rclaLivc indicrcncc Lo dcning Lhrcsholds
clcarly conLinucs. For cxamplc, Lhc phlcgmaLic, dcscribcd by Ambroisc
Parc as rhcumaLic and ovcrowing wiLh Lhick liquid, only cxisLs as an
46 THE MODERN OAF
cxLrcmcly cnlargcd gurc wiLh a lcadcn, swollcn ronL, hcavy, gross,
and sLupid mind, a sLomach cmiLLing roggish noiscs, an individual
vomiLing, spiLLing, projccLing cxcrcmcnL rom Lhc nosc, wiLh a
dogsappcLiLc,andbcscLwiLhcdcmasandLumors.
1
TcphlcgmaLicis
somconcwiLhinammaLionsLhaLaLLackLhchcad,organs,andskinand
LhaL sprcad ovcr Lhc cnLirc body. Tis mainLains an ambiguiLy bcLwccn
phlcgmandaLandcquaLcsmisorLuncwiLhcxLrcmchcavincss.WhaLs
morc, such cxLrcmism adds Lo Lhc idca o a LcmpcramcnLal origin o
LhcaLpcrson,aLoomuchLhaLcomcsromLhcdcpLhsooncsbcing,
wiLh iLs aqucous qualiLics and oLhcr Lroubling subsLanccs, whcrcas aL
oLhcrmomcnLsonchasancvocaLionoLhcincapaciLyoLhcgourmcL
andgluLLonandLhcidcaLhaLaLncssrcsulLsromdailybchaviorwiLhiLs
passionsandcndlcsscaLing.InoLhcrwords,iLsdiculLLodisLinguish
bcLwccnwhaLisinnaLcandwhaLLakcsshapcslowly.
Tc usc o cxLrcmc rccrcnccs occurs again in Lhc wriLings o Hcnry
IVs docLor, 1oscph Du Chcsnc, an amaLcur sLoryLcllcr whosc hisLorical
anccdoLcspublishcdin6oocragallcryomodclschoscnromLhc
pasL LhaL rccounL Lhc ignominious cnd Lhc ovcrly aL pcrson will acc.
2
Tcrc is Pomponius whosc grcaL sizc rcquircs him Lo carry his sLomach
aroundinawhcclbarrow,AdclbcrL,LhcbishopoWorms,whodicdsu-
ocaLing in a body LhaL had bccomc groLcsquc, Dcnys o Hcraclcs, Lhc
hcdonisL philosophcr, who was subjccLcd Lo lccchcs day and nighL Lo
LrcaLhislandslidcocsh.TcargumcnLisncw:invokcLhcmonsLrous
Lo bcLLcr disLurb Lhc public and Lransorm abusivc bodics o Lhc pasL
inLounqucsLionablclcssonsorLhcprcscnL.TcviLupcraLivcdocLor
inLimidaLcs.HcimposcsbyalarmingandprcachcswiLhLhrcaLswiLhouL
LhclcasLnuanccorlimiL.
TcrcrcmainsLhcquasi-pcdagogicalcvocaLion,LhiscxaggcraLcdLrans-
posiLionoLhcvcrybiginLoawarningsignabouLLhcdangcroallcxccss.
TcgluLLonouspassioniscvcnsomcLimcsdcscribcdasLhculLimaLcpun-
ishmcnL:consLanLingcsLion,cndlcssmcals,suchaswiLhLhcmadncsso
Lhc Baron MonLorL rclaLcd by Iouis Cuyon in 6.
3
MonLorL is so ar
goncLhaLhcrcnounccdallslccpinginordcrLocaLmorc.AsLhoughcaL-
ingmadccvcryLhingincrcasc:cvcrishccding,inniLcaccumulaLion.IL
ocrsdocLorsawayLocxploiLcar.TcacccnLisplaccdlcssonLhcsinand
disordcroLhcgourmcLLhanonLhcphysicaldccaLandallingooLhc
cndlcsscaLcr,LhcpoinLislcssoncoaulLLhanopcrishing,cvcnLhough
LhcdocLorrcLainsaprcachyLoncandisshorLoncxplanaLion.
TcimagcsarcspccicallyocuscdonLhccxLrcmc,bccauscjudgcdLobc
LhcmosLvisiblcandsLriking,andLcndLoignorcallinLcrmcdiaLcsLagcs.
NoLhingismorcdiculLLhancxplainingdcgrccsosomcLhing.NoLhing
The Plural of Fat 47
morc diculL Lo apprchcnd ciLhcr. Tis is cvidcnL in Lhc dcscripLion o
CaLhcrincdcMcdicissdocLorsbysomcILalianambassadors.Tcscdoc-
Lors cxprcss no worrics unLil Lhc quccn bccomcs cnormously plump.
4
TismighLcxplainLhcpossiblccnduringsilcnccovcrmcdiumaLncss,
LhcbcginningsobccomingLoobig,iLssLagcs,andslowprogrcssions.
Fear of Apoplexy
A numbcr o sympLoms rclaLcd Lo bigncss arc bcLLcr objccLicd by
modcrn docLors: plcLhora, apoplcxy, and hydropsy. A numbcr o links
bcLwccn volumc and sympLoms bccomc morc xcd, alLhough volumc
rcmains largcly undcncd. IaurcnL 1oubcrL is onc among Lhosc who
Lhcorizc Lhis aLLcnLion Lo sympLoms in ,8, rcscrving or Lhc docLor
inLclligcnccabouLmanyLhingsLhaLpcoplcdoandsaywiLhouLknowing
why.
5
Such an iniLiaLivc has alrcady bccn largcly sLudicd by hisLorians,
rcvcaling Lhc cmcrgcncc o modcrn scicncc, Lhc aLLcmpL Lo push away
olkknowlcdgcsoasLobcLLcrspcciyncwwaysoknowing,LhoughsLill
ormalisL,anddccpcnarmaLionsabouLLhcpalpablyvisiblc.
6
Obscrva-
LionsscizconobjccLsinordcrLospcciyLhcmbcLLcr.
ILisllingup,LhcaccumulaLionoanabundanccoallLhchumors,
LhaLLakcsongrcaLcrprcscncc.
7
NoLjusLsimplcsLomachpain,orcxam-
plc,ascvokcdbyAldcbrandinoSicnnaorBcrnarddcCordoninLhcLhir-
LccnLhccnLury,buLancnscmblcoinLcrrclaLcdsigns.AccrLain1canFcr-
nclinonoLcsrcddcningoLhccycs,bcaLingarLcrics,lcngLhcning
oLhcbody,slowncssomovcmcnL,hcavincssoslccp,andsuocaL-
ing hcaL, Lhus privilcging concrcLc obscrvaLion insLcad o Lhc old pro-
nounccmcnL o diagnosLic ccrLiLudc.
S
Tc scnsc o Loo much bccomcs
morcrcncdanddivcrsicd,cvcniLhcinvcsLigaLioninLoLhisplcLhora
sLillhasLroublcdisLinguishingbcLwccnLhcsimplcprcscnccobloodand
LhaLoaLandhumors.ALhrcaLisalsospccicdLhaLLargcLssomcvio-
lcnLandprcssingsympLomsapoplcxy.
0
TismorLalaccidcnL,wiLhiLsabrupLlossoconsciousncssandallscn-
saLion, was noL discovcrcd by sixLccnLh-ccnLury mcdicinc. Bcrnard dc
CordonalrcadymcnLionsiLinLhcLhirLccnLhccnLury,claimingplcLhora
asiLsanLcccdcnLcausc.
1u
TcriskoapoplcxyhadbccnnoLcdoralong
Limc. FvcryLhing changcs, Lhough, bcLwccn Lhc mcdicval commcnLary
oLhcscdcaLhsandLhcmodcrncommcnLaryoLhcscsamcaccidcnLs.
As wc saw, in rclaLion Lo Lhc drama o involving CasLon o Foixs
rcLurnromahunL,FroissarLcspcciallyinsisLsonLhcimmcdiaLccccL,
48 THE MODERN OAF
LhcLoLalsurprisc,andLhccorLLobringLhccounLbackLolicbygiving
him comorLing Lhings Lo rcsLorc his orcc.
11
In LhaL accounL Lhcrc arc
nocarlysigns,cxccpLpcrhapsLhcbigmcalscvokcdbyFroissarLmorcas
ornamcnL Lhan as omcn. Onc noLcs Lhc ncccssary sLcp Lakcn aLcr Lhc
accidcnL: Lhc aLLcmpL Lo orLiy Lhc paLicnL during his loss o con-
sciousncss,LhcLurnLooodLorcsLorcorcc.
WiLhanoLhcrouLlookcomcsanoLhcrapproach,howcvcr.InLhcclas-
sicalFranccoSainL-Simon,LhcdcaLhoMonsicurprovokcscxacLlyLhc
opposiLcgcsLurc.Morcovcr,LhccarlysignsarcinsisLcdupon:Lhcprinccs
largcsizc,wornouLbydcbauchcry,aL,noncck,
12
Lhcimpassioncddis-
puLcwiLhLhcking,hisbroLhcr,somchoursbcorcLhcaLalaccidcnLand
LhcinamcdvisagcLhaLollowcd,andLhcmcalwhcrcMonsicuraLcLo
cxLrcmcs, downing all day Lhc paLisscrics, jams, and oLhcr LrcaLs LhaL
always llcd Lhc Lablcs, cupboards, and his pockcLs.
13
Tc rccrcncc Lo
signsLargcLsbchavior,physicalcaLurcs,andLhcskin.Tcyimplyamorc
mcchanical and amiliar rcprcscnLaLion o vcsscls and Lhcir saLuraLion,
Lcnsion,andpossiblcblockagcsoLhcnaLuralcourscobloodrollinglikc
LhroughLhcLubcsoaounLain.
14
ApoplcxyisLhusmorcassociaLcdwiLh
Lhc world o Lhc aL, Lo Lhc poinL whcrc Monsicurs concssor LhrcaLcn-
ingly warns Lhc princc somc monLhs bcorc his dcaLh.
15
Tc only LrcaL-
mcnLinLhiscasc:bloodlcLLing,LhccvacuaLionoLhcLoomuchraLhcr
LhaniLsrcinorccmcnL.
TcdiscovcryoLhcbloodscirculaLionin6:8probablyplaycdarolc
in Lhc dcvclopmcnL o Lhcsc cars. Tc massivc inux and rupLurc o
canalsLhaLarcnowbcLLcrundcrsLoodlcadLoacrisisLhaLisquiLcdicr-
cnLromwhaLwasdcscribcdbcorc.TccarlicrsiLuaLionwaslinkcdLoa
lackoorcc,LhclaLcroncLoavisiblcprcssurc.MorcimporLanL,Lhcrcis
ancwwayoobscrvingLhaLsLarLsinLhcsixLccnLhccnLury,longbcorc
LhcdiscovcryobloodscirculaLion,LhaLgavcmorcprcscnccLoapoplcxy:
rcdncss in Lhc acc, Lhickcning vcins, and divcrsc cclings o lcngLhcn-
ingorhcavincss.DocLorsobscrvcdicrcnLly.OncnoLcs,orcxamplc,Lhc
ccrLiLudc o 1acodomus Iommius, Lhc docLor o Lhc princcs o Orangc
around o, who poinLs ouL Lhosc mosL cxposcd Lo Lhis condiLion as
bcingpcoplcwiLhshorLLhinncckswholcadanidlclic,passingLhcir
Limc caLing and drinking.
16
Tcrc is also Nicolas Abraham dc la Fram-
boisicrc, aL Lhc bcginning o Lhc scvcnLccnLh ccnLury, who poinLs ouL
phlcgmaLics and drunkards who havc shorL nccks.
17
Tc imagc o Lhc
shorLncckrccursoLcnamongLhcnoLablcsigns,anindicaLionocom-
prcssion,inLcrnalconsLrainL,odiculLylivingorbrcaLhing.Tcimagc
odrinkalsoblcndswiLhLhcscLradiLional,inLuiLivccccLsollingup.
1canRiolancxplainsiLcvcnmorc,invokingLhclargcsizcandcomprcs-
sionoLhcncck(collumbreve),whcrcboLhconsLricLLhcpassagcsand
LcndLodcprivcLhcbrainoiLsblood,obsLrucLingcaroLidarLcricsand
ccphalicvcinsandLhusblockingnourishmcnLLoLhchcad,rcsulLingin
anabrupLlossoconsciousncsscauscdbycomprcssionoLhccsh.
1S
Apoplcxy is morc rcqucnLly ciLcd in mcmoirs and oLhcr accounLs.
PicrrcdcILoilc,whoscJournalgivcsasorLoinvcnLoryosuddcndcaLhs
occurring aL Lhc cnd o Lhc sixLccnLh and bcginning o Lhc scvcnLccnLh
ccnLury,dcscribcsbigcaLcrs,noLcsscrupulouslyLhcaqucousclimaLc,Lhc
humid,unhcalLhyair,Lhcmuggy,rainywcaLhcrLhaLallwcighonLhc
humors,incrcasingLhcnumbcroapoplcxics.
10
TclcLLcrsoCuyPaLin
somc dccadcs laLcr mulLiply Lhc cxamplcs o good, round, ull, ruddy
companions dcad rom apoplcxy or rom somc suocaLing inamma-
Lion.
2u
NoL LhaL bigncss gcLs any bcLLcr dcniLion hcrc. Tc sympLoms
LhaLarclikclyLoaccompanyiL,howcvcr,arcmorcclosclyobscrvcd.
Fat Talk, an Abstract Discourse
Tis docs noL mcan LhaL Lhcrc is bcLLcr knowlcdgc o whaL aL is. Con-
usion pcrsisLs, as wcll as sLrangc associaLions bcLwccn Lhc abundancc
oaL,oblood,phlcgm,andoLhcrhumors.FvcryLhingsLcmsromLhc
combinaLion o hcavy ccding and idlcncss, arms Hcnri dc MonLcux
in,
21
orinLcmpcranccandidlcncss,wriLcsMichaclFLLmullcrinLhc
scvcnLccnLhccnLury.
22
BuLLhiscvcryLhingrcmainsanopaqucmixLurc,
cvcn i cngcndcrcd by a common causc. Blood and aL, Lhough disLin-
guishcdaswords,arcsilcnLlyconuscdasacLorsconLribuLingLoahcavy
accumulaLionprcssingoncshandvcsscls.1canDcvcaux,LhcauLhoro
Ones Own Doctor (Mdecin de soi-mme) aL Lhc cnd o Lhc scvcnLccnLh
ccnLurysccsasprooLhcquanLiLyobloodprovokcdbydcbauchcry
andimmodcraLcpracLiccsLhaLlcadLocxccssmaLcrials.
23
FaL rcmains an obscurc subsLancc or scvcnLccnLh-ccnLury mcdi-
cinc.ILisasubsLanccLhaL,ouLsidcoallchcmicalknowlcdgc,isknown
Lhrough inLuiLivc rccrcnccs and parLial obscrvaLions LhaL combinc
divcrgcnccandobscuriLy.DisagrccmcnLsonLhcsubjccLmulLiply,prov-
ing only Lhc ncw inLcrcsL in cxaggcraLcd Lhickncss. AbouL iLs localiza-
Lion, or cxamplc, 1can Riolan arms in 66 LhaL aL is hcld LogcLhcr
by a mcmbranc undcr Lhc skin, a sorL o Lunic LhaL can grow in sizc
whilc covcring Lhc body likc a piccc o cloLhing.
24
Whcrcas in 6,:
DicmcrbrocckinsisLsonLhcdiusccharacLcroLhisoilLhaLinlLraLcs
50 THE MODERN OAF
wiLhnoprccisclimiL.
25
In68:,FabriccdcHaldansuggcsLs,onLhccon-
Lrary,LhaLLhcrcarcballsoaLacccnLuaLingLhcvolumcoLhcsLomach
andoaLingrcclyinLhcabdomcnlikcsomanyauLonomousobjccLs
susccpLiblc o bcing cxpcllcd likc wasLc. Tis is supposcdly provcd Lo
Haldan by a aL paLicnL who abrupLly bccomcs Lhinncr aLcr cxpclling
romhisanusLhrccballsoaLcovcrcdwiLhskin.Nosurprisc,howcvcr,
onccLhcscballsarcsliccdinhal:LhcaLLycnvclopcrcvcalsagclaLinous
pulposilvcryaLLhaLisraLhcrcompacLandmilky.
26
Tcrcarcdisagrcc-
mcnLs abouL Lhc origin o Lhis maLcrial as wcll. Docs aL comc dirccLly
romblood,csscnLiallyiLsdcnscrcomponcnLLhaLLhclivcrsupposcdly
badly proccsscs, as LradiLionally said` Or docs iL comc rom chylc, a
whiLc,milkyliquidLhaLissucsasamaLcrialromLhcsLomach,anaquc-
ousconvcrsionooodbcorciLisLransormcdinLobloodbyLhclivcr,
as Michacl FLLmullcr bclicvcs`
27
AL Lhc bcginning o Lhc scvcnLccnLh
ccnLury,SancLoriusconsidcrsaLLobcLhccccLoarclaLivccoolingo
humors (ex frigiditate) LhaL lcads Lo a ccrLain pcLriying o maLcrial.
2S
TcrcarcalsodisagrccmcnLsabouLwhaLiLrcscmblcs.IsLhcnuLriLivc
csscnccoaLrclaLcdLoLhaLoncrvcs,asLhcFnglishanaLomisLWalLcr
CharlcLon Lhinks,
20
or Lo LhaL o milk, as Lhc Frcnch physician Charlcs
PcrraulL bclicvcs`
3u
Finally Lhcrc arc disagrccmcnLs abouL Lhc sLabiliLy
o Lhc maLcrial. For cxamplc, aL is prcsumcd Lo bc in movcmcnL oncc
Lhc circulaLion o blood is discovcrcd by Harvcy in 6:8 and Lhc lym-
phaLicsysLcmisdiscovcrcdbyAsclliin6,.MalpighiclaimsLoshowaL
Lravcling and sliding as iLs disLribuLcd by Lhc abdomcn Lo oLhcr parLs
oLhcbodyLhroughadiposccanalsmakingimprobablcpassagcways,
31
whilcClaudcPcrraulLimagincsoilysLocksbringingnourishmcnLincasc
oncccssiLyinawaysimilarLohowmarmoLsandbcarsinLhcirwinLcr
dcns absorb Lhcir lard.
32
Tcrc is also Lhc vision urLhcrcd by micro-
scopcsinLhcsccondhaloLhcscvcnLccnLhccnLuryLhaLoricnLsLoward
uncxpccLcd dcscripLions discounLing Lhc localizaLion o aL, imagining
sacks,pockcLs,andglandsasminusculcopaciLicsLhcmagniyingglass
rcvcalsassaLuraLingmusclcsandskin.
TcscindicaLionsarclargclyormalcsoLcriccvcnandhardlyscri-
ous.TcyarcconncdLohypoLhcsis,limiLcdLoLhcnarrowcirclcomcdi-
calcliLcs,andLhcircccLonpracLiccisallbuLnoncxisLcnL.TcyonlyLcs-
LiyLoLhcincrcascdinLcrcsLamongFuropcandocLorsoLhcclassicalagc
inLhisaLLysubsLanccandLoLhcirrclaLivcpowcrlcssncsswhcniLcomcs
LocxplainingiLscrcaLionandcomposiLion.TcdocLorsunqucsLionablc
curiosiLyanddcmandsdonoLycLLranslaLcinLoanyLhingLrulypracLical
ormcdical.
Specifying Hydropsy
IL is cspccially conccrning hydropsy LhaL a ncw vision bccomcs csLab-
lishcdinLhcsixLccnLhandscvcnLccnLhccnLurywiLhaclcarcropposiLion
bcLwccnLhcswcllingocrringwaLcrsandLhcdcnsiLyoaLLycsh.Bal-
looning, on Lhc onc hand, and compacLncss, on Lhc oLhcr, organizc Lhc
dicrcnccsbcLwccnLhchydropicandLhcadiposcpcrson.
MorcaLLcnLionispaidLoLhccccLsodispcrscdaqucosiLics.Obscr-
vaLionsarcmorcpoinLcdLhccycjudgingLhcpossiblcmodicaLiono
volumcs according Lo dicrcnL graviLics, body bcnL, body pronc, cach
wiLh dicrcnL oaLings, Lhc ngcr mcasuring Lhc possiblc dcprcssion
inLoLhcskin,LhccarlisLcningorLhcpossiblcnoiscsoLhcwaLcrs.Onc
cxamplc,amongoLhcrs,isLhcarmaLionbyAmbroiscParcin,oLhaL
whcnLhcpaLicnLislyingonhisbackLhcproLubcranccislcssapparcnL
bccauscLhcwaLcrsprcadshcrcandLhcrc.
33
TiscxplainsLhcdicrcnccs
inLhcaccidiLyoconLours.OncsympLomdominaLcsindcscripLionso
Lhc sixLccnLh ccnLury, asciLcs and iLs cxccpLional abdominal cxpansion
and aqucous rcsonancc. 1acodomus Iummius shows how Lhc swclling
inLhiscascisconncdLoLhclowcrparLsoLhcbody,bcginningwiLhan
invasionoLhclcgs,ollowcdbyLhaLoLhcabdomcn,whilclcavingLhc
rcsLoLhcbodyLhinncr.
34
TisisinmarkcdconLrasLLoLhcovcrallinva-
sioninLhcadiposcpcrson.
Tc anaLomisLs pausc ovcr Lhcsc movablc masscs. Tc hundrcd and
cighLy pounds o roLLcn waLcr
35
ound in Lhc bowcls o a woman dis-
sccLcdbyVcsalcinLhcmiddlcoLhcsixLccnLhccnLuryorLhcgrcaLquan-
LiLy o rcddish waLcr cxLracLcd somc dccadcs laLcr rom a cadavcr o a
young ULrcchL girl whosc sLomach had bccomc incrcdibly cnormous
whilcLhcrcsLohcrbodyrcmaincdsLronglycmaciaLcd.
36
Tcscarcall
cascs o liquid accumulaLion LhaL arc judgcd quiLc dicrcnLly rom Lhc
compacLncssoaLpcoplc.
Classical-agc docLors also spcnd Limc dcvcloping mcchanical cxpla-
naLions:LhcsLraincxcrLcdbycxccsshumorsonLhclivcr,orcxamplc,
Lhc organ producing blood, and how Lhcsc humors crush Lhc bloods
canalsLoLhcpoinLoobsLrucLingLhcpassagcoliquidsandscrumu-
ids, disLurbing Lhc inLcrsLiccs and gcncralizing diusions.
37
Or ovcrly
colddrinksLhaLparalyzcapaLicnLsorgans,asFLLmullcrarms,acLing
duringLhcnighLandaccumulaLinghcpaLicchillsandcxccssbcorcLhc
cxaggcraLcd swclling o Lhc sLomach is noLiccd.
3S
Tc hydropic pcrson
has a parLicular prolc, combining Lhinncss duc Lo lack o ood and
cngorgcmcnLducLocxccsswaLcr.TisisprccisclyLhcdcscripLiongivcn
52 THE MODERN OAF
by 1can IhcrmiLc in 8 o Philippc II, who dicd o hydropsy: his
calvcs,Lhighs,andsLomachwcrcvcryswollcn,whilcLhcrcsLohisbody
wassoLhinasLobconlyskinsLrcLchcdovcrbonc.
30
OLhcrcauscswould
sccmLohavcbccnpossiblc:urincs,hcmorrhoids,orrcLaincdmcnsLrual
uidallcondiLionsmobilizingdicrcnLhumors.
Tc arLicial opcning o Lhc sLomach, howcvcr, is donc morc carc-
ully. Around 8o Ambroisc Parc can sLill nd normal Lhc sLory o
Lhc Parisian porLcr namcd Co-i-you-can (Vas-si-tu-peux) whosc cnor-
mous sLomach is picrccd by Lhc knic o a companion in somc kind o
brawl,cxudingaquanLiLyoroLLcnwaLcr,
4u
bcorcLhcmanrccovcrshis
sLrcngLh and gocs back Lo work. Tcrc rcmains Lhc dclicaLc problcm o
making an incision. In 6 Nicolas Abraham dc la Framboisicrc insisLs
onLhcncccssiLyoalcrLingLhcricndsoLhcpaLicnLLhaLLhisrcmcdy
isaccompanicdbygrcaLdangcr.
41
InLhcmiddlcoLhcscvcnLccnLhccn-
Lury,IazarcRivicrc,aLcrhavingmcnLioncdLhccascoamanopcncd
wiLhouLcclinganypain,dcscribcshimdyingwiLhouLanysLrcngLhlcL
somchourslaLcr.TcobscrvaLionisclcar:NcvcrhavcanyoLhoscopcr-
aLcdonrccovcrcd.
42
Tc68LrcaLiscoTomasSydcnhamonhydropsy
conrmsLhcincviLablcailurc:viLallcsions,gangrcncdcsh.
43
SLrangc bclics pcrsisL. Iazarc Rivicrc, or cxamplc, arms around
68oLhaLhydropicswiLhswollcnlcgscangcLridosomcuidbycuLLing
Lhcir Locnails shorL Lo Lhc poinL o blccding.
44
Tc imagc o a bladdcr
conLaining liquids likc a wincskin has noL bccn crascd. SLrangc convic-
LionspcrsisLaswcll,suchasinLhcdcscripLionbyMargravcoBayrcuLh
o a curious malady ovcrcoming a Ccrman princcss aL Lhc sLarL o Lhc
cighLccnLh ccnLury: Hcr body swcllcd up cnormously cvcry morn-
ing and Lhc swclling subsidcd cvcry cvcning.
45
And Lhcrc arc Lhc odd
cascs dcscribcd by Marco Scvcrini in Lhc scvcnLccnLh ccnLury: anaLo-
mics dcormcd by immcnsc cxLravasaLions Lransorming Lhcir backs
inLo a numbcr o cxLrcmcly curvcd liLLlc bcllics.
46
Tcsc arc mysLcri-
ous,sccrcLsympLomsnoLcdwiLhliLLlccommcnLaryorcxplanaLion.Tc
novclLy,lcLsrcpcaL,isclscwhcrc,inLhcbcLLcrdcniLionohydropsy,a
bcLLcrdcniLionoiLsincidcnccandiLsaqucosiLics.
TcrcarcalsoncwlimiLshowcvcr.ObsLaclcsLoaclcardcniLionarisc
rom doubLs abouL Lhc origin o Lhc growLh, as wcll as rom Lhc divcr-
siLy aLLribuLcd Lo Lhc maladya disordcr LhaL is abovc all associaLcd
wiLh Lhcsc volumcs. Tus Tommaso Campanclla in 6 ciLcs hydropsy
righLawayasoncoLhcmajormaladicshcwanLsLoprcvcnLamongLhc
inhabiLanLsohisCiLyoLhcSun.
47
Specifying the Excess of Gout
InaddiLionLoLhcinLcrminablcdcbaLcsabouLLhcoriginoaLLyoraquc-
ousmaLLcr,LhcrcarcLhcinLcrminablcdcbaLcsabouLLhcoriginogouL,
alsoconsidcrcdLobclinkcdLosupcruiLicsohumors.
4S
In o 1can Fcrncl suggcsLs an cxplanaLion LhaL brcaks wiLh Lradi-
Lion: Lhc LighLcning around Lhc brain o humors Lhcn alling by graviLy
and inlLraLing ovcrly soL or unconLracLcd arLiculaLions.
40
Tc brain
would acL likc a plungcr, iLs coldncss aLLracLing humors upward bcorc
lcLLingLhcmalldownloadcdwiLhhardcoldphlcgm.
5u
WhcncccomcsLhc
bcginning o Lhc malady: Lhc liquid mixLurc, Lhoroughly prcsscd undcr
Lhc skull, slidcs inLo Lhc narrowncss o Lhc joinLs causing irriLaLion and
impcdingmovcmcnL.TcrcisalsoLhcovcrallimagcoabodyLravcrscd
byhumors,asorLocyclcwhcrcLhcvaporsriscand,oncccondcnscdin
Lhchcad,allbackdownLowardLhclimbs,sLoppingaLLhcvcryboLLom.
Following1canFcrncl,NicolasAbrahamdclaFramboisicrcclaimsconr-
maLionoLhisallbypoinLingLoaLravclingpainspccicLogouLpaLicnLs:
oncscnscsLhcpainliLLlcbyliLLlcalongLhcncck,orLhroughLhcshoul-
dcrsandalongLhcclbowsandhands,oralongLhcback.
51
Tcpainisa
disLurbcddisLillaLion:LhcdcuxionisallLhcmorcswollcnasLhcmal-
ady o Lhc brain is rcvcalcd, provoking cxcrcmcnL and supcruiLics.
52
TcdcscripLionoLhcgouLpaLicnLiscomplicaLcdurLhcr,inammaLions
Lakcovcr,obsLrucLingspiLLlcLhaLisdcnscwiLhcondcnscdmaLLcr.
Tcrc rcmain a numbcr o disagrccmcnLs abouL Lhc origin o Lhcsc
joinL LormcnLs, all supposcdly linkcd, howcvcr, Lo cxccss humor as wcll
asLosomccaLingcxccss.TcrcisnodoubLabouLLhcsupcruiLics,par-
LicularlyoncsLhaLalldownromLhchcadlikcaounLainoinamma-
Lions [catharres],
53
buL Lhcrc is a mulLipliciLy o hypoLhcscs conccrning
LhcprcscnccooLhcrdisordcrs,digcsLivcLroublcs,unproccsscdmixLurcs,
andLhclackocoction,
54
orcxamplc,LhcbodysinsucicnLcookingo
ccrLainoods.InaddiLion,Lhcrcarcimpcdcdows:mcnsLrualorhcm-
orrhoidal,
55
swcaLsandabsccsscsdivcrscsubsLanccsLhaLarcrcLaincd
Loolong.SuggcsLionsaboundcvcnasLoLhcspccicrolcplaycdbywinc,
orcxamplc,inLhisaccounLbyTomasSydcnhamohisprivaLccxpcri-
cncc in 68: Tough iLs Lruc LhaL ovcrcaLing and a Loo largc quanLiLy
o ood oLcn produccs gouL, iL is cvcn morc oLcn Lhc rcsulL o cxccss
consumpLionowincwhoscharmulvaporscorrupLLhcdigcsLivcbacLc-
ria,prccipiLaLinguncookcdparLiclcs,andloadingLhcbloodwiLhanabun-
danccocxccssivchumorsLhaLwcakcnanddcsLroyanimalspiriLs.
56
54 THE MODERN OAF
TcsourccsogouLLcndLodivcrsiy,cvcniLhcmaladyappcarspri-
marily as Lhc child o wcalLh, Lo Lhc poinL whcrc Paul Dubc wriLcs in
6o LhaL hc long hcsiLaLcd abouL including iL in his maladics o Lhc
poor.
57
IouisXIVsdocLorsscizcanoccasionin6,LoaccuscLhcwinco
RivcsalLcsohavingprovokcdancpisodcogouLsosLrongLhckingwas
prcvcnLcdromslccpingmorcLhanLwoorLhrcchours,
5S
andanoLhcrin
68 Lo dccry Lhc grcaL mcals o FonLaincblcau supposcd Lo havc pro-
duccdaswcllingoLhcrighLanklc(o)andanoLhcrin6,whcncaL-
ing a highly avorcd ragouL, Lriggcrs such a sharp and cnduring pain
LhaLLhckingcannoLpuLwcighLonLhisooL(o).AndLhcnLhcrcarc
Lhc sLrong, cold souLhwcsL winds LhaL occur in Dcccmbcr o Lhc samc
ycar LhaL makc Lhc gouL lasL longcr (o). ILs a scrious malady LhaL
causcsLhckingLohavcshivcrs,sharppains,wcakncsscs,anddizzy
spclls. Tc inrmiLy o gouL impcdcs walking, ncccssiLaLcs consLanL
carc, spccial cquipmcnL, and LransporLaLion such as a whcclchair LhaL
bccomcsncccssaryorLhckingLogcLaroundsLarLinginLhc,oos(o).
BcyondLhcscdcbaLcsabouLcauscs,LhcHealth Diary of Louis XIV(Jour-
nal de sant de Louis XIV) shows Lhc impossibiliLy o idcnLiying a gouLy
humor.TcmaladyisLoomobilc:scizingLhcooL,conqucringLhcanklc,
sprcading ovcr Lhc csh o Lhc lcg, aLLacking Lhc shouldcr, Lurning inLo
a cold, or alLcrnaLivcly dcciding Lo movc Lo Lhc hcad (:o). IL is also Loo
obscurc: IL sccms LhaL no onc has ycL discovcrcd cxacLly rom whcncc
iL comcs or how iL ows.
50
NoLhing is morc diculL Lo masLcr Lhan Lhis
humor,whcrcasiLsclcariLcorrcspondsLoanunhcalLhylicsLylcandLoo
muchidlcncss.
6u
NoLhingislcssidcnLiablc,cvcnLhoughiLsmcchanisms
appcarLobccloscLoLhoscoLhcaLpcrson.
Tc only suggcsLivc parallcl would bc Lhc dcscripLion o Lhc gouLy
pcrson proposcd by Syndcnham aL Lhc cnd o Lhc scvcnLccnLh ccnLury:
bighcad,ull,soL,humidcorpulcncc,sLrong,robusLconsLiLuLion.
61
OvcrcaLing is considcrcd ccnLral, iL would sccm, Lo Lhc mcchanism LhaL

LriggcrsiL,buLLhcconscqucnccsrcmainsomcwhaLmysLcrious.
DcspiLcLhcscconuscdimagcsocxccsshumors,Lhcirrcmovalisprc-
scribcdwiLhasinglcprogram:cvacuaLing,cuLLingback,dryingouL.BuL
slimmingdownissLillasingularlycomplcxproblcm.
7. Exploring Images, Dening Terms
BcyondLhcworldomcdicinc,ancwcuriosiLyabouLsizccxprcsscsiLscl
inLhcsixLccnLhandscvcnLccnLhccnLuricsLhroughmorcdcvclopcdico-
nographicsandawidcrarrayoLcrmsorLhinandaL.
Fngravings and painLings aLLcmpL morc Lhan bcorc Lo rcprcscnL Lhc
hcavy pcrson, Lo givc visiblc dcLail Lo Lhc apparcnL shorLcning o Lhc
limbs,Lhcsquashcdncck,andLhcabbychinandchccks.TcassociaLcd
LcrminologyLricsLosuggcsLnuanccsinLhcabscnccoallquanLicdmca-
surcmcnLs.NcwwordsLryLocxprcssdcgrccsoprolcsbcyondLhcsorLs
oinsulLsalrcadymcnLioncd.TcscgradaLionsrcmainobscurcandvaguc,
howcvcr, and oLcn o limiLcd usc. Tcrc arc, aL any raLc, morc Lcrms
availablc in Lhc sixLccnLh and scvcnLccnLh ccnLurics Lo spcciy lcvcls o
bigncss, whcrcas Lhcy had bccn cxLrcmcly rarc in Lhc mcdicval pcriod,
cvcnioddcombinaLionspcrsisL.Forcxamplc,inhisDiverses Leonsrom
6o,IouisCuyonassociaLcsLhickncssandLallncssascharacLcrisLicso
corpulcncc, whcrcas hc associaLcs Lhinncss and shorLncss wiLh bcing
skinnyasLhoughorhimnoonccouldbcboLhshorLandaL.
1
Images and Realism of Features
Tc world o imagcs conrms Lhc hcighLcncd aLLcnLion dcvoLcd Lo
Lhc subjccL. Tc iconography changcs signicanLly during Lhc Rcnais-
sancc.
2
Tc curvcs o Lhc rcal body as much as Lhc cxLravaganccs
56 THE MODERN OAF
o naLurc mobilizc Lhc cncrgics o painLcrs and cngravcrs.
3
Physical
conLoursadornvisualarLoallkinds.TingsandpcoplcLakconmorc
Lhickncssand sLrangcncss. Spacc cxisLs dicrcnLly. A rcalism com-
mcnLcd on and cxcmplicd counLlcss Limcs by arL hisLorians imposcs
iLscl and alLcrs ways o looking and inLcrcsLs.
4
Morcovcr, Lhis rcncws
LhcscicnccomonsLcrsaLLhccndoLhcsixLccnLhccnLury,
5
oncasci-
naLcdbysomcsorLodivincinLcrvcnLion.TcscdcvclopmcnLsconrm
cspcciallyLhccxLcnLLowhichLhcuncxpccLcd,LhcasLonishing,andLhc
cxccssivc havc bccomc dominanL.
6
And Lhis cxplains Lhc curiosiLy or
cxccssivcandcvcndissonanLorms.
BuLiLiscxclusivclyLhcvcrybigpcrsonwhoacquircsaddiLionalchar-
acLcrisLics. A vaguc lack o disLincLion conLinucs abouL Lhc phascs LhaL
rangc bcLwccn Lhc cnormous and Lhc normal. Hicronymus Boschs
monk,carcullyrcprcscnLcdasaball,isacharacLcrisLiccxamplc:noncck,
cxLrcmcly round acc and Lrunk, wiLh Lhc siLLing posiLion bcing iLscl
prccarious, as Lhough Lhc round volumc wcrc Lippy and unsLablc.
7
Tc
porLraiLs o Iucas Cranach around :oo mulLiply Lhc rcprcscnLa-
LionomassivcaccsaLopnccklcssLrunks,chcsLsLhaLcxLcndbcyondLhc
visualramc,andill-dcncdshouldcrslosLinLhcovcrallroundncss.
S
Tc
wiLchcs o Urs Cra, on Lhc oLhcr hand, dcmonsLraLc Lhcir cxccss con-
sumpLionomcaLwiLhaLoLalcollapscLowardLhcground.
0
Tcbcyond
normal ocuscs curiosiLy and qucsLions abouL Lhc naLural. Tc vcry
big drowns in dcLails and swccps asidc all prcconccpLions and dcgrccs.
FurLhcrmorc,asinglcormalpossibiliLysccmsLobcconsidcrcdLhaLo
gcncralizcdroundncss,LhcdisappcaranccojoinLs,agcncralswclling,a
compacL,uniLaryball.TcspcciccxpansionoLhcbclly,Lhclocalabdom-
inalroundncss,orcxamplc,isnoLaLallsLudicdasiLwillbclaLcr.WhaL
counLs is ovcrall roundncss, Lhc global glob, in oLhcr words Lhc archaic
vision o Lhc big pcrson. And Lhis is so dcspiLc Lhc acL LhaL sixLccnLh-
ccnLuryphysiognomyspccialisLscarcullypuLorwardLwoprolcs:LhaL
o Lhc big bclly bclonging Lo Lhc dccply proud lovcr o luxury and Lhc
soLhangingbcllybclongingLoLhcinLcmpcraLcdrunkard.
1u
Tc originaliLy o Lhcsc imagcs in Lhc sixLccnLh ccnLury, howcvcr,
isnoLcxclusivclydcscripLivc.TcormsoLhcvcrybigpcrsonarcnoL
onlyrcprcscnLcd,Lhcyarccxplorcd.TcirsLudybccomcsccnLralwiLh
Lhc aLLcmpL Lo rcndcr orms and aspccLs. Iucas Cranach shows Lhis
in his rcligious sccncs whcrc Lhc sLudicd acadcmic qualiLy o Lhc aLLi-
LudcsandposiLionsoughLLohavcdicLaLcdallLhccaLurcs,whcrcasan
abrupLrcalismiswhaLwinsouL.HiscngravingoLhccrucixion
givcsLhcLhiconLhclcLabodyovcrowingwiLhaL,hissinsLhcrcby
Exploring Images, Dening Terms 57
dcclarcd by Lhis inLcnsc sagging: soL csh, alling bclly, knoLLcd,
roundcd,shorLswollcnLhighs.
11
CranachisinscarchowhaLwillLrans-
laLcLhcLoLalcollapscoLhcbody:Lhcbclly,Lhcloins,LhcLhighswiLh
aLLyolds,LhcLhickncssoLhcskinbcLwccnLhcLrunkandarms,Lhc
apparcnLshorLcningoLhclimbsprovokcdbyLhcaccumulaLionoLoo
much. Tc goal is noLhing lcss Lhan an iconographic sLudy o cxccss:
LhcrcdundanLbodyoLhcLhicononcsidc,LhchaggardbodyoChrisL
onLhcoLhcr.AlbrcchLDurcrconrmsLhiscxploraLioninmanyconcisc
rcprcscnLaLions. For cxamplc, Lhc ink drawing o Lhc aL man bcorc
Lhc mirror insisLs on Lhc squashcd ncck, Lhc inniLc olds o csh,
andLhcroundcdcaLurcsoLhclcgsandarms.
12
Tcdrawingowomcn
baLhing dcpicLs onc o Lhcm as immobilc, sagging, wiLh no ncck, and
asquarcLrunkaswidcasiLishigh.
13
FvcryLraiLsccmsLoocusonLhc
Loomuch.Tcrcis,howcvcr,onlyasinglcormalpossibiliLy:Lhcpcr-
ccLlyroundsphcrc.
AlbrcchLDurcrwanLcdLosysLcmaLizcLhcsLudyoLhcvcrybigpcr-
son by cxploring in his book on proporLions Lhc dicrcnccs bcLwccn
skinnyandaL:doublcchinorLhclaLLcr,LhcbcndoLhcbclly,swollcn
lcgs, and a Lipping orward o a prolc LhaL cannoL bc oscL by amply
largcanddisplaycdbuLLocks.TcsLaLicordynamicqualiLyorLhcphysi-
calorccsconLribuLingLoLhcposLurcarcnoLbcingsLudicd,raLhcrLhc
dcscripLion rcmains onc o orms, Lhc LraiLs simply sccn. Tc bodily
shapc o Lhc Rcnaissancc is noL onc o lcvcrs. Tis is a rsL cxpliciL
aLLcmpLLoLransormLhclincsoLhccxccssivclyaLinLoanobjccLor
picLuralsLudy,ancnscmblcoglobal,LoLalizcdLraiLs.
The Choice of Rubens
In Lhc scvcnLccnLh ccnLury Lhc Lhcmc Lakcs on ncw imporLancc. In Lhc
middlc o Lhc ccnLury Charlcs Mcllin docs noL hcsiLaLc Lo porLray Lhc
ToscangcncralAlcssandrodclBorro
14
bcLwccnLwomonumcnLalcolumns
inordcrLobcLLcrundcrlincLhcampliLudcohisconLours:Lhcimmcnsc
bclly largcly cxLcnding bcyond and Lhus parLly covcring ovcr onc o Lhc
LwovcrLicallincswhichbccomcsiLsclLhcquasi-gcomcLricalindicaLoro
hisaLncss.
15
Rubcns is onc o Lhosc who, in Lhc scvcnLccnLh ccnLury, carricd Lhis
cxploraLion o Lhc ovcrow o csh Lhc urLhcsL. Te Fall of the Damned
(6:) in Lhc PinakoLhck in Munich illusLraLcs iL mosL simply, as can bc
sccn in Lhc Preparatory Studies rom 6, LhaL show an accumulaLion o
58 THE MODERN OAF
bodics wiLh cxaggcraLcd amounLs o csh, dcorming hcads and nccks,
swclling bcllics and limbs, squashing cach dimcnsion in olds o aL.
16
Rcnc dc Pilcs, Lhc biographcr and conLcmporary o Rubcns, sccs only

Lhc damncd vicLims o Lhcir loosc lazincss and insaLiablc gluLLony
dclivcrcdLoLhccruclsLingsoincrnalbcasLsallallinginbunchcsinLo
SaLansrcs.
17
AlongLhcsamclincs,hcsccsonlyLhcdcplorablcsLaLcLo
whicharcrcduccdLhoscwhomisuscwincinTe Drunken SilenuspainLcd
in 6,
1S
which shows Lhc myLhological old man sLumbling undcr Lhc
inucnccocxccssalcoholandwcighL.
10
Tcrc is also Lhc sysLcmaLic cxploraLion o Lhc collapsc o Lhc csh.
RubcnsundcrLakcsaprcciscsLudyoundonccnvclopcswiLhLhcspongy
skin and Lhc ockcd and alling csh o Lhc Silcnus or Bacchus.
2u
Also
oinLcrcsLisovcrallswclling,Lhcsphcrical,balloonkindbcingLhconly
onc cxplorcdarchaic balls and cxaggcraLcd LraiLs. Rubcns qucsLions,
rcscarchcs, and plays wiLh Lhc dcscripLions. Tc big pcrson is Lhc ccn-
LcroaniconographicrcscarchprojccL,LhusconrminghissLaLusasan
objccLocuriosiLy.HcisprobablyalsoLhccxamplcoakindocxLrcmc
prousionolic,
21
oarcconnccLionwiLhLhcmyLhologicalLhcambiv-
alcnccoLhcLhcmc,LhcsccrcLascinaLionwiLhdrunkcnncss,andlib-
crLy and abandonmcnL
22
arc rcvcalcd in Lhc imagc o a Lransgrcssing
Orphic Silcnus as painLcd by Rubcns, who was always quick Lo dcclarc
his own rcsLrainL, his rcusal o all sLrong drink, and his will Lo ollow
LhcinjuncLioncngravcdonawallohishouscinAnvcrs,Mcnssanain
corporcsano.
23
Tc originaliLy o Rubcns dcrivcs rom his anaLomical cxploraLion o
Lhisallingo,LhcpicLorialrcprcscnLaLionoaLLhaLbccomcsparalyzing
asiLsinlLraLionbccomcsLoLal.TisconqucringaL,cracklingLhccsh,
is inLcnscly obscrvcd and minuLcly sLudicd. Tis makcs Lhc sizc givcn
byLhcpainLcrLonormalormssccmlcssnoLcworLhy,LhcLhickncsso
anks, buLLocks, and arms. WiLhouL a doubL, Rubcns has a Lcndcncy Lo
doupcvcryLhinglargcrLhanlic.
24
HcacccnLuaLcs,varyingLhcgnarlcd
physiqucs and sLrcssing roundncss and olds. For Philippc Muray, hc
painLs wiLh bursLs o vasodilaLaLion.
25
Tis is mosL in cvidcncc in Lhc
naiadsoLhcbigpainLingsinLhcMcdiciCallcry.
26
Tisalsoprovokcsdis-
agrccmcnLs among his conLcmporarics. Andrc Fclibicn, among oLhcrs,
inhiswidclycirculaLcdDialogues,sccsallLhisroundncssasonlyanill-
sLudicdmanncr.
27
BuLalLhoughLhcpainLcrLcndsLoarmapcrsonalLasLcinLhisarca,
hc kccps Lhis samc dilaLaLion ouL o Lhc rcal porLraiLs. Hclcnc Four-
mcL, in Te Garden of Love rom 6o, cxhibiLs a ncncss o cloLhcs and
caLurcs,
2S
whilcLhcyounggirlinLhcRoLLcrdammuscum,drawninLhc
samc ycar,
20
rcmains sLrongly Licd down wiLh a corscLcd waisL, a prolc
LhaL also occurs in Lhc painLing o Isabcllc BranL, his rsL wic, donc in
6o.
3u
Rubcns marks an obscurc and pcrsonal LasLc or Lhc luxuriancc
ocshwhilcrccalling,aswchavcsaid,LhcncoclassicwillorLhinncss.
31
Howcvcr,cvcniiLiscxclusivclylimiLcdLoovcrallsphcricalimprcssion,
hissLudicsoaLgurcs,cspcciallyhisBacchusandSilcnus,LcsLiymorc
Lhan anyLhing clsc Lo a ncw curiosiLy abouL spccic circumsLanccs o
cxccssivccxpansions,allcncsh,andrcdundancicsdisguringLhcbody
Lo Lhc poinL o dcormiLy. A curiosiLy LhaL sLill ignorcs acccnLuaLions,
sLagcs,anddcgrccsoaLncss.
Croups o gurcs posiLioncd by classical cngravcrs also conrm
Lhis apparcnL ncgligcncc. Tc world o Abraham Bossc, or cxamplc,
wiLh his counLlcss gcnrc sccncs such as Wedding in the Country, Wed-
ding in the City, Te Cobbler, Te Pastry Shop, Te Prosecutors Study,
and Gallery of the Palace, shows hardly any aLLcnLion paid Lo Lhc pos-
siblc spccLrum o physical volumcs, Lhcir cxLcnL, or Lhcir divcrsiLy.
32
QucsLions o Lhickncss and gradaLions rcmain in Lhc shadows, cxccpL

whcn iL comcs Lo Lhc vcry aL, who arc occasionally rcprcscnLcd.
33
Tc rcsulL is a rclaLivc abscncc o prccision abouL Lhc bcginnings o

cxccssivcvolumcs.
The Power and Powerlessness of Words
SLarLinginLhcsixLccnLhccnLury,LhcworldoimagcsconrmsLhcncw
curiosiLyinmodcrnculLurcorLhcmosLmassivcorms.InLcrcsLisinLhc
biggcsL jusL as Lhc mcdical rcmarks conccnLraLc on Lhc mosL rcmark-
ablcsigns.
And ycL Lhcrc arc changcs in languagc happcning aL LhaL Limc.
ALLcmpLsarcbcginning.SomcwordsarccoincdLhaLsuggcsLvcryslighL
dcgrccs,bcyondLhcimagcsLhaLrcmainsilcnL.Tcscarcindccisivcbor-
dcrs,alwaysallusivc,bcLwccnLhcslighLlybigandLhcvcrybig.ILisonLhc
basisoLhcscapproximaLionsLhaLsLoricsduringLhcRcnaissanccinvcnL
Lcrms. Rondelet, or cxamplc, in Lhc middlc o Lhc sixLccnLh ccnLury, Lo
dcsignaLc a modcraLc, cnLircly naLural roundncss,
34
or Lhc roundncss
oayoungwomanromBasclmcnLioncdbyPlaLLcraroundoasllcd
wiLhgcnLlcncss,orLhcmorcscnsualroundncssoLhcyounggirl(jeune
pucelette)cvokcdbyRonsardin8,
35
orLhcwordscvokingaLsuchas
grasselet and grasset LhaL abound in sixLccnLh-ccnLury lovc songs, wiLh
60 THE MODERN OAF
LhcirdiminuLivcinLcnL,orLhcwordorroundcd,dodu,LhaLaccompanics
aLLhcsamcLimcrccrcnccsLosoLncss(douillet),orbcllypoLcnL(ven-
tripotent),
36
anoLhcroRabclaisscrcaLions,LospcciyLhcballooningand
hcL o Lhc bclly, and cvcn embonpoint, liLcrally in a good sLaLc, which
bccamc currcnL around o Lo dcsignaLc a mcdium corpulcncc LhaL is
nciLhcr Loo liLLlc nor Loo much.
37
AnLoinc FurcLicrc includcs in his scv-
cnLccnLhccnLuryDictionnaireLhcwordsgrassouillet,pansard,andventru,
Lhus cnriching Lhc inLuiLivc panoply around roundncss. Tcsc arc rsL
aLLcmpLs Lo cvokc sizc whilc suggcsLing less and least, very and more, in
oLhcrwords,LhcinscripLionoagradaLioninwords,cvcnLhoughallusivc
andapproximaLcgivcnLhcabscnccoacLualnumbcrs.
Tc conccnLraLion on changc and Lhc Lhcmc o a passagc arc also
prcscnL in Lhc sixLccnLh and scvcnLccnLh ccnLurics. Tc aLLcnLion Lo a
covcringlaycrLhaLisdicrcnLaLdicrcnLplaccsoLhcbody,noLablyLhc
brcasLs,whichindicaLcmosLclcarlyLhccarlywcighLgainoMadamcdc
ChamprcinLhcHistoriettesoTallcmanLdcRcaux:Shclookcdwclland
cxccpL or hcr brcasLs was noL Loo big aL LhaL Limc.
3S
Comparison can
alsohclpwiLhLhcdcscripLion.TcPrinccoSoubiscisaliLLlcLallcrand
aLLcrLhanMonsicurdcCocLquin,saysMadamcdcMainLcnonwhcnshc
dcscribcsLhcwcddingoLhcormcrinalcLLcrLoMadamcdcsUrsins.
30
AwholcarrayosuggcsLionsandwordsLricsorLhcrsLLimcLocapLurc
progrcssionsanddcgrccs,cvcnLhoughwiLhincviLablcandvcrycvidcnL
approximaLion.
TcinLcrcsLiscarricdovcrLogroups,collccLivcs,andLhccnLircpopu-
laLionandiLsconLoursasabody.MarLinIisLcr,aIondondocLorvisiLing
ParisinLhcsccondhaloLhcscvcnLccnLhccnLury,claimsLoobscrvcan
ovcrall aLLcning o Parisians ovcr Lhc pcriod o a cw ycars. Tc Lhin
andskinnybccamcaLandcorpulcnL.SLrongliqucursarcsaidLobcLhc
causc.
4u
CuyPaLinmakcsLhcsamcobscrvaLioninLhcmiddlcoLhcccn-
Lury, aLLribuLing iL Lo oLhcr causcs. Ordinarily, our Parisians cxcrcisc
liLLlc, drink and caL a loL, and arc bccoming sLrongly plcLhoric.
41
Tc
samcrcmarkismadcbyRcncdcPilcsaLLhcbcginningoLhccighLccnLh
ccnLuryabouLbodicslackingLhcirormcrncsscbccauscgivcnovcrLo
drinkandsavoryoods.
42
TccxplanaLionrclicsonLhcidcaoLoomuch
consumpLion. For Lhc rsL Limc Lhcrc is a vcriablc claim abouL human
groups,cvcnLhoughiLrcmainsaraLhcrdisLanL,summarydcscripLion.
Tc armaLion could probably havc bccn quiLc rcal. Tc incrcascd
prcscncc o buLLcr in kiLchcns aL Lhc Limc, as wcll as Lhc incrcascd and
varicduscosugar,whichsuddcnlybccamcmorcavailablcasanAmcri-
can imporL, along wiLh Lhc invcnLion o liqucurs and oLhcr disLillcd
producLsmayhavcallhadanimpacLonbodilyconLoursandavorcdLhcir
Lhickcning.
43
Tc incrcascd usc o sugar, cspccially, swccps asidc Lradi-
LionalhabiLs.MoyscCharas,noLingLhcgrcaLcrdivcrsiLyocompoLcsand
syrups,armsinhisRoyal Pharmacopiarom6,oLhaLioncwanLcdLo
sLockallsuchprcparaLions,LhcsLorcswouldnLbcbigcnoughLodisplay
Lhcmall.
44
1canDclumcauspcaksoaplumpcdupsilhoucLLcbcLwccn
Lhc ycars o and 6oo.
45
And 1can-Iouis Flandrin also dcscribcs
Lhc advcnL o an cnLircly ncw largcr cnvclopc o Lhc body aL Lhc cnd o
Lhc Rcnaissancc.
46
Hc aLLribuLcs iL Lo Lhc rcvoluLion causcd by sugar, a
phcnomcnon LhaL gocs as ar as modiying Lhc criLcria o bcauLy. Fvcn
Lhough probablc, Lhcsc changcs arc diculL Lo vcriy in Lhc abscncc o
allquanLiablcphysicalmcasurcmcnLs.WhaLrcmainsmorcnoLcworLhy
isLhcncwaLLcnLionaLLhcLimcLoobscrvcdchangcsoconLoursandLo
Lhcirpossiblcprogrcssion.TcobscrvaLionsarcsokccnLhaLLhcyprob-
ablyacccnLuaLcLhcdcgrccochangc.Tisis,howcvcr,anoLiccablcsLcpin
LhcrcncmcnLoLhcWcsLcrngazcaLLhcormsoLhcbody.
TcwordsarcncvcrLhclcssimprcciscandLhcnuanccsdiculLLogcLa
holdon.TcLcrmembonpointLhaLwassLillncwinLhcsixLccnLhccnLury
isLhcbcsLcxamplc.HowcaniLbcdcncdwiLhouLnumcricalprccisionor
animpliciLrccrcnccLosuchprccision`TccxprcssionLranslaLcsLhcidca
oabalancc,amcdiumsizcbcLwccnaLncssandLhinncss,suchasinLhc
youngwomaninLhcSainL-OmcrabbcydcscribcdinLhcHundred New Sto-
riesasLoLallygcnLccLbcllc,LhanksLohcrpropcrembonpoint,
47
orLhaL
oLhccmalclaborcrinLhccounLyoSainL-PolwhoiscsLccmcdbcauLi-
ulandwhoscsizcissorighL(en si grand point)LhaLLhcvillagcpasLor
allsinlovcwiLhhcr.
4S
AdjccLivcsaddnuanccswiLhouLobjccLivcconLcnL,
as onc discovcrs wiLh Lhc prosccuLors cmalc ricnd who rcccivcs giLs
and oLhcr gcncrous aLLcnLions in Lhc Joyous Estimates o BonavcnLurc
DcsPcricrssuchLhaLshcbccamcmorcull-gurcdcvcryday.
40
Tcrcis
LhcsamcdiculLywiLhwcllmadcandpoorlymadc,whichLhcclassic
dcscripLionsovcrusc.TcCounLoMonLalban,orcxamplc,hasavcry
wcll-madcgurc,wcrcadinasLorybyRcgnaulLdcScgraisin66,whilc
his rival rignac is quiLc badly madc, and OrLon, a sccond rival o Lhc
rsL Lwo is noL badly madc.
5u
Tcsc arc imprccisc nuanccs, Lo say Lhc
lcasL, insoar as Lhcy suggcsL morc Lhan Lhcy spcciy whilc aL Lhc samc
LimcawakcningvisualaLLcnLion.
Tc ambiguiLy pcrsisLs whcn somc dccadcs laLcr Madamc dc Scvignc
rcgrcLsinlcLLcraLcrlcLLcrLhcskinnincssohcrdaughLcr.Yourskinni-
ncsskillsmc,
51
TcidcaoyourskinnincssissomcLhingmyhcarLcannoL
puLupwiLh,
52
CoddoIsohaLcyourskinnincss,
53
Imovcrwhclmcdby
62 THE MODERN OAF
howLhinyouvcbccomc.
54
Tcmarquiscworrics,LakcsacLion,consulLs
Fagon, Lhc kings docLor, alcrLs hcr ricnds Corbinclli and 1can-BapLisLc
Crignan, whilc hoping or a ullcr gurc LhaL shc docs noL dcnc. Shc
LhrcaLcns:YououghLalwaysLocardryingouL.
55
ShcwanLshcrdaughLcr
Lobccshy(grasse),
56
buLnoLaL,prcgnanL,orcorpulcnL.Shcisinsis-
LcnLabouLhcradviccLohcrdaughLcrLoaLLcnup.Howcvcr,iLsjusLLhc
opposiLc whcn shc spcaks abouL hcrscl as having Lo consLanLly combaL
anyincrcascinsizc.MywholccarisLogainwcighL.
57
ImnoLhingbuLa
aLLcncdaLLy(une grosse creve).
5S
IcaraLLcningbackupagain,LhaLis
whaLIworryabouL.
50
ImskinnyandcclgoodabouLiL.
6u
TcrcarcbuL
cwhinLsasLowhaLLhcmarquiscmcansbyskinnywhcnwriLingabouL
hcrdaughLcr:awcakvoicc,amclLcdacc,abcauLiulbuLunrccognizablc
LhroaL,
61
whcrcas shcs ouLspokcn abouL hcr own skinnincss and proud
oiL.AsarcsulL,LhcwordsgcLmixcdup.TcgcncrousbusLLhcsigno
propcr cquilibrium bcLwccn Lhin and aLis immcdiaLcly cvidcnL along
wiLhLhcoLhcrphysicalLraiLs,morcsoLhanLhcyarcLranslaLcdinLoLcrms
and cxprcssions. Tc vocabulary rcvcals iLs own limiLcd prccision, cvcn
Lhough iL did conLribuLc somc nuanccs Lo discussions o aLncss in Lhc
sixLccnLhandscvcnLccnLhccnLurics.
TcsLickingpoinLisLhcwordgrasse,whichorLhcmarquiscdcsignaLcs
Lhcplumpncss(embonpoint)cxpccLcdinhcrdaughLcr,Lhcpropcrcquilib-
rium bcLwccn skinny and aL. In oLhcr words a vcry paradoxical way o
nuancingLhcidcaoLhin(mince).TclaLLcrisadccisivcLcrm,iLdcnoLcs
curvcs,dcncsaccrLaindcnsiLy,andsuggcsLsroundmorcLhanbigand
dcniLcly noL aL. FurLhcrmorc, iL dcscribcs a minimal laycr whosc
prcscnccisnoLaconscqucnccomusclcbuLocsh,inoLhcrwords,an
oilyaspccLLoLhcskin,orcxamplc,whoscspccicsmooLhncssscLso
ormsinullrclic.TcrcsulLisanincviLablcambiguiLy:LhcLhin,inLhcsc
oldcr rcprcscnLaLions, cannoL cxisL wiLhouL Lhc aL or, puL anoLhcr way,
Lhc balancc cannoL bc sLruck cxccpL by a porLion o discrccL luxuriancc
oaccrLainconsisLcncyandliquidiLy.TcrcisnomusclcinvokcdhcrcLo
dcsignaLcnormalorbcauLiul.Awomansarms,orcxamplc,arcLobc
whiLc,dclicaLc,andgcnLlc,whilcmcnsarmsmusLbcsLrong,powcrul,
quick,andmusclcd.
62
OncormdominaLcsalldcsignaLionsoLhcaLpcrson,or,raLhcr,Lhc
very aL pcrson, in boLh words and imagcs, namcly, Lhc globc. Tis ball
shapcisinniLclyrcpcaLcdLorcproduccLhisorLhaLbodyparLandassim-
ilaLc various LraiLs Lo Lhc logic o Lhc circlc. Tis adds urLhcr guraLivc
associaLions.CurvcsmulLiplyandillusLraLcbyLhcirvcrymulLipliciLyLhc
clcarcxccssoLhcircarricr.TcroundpcrsonisconccivcdwiLhincviLablc,
cmpirical uniormiLy, as is clcar in Lhcsc Lcasing words o Cyrano dc
BcrgcracLoMonLcury:YourlcgsandyourhcadarcsouniLcdascxLcn-
sions o Lhc roundncss o your globc LhaL you arc noLhing buL a ball.
63
FurcLicrcalsouscsLhcglobcorsphcrcLodcsignaLcLhcroundncssoLhc
aL bourgcois.
64
MoLhcr naLurc, hc says, had givcn him in widLh whaL
shchadLakcnromhiminhcighL.TcsphcricalLorso,Lhccloscproxim-
iLyoLhclimbsaroundLhaLglobc,andLhcshorLcningoLhcncckLakcn
LogcLhcr composc a singlc mcnLal imagc, a simplc circular orm LhaL
cohcrcs wiLh Lhc idca o ovcrowing csh. Tis is Lhc Lcasing idca LhaL
Molicrc sccks Lo gcL across in Lhc Impromptu of Versailles: Lhc gurc o
a vasL, sLucd circumcrcncc is posiLcd Lo rcprcscnL Lhc LoLal invcrsc o
whaLLhckingoughLLobc.
65
In Lhc sixLccnLh and scvcnLccnLh ccnLurics, original LrcaLmcnLs LhaL
alsolcadLomorcsysLcmaLicandbcLLcrcaLcgorizcdacLionsoccur.Tcrc
arc Lhc vcry rsL sLcps Loward an cvaluaLion o wcighL bascd on physi-
calsigns:LhcLighLncssocloLhcsprovokcdbyaLncssandLhcLighLncss
o rings and various oLhcr poinLs o Lcnsion. Tc ccling o aL and iLs
quasi-inLcrnal pcrccpLion is supplcmcnLcd now and Lhcn by an cvoca-
Lion o Lhc cmpirical, cvcn Lhough Lhc words arc missing Lo cxprcss iL.
TcrcarcalsodicLs,nowmorcrcqucnLlymcnLioncdinlcLLcrs,cusLoms,
andsLorics,wiLhLhcirsimplcrccommcndaLionoLhcsmallcsLnuLriLivc
quanLiLicsanddryingsubsLanccsalldcsigncdLorcsLrainbigncss,acon-
diLionsLillprincipallyvicwcdasoncocxccssliquid.TcnLhcrcarcLhc
imagincd drying agcnLs: vincgars, lcmons, and chalks LhaL arc LhoughL
LoLighLcnLhcskinbydissolvingLhcaLLywaLcrs.FinallyLhcrcarccom-
prcssionLcchniqucs:circlcs,bclLs,andcorscLswhoscuscbccomcsmorc
sysLcmaLicinLhcsixLccnLhandscvcnLccnLhccnLurics,andLhcirdcploy-
mcnLispursucdwiLhLhcparLicularccrLainLyocxcrLingadirccLphysical
consLrainLsoasLobcLLcrmoldormsandcaLurcswiLhLhccxpccLaLion
LhaLLhcyconormLoLhcdcsircdshapc.
The Beginning of an Evaluation
Somc concrcLc, objccLivc asscssmcnLs o bigncss bccomc csLablishcd
in Lhc sixLccnLh and scvcnLccnLh ccnLurics wiLhouL words or numbcrs.
8. Constraining the Flesh
Constraining the Flesh 65
In Lhc middlc o Lhc sixLccnLh ccnLury, Cirolamo Cardan, a maLhcmaLi-
cian and mulLiLalcnLcd wriLcr, rccords a long dcscripLion o his physical
appcarancc in his mcmoirs. Hc noLcs his mcdium hcighL, his slighLly
narrowchcsL,andhislong,Lhinncck.HcalsonoLcshisacialcaLurcs.
1
Howcvcr,hchardlysaysanyLhingabouLLhcccnLcrohisbody.HissLom-
ach and lcgs rcsisL dcscripLion. BuL hc obscrvcs himscl, nds parLicular
markcrs,andnoLcsLhcmdown.ILisancxccpLionalLcsLimony,which,or
LhcrsLLimc,showsanindividualcvaluaLinghisormanddcscribinghis
prolc.CardanalsosayshciswaLchingovcrhisvolumc,hcismindulo
bccomingnciLhcraLnorskinny.TccvaluaLioniscnLirclyindirccL,bascd
on Lhc sLaLc o his rings, Lhcir prcssurc, and his ccling Lhcy havc noL
changcd.
2
CardandocsnoLwcighhimsclorrclyonnumbcrsoanysorL.
HcdocsnoLsLudyhisrcccLion,ull-lcngLhmirrorssLillbcingunhcard
oinLhcsixLccnLhccnLury.HcdocsnoLcvaluaLchiscshincssinrclaLion
LoLhcLohiscloLhcsorLhcsLaLcohisconLours.HcsimplyLrusLsinLhc
LcnsionohisringsasanindicaLoroLhcsLaLcohisvolumc.Tiscon-
rmsadualconccrnorhisprolcandorsLickingLoanapproximaLion
anindcLcrminaLcwaLchulncsswiLhrclaLivclylowprccisioncomparcdLo
LhccriLcriaoLoday.ILisaundamcnLalobscrvaLionLhaLuscscwLools.
OLhcr indicaLors incviLably bccomc imporLanL, such as Lhc prcs-
surc cxcrLcd by cloLhcs. Tis is spokcn o by Baldassar CasLiglionc in
:8 in his addrcss Lo Lhc lady o Lhc palacc. Tc calculaLion is pcr-
ccpLual, and cmpirical judgmcnL rcmains uppcrmosL. Tc idca is Lo
judgc i shc is a liLLlc Loo aL or Lhin Lhan rcasonablc and makc usc
o hcr cloLhcs Lo compcnsaLc or any lack or cxccss.
3
Tc cvaluaLion
rclics on how cloLhcs L, and Lhc rcsponsc is Lo adjusL Lhc cloLhcs. Tis
is Lhc mcLhod cmploycd by Lhc jokcrs in a scvcnLccnLh-ccnLury LcxL by
TallcmanLdcsRcaux.ILLcllsoapracLicaljokcplaycdonanoaLomakc
him Lhink hc has suddcnly bccomc aL rom gorging himscl on mush-
rooms,anairy,puyood.Tcmanbccomcsalarmcdandbclicvcshchas
swcllcdupwhcnhccclshiscloLhcsarcsuddcnlyLighLcr,buLinacLLhcy
hadonlybccncinchcdupbyaschcmingvalcL.
4
Tccxamplcsccmsminor,
ycLiLconrmsLhcrolccloLhcsplaycdinsomcsponLancouscvaluaLions.
TcsamcindicaLorisuscdin6owhcnlisabcLhdcValois,whobccamc
quccnoSpainaLagcLccn,isrcquircdLochangchcrwardrobcducLo
LhccnlargcmcnLohcrbody.HcrdrcsscsnccdLobcourngcrslargcr
Lhanwhcnshcarrivcd.
5
MadamcdcScvigncuscsLhcsamcmcLhodwhcn
shcdiscusscshcraLLcmpLsLoloscwcighLaLagcLy.InolongcrLhrow
mysclaLoodandamsoarrompoppingLhaLIwasablcLoLakcinaskirL
byahal-ngcroncachsidc.
6
Fingcrandhal-ngcrwidLhsconsLiLuLca
gcnuinclyhandy,cccLivcmcasurcmcnL.
66 THE MODERN OAF
AL Lhc cnd o Lhc scvcnLccnLh ccnLury FlizabcLh CharloLLc, Princcss
PalaLinccvokcsquasi-inLcrnalscnsaLionsoswclling.Mybodyisswcll-
ing. I havc colic and musL gcL myscl blcd.
7
Shc localizcs Lhc problcm
inLhcsplccnandaLLcmpLsLoasscssiLsprogrcss.MylcLsidcisswol-
lcn likc Lhc hcad o a baby.
S
Tcsc obscrvaLions arc rarc and ncw, and
suggcsL a lisLcning Lo oncs body, howcvcr parLial. Tc ocus is on
morcorlcsslocalchangcsraLhcrLhananovcrallcvaluaLionovolumcs
anddcnsiLics.
Fvcnrarcr,howcvcr,arcsLaLisLicalmcasurcmcnLsoLhcLraiLsLhcm-
sclvcs.TcloncspccicaLionin68byPicrrcduMoulin,whodcscribcs
a chcsL as bcing Lwicc Lhc sizc o Lhc ncck, is as conLrivcd as iL is rarc.
TwiccLhcnccksizccqualsLhcchcsLsizcaLLhclcvcloLhcdiaphragm.I
amspcakingoawcll-proporLioncdbody,noLooncLhaLisswollcnand
wcighcddownwiLhaL.
0
Rarcr sLill arc indicaLions o bodily wcighL in daily lic. Tc rcmarks
o Samucl Pcpys abouL bcLs placcd during a dinncr parLy in Lhc scvcn-
LccnLhccnLuryarcancxccpLion:LoMr.Iucys,amcrchanL,whcrcmuch
goodcompany,andLhcrcdrankagrcaLdcalowinc,andindiscoursccll
Lo Lalk o Lhc wcighL o pcoplc, which did occasion somc wagcrs, and
whcrc,amongoLhcrs,IwonhalapicccLobcspcnL.
1u
Tcproccsssug-
gcsLsrsLaLhcorcLicalarmaLionowcighL,andLhcnanobjccLivc
vcricaLiononascalc.TisisanacLionLhaLLhcDiaryandoLhcrsLorics
hardlysuggcsLwasordinary.
11
TcacLisLhaLinLuiLivcconLoursarcLhc
bcnchmarkinLhcscvcnLccnLhccnLurymorcLhanmcasurcdwcighL,as
LhcscalcisgcncrallyncvcrmcnLioncd.TcvisiblcconLinucsLobcwhaL
counLs as a guidc Lo pcrccpLions. Tc modicd orm Lrumps modica-
LionsowcighL.
Tis is conrmcd by Lhc cqually cxccpLional LcsLimony o MaLLhaus
Schwarz,arichsixLccnLh-ccnLuryAugsburgbankcrandaricndoFug-
gcr who is ovcrcomc by an auLobiographical passion LhaL lcads him Lo
commissionanannualpainLingohimsclLorcprcscnLmyowncloLhcs
andLosccwhaLwillhavchappcncdinvc,Lcnormorcycars.
12
Orna-
mcnL is Lhc ocus o Lhc imagcs, and luxury Lhc ocus o Lhis pracLicc.
TcrcrcmainsaparLiculariLyLhaLisasprcciousasiLisrcmarkablc.MaL-
Lhaus,whoclaimsLohavcbccomcrcplcLcandaLin:6,hashimscl
painLcdnakcdLwicc,ronLandback,aLLwcnLy-nincycars,ourmonLhs,
and cighL days as a doublc rccord o his Lhickcncd sizc. Howcvcr no
LraiLsarccommcnLcdupon,nonumbcrsarcgivcn.TcrcisonlyLhcxcd,
hcavy,muLcconLouraLcsLimonyLoancwbuLsLillblindaLLcnLion
Losizc.
Ingcncral,LhcrcisnoLradiLionomcasuringLhcwcighLoLhcbody,
noLcvcnoranimalsaLLhcLimcosalc.TcpriccoanimalsiscalculaLcd
by hcad, by skin color, by hair Lypc, by agc, or by pcdigrcc (dcsccnding
rom Lhis or LhaL moLhcr, in Lhc casc o a cow, or cxamplc). Tis givcs
risc Lo vcry spccic dcscripLions o animal LransacLions: Lwo-and-a-
hal-ycar-old,black-haircd,pcdigrccdcowsoldorLhirLyTourspounds
(livres tournois) in Orlcans in 6o6, rcd-haircd cow sold wiLh cal or
Ly-ourTourspoundsin6oinOrlcans.
13
VolumcisprobablyaacLor
and imposcs by iLs immcdiaLc prcscncc, buL rcmains an inLuiLivc bar-
gainingpoinL.
In Lhc scvcnLccnLh ccnLury ncw obscrvaLions arc madc abouL Lhc
human body, buL all arc limiLcd Lo cascs LhaL arc bizarrc and cxLrcmc.
ILssLillmosLlyonlyLhcvcryaLpcrsonLhaLmaLLcrsaLLhisLimc.In6
DaniclScnncrLrccordsLwocharacLcrisLiccxamplcs:aLhirLy-six-ycar-old
womanromSLrasbourgwhowcighs8opoundsandcanbarclymovcaL
all, and anoLhcr oo-pound man who appcars in public dcspiLc grcaL
diculLics moving. An addiLional parLiculariLy o Lhis man, says Lhc
docLor,ishownaLurc,prcsscdbyLhcmassandwcighL,LricdLocvacu-
aLc Lhc scrus humor Lhrough Lhc navcl.
14
Tis conrms Lhc ambiguiLy
LhaL pcrsisLs abouL Lhc cxccss maLcrials: liquids, aLs, and scrous uids.
In addiLion, Lhcrc arc a cw cxLrcmc sLaLisLics ciLcd hcrc and Lhcrc in
LhcscvcnLccnLhccnLury:a:oo-poundchildoLcnmcnLioncdbyTomas
BarLholinin68,LhcopoundsoaLallingLoLhcknccsoawoman
mcnLioncdbyDomcnicoPanaroloin6,,
15
andLhc6oo-poundmaninca-
pablcomovcmcnLnoLcdbyMichaclFLLmullcrin6.
16
TcsccxLrcmc
sLaLisLics dcmonsLraLc Lhc vcry slow csLablishmcnL o cxccss aL wiLhin
Lhc caLcgory o maladics. IL urLhcr shows Lhc cxLcnL Lo which mcdical
LcxLsconccnLraLcdoralongLimconparLicularcascssuchasgiganLism
andLhcuncommoncollapscLhaLlcdLounbcarablcdcormiLics.
HowcvcrabanalcvaluaLionbascdonwcighLsLilldocsnoLcxisL.
Only the High Size
PracLical LrcaLiscs, howcvcr, signal somc ncw Lypcs o waLchulncss.
BcauLymanualsromLhcRcnaissanccarcLhcrsLLodcvclopLhcLhcmc
o conLours, in conLrasL Lo Lhcir mcdicval cquivalcnLs, which had only
conccrncdLhcmsclvcswiLhLhccarcoLhcacc.OncnoLcs,orcxamplc,
discussions o a womans sLomach aLcr a prcgnancy. Tc ocus is on
childbirLh, an anaLomically LargcLcd vision dcspiLc Lhc dominancc o
68 THE MODERN OAF
Lhc gcncral imprcssion o Lhc bodily sphcrc. In his Decoration of Human
Nature rom : Andrc Ic Fournicr considcrs ways Lo avoid a abby
sLomachaLcrchildbirLh,
17
asdocs1canIicbaulLinhisBeautication and
Ornament of the Human Body rom 8:.
1S
AL Lhc bcginning o Lhc six-
LccnLh ccnLury, Iouis Cuyon cxLcnds Lhc discussion Lo ways Lo corrccL
LhcmanydcormiLicsoLhisLypcosLomach,iLssaggingandsizc,iLs
swallowingandLhinncss,iLscracks,aswcllasLhcdisplaccmcnLoLhc
hipsandLhcdisLcndcdskin.
10
TcsubjccLisvcryocuscdandlcavcsasidcLhclcgs,orcxamplc,whosc
sizcandpossiblcdcormiLicsarcrarclyoconccrnsinccLhcyarchiddcn,
covcrcdbycloLhcs,
2u
andnoLsusccpLiblcLocorrccLion.Tisisundcr-
lincdwiLhinsisLcnccinancxchangcbcLwccnmoLhcranddaughLcraLLhc
cndoLhcsixLccnLhccnLury:WhaLgoodisLakingcarcooncslcgssincc
LhcyarcnoLLobcsccn`
21
TisissaidcvcnLhoughLhcprinciplcoabody
madcohumors,cspcciallyLhccmalcbodywhcrcphlcgmmulLiplicsliq-
uidncss,avorsawcighingdownwardandanincxorablccxpansionohips
andLhighs.BuLhowcxacLlycanoncworryabouLsomcLhingLhaLrcmains
hiddcn` Tis is broughL ouL by CiambaLLisLa dclla PorLas cmalc nudc
rom86illusLraLingphysiognomy,wiLhiLsovalshapcacccnLuaLingLhc
Lhickncss o Lhc Lhighs and Lhc slcndcrncss o Lhc shouldcrs, whilc Lhc
lighLncssoLhcbusLandncckconLrasLswiLhLhcamplcbuLLocksdownLo
Lhckncc.
22
TcILalianLranslaLionoLhisLcxLandiLscngravingrom6
arc cvcn morc sLriking: Lhc sLrongly conc-shapcd Lhighs o Lhc woman
conLrasL wiLh Lhc disLincLly cylindrical Lhighs o Lhc man drawn hcrc as
a wingcd Mcrcury.
23
Tc cmininc acsLhcLic rcmains or a long Limc an
uppcr body acsLhcLic: Lhc hcad is privilcgcd, as is Lhc rccLiLudc o Lhc
chcsLandLhcLighLcningoLhcbclL,whilcLhclowcrparLoLhcbodyis
caccd undcr an indisLincL mass o cloLh and olds. Tis is a manicsLa-
Lionoprudcry,nodoubL,andamaskingoaLbuildupLoo,asmuchasa
wishLoacccnLuaLcLhcspiriLualiLyoLhchighcrrcgions.
24
AgazcsusccpLiblcLonoLicingoravoidingLhcsLomachandlowcrlimbs
rcmainssociallydcLcrmincd.OlivicrdcScrrcsinhisTtre dagriculture
rom6ooillusLraLcsLhiswiLhormulaLionsmcanLLocmbcllishcounLry
womcn whilc spccically limiLing his considcraLion Lo oils and crcams,
Lhcchccks,lips,andhands.
25
TcsLomachsandsilhoucLLcsoLhcscvil-
lagcrsdonoLappcar,LhoughLhcyarcprcscnLinLhcmorcprccisccoun-
sclso1canIicbaulL.TcanonymoussccrcLReceipesalsomakcLhcpoinL
inLhcirownway.TcscrccommcndaLionsinLcndcdorpopularaudicnccs
conncLhcmsclvcsLoacialcarc,whcrcasLhcmorcnoblcadviccbooks
canvcnLurconLooLhcrparLsoLhcbody.
26
Diets and Modern Restraints
Socially disLinguishcd slimming Lcchniqucs arc also dcvclopcd and
implcmcnLcd ouLsidc Lhc mcdical world, o coursc, and Lhcsc pracLiccs
arc dcscribcd. MonLaignc cxpliciLly sLaLcs his wish Lo conscrvc his own
appcaranccandsLopbccomingaLLcr.HcadmiLsskippingacwmcals
Lo hcal his sLomach, Lo avoid ccling ovcrull, and cspccially Lo ward o
havingLhcprolcoBacchus,LhaLliLLlcundigcsLiblcburpinggod,swol-
lcn wiLh smokc and liqucur.
27
Tc aim is Lo limiL ood inLakc so as Lo
cnd o Lhc unwanLcd imagc o Lhc god o winc and roundncss. Tus a
waLchulncss is cncouragcd LhaL incviLably involvcs Lhc csLimaLion o
volumcsandLraiLs.TcrcisaccrLaincagcrncssabouLiLLoo.MonLaignc
admiLsLoahungcrimpulscLhaLlcadshimLobiLchisLongucandngcrs.
AndnallyLhcrcisanapproximaLcaccounLoconLours.MonLaigncdocs
noL rclaLc Lhc sLarLing sizcs LhaL moLivaLc his bchavior, buL insLcad Lhc
rcdundanLsizcoLhcclassicalwinc-soakcdgod.
Somc lcLLcrs rom Lhc Rcnaissancc conrm Lhis rcsLrainL. For cxam-
plc,in,IArcLinsayshcwanLsLoloscwcighLandollowahal-dicL.
Hc admiLs his rusLraLion, noL bccausc his body rcsisLs or opposcs such
corLsLhc Lhcmc o possibly bcing a ailurc whcn iL comcs Lo dicLing
docsnoLappcarinLhcRcnaissanccbuLbccausclicinhishomcciLyo
Romc kccps him rom gcLLing much cxcrcisc. Whcncc Lhc aLLcning up
LhaL hc rcgrcLs and Lhc sLaLc o pcrmancnL ragc provokcd by Lhis ail-
urc.
2S
ILLakcsaprooundsadncss,suchasLhclossoawomanonccminc
andLodaysomconcclscs,
20
orsomcmoralsucring,orLrucskinnincss
LoscLinaslimmingLhaLmcnandwomcninoldcrFuropcanLimcsasso-
ciaLcdwiLhLhcclawsoLhcplagucandaminc.
3u
TcrcisLhcnanoLhcr
ouLragc:skinnincssandiLscxccsscs.
SlimmingdownisnoLalwaysLhcobjccLivcorcsLricLions.IuigiCorn-
aro,amid-sixLccnLhccnLuryVcncLiannoblcmanwhoocrshisLhoughLs
onsobricLy,sccksLolisLcnLoLhcrcacLionsohisownbodyLoLhcoods
hcconsumcs.Hisgoalissimplc:LorcconsidcrLhcscoodsandsclccLLhcm
in a way LhaL crascs Lhc inrmiLics LhaL a disordcrly lic provokcs.
31
Tis dicL is cnLircly cmpirical, morcovcr, as Iuigi Cornaro scarchcs ouL

LhoscoodsLhaLhcsupposcsagrccwiLhhimbccauscLhcycauscnoLrou-
blc or Lcnsion. Tcrc is no qucsLion o physical appcarancc in Lhis casc.
An idcnLical projccL is pursucd by Iconard Icssius a cw dccadcs laLcr
whcnhcdispcnscsadviccorlivinglong.In6Lhis1csuiLclaboraLcs
wiLhcrudiLiononhowLoacccdcmorcdirccLlyLospiriLualuncLionsby
consuminganappropriaLcmcasurcooodanddrink.
32
70 THE MODERN OAF
WhaL can bc said Lhcn o Lhc inLcrminablc cnLcrprisc undcrLakcn by
SancLoriusaLLhcbcginningoLhcscvcnLccnLhccnLuryÀndwhaLoLhc
chairscalcwhcrcLhcVcncLiandocLorsiLsorhourswhilcworking,caL-
ing, and doing oLhcr acLiviLics` Tc insLrumcnL is so largc and complcx
LhaL iL rcachcs Lo Lhc cciling. His goal is prccisc: Lo vcriy Lhc loss and
gainobodywcighLLhroughouLLhcdayandovcrmanydays.Anunusual
cxpcrimcnL,ccrLainly,buLnoLacalculaLionaimcdaLslimncssorLhcsizc
o volumcs. Hc is inLcrcsLcd in Lhc Lcmporary loss o wcighL causcd by
impcrccpLiblc pcrspiraLion, Lhc invisiblc swcaL LhaL cvaporaLcs hour
aLcrhour,whichSancLoriuswasLhcrsLLosLudyscicnLically.Hcalso
pursucs mainLaining wcighL cquilibrium and considcrs iL a sign o good
hcalLh, Lhc idca bcing Lo block all supcruous humors LhaL mighL cor-
rupLandharmLhcbody.AproooLhcsimilariLyanddicrcnccoLhcsc
aLLiLudcsLoLhoscoLodayisLhaLLhcuscoLhcscalc(la balance)isnoL
amcansorcxploringappcaranccorconLours.InacL,aLisncvcrmcn-
Lioncd.WhaLmaLLcrsarcLhchumors,Lhoscimpalpablc,inlLraLingliq-
uids.TisLoLallyunprcccdcnLcduscoascalc,howcvcr,isdccisivc,cvcn
iiLsuscisnoLycLinLhcscrviccocvaluaLingbodilyconLours.
DicLsproposcdinLhcsixLccnLhandscvcnLccnLhccnLuricsarcocuscd
onrcducingoodinLakc:cuLLingdownonlighLmcaLs,
33
orcxamplc,as
abishopsaysLoavisiLingpricsLabouLhisdicLinasLorybyBonavcnLurc
DcsPcricrsromLhcsixLccnLhccnLury,oraToulouscwomansclimina-
LionoLhchabiLoalaLcsuppcr(souper)inanoLhcroLhoscsLorics.
34
Tcsc dicLs arc also ocuscd on calculaLion and cvcn wcighing Lhc ood
consumcd.InFlorcnccaLLhcbcginningoLhcsixLccnLhccnLury,1acopo
daPonLormo,IconardodaVincissLudcnL,isoncoLhcrsLLomcasurc
cachoLhcoodshccaLsinounccs.
35
IuigiCornaromakcsidcnLicalcalcu-
laLions,spcciyingLhcnumbcroounccsrcLaincdandLhcirimpcrccpLiblc
disappcarancc.
36
AL Lhc bcginning o Lhc scvcnLccnLh ccnLury, Hcroard,
LhcdocLoroLhcuLurcIouisXIII,alsonoLcsscrupulouslydaybydayLhc
cxacL wcighL o cvcry ood consumcd by Lhc princc.
37
Tc mcasurcmcnL
hasmorcLodowiLhcvaluaLingLhcoodLhaniLdocswiLhbodywcighL.
DicLing aL Lhis Limc is also conccrncd wiLh Lhc qualiLics o ood, or
cxamplc, Lhc ncccssiLy, among oLhcrs, Lo avor mcaLs LhaL dry ouL or
dry up,
3S
Lhosc judgcd noncxcrcmcnL-producing and clcansing, as
was said.
30
Tc idca o dryncss is all imporLanL. Tc origin o aL is sLill
linkcd Lo liquids and Lhc characLcrisLics o Lhc body arc sLill associaLcd
wiLh humors. SixLccnLh- and scvcnLccnLh-ccnLury knowlcdgc conLin-
ucs on wiLh Lhc convicLions o prcvious Limcs, adding dcLails hcrc and
Lhcrc Lo principlcs LhaL rcmain unchangcd. Tus Lhcrc is a ocus on Lhc
dangcr o animals associaLcd wiLh oggy cnvironmcnLs or humid cli-
maLcs, Lhosc LhaL may havc livcd ncar sLagnanL waLcrs such as ducks,
scoLcrs,orLcalLakcnrommuddyponds,oranimalsconsidcrcdLooold
wiLhovcrlydcnschumors,orLhoscLhaLarcovcrboilcd,raiscdonLoo
muchaLLyoodsuchaspigswhoarcallowcdLoroamgluLLonously,and
Lhosc LhaL arc Loo hoL and lascivious such as malc goaLs wiLh a sLrong
badodor.
4u
TusLhcrcisaLcndcncyLorcaddangcraLLhcslighLcsLsign
o goo or grcasc. Iamb, or cxamplc, cspccially Lhc vcry young lambs
sLill nursing undcr Lhcir moLhcrs arc Loo viscous and humid Lo bc cas-
ily digcsLiblc.
41
And various kinds o sh havc csh LhaL is massivc,
viscous, hcavy
42
cspccially Lhosc spccics LhaL livc in waLcrs wiLh no
wavcsorlivclycurrcnL.
43
TcliquidosomcvcgcLablcs,ciLrusruiLs,and
oLhcrovcrlyjuicyruiLscanalsobcworrisomc.
44
TcrcisalsoLhcdangcr
poscdbyoodsLhaLprovokcairsuchaschcsLnuLs,cabbagcs,pcas,ava
bcans, and Lhc likc,
45
which provokc swclling and dilaLion in Lhc body,
whcrcaswhaLishcalLhyarcallsorLsomounLainbirdsandLhcirsmclly,
airy csh LhaL conLains liLLlc waLcr.
46
A conLinuum o wcL Lo dry, on
whichLhcrcisciLhcrbalanccorimbalancc,iswhaLscparaLcshcalLhyrom
unhcalLhy,digcsLiblcromindigcsLiblc,LhinromaL.
AlongwiLhLhisaLLcnLionLodicL,LhcrcisLhcimporLanccaccordcdLo
blccdings and purgcs, which arc ciLcd rcqucnLly in mcdical manuals o
Lhcday.AmongLhcspccialoodsarcLhcmuskroscorpurgingscrosi-
Lics and oLhcr humors, rhamcs rooLs (racines de rhames), rhubarb, and
LhisLlc sccds Lo ovcrcomc obsLrucLions and gcnLly purgc Lhc viscous
humors.
47
A sharcd convicLion undcrlics Lhcsc pracLiccs, namcly, LhaL
Lhc aL pcrson poscs no major LhcrapcuLic challcngc, Lhc volumcs havc
onlyLobcdiluLcd,libcraLcd,andoricnLcdLowardLhcmosLordinarycxiLs.
ConscqucnLly,aLncss,inaddiLionLoLhcawkwardoashncssLhaLaccom-
panicsiL,couldbcLakcnasasignoarcsisLanLwillorsLubbornncssovcr
ancvacuaLionLhaLncccssiLaLcdmcrclysubmiLLingLoLcchnicalgcsLurcs
LhaLwcrclcgiLimaLcandproLablcandrcmovcdromLhcbodywhaL
was harmul ciLhcr bccausc Lhc wrong subsLancc or bccausc prcscnL in
LhcwrongamounL.
4S
Drying Out
DicL,nally,isrclaLcdLocxcrcisc:dryingouLasauncLionowarmingup.
TisisconrmcdbyacwprccisccxamplcsromLrcaLiscswhcrciLismcn-
Lioncd morc Lhan in accounLs o daily lic. Tc casc rccounLcd by ILalian
72 THE MODERN OAF
ambassadorsabouLCaLhcrincdcMcdiciscombaLinghcraLncssisnoLablc.
Tc quccn moLhcr is vcry ond o Lhc plcasurcs o lic. Shc is disordcrly
andcaLsaloL,buLaLcrwardsshcsccksrcmcdicsLhroughlargcamounLso
bodilycxcrcisc.ShclikcswalkingandhorscbackridingandncvcrsLaysin
oncplacc.TcmosLamazingLhingisLhaLshccvcngocshunLing.
40
In Lhc samc way, Lhc handball playcrs in Rabclaiss Tclcmc gaLhcr
bcorc a rc wiLh largc Lowcls and rub Lhcmsclvcs Lo cvacuaLc cxccss
humors.
5u
And in Lhc scvcnLccnLh ccnLury, Lhc PalaLinc Princcss spcaks
opacinginhcrroomahalhourLoaidhcrdigcsLion.
51
TcgcncralidcaisoncocxcrciscundcrLakcnLocounLcrsomcLhing.
ILsanopposiLc,LhcinvcrscoimmobiliLy,rcvcrsingliLLlcbyliLLlcLhcpair-
ingoLhclazyandhcavylic.FvcryLhinghcrcisamaLLcrovaricdmovc-
mcnLsandccrvcsccncc,nomaLLcrhowunsysLcmaLic.Tcrcisnoallu-
sionLogymnasLicsoanysorL.TccvacuaLionisLhoughLLobcachicvcd
byLhcsimplcmovcmcnLoLhcbodyparLsinacLion,LhcirhcaLingup,and
Lhc vapor Lhus givcn o. Tis cxplains Lhc parLicular imporLancc o Lhc
maxim Lo ncvcr rcsL aL casc,
52
which appcars in AnLoinc dc Bandolcs
long pancgyric Lo Hcnri IV in 6o, and Lhc insisLcncc, which incrcascs
in Lhc scvcnLccnLh ccnLury, abouL Lhc slimming cccL o all physical
labor:laborcrsarcrarclybccyorbccr-bcllicd. . . .TcydcmonsLraLchow
vigorous and rcqucnL cxcrcisc slims Lhc body.
53
Fxcrcisc rcccivcs liLLlc
commcnLaryandisconsidcrcdlcssasasysLcmLhanassimplcagiLaLion:
Lhc rubbing o parLs avors Lhc cvacuaLion o supcruiLics.
54
Onc can
noLcLhcobscrvaLionsoMadamcdcCaylusaround68oconccrningLhc
uLurcquccn,LhcDuchcssoBourgognc,whoscLcndcncyLoaLLcnup
aL agc Lwclvc is rcspondcd Lo wiLh a mulLiplicaLion o movcmcnLs and
dclibcraLcagiLaLionsoLhcbody.
55
TcrclaLionshipooodandcxcrcisc,buLalsoaconccrnorLhclocalair
and aLmosphcrc as wcll as Lhc subsLanccs LhaL mighL pcncLraLc Lhc body
arcallprcoccupaLionsoProspcrAlpinoinhiscxplanaLionsorLhcsizco
FgypLians noLcd during his Lravcls aL Lhc cnd o Lhc sixLccnLh ccnLury.
56
FvcryLhingabouLLhccnvironmcnLoLhcinhabiLanLsoCairo,orcxam-
plc,shouldmakcLhcmLhincspcciallyLhcdryncssoLhcirclimaLc.Fvcry-
LhinginLhcirlicsLylc,howcvcr,makcsLhcmaL,ovcrwhclmcdbyavaricLy
ocxccsshumors.ProspcrAlpinolisLsLhccauscsoLhisswclling:consLanL
lasciviousncss and abandon o all sorLs, waLcry oods, rcqucnL inLakc o
liquids, rcpcaLcd baLhs, and conLinuous inhaling o sLagnanL vapors. Tc
VcncLian docLor insisLs on Lhc waLcrs and ovcrly Lhick air inlLraLing Lhc
bodicsLhcrc.TcbodyoLhcsixLccnLhandscvcnLccnLhccnLuryrcmains
Lravcrscd by iLs cnvironmcnL, iLs a porous cnvclopc opcnly vulncrablc Lo
Lhcourwinds.TchcaLowomcnsbaLhs,inparLicular,disLcndsLhcskin
andpcncLraLcsinLoLhcbodywiLhcxccssivchumidiLy.OnlyadryclimaLc
caninduccslimminginLhiscasc.TisisnoLcdinLhcscvcnLccnLhccnLury
aswcllbyMadamcdcScvignc,whoconLrasLsLhcdryairoCrignan,which
avorsslimncss,LoLhchumidairoBourbilly,whichprovokcsaLncss:Onc
nccdsonlyLobrcaLhLhcairoBourbillyLogcLaL.
57
Vinegar and Chalk
In WcsLcrn counLrics aL Lhis Limc onc noLcs an incrcasing amounL o
aLLcnLion givcn ovcr Lo cmalc slimming. Tcrc is, or cxamplc, Lhis
cnLirclynaLuralobscrvaLionbyFabioClisscnLiin6oabouLLhcVcnc-
Lian and NcapoliLan womcn and Lhcir dicLs: Tc rsL [Lhc VcncLians]
obLainIndianwalnuLs,almonds,pisLachios,pincnuLs,mclonsccds,and
LhccshoparLridgcsandcapons.TcymashLhcmLogcLhcrwiLhaliLLlc
sugarLoormasorLopasLc,andcachmorningLhcycaLaccrLainquan-
LiLyoLhisandLhcndrinkaglassoCypruswinc.
5S
TcNcapoliLainsuscinsLcadricc,barlcy,scsamc,avabcans,andoLhcr
souLhcrn planLs bclicvcd Lo air ouL Lhc humors. Fvcn simplcr, and as
widclyollowcdapparcnLly,wasarccipcromaLrcaLiscosccrcLsrom
Lhc scvcnLccnLh ccnLury Lo kccp rom gcLLing aL: Brcak chcrry piLs,
makcLhcminLohardcandywiLhsugar,andsuckonLhcminLhcmorning
andcvcning.
50
Howcvcr,LhcanccdoLcso1canIicbaulLinLhcsccondhaloLhcsix-
LccnLh ccnLury indicaLc how Lough Lhcsc pracLiccs could somcLimcs bc:
absLainromcaLingandcvcnsubsLiLuLcpulvcrizcdchalkorclay
6u
a
rccourscLoroughsubsLanccsLorcduccLhchaLcdhumidiLicswiLhdryncss.
1canIicbaulLlingcrsovcrdcscripLions,suchasomanywcll-bornoldcr
andyoungcrwomcnwhoarcallcxpccLingLohavcLhcdcsircdrcsulLrom
suchpracLiccs,namcly,LohavcaLhinbody.
61
Vincgar,lcmons,andoLhcr
acidsarcconsidcrcdasLringcnLLhinningagcnLs.
62
TisisborncouLby
LhcacLionoLhcCompLcdcIudcaround66orclaLcdbyBussy-RabuLin.
Born Lo bc vcry aL, Lhc compLc conscrvcd a goodly waisL wiLh dicL
andvincgar,buLruincdhissLomach.
63
TcnLhcrcisMadamcdcCon-
dran, a salL Lax collccLors daughLcr mcnLioncd by TallcmanL dcs Rcaux
around6o.ShcLhoughLhcrsclalrcadyquiLcaLanddccidcdalloa
suddcnLoLryandloscwcighL.HcrdccisionLodrinkpurcwincbringsa
changc:hcrwaisLisprcLLicrLhanbcorc.
64
Whcnshcbccomcsawidow,
hcroldhabiLsLakcovcrandshcbccomcsaLagain,andagainshcrcsorLs
74 THE MODERN OAF
LoLhcsamcmcLhods,buLcvcnmorcharshly,consuminglargcrquanLiLics
ovincgar,lcmons,andoLhcrLcrriblcLhings.ShcbccomcsLhinagain,
buLishardlycvcrhcalLhy.
65
TallcmanLdcsRcauxLcascs,ocoursc,and
makcswisccracksabouLhcrovcrdoingiL,buLhchimsclisconvinccdo
LhccccLivcncssoLhcacidsandjudgcsLhciracLiondccisivcinLhccasc
oMarcchaldcSainL-Ccrmain,amongoLhcrs,whowasablcLogoromaL
LoLhinLhanksLodrinkingvincgar.
66
TisaLLiLudcconormsLoLhcbclic
o pharmacisLs in ncoclassic Limcs in Francc who aLLribuLcd Lo vincgar
LhcpowcrLocuLandaLLcnuaLcaLLymaLcrial.
67
Morc dccply, a slow buL sLcady changc in Lhc sLaLus o womcn lcads
LoancwcraowcighLwaLchinginLhcmodcrnWcsL.TcrsLocusison
Lhc lady o Lhc palacc whosc placc bccomcs morc acsLhcLically sLruc-
LurcdwiLhLhcdcvclopmcnLsocourLlic.TcrcisnocourL,nomaLLcr
howbig,LhaLcanposscssbcauLy,splcndor,orlivclincsswiLhouLwomcn,
insisLsBaldassarcCasLiglionc.
6S
AndBranLmcadds,cvcnmorcdirccLly,
a courLs cnLirc dccoraLion was iLs womcn.
60
CaLhcrinc dc Mcdici is a
noLablc cxamplc rom Lhc middlc o Lhc sixLccnLh ccnLury. Tc growLh
o Lhc quccns rcsidcncc, cxpliciL invcsLmcnL in bcauLy, and consLanL
waLchulncssoappcaranccsandLhcirupkccplcadLoLhcpunishmcnLo
anyandallncgligcnccoacsLhcLicmaLLcrsandLighLrcgulaLionoCaLh-
crincs courL: Tc dclibcraLc ordcr Lo Lhcsc womcn and girls Lo adorn
Lhcmsclvcs . . . so LhaL Lhcy appcar as goddcsscs. . . . OLhcrwisc Lhcy
wcrcharshlyscoldcdandpunishcd.
7u
TisaLLiLudcnodoubLinLcnsics
LhcwholcbusincssomainLcnanccandLhcncccssiLyourLhcrrcning
appcaranccsandhabiLs.
Tc way orward is bascd on symbols and undcrlincs Lhc sLakcs o a
cmininc bcauLy LhaL is incrcasingly a dccor bcauLy, and parallcl Lo LhaL
LhccquallyspccicpunishmcnLsiLcouldprovokc.TcrcisanoricnLaLion,
inoLhcrwords,ocminincappcaranccLowardwclcoming,LoLhcinsidc,
as Lhc ornamcnL o homcs and aparLmcnLs, whcrcas masculinc appcar-
ancc would bc or Lhc ouLsidc and or acing pcoplc and Lhings. Tcsc
dicrcnccsarcrcinorccdwiLhouLambiguiLyinLhcbcauLyLrcaLiscsoLhc
Rcnaissancc: orcc or man, bcauLy or womcn, or onc work in Lhc ciLy
andclds,
71
orLhcoLhcrLhccovcroLhchousc.
72
Towhichisaddcd,o
coursc,LhccriLcriaoLhcLhinwaisLandLhcrmandsolidbcllywiLh-
ouLwrinklcsorlincs.
73
TcmanualsondrcssromLhcsamccragoinLhc
samcdirccLion,whcLhcriLsinsisLingonLhcLhin,LighLcuLoLhccloLhsuch
as wiLh Lhc young ladics o Fcrrarc, or cxamplc, praiscd or Lhcir svclLc
waisLs, or Lhc womcn o Anvcrs whosc corsagcs ovcr Lhc lowcr drcss,
roundandwcll-LLcd,givcsLhcwholcbusLagracious,svclLcorm.
74
Belts, Blades, and Corsets
TcLhcmcosLrangulaLingcloLhcsandLhcconsLanLadjusLmcnLocloLhcs
bccomcs ccnLral in Lhc sixLccnLh and scvcnLccnLh ccnLurics. OuL gocs
Lhc simplc cloLh bclL, or cxamplc, which cncirclcd Lhc waisLs o womcn
aL Lhc LournamcnLs o King Rcnc in Lhc LccnLh ccnLury, and in comcs
rccourscLoinLcnscLighLcninginLhccascoovcrlynoLiccablcgirLh.Iincn
sLraps,saysAndrcIcFournicr,
75
sLrapsoanimalskinwiLhlaccs,says1can
IicbaulL
76
boLh providc powcrul comprcssion in rcsponsc Lo Lhc possi-
blyabundanLbclly.TisdccisivcmcLhodoconsLricLionconrmsadoublc
goal:anaLLcmpLLolimiLaLncssandabclicinLhccccLsomcchanical
consLrainL. A ncw cra LhaL imposcs Lhc hopc o dirccLly obliging bodily
ormsLoshapcupbcgins.TcscncwLypcsoharncsscscanalsobcuscd
onvcrybigmcn.TcrcisancwprcsLigc,probably,LhaLcomcswiLhLhcsc
mcchanicalLools,whicharcadjusLablcandarLiculaLcd.
In:PicrrcdclLoilcishardlysurpriscdbyLhccascoLhcSpanish
lcgaLcsLrappcdlikcamulcandwrappcdupwiLhbclLsaLcrhismcalsLo
prcvcnLpossiblcdcormaLionsohisbclly.
77
TccxamplcsosuchsLrap-
pings bccomc commonplacc ovcr Lhc ncxL dccadcs. MonLcury, known
asbigRcnc,whoacLcdinplaysbyCorncillcinLhc6osandwasLcascd
by Cyrano or his aLncss, wcars a spccial bclL callcd a cerclage madc o
widcandrigidironLhaLwasdcsigncdLoprcssagainsLLhcabdomcn.
7S
In
Lhc6osCrosCuillaumc,LhcacLoroLhchLcldcBourgognc,supporLs
hisbcllywiLhLwosLrongbclLs,oncjusLbclowhischcsL,LhcoLhcrbclow
hisnavcl,LhusLransorminghisaLncssinLoaspccLaclcandalsodrawing
aLLcnLionLoLhcrcsLrainingdcviccoLhcscsLraps.
70
MorcimporLanL,LhcscmcLhodsdivcrsiyandarcaimcdaLoLhcrparLs
oLhcbody,includingLhcuppcrbody.ALLhccndoLhcsixLccnLhccnLury,
1canIicbaulLproposcsadcviccconccivcdLoprcvcnLwomcninchildbirLh
rom cxpcricncing any cnlargcmcnL o Lhcir mammarics.
Su
Tc mcLal
bccomcsamold:asLcclbladcsuspcndcdromLhcnccksupporLsLhcLwo
brcasLs whilc Lwo liLLlc picccs o cork placcd undcr Lhc armpiLs cxcrL a
laLcral prcssurc. Tcrc is no indicaLion o Lhc rcqucncy o iLs usc nor o
howwidcsprcadLhaLuscwas.IicbaulLsbook,howcvcr,aswcllasaTrea-
sury of Secret Remedies for Female Maladies,whichrcpcaLsLhcscrccommcn-
daLions,hadwidccirculaLionandwasrcpublishcdscvcralLimcs.
S1
Tcidca
oanclcmcnLaryapplianccimposcdasanaidLoailingorallingbodics
bccomcssLandardamachincLosculpLormsandanaLomics.Tcdcvcl-
opmcnLoaLcouldnowbccxpliciLlyprcvcnLcdorcorrccLcdbyLhcrigidiLy
oplaLcsosLccl.
76 THE MODERN OAF
Tc invcnLion o Lhc corscL is rcally only Lhc cxLcnsion o such iniLia-
Livcs. Tc mold bccomc shcaLh, a pracLicc rcscrvcd or womcn, adds Lo
Lhc cxpccLaLion o slimncss. Quccn MargarcL o Navarrc is an cxamplc
romLhccndoLhcsixLccnLhccnLury.HavingbccomchorriblyaL,
S2
shc
LurnsLosLcclLorcLainhcrcsh:shchadwhiLcsLcclplaccdonboLhsidcs
o hcr body.
S3
In Lhc lasL dccadcs o Lhc sixLccnLh ccnLury, Lhc pracLicc
bccomcs sLandardizcd among uppcr-class womcn who all scck Lo havc a
LighLwaisL.
S4
TcmosLubiquiLousLoolcmploysrigidaLmcLalorwhalc
balccnasboningsLiLchcdinplacconLoacloLhramcwork.TissLiLchcd
ramcwork is Lhc comprcssivc dcvicc rcmarkcd by Iippomano, Lhc Vcnc-
LianambassadorLravclingLhroughFranccin,,,whichindicaLcsiLssocial
diusion: Tcy havc a corscL or camisolc LhaL Lhcy call corps piqu LhaL
makcsLhcirwaisLslighLandsvclLc.ILisaLLachcdaLLhcbackwhichmakcs
Lhc orm o Lhc brcasLs cvcn morc aLLracLivc.
S5
IL is a Lriumph o insLru-
mcnLaLionandLoolmaking.
Tc payo is clcar: an apparcnL slimming o Lhc conLour cquals an
apparcnL lighLcning o Lhc body. Tc Lypcs o shcaLh can vcry, buL Lhc
LighLcning involvcd is ccnLral. MonLaignc ocrs onc o Lhc briccsL
accounLs. Solid hooks LhaL imposc narrowncss, buL Lhc consLrainL is
cxLrcmc:Tohavcaslimbody[bien espagnol],whaLwillLhcynoLpuLup
wiLh`CirdlcdandsLrappcdwiLhbighooksonLhcsidcsLhaLprcssagainsL
Lhcskin,somcLimcsLoLhcpoinLodying.
S6
CcsarcVcrcclliociLcsanoLhcr
Spanishcxamplcino:TccorscLingissoLighLonLhcsidcsLhaLonc
has diculLy bclicving LhaL Lhcrcs a body insidc.
S7
Tc dcvicc bccomcs
morcwidcsprcadinLhcscvcnLccnLhccnLury,LoLhcpoinLwhcrcaguild
oLailorsorwomcnsandinanLsbodicsisormcd.
SS
TcrcarccighLsuch
Lailors in Paris aL Lhc cnd o Lhc scvcnLccnLh ccnLury wiLh vcry prccisc
abricaLion rulcs dcsigncd Lo prcvcnL all cscaping o Lhc bclly: placc
LhcsLrongcsLandLhickcsLbalccnmorcaLLhcrcarandLhcronLLhanon
Lhc sidcs.
S0
Tc ocus is on holding Lhc bclly. Tc rcmark o Madamc
dc MainLcnon spcaking Lo Lhc pupils aL SainL-Cyr says iL all: Ncvcr bc
wiLhouLyourcorscLandccromallcxccsscsLhaLhavcnowbccomcordi-
nary.
0u
FaLncsshasoundaLrcaLmcnL,andmoldingLhcbodyiLsLools.
Howcvcr,onccannoLorgcLLhcaLalismoMadamcdcScvigncsricnd
CoulangcswhouponrcLurningromajourncyrcmarksonhcrcxccssivc
aLncss:Iadics,IcarLhaLyouwillndmccnormouslyaL,buLwhaLcan
Ido`
01
BodyvolumcsbccomcmorcindividualizcdduringLhcAgcoFnlighLcn-
mcnL. A disordcrly agiLaLion bccomcs possiblc. Tc noLion o sizc sup-
poscs many sizcs and divcrsiLy supposcs dcgrccs o dicrcncc, cvcn i
Lhcy arc morc skcLchcd Lhan sLudicd. Proccdurcs or mcasuring cmcrgc
modcsLlybuLinsisLcnLly.
Tcsc slow buL sLcady changcs pcrmiL ormcrly laLcnL disLincLions Lo
comcinLovicw.Forcxamplc,LhcprolcoamanwhcrcaccrLainround-
ncssisacccpLablcvcrsusLhcprolcoawomanwhcrcsuchLolcranccis
abscnL.TcrcarcalsosocialdicrcnccswhcrchcrcaccrLainvisiblcamplc-
ncssmighLcarryvalucbuLnoLLhcrc.TisLrainingoLhcgazcLransorms
pcrccpLions,crcaLingwarningsignsandaLLcnLionLosizcsLhaLormcrly
did noL cxisL, displacing worrics, and making or a gcncral sharpcning
oaLLcnLion.
AnoLhcrmorcdirccLchangcconccrnsLhcrcprcscnLaLionocxccss.Tc
old idca abouL an invasion o Lhc body by waLcry maLLcr bccomcs morc
complicaLcd.TcnoLiccablcbodilycollapscisnolongcrmcrclyaqucsLion
o wcighL, buL has Lo do wiLh a loss o rcacLiviLy and ncrvous dysunc-
Lion.InsLcadoqucsLioningLhcbodyasiiLwcrclikcanyordinaryobjccL
wiLhiLssacksandcanals,LhcbodyisnowconsidcrcdLohavcaspccial
organic lic spring susccpLiblc Lo irriLaLion and oLhcr scnsiLiviLics. Tus
criLicismsoLhcaLpcrsonarcrcoricnLcdLoundcrlincpowcrlcssncssand
sLcriliLy,ocusingcspcciallyonalackoviLaliLy.ForLhcrsLLimcLhcsc
criLicisms can cxLcnd Lo a sLigmaLizaLion o Loo much civilizaLion, Loo
PART 3
FROM OAFISHNESS TO
POWERLESSNESS
The Enlightenment and Sensibility
78 FROM OAFI SHNESS TO POWERLESSNESS
mucharLiccandagiLaLionLhaLhasbccomcrcdundanLandusclcss.Tcrc
bcgins a dcnunciaLion o whaL Lhis ncw cra Lcnds Lo sLrongly dcplorc: a
lossoscnsibiliLy.FaLpcoplcbccomcpowcrlcsspcoplc,andLhcirsLigma-
LizaLionisinscparablcromLhcLimcs.
UnprcccdcnLcd pracLiccs avoring Lhc wcll-Loncd body can Lhus bc
invcnLcdsuchascxciLcmcnLwiLhcoldbaLhsorcvcn,insomccascs,Lhc
laborioususcoclccLricsLimulusallpracLiccsguaranLccdLosuccccdin
acLivaLingandcnlivcningLhcbody.
Tc judgmcnL o conLours is Lhc rsL Lhing LhaL changcs in Lhc Agc o
FnlighLcnmcnL. Numcrical mcasuring o wcighL appcars hcrc and Lhcrc
in Lhc mcdical liLcraLurc, and a ranking o volumcs also appcars in Lhc
mosL ordinary circumsLanccs. Tc social milicu dcpicLcd in cngravings
andpainLingsissignicdandcvcnrankcdby,amongoLhcrLhings,dicr-
cnL physical Lhickncsscs, cvcn i Lhc associaLcd vocabulary LhaL would
cxpliciLly dcnc LraiLs comcs laLc and rcmains imprccisc. Tc hisLory o
LhcaLpcrsonisLhchisLoryoLhisslowlyarrivingconsciousncssoLhc
varicLyoormsandLhcirpossiblcprogrcssions,whilc,aLLhcsamcLimc,
LhcwillLowcighlcssisnoLncccssarilyinLcnsc.TcculLurcoLhcFnlighL-
cnmcnLismorcaLLcnLivcLoLhcindividualandLhcrcorcalsoLoLhcindi-
vidualizaLionosizc.
Tireless Measuring and Fruitless Measuring
TcSpectator,oncoLhccarlyinvcnLorsoLhcchroniclcosocialmorcs,
cvokcsasLrangccxamplcowcighinginanissucrom,.AlonglcLLcr
romarcadcrcommunicaLcsLhcdcLails.TcmandcclarcshimsclLobc
oncoLhaLsicklyLribc,whoarccommonlyknownbyLhcnamcoVal-
cLudinarians and dcscribcs Lurning or hclp Lo Lhc ancicnL pracLicc o
SancLorius, namcly, mainLaining an cquilibrium bcLwccn Lhc wcighL o
hisoodinLakcandhisouLgoingwasLcs.HcbuilLamassivcinsLrumcnLLo
9. Inventing Nuance
bcsLrccordalloscillaLionsinwcighL,agiganLicRomanscalcwiLhachair
andLablcincorporaLcdLhaLwassimilarLoLhcapparaLususcdaccnLury
carlicrbyLhcdocLorinPadua.HcuscdiLrigorously,wcighinghimsclor
Lhrccycars,noLinghisingcsLionsandcxcrcLions,comparingLhcmdayLo
day,LrackingcvcrycxccsshumorLhaLmighLcompromiscLhcinLcrioro
hisbody.HcadmiLshisdisappoinLmcnL.HisphysicalsLaLcisunchangcd,
hc rcmains sick and his condiLion languishing. WhaLs morc, Lhc
consLanL mcasuring ncarly did him in. Tc Spectator agrccs, rcmarking
humorously on Lhc gcnLlcmans obcdicncc Lo Lhc prcscripLions o his
chair wiLh a shorL ablc Lo dcmonsLraLc LhaL onc who Lcmpcrs his
hcalLhbyounccsandbyscruplcsmaycndupruininghimscl.
1
TcnLhcrcarcLhcaccounLsodicrcnLoods,LhoughocuscdmosLly
onquanLiLy.AndLhcprcscnccocalculaLion,noLablyLhcscalc,andLhc
insisLcncc on Laking rcqucnL rcadings. Tis proccdurc is parLicularly
obscrvablc in Fngland rom ,:o Lo ,o, during which Limc docLors
aLLcmpLrcadingsovcrancxLcndcdduraLion.
2
BryanRobinsonand1ohn
IiningsLcxLsocrascricsoLablcsrccordingLhcvariouswcighLsoLhc
body,oodsLus,andwasLcs.
3
1ohnFloycroIondoncomparcsLhcsLa-
LisLicsconccrninghisbarclypcrccpLiblcpcrspiraLionLoLhoscrccordcdby
SancLoriusLoasscrLadicrcnccbcLwccnFnglandandILaly:LhcinLcnsiLy
o impcrccpLiblc pcrspiraLion is lcss undcr Lhc skics o Iondon, which
arccoolcrandmorchumidducLoLhcog.
4
SimilarcalculaLionsarcmadc
byTomasScckcroIcydcandCcorgcRycoDublin.
5
ILisconqucsLby
numbcrs. ApparcnLly Lhis aLLiLudc bccomcs so prcscnL in Lhc mcdical
worldLhaLin,:61acobIcupoldscLsouLLorcinvcnLSancLoriussscalc
andposiLsamodclsosubLlyrcduccdinsizcasLobcLransporLablcand
morcwidclyuscdromLhcnon.
6
TcrcisnodoubL,howcvcr,LhaLnciLhcrLhcnoLionoaLnorLhaLo
slimmingisccnLralLoLhcscpracLiccs.TcocusisavisionohcalLhincss.
WhaLs o inLcrcsL is noL aL buL pcrspiraLion, noL physical volumcs buL
vapors,humors,andwaLcr.Morcovcr,iLisamasculincvisionandamcdi-
cal vision in scarch o uncLionaliLy. All LhaL counLs is Lhc daily mainLc-
nanccoLhcbody,anumcricalbalanccbcLwccningcsLionandcxcrcLion.
MasLcryovcrconLourscounLslcssLhanmasLcryovcrLhisimpcrccpLiblc
cvaporaLion.FxcrcLionisjudgcdcsscnLialLoavoidingallinLcrnalcorrup-
Lions.TcgoalisobviouslynoLLhcsLudyowcighLlossasiLwillbclaLcr.
And Lhcn Lhcrc is Lhc complcx usc o insLrumcnLs, which discouragcs
ordinaryiniLiaLivcs.
Tc prcscncc o numbcrs, howcvcr, musL bc sLrongly cmphasizcd,
cvcniLhcyarcvcryarrombcinguscdLocvaluaLcLhcaLpcrson.Tcir
Inventing Nuance 81
prcscncc consLiLuLcs a rcmarkablc rsL prcmisc: Lhc gradual cmcrgcncc
oaprinciplcabouLwcighingbodilyLhings,rcpcaLingLhcgcsLurc,and
comparingrcsulLs.TcprcmiscisallLhcmorcimporLanLsinccwhaLsaL
sLakcismainLainingLhcbodyswcighL.
Waist or Weight?
Tc ncw consciousncss, howcvcr, comcs slowly. Tis is clcar rom Lhc
shorL rcply madc by Lhc licuLcnanL gcncral o Lhc Paris policc Lo a
rcqucsL by Sicur Dcsbordcs in ,:. Dcsbordcs asks pcrmission Lo
insLallaninsLrumcnLohisinvcnLioninpublicplaccsLhaLwillallowall
pcoplc Lo bc wcighcd. IL is a suspcndcd chair cquippcd wiLh a balanc-
ingarmandwcighLs.DcsbordcssccsiLasaninnoccnLamuscmcnL,a
gamcconsciouslylimiLcdLoLhcsupcrcial.TcrcacLionoLhcpolicc
licuLcnanL is morc characLcrisLically shorL and sharp: Wc scc no nccd
or usculncss in insLalling scalcs Lo wcigh pcoplc. Bcsidcs Lhc lack o
inLcrcsLinwcighL,LhcrcisLhccaroprovokingdisordcrlyasscmblics,
LumulLs o pcoplc gaLhcring Lo darc and bcL.
7
Public auLhoriLics in
,:rcmainindicrcnLLoallacLsowcighing.RccordingoncswcighLis
considcrcdaridiculouspasLimc,avaincuriosiLy.
OnLhcoLhcrhand,mcasuringLhclcngLhobclLsandLhusLhccircum-
crcncc o Lhc waisL Lhcy cncirclc inLroduccs a ncw prccision abouL sizc
inLoFnlighLcnmcnLculLurc.VolLaircdocsnoLncglccLLoprovidcLhccxacL
dimcnsionsohischaracLcrMicromcgasin,:::oLhousandroyalccL
in hcighL, o Lhousand ccL around Lhc waisL, whcrcas 1onaLhan SwiL
had noL givcn any such mcasurcmcnLs o his Cullivcr and Lhc sLrangc
pcoplcoIillipuLandIapuLain,::.
S
Similarly,LhccdiLorsoLhcJournal
de mdecine wriLing an invcnLory o cxLrcmc cascs in Lhc middlc o Lhc
ccnLuryincludcprcciscgurcsorsomcsurprisinglybigpcrimcLcrs:a
six-ooLwaisLlinc(8:.88cm)orLhcparishpricsLoSainL-FuscbcciLcd
in ,,, and cighL ccL or Lhc baili in Scns (:.8 cm) ciLcd in ,6o.
0
AndLhcrcisLhccsLimaLclinkcdLoabcLinLhccascoFdwardBrighLo
Fsscx,whoscprodigiousvolumcLurncdhiminLoacuriosiLy:scvcnmcn
supposcdlywcrcablcLowrapLhcmsclvcsinhiscoaLwiLhouLbursLingLhc
buLLons.TcrcisnodailyaLLcnLionLogurcs,iLshouldbcnoLcd.Numcri-
calcuriosiLyisccnLcrcdonLhccxccpLionalwhilciLsimulLancouslyinLro-
duccsLhcpossibiliLyoancwmarkcr.
TcLcsLimonyolicdcBcaumonLromLhcsccondhaloLhccigh-
LccnLhccnLuryisvcryrcvcalingorLhcscl-cvaluaLioniLconLains,which
conrms Lhis markcdly ncw scnsibiliLy.
1u
From ,6o Lo ,,o 1can-Bap-
LisLc lic dc BcaumonL, a lawycr pracLicing in Paris sincc ,:, a ricnd
o VolLaircs, and a dccndcr o noLablc causcs, consulLs AnLoinc PcLiL
and Samucl TissoL or a condiLion hc dcscribcs as cxLrcmc aLncss.
11
HislcLLcrsdcLailLhclawycrsdismay.TcyalsoLcllohisquiLcparLicu-
larwayoarrivingaLhisdiagnosis.HcnoLcsavisualjudgmcnLoorms
andLhcirchangcsLhaLisboLhmodcrnanddaLcdLhcwaisLlinconcc
againraLhcrLhanwcighL,cxLrcmcsizcraLhcrLhanaLLcnLionLodcgrccs.A
numcricalgurcisobLaincdwiLhLhchclpoasLringscnLLoLhcdocLorLo
bcLLcrconvcyLhccvilanumbcrLhaLincrcascsovcrLimc,goingrom
LhrccccLin,6,LoLhrccccL,clcvcnandLwo-Lhirdsinchcsin,,6
(i.c., rom ,. cm Lo :.o: cm). Howcvcr, Lhis numbcr is givcn wiLh-
ouL a corrcsponding mcasurcmcnL o hcighL and Lhus lacks prccision.
12
An unprcccdcnLcd conccrn is prcscnL Lhough, namcly, Lhis will Lo mca-

surcLhcwaisLinrcgularuniLsopoucesandlignesandnoLciLsincxorablc
progrcssion ovcr monLhs and ycars. Morcovcr, an addiLional dcsirc or
accuracylcadslicdcBcaumonLLomcasurchimsclbcorccachmcalin
LhcmorningonancmpLysLomachaLcrgoingLwiccLomydrcssingroom
so as noL Lo alsiy Lhc rcsulL.
13
And Lhcrc is anoLhcr innovaLion hcrc:
orLhcrsLLimcLhcmcasurcmcnLsarcLakcnasparLoanoricnLaLiono
consulLaLingwiLhhisdocLors.
Inventing the Means
NowarromaninLuiLivcvisionbascdondirccLapprchcnsion,LhcsLring
Lransormcd Lhc bodys volumc inLo an objccL, whilc Lhc markcr o
wcighL Lakcs hold morc slowly. Tc casc o Ccorgc Chcync dirccLly ccn-
LcrcdonwcighLwasorlonghighlycxccpLional.TisFnglishdocLornoLcs
Lhc rcsulLs o wcighing himscl aL Lhc vcry bcginning o Lhc cighLccnLh
ccnLury whcn hc had rcgrcLs abouL having sLoppcd a dicL somc ycars
carlicr.HcrccordsawcighLoLhirLy-LwosLonc(8okilos).
14
Hcconsid-
crsLhccnormiLyoiL.HcisalarmcdandrcLurnsLohisdicL,whichhc
applicsrigorously.BuLhcncglccLsLorccordhissubscqucnLwcighLgain
orloss,whichgivcsanindirccLsignoLhcrclaLivclymodcsLimporLancc
oLhcrsLnoLaLion.
SomcaddiLionalcxamplcs,LhoughsLillrarc,occurinLhcycars,6o
,,o.TcycoincidcwiLhLhcinvcnLionoancwinsLrumcnL.InLhcmid-
dlcoLhcccnLury,1ohnWyaLLinvcnLsabalanccscalcwhoscwidchori-
zonLal plaLorm can supporL Lhc wcighL o a pcrson or animal.
15
Tcrc
Inventing Nuance 83
arcsomcnoLablcwcighingsLhaLollowinLhcwakcoLhisinnovaLion.
In ,6o Malcolm Flcmyng, or cxamplc, rcporLs Lhc loss o :8 pounds
(kilos)inoncmonLh,LhanksLoaLrcaLmcnLwiLhdiurcLicsandsoapy
waLcr by a paLicnL iniLially wcighing : pounds (oo kilos).
16
Tc
mcasurcmcnLs arc undcrLakcn vcry occasionally, howcvcr, which is a
signoLhcpcrsisLcnLlackoinLcrcsLinwcighLsprogrcssivcsLcps.Morc
imporLanL, and morc suggcsLivc as wcll, is Lhc rcmark by Buon in a
supplcmcnLLohisNatural Historyrom,,,LhaLcvokcsanumcricalg-
urc or wcighL corrclaLcd wiLh a gurc or hcighL. WiLh Buon Lhcrc is
noconrmaLionoagcncralincrcascinwcighing,buLhcmakcsusco
arclaLionshipLhaLhadalrcadybccninLuiLivclygraspcdandsilcnLlypcr-
ccivcdbuLnoLcalculaLcd,namcly,LhaLLhcgirLhoaLallmanandasmall
manisnoLLhcsamc,andLhcwcighLoagianLcouldnoLbcLhcsamcas
LhcwcighLoadwar.FromLhisollowsLhcLoLallyncwprcscnLaLiono
rulc-govcrncdcorrclaLions.NormalwcighLandcxccssivcwcighLarc
dcLcrmincd in rclaLion Lo a xcd markcr o a body o idcnLical hcighL.
TcncwidcaisLoposiLdivcrscgradaLionsowcighLoragivcnhcighL,
wiLhnumbcrsassigncdromlowLhroughinLcrmcdiaLcLohigh.WhaLs
innovaLivcLooisLhisaLLcmpLLonamcLhcm.BuoncsLablishcdascrics
oourlcvcls,buLgivcsonlyonccxamplc.TcwcighLoamanmcasur-
ingpicds,6pouccs(.8m)shouldbcbcLwccn6oand8opounds
(8oo kilos). Hc is alrcady aL i hc wcighs :oo pounds (oo kilos),
LooaLihcwcighLs:opounds(kilos),andmuchLooLhickihc
wcighs:opounds[:kilos]andabovc.
17
ForLhcrsLLimc,Lhcscnum-
bcrsarcLrucsLaLisLicssinccLhcydcsignaLcanavcragc,cvcniBuon
hardlyspcaksaLallabouLLhismcLhodocalculaLion.NcvcrLhclcss,Lhc
pracLiccisLoLallyoriginal,cvcnLhoughiLiscomplcLclyisolaLcd.
BuonshypoLhcscsroughlycoincidcwiLhoLhcrnumbcr-bascdqucs-
Lions bcing askcd abouL proporLions o body aL Lo body wcighL. Curi-
ous abouL adiposc proporLions, Lhc MonLpcllicr anaLomisL Boissicr dc
Sauvagcs asks, WhaL should Lhc wcighL o aL bc rclaLivc Lo Lhc bodys
wcighL`Hcgivcsanumcricalanswcr:InmodcraLclyaLsubjccLs,Iound
Lhc wcighL o Lhc aL Lo bc hal Lhc wcighL o Lhc wholc body.
1S
In ,8
LhcParisiandocLor1acqucsTcnon,inasLudyoLhcinhabiLanLsoPassy
whcrc hc had a counLry housc, posiLs a numbcr or maximum, mini-
mum,andmcdiumwcighLs.TcprojccLhasaclcargoal:LowcighsixLy
mcn and womcn bcLwccn Lhc agcs o LwcnLy-vc and orLy. Tc rcsulLs
arc rcporLcd in rankcd ordcr. Among Lhc mcn, 8.o, kilos is Lhc maxi-
mum,.8kilosisLhcminimum,andLhcavcragcis6:.o,kilos.Among
Lhc womcn, ,.o8 kilos is Lhc maximum, 6.8o kilos Lhc minimum,
and .6 kilos Lhc avcragc.
10
BuL Lhc corrclaLion wiLh hcighL is miss-
ing. Avcragcs and cxLrcmcs, howcvcr, arc cxplorcd and Lhc dicrcnccs
bcLwccnmcnandwomcnarcspccicd.FnlighLcnmcnLculLurcdcniLcly
carcsabouLwhaLconsLiLuLcsanavcragcbody.
Tc numbcrs arc imporLanL. FirsL Lhosc o Tcnon. His curiosiLy is
almosLanLhropological.TcwcighLisanindicaLoroLhcphysiqucoa
givcnpopulaLion,LhcsLaLcoiLscsh,whilcpassingovcrLhcqucsLion
oLhcLooLhinorLooaL.NcvcrLhclcss,LhcscrcsulLsrccordaloom-
ing issuc: Lhc prccisc locaLion o a group on a conLinuum o morc and
lcss, mosL and lcasL. Buons numbcrs arc dicrcnLmorc program-
maLicandmodcrnLoo.TcyarcdirccLcdaLindividualsandconsLiLuLc
a graduaLcd scalc LhaL csLablishcs or cach pcrson Lhc cxccss or lack o
wcighL hc or shc has comparcd Lo an avcragc wcighL or pcoplc o Lhc
samchcighL.TcscnumbcrsconLribuLcmorcLocsLablishingcohorLso
humans, Lhc rankcd rcprcscnLaLion o a populaLion via Lablcs, and Lhc
opposiLional conronLaLion o Lhc lcss aL and Lhc morc aL. Buon
csLablishcs a way o Lhinking Lhc collccLiviLy and o making compari-
sonsLhaLwilldisplayinordcrlyashionLhcraLiosobigandsmallbodics
wiLhinasinglcpopulaLion.AcLualLablcsarclcLLoLhcimaginaLion,o
coursc,andwcighLsarconlyrclaLcdLoonchcighL(picds6pouccs).
NorisLhcinormaLionacLuallyapplicdinanyway,buLiLdocsalLcrLhc
mcnLalprolcoasocicLysphysiquc.InLhcoryLhisLcchniquccouldbc
cxLcndcdLonumbcringandcomparingLhcavcragcphysiqucodicrcnL
populaLions.TcarLiclconProbabiliLcinLhcEncyclopdie,aLcxLprc-
parcdbyBuon,inacL,rcvcalsanaLLracLionorcalculaLionsandpoinLs
inLhcdirccLionoancwgcnrcopublicadminisLraLiononcLhaLwould
proccss a widc array o daLa abouL LcmpcraLurc, agc, mcasurcmcnLs,
andillncsscssoasLodcLcrmincovcrLimcandovcrancxLcndcdscLo
cvcnLsLhoscwhichcomcabouLoncwayandLhoscwhichhappcnanoLhcr
way.
2u
ILisLhcbcginningoasocialphysicsinLhcscrviccoaccnLral-
izcdsLaLc.BuonscalculaLionsdonoLcxLcndmuchbcyondavisionor
LhoughLcxpcrimcnL,howcvcrLhcydosuggcsLLhccmcrgcncc,modcsLly
andorLhcrsLLimc,oasLaLisLicalscalcoaLpcoplc.
The First Specications of Forms
TisncwscnsiLiviLyLogradaLionsisalsoobscrvablcinliLcraryconLcxLs.
Forcxamplc,inLhcmiddlcoLhcccnLury,MarivauxsuccccdsinadroiLly
combiningormsandwords,aswcllasLhcaccompanyingdynamicsand
Inventing Nuance 85
gcsLurcs Lo rcprcscnL a aLncss which is noL rcally aLncss whilc ycL
rcLaining noLicc o iL. IL is a parLicular sorL o gamc playing on bordcr-
lincs and cxccsscs. I saw a aL woman o mcdium hcighL. Shc had onc
oLhcmosLcuriousLhroaLsIvccvcrsccn. . . .ShcdidnoLmovcwiLhLhc
hcavincssLhaLoncassociaLcswiLhwomcnwhoarcLooaL.ShcwasnoL
burdcncdbyhcrbusLorhcrLhroaL.OncsawLhismassmovcabouLwiLha
vigorLhaLsubsLiLuLcdorlighLncss . . .andLhcrcshncssLhaLcomcswiLh
agoodLcmpcramcnL.
21
HcrcmovcmcnLandvivaciLyarcsaidLomodiy
oncs sponLancous imprcssion o Lhc aL pcrson, adding nuanccs and
suggcsLing dcgrccs. Tis is Marivauxs dclibcraLc way Lo spcciy discrcLc
dicrcnccs and abovc all Lo aLLcmpL Lo indicaLc Lhrcsholds. IL is also an
cxploraLionolanguagcandLhcplayoparadox,ancxaminaLionolim-
iLsLhaLLcxLsoLhcprcccdingccnLurywcrcarromgoinginLowiLhLhc
samcconvicLion.AsimilarsiLuaLionoccursinanoLhcrMarivauxdcscrip-
LionLhaLpushcsasaraspossiblcLhcdoublcmcaningsowordsinordcr
LomorcclosclyuniLcLhclcsscrandgrcaLcrcxLrcmcsoLhcphysicalLraiLs
bcing rccrrcd Lo. Tc woman was abouL Ly ycars old, pcrhaps sixLy,
andwasabiLbuxom. . . .ShcwassLillgraccul,hcrallurcswcrcagcdbuL
noLwilLcd,adingbuLnoLadcd. . . .HcronlywrongwasbcingaliLLlcLoo
LighLinhcrcloLhcs.
22
TcgoalisLosLrcLchLhclanguagcLobcLLcrbring
ouL a nuancc and cvcn imposc onc, Lo laboriously go bcyond Lhc signi-
crs o Lhc languagc o prcvious ccnLurics, which was limiLcd Lo words
such as embonpoint, grasset, grasselet, rondelet, and Lo lisL ncw cxamplcs
andLraiLs.
Fngravings in Lhc FnlighLcnmcnL cra and Lhc univcrsc o imagcs in
gcncral Lurn cvcn morc and bcLLcr Loward graduaLcd scalcs LhaL display
Lhc ncw dcmand Lo mark dcgrccs o inccLion. Tosc who draw in Lhc
cighLccnLhccnLuryhavcsharpcncdLhcircycsLocxplorcdicrcnLLypcs
oaLncss.TcillusLraLionsophysiognomisLs,orcxamplc,noLcspccic
sLagcs, display sidc by sidc dicrcnL sorLs o hcavincss, and juxLaposc
imagcsoLhcprogrcssivcaLLcningupoLhcchinorncck,bagsundcrLhc
cycs,andLhcsagochccks.
23
TcyalsonoLcLhcslowbcndingoLhchcad
undcrLhcgrowingwcighLocsh.TcscdrawingsprocccdcaLurcbyca-
LurcLodisplaygradualdicrcnccsLhaL,upunLilLhcn,hadbccnignorcd.
Around ,8o Caspar IavaLar is also inLcrcsLcd in silhoucLLcs: physical
aLLiLudcs, gaiLs, and posLurcs,
24
Lhc ovcrall allurc and no longcr sim-
ply Lhc accas pcrsonalizcd markcrs. Tcrc is Lhus an invcsLigaLion o
variousprolcsinvariousposiLions.TcimagcalonccouldbcsaidLobc
Lhc wiLncss hcrc, claiming Lo communicaLc bcLLcr Lhan words can. For
LhcrsLLimciLknowshowLoinvcnLivclyrcvcalnuanccsanddcgrccs
dichoLomicsLhaLMarivaux,aswcvcsaid,LricdLobringLogcLhcrandLhaL
BuonaLLcmpLcdLoLabulaLc.TcgazchasdcniLclysharpcncd.
Tc scrics o miliLary mcn drawn by Danicl Chodowiccki Lo illusLraLc
IavaLars physiognomy LrcaLisc (,,:) juxLaposcs Lhc roLund bclly o Lhc
gcncral,LhcmorcrcLraincdwaisLlincoLhcoccr,andLhcskinnysoldicr.
Tc scrics o ccclcsiasLics in Lhc samc work shows Lhc dicrcnL volumcs
LhaL arc supposcd Lo disLinguish Lhc various lcadcrs wiLhin Lhc Church
hicrarchy, acccnLuaLing Lhc widLhs according Lo Lhc prcsLigc o Lhc prcl-
aLc.
25
ChodowicckisinLcnLioniscxpliciLlyphysiognomic:LosLudyphysi-
calaLLiLudcsjusLasLhcacchadlongbccnsLudicd,LoinLcrprcLposLurcs
and posiLions as signs o pcrsonaliLy and morals. Tc sLudy o wcighLcd
csh,longconncdLorcprcscnLaLionsoSilcnusandBacchus,opcnsupLo
LhcunivcrscodcgrccsanddivcrsiLics.
Tc rsL changc is LhaL Lhc canonical imagc o bigncss is no longcr
solcly a qucsLion o dcgrccs o roundncss. Tc old sphcrical accumula-
LionsLhaLhadbccnLhcdcLcrminingcaLurcupunLilLhcnarcnolongcr
Lhc only acLor. Tc LhcorizaLion o caricaLurc by William HogarLh and
FrancisCrosscaLLhisLimcalsoopcncdupdicrcnLvaricLics.
26
Tcprin-
ciplc o alLcraLion LhaL was cxpliciLly laid ouL by Lhc caricaLurisLs lcads
LoaruiLulwayLopoinLLhroughdcorming.ILshowsawayLorcinvcnL
Lhc parLiculariLy o a subjccL Lhrough cxLrcmc cmphasis o a spccic
LraiL o Lhc pcrson LhaL singlcs iL ouL or ridiculc. Tis proccdurc also
hcighLcns Lhc imporLancc o Lhc individual qua individual. Tc carica-
LurcpromoLcsLhaLhighcrsLaLusbyharpingonasingulariLy.ALLhccnd
o Lhc cighLccnLh ccnLury, Lhcrc is a clL nccd or morc rccdom Lo bc
granLcd Lo a humorisLic arL, a libcraLion rom inhibiLions Lo allow Lhc
widc saLiric poLcnLial o Lhc aL pcrson Lo bc sysLcmaLically cxplorcd.
27
PluraliLyLhcnbccomcsLhcordcroLhcday.FranzvonCoczsLrcsscsLhc
poinL in Lhc LiLlc o his sLudy rom ,8, Imaginative Exercises of Dier-
ent Human Characteristics and Forms.
2S
TroughouL,Lhccxprcssionodi-
crcnL physical sizcs is kcycd Lo dicrcnL social and moral Lypcs: Lhc
magniccnL, appcLiLc, Lhc hcavy-caLing gourmcL, Lhc nancicr,
conLcmpLuous,imporLanL,aLcrlibcrLinagc,Lhcdrunkard,cLc.In
cachcascLhccxccssconLourdicrs.FachonccvokcsanaLLiLudcorsLaLc:
Lhc cxhausLcd roundncss o Lhc hcavy-caLing gourmcL, Lhc armaLivc
bcllyoLhcnancicr,LhcwcighLysLincssoLhcimporLanLpcrson,cLc.
MosL arc aL, buL cach in a dicrcnL way. IndividualiLy wins ouL in Lhc
cighLccnLhccnLuryboLhiniLsappcaranccsandarmaLions.Tclcadcrs
oLhcFnlighLcnmcnLavorcmancipaLionanddivcrsiLy.DrawingsoLhc
body arc a primc cxamplc. Tcsc valucs givc risc Lo Lhc unprcccdcnLcd
Inventing Nuance 87
habiLonoLicingandundcrliningsingularLypcsandpayingaLLcnLionLo
whaLdcncsanddicrcnLiaLcsvolumcs.
20
Tc sccond changc is LhaL dcgrccs o bigncss arc morc sysLcmaLically
poinLcd ouL and sLudicd. Tis scruLiny is cvidcnL in Lhc Monument du
costume (,,) o 1can-Michcl Morcau Lhc Youngcr.
3u
Hcrc cach charac-
Lcr is aLLribuLcd a spccic prolc such LhaL an almosL visiblc graduaLcd
scalcissuggcsLcd.TcinLcnsiLyoLhcprolingoLhcovalbcllychangcs
rom onc sccnc Lo anoLhcr, and curvcs arc acccnLuaLcd according Lo Lhc
characLcrbcingcaLurcd.Forcxamplc,LhcprccningmaninLa grande toi-
lette,oncoLhcmajorcngravingsoLhcscrics,hasconLoursLhaLarcbcnL
cnough Lo push ar orward Lhc arc o Lhc jackcL cvcn Lhough hcs only
modcraLclyaL.ALlcasLhcslcssaLLhanLhcspccLaLordrawninLhcback-
groundwiLhabcllyhangingpromincnLlyovcrhisbclL.IcssaLalsoLhan
aninnkccpcrdcpicLcdinanoLhcrsccncholdingahoLdrinkouLabovchis
massivcabdomcnsuchLhaLLhcsauccrpracLicallyrcsLsoniLlikcashcl.
In Lhcsc Lhrcc cxamplcs Lhc bclly advanccs Lo dicrcnL dcgrccs. In cach
LhccngravcrsccmsLobccxploringgradaLionsobigncss,alLhoughLhcrc
arccwwordsLoconvcyLhcnuanccs.TcimagcsrccallLhcprogrcsspuL
orward by Buon, cvcn i Lhcrc is no way Lo provc a connccLion. Ncv-
crLhclcss, Lhcrc is clcarly a ncw culLural scnsiLiviLy Lo dcgrccs, whcLhcr
highlyorwcaklycxpliciL.TcsilhoucLLchasLakcnonimporLanccwiLhiLs
nuanccs and graduaLcd rankings. Tcsc arc clcar signs o a caLcgorizing
gazc,cvcnislimmingLcchniqucshavcnoLchangcdasycL.
Masculine Gravity and Social Gravity
TcscimagcsalsodisplayanacccnLuaLionoculLuralandsocialchangcs.
Tcrc is, or cxamplc, Lhc hcighLcncd dicrcnLiaLion bcLwccn malc vol-
umcs and cmalc volumcs. Two adiposc culLurcs arc morc disLincL Lhan
bcorc, cspccially Lwo Lhrcsholds o acccpLablc bigncss. Te Gallery of
Fashion publishcd around ,8o cmphasizcs Lhc inLcnsc sLrangulaLion
o Lhc cmalc waisL and Lhc grcaLcr rccdom o Lhc mans waisLLhus
opposing Lhc visual lighLncss o Lhc ormcr Lo Lhc dcnsiLy o Lhc laLLcr.
Tccngravingoclosc-LLingBrandcnburgjackcLsacccnLuaLcsLhcmans
bcllycarricdouLronL,smooLhlyroundingLhcsilkshirLandLhusLhcball-
likc volumc inLo somcLhing morc normal and cvcn dcsirablc, whcrcas
Lhccmalcgurc,inconLrasL,hashcrbusLdarklymagnicd.
31
Similarly,
Lhc sccnc o a ball imagincd by Duclos in ,,o opposcs a widc rangc o
mcnsbcllicsLoLhcsLricLlyuniormLhinwaisLsoLhcwomcn.
32
Tcrcis
no sluggish hcavincss in Lhc malc casc, buL raLhcr a ccrLiLudc spcaking
Lhrough Lhc body and LranslaLing scl-assurancc via Lhc acccnLuaLion o
conLours.ILisaclcarwayorLhcmanLocarryhisbcllyasabadgcoopu-
lcnccanddigniLy.
TcdicrcnccbcLwccnLhccorscLcdwaisLoLhccmalccgicsandLhc
rccrwaisLoLhcmalccgicsurLhcrclaricsLhcopposiLionoormcr
LimcsLhaLhadlongbccnrarclynamcdordiscusscdbuLinsLcadinLuiLivcly
clLandsilcnLlyacccpLcd.TccighLccnLhccnLurymakcsiLmorccxpliciL
andworkcdovcrasLhcconsciousncssoprolcsbccomcsmorcrcncd
ascanbcsccnromLhcvcrycoinagcoLhcLcrmsilhouetteandLhcash-
ionocuLouLshadowporLraiLsinprolcLhaLocusaLLcnLiononconLours
morc Lhan cvcr.
33
Tc cngravcrs sLylus mcdiLaLcs on Lhc silcnL varicLics
oLhcmalcbclly,andcachisscrupulouslyrcprcscnLcdiniLsownprolc.
Tcsc changcs arc LranslaLcd inLo socicLy, Lhanks in parLicular Lo Lhc
sharpcningcccLoancwLhcaLralizaLionosocialcondiLions.Forcxam-
plc,LhcrcisLhcsLrongcrasccndancyoLhcormallydrcsscdmaninLhc
cighLccnLh ccnLury, bc iL Lhc nancicr, Lhc mcrchanL, or Lhc bourgcois.
Tc promincnL chcsL o Lhc man o nancc announcing his opulcncc in
a ,,6 cvocaLion o Lhc dicrcnL cloLhcs and sLaLcs o Lhc kingdom is
parL o a vasL iconographic cnLcrprisc.
34
His wcighL incarnaLcs his sLa-
Lus,valorizcsLhcscdcnLarincssobanks,busincss,andocialdom,and
insisLs on Lhc imporLancc and succcssulncss o occ work. Tc mcn
drawnbyMorcauLhcYoungcrinLhcmiddlcoLhccighLccnLhccnLurydo
noLhavcLhcsamcLraiLsasLhoscdrawnbyAbrahamBossconchundrcd
ycarscarlicr.WhaLsmorc,LhcydonoLrcprcscnLLhcsamcpublicworlds.
TcdiscrccLcxLrawcighLoLhcmcrchanLisarromLhcorccdslcndcr-
ncssoLhccourLicr.TcoccworkcrisnoLLhcmanonhorscback.Tc
goal is no longcr good graccs,
35
and cvcn lcss Lhc classical dcxLcriLy in
LhcmanipulaLionovariousarms,
36
buLinsLcadanoLiccabiliLyLhaLplays
on imposing, on wcighing inLo which corrcsponds an apL cgy LhaL
spcaks o accumulaLions madc in privaLc and long hours spcnL aL dcsks
andbchindcounLcrs.TisgurcbcarsnorclaLionLoLhcmcdicvalaLpcr-
sonandLhccarlynoLionsoimbalanccdorccsgivingriscLorcdundanL
dcbiliLaLing masscs. Now plumpncss mcans a saLiscd ull cnvclopc o
csh, a placid conLcnLmcnL wiLh addiLional pounds. Tc bcsL cxamplcs
arc Danicl Chodowicckis silhoucLLc sLudics, which display social asccn-
dancyviaaLranquil,mcdium-sizcdLhickncssobodyLhaLsarromLhc
cxccsshcavincssoLhcaLpcrsonandalsoarromLhccxacLslcndcrncss
owomcn.
37
Inventing Nuance 89
Millcrs cngraving o Lhc inLcrior o a Iondon mcrchanL in ,66 is
anoLhcrcxamplc.ILclcarlyundcrlincsLhcncarlyinvisiblc,mcdium-sizcd
sLomach o Lhc scrvanLs, Lhc modcraLcly largcr cnvclopc o aLLcnLivc
assisLanLsandsalcsmcn,andLhcycLwcighLicrabdomcnoLhcmasLcro
LhchousccommandingLhoscabouLhimromascaLinLhcmiddlcoLhc
sccnc.
3S
TcscalcosocialcondiLionsiscxhibiLcdromlcasLLomosLin
aclcar,rulc-govcrncdwayLhaLsvcrydicrcnLromormcropposiLions
bcLwccnpopularaLncssandcliLcLhinncss,whichwcrcoLcnovcrsimpli-
cdinacLandmorcrcqucnLlyassumcdLhanvcricd.CrossinginLoLhc
rcalmonuanccsprobablyaciliLaLcdLhisncwLypcopraisc,whichwas
ormcrlylcssnoLiccdorhardlydrawnaLall.ALLcnLionLonuanccsmadc
iLmorccxpliciLlyvisiblc.Hcrcnowabigpcrsoniscapablcogarncring
prcsLigc,whichisallLhcmorcavorablyrcmarkcdandjudgcdasaLLcnLion
bccomcsparLicularlyaLLuncdLoLhcdiscrcLcandrclaLivc.
Tc pracLical rcprcscnLaLion o Lhcsc dcgrccs o dicrcncc is cvidcnL
inananccdoLcromLhcMemories of the Old CourtLhaLLcllsoIouisXVs
visiLinArrasin,.TckingrcccivcsacrowdoinhabiLanLsinasmall,
ovcrpackcdroom.AlocalcounsclorLhinkshcwillcxLracLsomcadvanLa-
gcous prioriLy Lhanks Lo his Lhick and widc corpulcncc, buL Lhc Swiss
guards rcbu him: SLay Lhcrc. Bcorc wc can lcL you cnLcr, Lhrcc havc
LocxiL.
30
O coursc Lhis shows oncc again Lhc ambiguiLy o all sizcs. Tc con-
qucsL o nuanccs changcs Lhc way Lolcrancc and rcjccLion will play ouL.
Tc cnormous silhoucLLc is rcuscd as rmly as Lhc ull silhoucLLc
isacccpLcd.
Finally,LhcrcisLhcncwanddccisivciconographicsubLlcLyLhaLcomcs
whcn Bcrry dc NogcnL scLs ouL Lo rccord Lhc porLraiL o Te Beautiful
Flemish Woman and Te Beautiful German Woman in ,6.
4u
Tc draw-
ingsrcLainLhcclassicsLrangulaLionoLhcwaisL,rcinorccdbyLhcarmor
o Lhc corscL as a major markcr o allurc and poisc.
41
Howcvcr, hc adds
ancvcrsoslighLLhickcningoLhcchin,aminusculclincLosuggcsLLhc
wcalLhocshLhaLsupposcdlycharacLcrizcdnorLhcrnwomcn.Ocoursc
LhcnuanccispcrccLlydclibcraLcandpcrccLlyachicvcd.
10. Stigmatizing Powerlessness
TcpossiblcprcsLigcaccordcdLoccrLainLypcsoLhickncssLhaLarcrcla-
LivclymodcraLcandvcryculLurallycmbcddcdhasnocccLonLhcrcjcc-
Lion o Lhc vcry hcavy, whosc condiLion is pracLically assimilaLcd Lo an
inrmiLy. Bcsidcs Lhc hcighLcncd aLLcnLion paid Lo dcgrccs o bigncss,
LhcconLribuLionoLhcFnlighLcnmcnLcraissurclyamorcacuLcsLigma-
LizaLionocxccsscs.AlrcadyLhcirorganicsignicanccisLurncdupsidc
down. FighLccnLh-ccnLury culLurc is scnsiLivc Lo cxciLcmcnLs and rcac-
Lions and worricd abouL Lhcir possibly bcing crushcd undcr Loo grcaL
a hcavincss. Tis ncw culLurc has a dicrcnL vision o Lhc body LhaL is
ocuscdlcssonliquidhumorsandmorconsolidbcrs,lcssonvaporsand
morconLhcLoncandvibrancyoncrvcs.ILwondcrsmorcabouLLhcori-
ginsolicorcc
1
andhasanunprcccdcnLcdinLcrcsLinmusclcandncrvc
Lcnsions and in Lhc causcs LhaL mighL lcad Lo soLcning or rclaxaLion o
bcrs.
2
AconccrnorlincsandLhcirinLcrlacingdisplaccsLhccarlicrcon-
ccrnorliquidsandsacks.InaddiLionLoLhcLradiLionalocusonLhccom-
prcssion o blood vcsscls by aL, Lhcrc is now a similar alcrLncss Lo Lhc
possiblc comprcssion o Lhc ncrvcs. Tc ncw goals in TissoLs sLudy o
ncrvousmaladicsrom,,oiscvidcnccoLhis.FxccssaL,dcspiLcbcing
soL,willproduccacomprcssionsLrongcnoughLoboLhcrLhcncrvcsand
producc rcgular swclling.
3
And convcrscly, a soLcning o bcrs is said
Lo avor Lhc buildup o aL in Lissucs. Tcrc is onc ailing LhaL wcakcns
cnormousbodics,namcly,lossovibrancy,
4
anabscnccoLonicorcc,
5
amajordcciLorcacLiviLy.
6
Powcrlcssncss,inLhccnd,isLhcaLcoLhc
Stigmatizing Powerlessness 91
wcighLcddownanaLomy.TiscxplainsLhcocusaLLhisLimconwhaLis
mosLcarcd,namcly,lossorcproducLivcaculLicsandlossoLhcaculLy
orcacLion.
Introducing a New Word, Obesity
FnlighLcnmcnL Lhinkcrs posiL a ncw vision o primary organic maLLcr,
promoLinginasymbolicmodcwhaLLhccyc,wiLhLhchclpomicroscopcs,
suspccLcd whcn looking aL Lhc masscs o lamcnLs Lhcy rcvcalcd. Tis
ncwvisionsinglcsouLbrousLissucandiLsrcacLivcorccandlivclincss
as Lhc major cmblcm o animaLc bodily csh. A body aicLcd by somc
insucicncyLhaLmanicsLsiLsclasslackcncdLissucsLcndsLoavorLhc
accumulaLion o aL and noL simply a swollcn body. IL is Lhis wcakncss
LhaLwilloricnLboLhcriLicismsandrcmcdics.SoLbcrcauscsLhcbody
Lobcinvadcd.ILisacondiLionparLicularlycommoninsubjccLswhoarc
nonchalanL,puy,andpiLuiLary.
7
TcobscrvaLionsoCharlcsdcPcysonncl,orcxamplc,aLLhccndoLhc
cighLccnLhccnLury,rcncwLhccvocaLionoDuLchhcavincss,sLigmaLizing
LhcawuldampncssoLhccounLryLhaLslackcnsbcrs,Lhcchccscand
oLhcrdairyproducLsLhaLmulLiplycascsoscrosiLy,andLhcconsumpLion
obccrLhaLaLLacksLhcncrvcs.
S
TcobscrvaLionsoIouisIcPccqdcla
ClLurcaround,,orcncwLhccvocaLionoaLruralolks,inLhiscascpco-
plchccncounLcrcdacrossLhcNormancounLrysidcinwoodsandvillagcs
whcrchchadscLouLLomcasurcLhccccLsowinds,marshcs,mud,and
og.HcrcagainwcrcLhcoldHippocraLicnoLionsLargcLingparLicularairs
andspaccs,buLnowupdaLcdanddccpcncdbypassingLhcmLhrougha
prismorccrcnccsLobcrandprinciplcsorcacLiviLy.
0
IcPccqcomparcs
LhcphysicalallurcopopulaLionsalongsidccomparisonsogcographical
caLurcs,assimilaLingsilhoucLLcsandlandscapcsinavasLamalgamaLion
oanimals,vcgcLablcs,andmincrals.HcscruLinizcsLhcbodysconLours
asLhcsumocccLsolocaLionandclimaLc.OnccxamplcamongoLhcrs
comparcsLhcinhabiLanLsoRoucnandLhoscoCacncighLymilcsaway.
Tc rsL, cxposcd Lo gcncrally mild LcmpcraLurcs and dampncss, and
LcndingLoconsumcLoomuchcrcam,milk,buLLcr,andsugar,acquirca
dclicaLc,wcakLissucandarccarlyonconsidcrablysLouLsuchLhaLLhcy
bccomcdoddcring,Lhick,andhcavy.
1u
Tcsccond,livingindricrcondi-
LionswiLhlcssog,havcmorcrugalhabiLsandconscrvcLhcirnaLu-
ralvigor,avoidingallcxLralaycrs.
11
TcccnLraldisLincLionisLhaLLhc
grcaLcsLcauscoobsLrucLionsprovokinginLcrnalproblcmsoLhickncss
andswcllingrcsidcsinLhcsolidsoLhcbody,whichlcadsLoasoLcning
obcrsandncrvcs.
12
Tis Lhcmc o wcakncss subLly brings gcncral aLncss Lo bc classicd
asamalady.TccmcrginguscoLhcncwwordobesityinLhccighLccnLh
ccnLuryinsLcadocorpulenceisproooLhis.AnLoincFurcLicrcuscs
LhcLcrminLhcsccondcdiLionohisDictionnairein,o,whcrcasiLdid
noLappcarinLhcrsLcdiLiono6o.McdicalLcrm.SLaLcoapcrson
carrying Loo much aL or csh.
13
Tis word was noL a LoLally ncw coin-
agc,buLnowiLsuscbccomcsmorcopcn,sysLcmaLic,andscicnLic.
14
Tis
is clcar rom Lhc commcnLarics on Lhc subjccL in chapLcrs rom mcdi-
cal LrcaLiscs. FaLncss is no longcr a simplc quanLiLaLivc cxccss LhaL calls
or sobcring modcraLion, iL is a disordcr, an inLcrnal dcgradaLion wiLh
iLslocaLionsandprogrcssions.ILisanimbalanccLhaLsupposcsdcvclop-
mcnLs,accclcraLions,andailurcs.ILhasiLsparLiculariLicsandLhcrcorc
iLsownnamc.TcEncyclopdieoLhc,6osalsoassociaLcsobcsiLywiLh
mdecine:cxccssivcsLouLncss,amaladyrclaLcdLosLagnaLion.
15
ForLhc
rsLLimcbigsizcisaparLicularinrmiLy,adisordcrLhaLcannoLbcovcr-
comcbysimplcaddiLionorsubLracLion.
AncwinsisLcncconLhcpaLhologicalariscs.AcwcascshcrcandLhcrc
wcrc ciLcd by docLors in Lhc prcvious ccnLury, buL such documcnLaLion
bccomcsmorcsysLcmaLicinLhcFnlighLcnmcnLcra.In,,orcxamplc,
LhcJournal de mdecinercporLsLhcdcaLhromcxccssivcsLouLncssoa
Lhrcc-ycar-oldchildwhoscwaisLmcasurcmcnLcxcccdcdhcrhcighL.
16
Tc
incviLablc qucsLion is, How can a aL disordcr invadc such young csh`
In ,6o Lhc samc publicaLion rcporLs scvcral cxLrcmc cascs, ciLing waisL-
linc mcasurcmcnLs, and asking wiLh asLonishmcnL abouL Lhc agiliLy o
somc o Lhcsc cxccssivcly sLouL bcings. Tis rcvcals Lhc cxLcnL Lo which
cighLccnLh-ccnLury mcdicinc rcmaincd cxclusivcly inLcrcsLcd in giganLic
sizcswhcnconsidcringobcsiLy.
Morc imporLanL, a gcncral paLhology LhaL would lump LogcLhcr vcry
dicrcnL sympLoms comcs Lo bc dcsignaLcd wiLh Lhc cxprcssion slack
tissue.WilliamCullcndcscribcsLhcDuLchlivinginaL,muddy,waLcry
lands as uniormly obcsc or hydropic.
17
Tc old disLincLion bcLwccn
hydropsyandcorpulcnccdocsnoLdisappcar,howcvcr.ForalongLimcLhc
rsLrcmainslinkcdLocusionsowaLcr,LhcsccondLocusionsoaL.
FnlighLcnmcnL-cra docLors arc inLcrcsLcd in Lhcsc dicrcnccs bcLwccn
aL,blood,andwaLcr.BuLLhcirwayogroupingsympLomsundcrLhchcad-
ingslackncssshowshowmuchLhccvilsocorpulcnccandhydropsyarc
ncvcrablcLobcLoLallydisLinguishcdandLhusconLinucLobclongLoLhc
samcworldorLhcm.IouisIcPccqdclaClLurcswriLingsillusLraLcLhis,
aswhcn,orcxamplc,hccvokcsinLhcsamcdcscripLionvariousdcgrccs
osLouLncssaswcllasswcllings,wasLings[cachexies],cdcmas,andoLhcr
hydropsicsallprovokcdbydampncssorabuscs.
1S
TiscxplainsLhcmorc
rcqucnLrccrcnccsLoallLypcsobigncssnowconsidcrcdasasympLom
owcakncssoboLhaLpcoplcandhumidpcoplcwhoarccxposcdLo
allmanncroindisposiLions.
10
AlsoaparLoLhisLhcmcogroupingisLhcwillLoclassmaladicsinLo
paLhologicalamilicsLhaLcanbcsubdividcdinLogcnrcs,classcs,ordcrs,
andsubordcrs,asIinnacusdidorplanLsinhisSystema naturae(,).
2u
FnlighLcnmcnLcramcdicincsccksamorcsLrucLuralraLionaliLy.TusiLis
nolongcrLhclocaLioninLhcbody,inanalogywiLhLopography,LhaLpri-
marilydicLaLcsLhcinvcnLoryoillncsscs.ILwasalong-sLandingLradiLion
Lospcakohcadachc,ncckpain,shouldcrpain,chcsLpain,sLomachachc,
sorclcgs,cLc.BuLnowclassicaLionispursucdaccordingLogcncralprin-
ciplcsodysuncLionbyLypcopaLhology:cvcr,wcakncss,inamma-
Lion,spasms,pain,irrcgulariLy,cLc.ILisnowsympLoms,visiblcdisordcrs,
LhaLrcvcalillncsscs.InLhisapproach,hydropsy,plcLhora,andaLLcning
arcincviLablygroupcdaroundanincrcascinbodyvolumcnowconsidcrcd
as inLumcsccnccs: ovcrabundanL uids accumulaLcd unnaLurally.
21
Tcy Lhcrcorc rcscmblc cach oLhcr, cvcn i rcsulLing rom dicrcnL liq-
uids.InLhcnosographyoBoissicrdcSauvagcsLhcybclongLoLhcninLh
caLcgory o illncsscs LhaL group LogcLhcr Lhosc involving addiLions and
sccrcLions.TcirproximiLyissuchLhaLanumbcrocighLccnLh-ccnLury
docLorsdonoLabandonLhcccrLiLudcoidcnLiyingLhchydropicpcrson
asabigcaLcranddrinkcr.
22
TcFnlighLcnmcnLLhinkcrshadnoLrcally
ovcrcomc Lhc conusion o dicrcnL kinds o bigncss duc Lo aLLribuLing
dicrcnLLypcsosourccmaLcrialLoacommoncausc.TusdicrcnLkinds
opuncsswcrclumpcdLogcLhcrandalllinkcdLoslackcning.Tisisa
holdovcroLhcLradiLionalvisionoLhcaLpcrsonasamysLcriousmix-
LurcandoinLuiLivcrcasoningandarclaLivcabscnccovcricaLion.
TisconuscdimprccisioniscvidcnLinanaccounLoLhcdissccLiono
LhcbodyoawomanwhodicdohydropsyLoldbyAlcxandcrMonroc
in ,. Tc ScoLLish docLor discovcrs in Lhc abdomcn o Lhc cadavcr a
big vcsicular body covcrcd by a black mcmbranc mixcd wiLh aLa
subsLanccsocuriousLhaLMonroc,bclicvinghcmaybconLoadiscovcry,
LhinksiLbcsLLobringLhcobjccLhomcorcloscrcxaminaLion.TcinLc-
rior o Lhis bclly supposcdly consisLs o aL and waLcr as wcll as somc
unknown,opaquc,scmisolidmaLLcr.
23
The Bad Symptom: Insensitivity
Tc cvcn grcaLcr originaliLy is LhaL Lhc ballooning up o Lhc obcsc pcr-
son is cxplaincd dicrcnLly, insisLing on an abscncc o rcacLivc ccling,
whcrcas FnlighLcnmcnL cmpiricism had madc Lhc acuiLy o Lhc scnscs
inLoLhclcadingsignoabcingsacuiLyingcncral.CcorgcChcyncisonco
LhcrsLLowriLcoLhisparLiculardcciLinLhcobcscinalongconcssion
romaround,oLhaLmixcsLhoughLsabouLaLncssandLhoughLsabouL
inscnsiLiviLy.HchadLhcimprcssionogcLLingabiLaLLcrcvcrydayand
o losing all rcacLiviLy Lo Lhc poinL o bcing cnLircly lcLhargic and lisL-
lcss.
24
TisFnglishdocLor,oncoLhcrsLLoLoLallyrcuscLurningLoLhc
olddiscourscohumors,LransposcsLhccollapscoLissucinLoamcnLal
collapsc:LhccxLincLionoallsLimulus,borcdom,lossodcsircandinLcr-
csL,andabscnccoplcasurcandwill.
25
HcalsorcporLsanimprcssiono
vcrLigomixcdwiLhanxicLyLhaLhcsimplynamcsmclancholy.
26
ALLcn-
Lion has shiLcd rom oashncss Lo powcrlcssncss, rom awkwardncss
Lo zcro accL, i.c., Lo Lhc inLcrior cccL o a spccic pcrsonal lack. Tis
shiLismadcpossiblcbccauscaquasi-psychologicalaLLcnLionLoinLcriors
hasdcvclopcd.
HcrcagainLhcLcsLimonyolicdcBcaumonLissLriking.Tclawycr
is inLrospccLivc. Hc dcscribcs and judgcs himscl bcyond jusL numbcrs,
rcvcalingLhcslowbuLsLcadyadvanccoscl-pcrccpLioninLhccighLccnLh
ccnLury.FirsLLhccxLcrnalappcarancc:hisvisionohisbclly,iLsroundcd
curvc, likc Lhc arc o a circlc, so promincnL LhaL iL hidcs LoLally rom
vicw Lhc lowcr body.
27
Tcn hc noLcs his aLiguc and his lack o brcaLh
climbinganyscLosLairs.TcnhcnoLcsLhcdiminishmcnLohisscnscs.
NoLhing movcs him, noLhing cxciLcs him, noL Lhc sighL o a bcauLiul
woman,noLanopcrapcrormancc,noLsLimulaLingbooks,noLhinginacL
LhaLnormallyaLLcrsandanimaLcsLhcscnscs(6).Hisbody,hcsays,is
noLhingbuLabakcdpumpkininLhcsnow(6),ancnvclopcdcvoido
rcacLion,organswiLhnoappcLiLc.Finally,onscxualmaLLcrs,hcnoLcs,
nocrccLion,noLcvcndcsircoronc.TcobcscpcrsonisawcLrag,Lhc
ParislawycrinsisLs,abcinginlackandlcLhargy(6).
TisaccounLcorrcspondsLoaparLicularmomcnLinLhcpcrsonalhis-
Lory o Lhc lawycrLhc Limc in ,, whcn lic dc BcaumonL says hc
wouldlikcLohavcasccondsonLhoughhiswicisalrcadyorLy-Lhrcc.IL
alsocorrcspondsLoaspccicculLuralmomcnL,namcly,LhcLimcwhcn
FnlighLcnmcnLLhinkcrsarcdrawingaLLcnLionLocvcryLhingrclaLingLo
Lhcscnscs,cspcciallyLoLhcrcproducLivcaculLy(6o).Tcrcisaocus
on Lhc lic spring o Lhc amily and Lhc physical orcc o populaLions
gcncrally. A prcoccupaLion wiLh dcmographics and rcgcncraLion
incrcascd in Lhc sccond hal o Lhc cighLccnLh ccnLury, inamcd by a
vaguc imprcssion o a downLurn in Lhc birLhraLc and by disasLrous
sccrcLs pcncLraLing inLo Lhc counLrysidc abouL coitus interruptus
LhaL sprcad wiLh Lhc hcighLcncd soliciLudc accordcd Lo childrcn and
aLLcmpLs Lo limiL Lhc child-rcaring burdcn and promiscuiLy.
2S
Tc ncw
imagcisLhaLoaccundiLyosymbolicsignicancc,oLhchcalLhoan
individualbcingpasscdLohisdcsccndanLs,andoLhcvigoroanaLion
dcpcnding on Lhc numbcrs o Lhc ablc bodicd. Powcr is considcrcd
rcproducLivc powcr and also a uncLion o saniLaLiona kcy Lo abun-
dancc and wcalLh, as Lhc rsL grand ccnsus-Laking projccLs aL Lhc cnd
oLhccighLccnLhccnLurywillasscrL.
20
FccundiLyisLhoughLLodcpcnd
onboLhorccandscnsiLiviLyLhcqualiLyooncsdcsccndanLsinLhc
prcscnccocxciLcmcnLs.AndiLsprccisclyLhccxLincLionoLhoscLwo
rcsourccsLhaLLhclawycrdcplorcs.HisgcncralscnsiLiviLyislosLaswcll
as Lhc spring o Lhc lowcr parLs.
3u
Hcrc aLncss is livcd likc ncvcr
bcorcasadownall.
DidcroLs novcl Te Indiscreet Jewels (,8) givcs a bawdy rcprcscnLa-
LionoLhcscidcas.AmagicringgivcnLoMangogulbyacapriciousgcnius
plays Lhc rolc o LruLh Lcllcr. ILs jcwcl, which is supposcd Lo makc Lhc
inLimaLcorgansoLhosciLispoinLcdaLLalkaLivc,cncounLcrsonlynon-
scnsc whcn dirccLcd aL ovcrly aL pcoplc. Onc o Lhcm is Lhc sphcrical
woman,crushcdbyaL,saysDidcroL,LoLhcpoinLorcscmblingaChi-
ncscmaggoLoragianL,dcormcdcmbryo.
31
IncapablcoanswcringLhc
rings qucsLions, shc can only convcy hcr scnsibiliLy Lhrough somc cold
uLLcranccsabouLgcomcLrynovibraLion,nocxciLcmcnL.FaLhassLicd
inhcrallpossibiliLyodirccLcxpcricncc.
TcrcjccLionocxccssivclyaLpcoplcinLcrsccLswiLhwhaLcighLccnLh-
ccnLuryculLurccarsmosL:lossoscnsiLiviLy.
The Criticism of the Afuent
So Lhcrc arc ncw markcrs cxploiLcd by a ncw Lypc o social criLiquc in
Lhc cighLccnLh ccnLury. Tc aL pcrson is no longcr simply an unculLi-
vaLcd,incapablcoa,hcisnowausclcss,unproducLivccharacLcr.Hc
is aL Lhc inLcrsccLion o Lwo ncgaLivc lincs o Lhinking LhaL criLicisms
o aucncc laLch on Lo morc Lhan cvcr: loss o powcr and gluLLony.
Tc argumcnL is aimcd againsL privilcgc. FaLncss is linkcd Lo orLuncs,
and vindicLivc aLLcnLion Lurns Lo Lhosc who aLLcn Lhcmsclvcs on Lhc
subsLanccLakcnromLhcwidowandLhcorphanwhilcLhcpcoplcpcr-
ishrommiscryandhungcr.
32
Toscwhoabuscarc,incccL,display-
ingLhcirownusclcssncss.
Tis is a sLriking momcnL o our modcrniLy whcn Lhc ormcr cri-
LiqucopopularaLncssgcLsparLlyinvcrLcd.Hcavincsscanbcunlinkcd
romsimplcvulgariLyandinsLcadsymbolizcanoLhcrsocialmilicuwhcn
couplcd wiLh a scizing grasp and gain. IL can liLcrally cmbody proL,
advanLagc, and surplus Lo Lhc poinL o guring Lhc raudulcnL swin-
dlcr. Tis can only cmcrgc, o coursc, undcr ncw social and cconomic
bordcrlincs, now no longcr primarily rcligious, LhaL cxposc and main-
Lain collccLiviLics. Tcrc is a ncw social and quasi-poliLical indignaLion
againsLchcaLcrsandabuscrsLhaLisvcrydicrcnLromLhcsorLLhaL
had bccn voiccd unLil Lhcn againsL blasphcmcrs and ncgaLors o Cod.
TisncwcclingrcquircssharpcningLhcimagcoLhcdisadvanLagcdas
conLrasLcdwiLhLhcprivilcgcd.InccssanLrcpcLiLionsoslavcryvcrsus
dcspoLismaLLcmpLaswccpingcondcmnaLionobusincssmcn,govcrn-
mcnL ocials, local lcadcrs, and law cnorccmcnL.
33
Many sLudics havc
dcmonsLraLcdLhcccnLraliLyocriLicismwiLhinFnlighLcnmcnLculLurc,
cspcciallycriLicismLhaLarmsLhcprogrcssoLhcscicnccs,morcs,and
Lhc human spiriL and LhaL qucsLions ormcr social rclaLions or Lhc
criLicism originaLing in Fngland conccrning consLiLuLional dcbaLcs.
34
Tcsc criLicisms havc iconographic LranslaLions, as iL wcrc, in visual

orm, and Lhc aL pcrson, incarnaLing powcrlcssncss and inscnsiLiviLy,
playcdamajorrolc.
William HogarLhs sLucd magisLraLcs ocr a lcading cxamplc, wiLh
Lhcir vacanL, drooping cycs, lowcrcd hcads, and slumpcd posLurcs
crushcdundcroldsocloLhingandcsh.
35
TcirasccndancywiLhinLhc
propcrLicdclasshaschangcdLhcminLoswollcn,dcormcdmcn.HcrcsaL-
irc has bccn consLrucLcd ar rom Lhc rcligious Lhcmcs o carlicr Limcs.
CourLicrs,magisLraLcs,andcounLrylandlordsarcsLigmaLizcdinpopular
songsoLhccighLccnLhccnLuryasLhcamousaL,LhchcavygluLLons,
Lhc big swindlcrs in parL Lo dcridc Lhcm or bcing unproducLivc and
powcrlcss.
36
TcRcvoluLion-cracaricaLurisLsinFranccdcvclopLhcLhcmc
urLhcr.Oncnds,orcxamplc,LhcwincprcssagiganLicmachincwiLh
iLs monumcnLal lcvcrs and gcarsbcing uscd Lo symbolizc Lhc acLion
Lo bc Lakcn againsL Lhc privilcgcd. AbboLs and counLry pricsLs, rcprc-
scnLcdwiLhcnormousswollcnbodics,arcorccullylcdLoLhcmachincLo
havcLhcirsacrcdaLandsLolcnasscLsprcsscdo.
37
TcrcisalsoLhc
cngravingoLhcParadcoLhcIandlordwhoscimmcnscbcllybccomcs
Lhc ocal poinL o Lhc imagc as iL spills ouL rom a robccxaggcraLcdly
swollcn, giganLicwhilc groLcsquc, allcn companions ollow bchind.
3S
TcaLpcrsonhcrcisapropLooricnLLhccriLicism.Hisprcscnccshows
abovcallLhccxLcnLLowhichhissignicanccmaLLcrcdorLhisculLurcaL
LhaLLimc.
The Big Bad Husband
TcLhcmcisgivcnurLhcrsymbolicsignicanccinrcprcscnLaLionsoLhc
kingaLLhccndoLhccighLccnLhccnLury.
30
TcdcnigraLionohisphysi-
calbodyshowsLhcrclaLivcrccdomLocriLicizcaLLhcLimc,cvidcnccby
LhcnoLhcdcsacralizaLionoLhcroyalgurc.
For a long Limc Lhin and cvcn svclLc,
4u
Iouis gcLs aLLcr by Lhc scc-
ond in Lhc rsL ycars o his rcign, according Lo Lhc Secret Correspon-
dence.
41
Tc docLors arc worricd in ,,8, judging his sLouLncss cxccs-
sivc and dangcrous.
42
Tcy Lry Lo rcducc Lhc amounL o ood caLcn by
Lhc LwcnLy-our-ycar-old king, gcL him Lo Lakc walks, and rccommcnd
drinking Vichy waLcr. BuL nonc o Lhis has any cccL, his appcarancc
hardly changcs and is wcighLcd down cvcn morc by Lhc hcavy counLc-
nanccoLhckinghimscl.
43
TcrcarcLhusoccasionsorhumor,suchas
in Lhc obscrvaLion o Frcdcric dHczccqucs, a courL pagc in Lhc ,8os,
whodcscribcsaparLicularmomcnLwhcnLhckingrcLurnsaLnighLaLcr
hunLingandcasLingaLRambouillcL,andhcrcvcalshisaLigucinronL
o silcnL wiLncsscs. Arriving hal aslccp, his lcgs swollcn, and ovcr-
whclmcdbyLhclighLandLorchcs,hchaddiculLyclimbingLhcsLairs.
Tc valcLs who saw him, alrcady convinccd o his dcbauchcry, bclicvcd
hcwasLoLallydrunk.
44
Such inLcrprcLaLions o dcviancc arc largcly indcpcndcnL rom Lhc
LrucpcrsonaliLyoLhcking.
45
Suspicions o wcakncss inLcnsiy ovcr Lhc scvcn ycars LhaL ollow his
marriagc in ,,o, during which Limc an hcir was impaLicnLly hopcd or.
FvcryoncasksprivaLcly,CanLhckingdoitornoL`
46
TcLhcmccxpandsLo
cncompasshispoliLicalpowcrwiLhiLsaLLcndanLdccisions,accidcnLs,and
LhcpcoplcinvolvcdallowhichrcgularlyaddmorcdoubLs:
MaurcpasrcLurnsLriumphanL
HcrcswhaLiLmcansLobcpowcrlcss
SaysLhckingashccmbraccshim.
WhcnLwoarcalikc
TcyshouldlivcLogcLhcr.
47
Tc arrcsL o Lhc king in , givcs urLhcr sway Lo all Lhc ncgaLivc
judgmcnLs.PowcrlcssncssandaLncssarcsysLcmaLicallylinkcd,andLhc
imagcoLhcbabydoll(poupon)isuscdcndlcssly.
4S
TckingisnoLhing
buLaaLanimal,aroyalcuckold,akingoclubs,awimpygrasscaLcr,
whcrcas Lhc sLricL anLimonarchy logic dcpicLcd him as a Vulcan, black-
smiLhoLhcworld,amasLcroironandaman-caLcr.
Alas,mypowcrlcssncss
RcduccsmcLoasadaLc.
FormyVcnusIamdcad
AVulcanohighbirLh
BuLasmygrcaLmisorLunc
Igoromman-caLcr
Toclovcr-caLcr.Owoc,
TisismyLrucall.
40
Tcsc imagcs havc oLcn bccn sLudicd in rcccnL accounLs. Fspccially
LhaLoLhcpigconsidcrcdLowallowiniLssLouLncss.Powcrlcssncssand
aLncss bccomc all Lhc morc sLriking in Lhis symbol, which sLrcsscs Lhc
dccaL, in Lhc cycs o royalisLs, o any and all royal hold. Tis cxaggcr-
aLcdly swollcn and usclcss body as wcll as Lhc passiviLy o Lhis bcing
rcduccd Lo powcrlcssncss bccomc clcar Lo cvcryonc. Tc quccn has Lhc
lasL word in a rcmark LhaL undcrlincs Lhc dcgcncraLion o obcsiLy inLo
lackoscnsc,scnsibiliLy,andscnsaLionandalossodigniLyLhaLsignalsa
casLcscapiLulaLionLodcbiliLyandincrLia:Mypigisanimmcnscmasso
cshLhaLcaLsanddrinksbuLcanLgcLiLup.
5u
11. Toning Up
TrcaLmcnLs or Lhc aL pcrson changc dirccLion considcrably in Lhc
FnlighLcnmcnL cra. Tc imagc o powcrlcssncss and Lhc Lhcmc o a col-
lapscLhaLavorsaLbuilduparcccnLralLoLhcoricnLaLiononcwslimming
programs.AnillncsscxplaincdasaslackcningoLissucslogicallycallsor
a rcmcdy bascd on Lhcir rcinorccmcnL. Tis causcs anLi-obcsiLy rccipcs
Lo bccomc an arscnal o Loning ormulas and sLimulanLs all dcsigncd Lo
orLiy Lhc csh in ordcr Lo bcLLcr climinaLc all cxccss. Tis lcads Lo a
divcrsicaLion o pracLiccs LhaL givc grcaLcr imporLancc Lo cxcrcisc and
clcvaLc Lhc discovcry o clccLriciLy and Lhc promisc o iL improving Lhc
Loncolimbsandskin.DicLnowbccomcsLhcocusonumcrousdcbaLcs.
QucsLions arisc, or cxamplc, abouL Lhc consumpLion o lighL, dclicaLc,
andjuicy(de bon suc)mcaL.ILisconsidcrcdaLonicbysomc,buLdangcr-
ous by oLhcrs. Choiccs mulLiply and opLions compcLc wiLh cach oLhcr.
TcrcarcargumcnLswiLhaqualiLaLivcapproachLodicLbcorcmodcrn
chcmisLrywillcvcnLuallymakcLhcmmorcobjccLivc.
The Virtue of Tonics
Tc Lonc and springincss o solid volumcs bccomcs uppcrmosL, Lhough
LhcLhcmcocvacuaLionrcmains,andormulasorlighLcning,purgcs,
and dissolving soaps havc an insisLcnL placc on pharmacy shclvcs. AL
anyraLc,LhcoodoLhcobcscpcrsonisnoLsupposcdLosLayiLmusL
cvaporaLc, Lravcrsc Lhc body wiLhouL occupying iL, diluLc, and pass
wiLhouL adding morc burdcn. Tus, onc nds soap pills, big Vcnicc
soaps,
1
andaloccmollicnLpillsgcncrouslyprcscribcdLolicdcBcau-
monL by his Lwo docLors.
2
Tcsc rccommcndaLions arc rcpcaLcd oLcn,
sincc Lhc soaps Lhcmsclvcs would bc absorbcd or simply dissolvc rap-
idly.
3
TcrcwcrcalsoscilliLicvincgarsuscdbyAnLoincBaumcLodividc
LhickviscoushumorsinLhccascohydropsics,whichwcrcsLillconuscd
somcwhaLindiscriminaLclywiLhobcsiLy.
4
Toning up, howcvcr, bccomcs ccnLral as a rcsulL o Lhc car o slack-
cningandoLhccollapscandinscnsiLiviLyobodilycnvclopcs.Prcscrip-
LionsmakcLoncinLoLhcnumbcroncgoal,andLhusLonicsarcLhcmajor
acLivc ingrcdicnL or a rcLurn Lo vigor.
5
In ,6o Lhc journal LAvant-
CoureurrccommcndsLhcvirLucsoRussianpincnuLsLoghLagainsL
low Lonc o Lissucs.
6
In ,,6 Ccorgcs-Frcdcric Bachcr invcnLs a mix-
Lurc hc claims is Lhc bcsL Lonic. Hc namcs iL aLcr himscl, markcLs iL,
andwriLcsabouLiLinanauLhoriLaLivcworkonhydropsy.ILisamixLurc
o black hcllcborc, myrrh, and holy LhisLlc. Hc rcporLs whcrc hc col-
lccLsLhcscingrcdicnLs,howhccombincsLhcm,andspccicsLhcdosagc
andduraLionousc.
7
TisLypcoprcscripLionisdccisivc,sincc,dcspiLc
LhcLaciLblcndingohydropsyandobcsiLy,LhcuscoLonicsbccomcsLhc
answcr aL Lhc rsL sighL o Lhc aL pcrsons cshy prousions, and Lhcsc
arcimmcdiaLclylinkcdnowLohispowcrlcssncssandlcLhargy.
Tonics conLaining iron, LarLar, cinnamon, oxymcl scilliLic arc ccnLral
Lo PinksLans mid-ccnLury rccommcndaLions or a scvcnLy-Lwo-ycar-old
rcLircd navy capLain who had bccomc prodigiously swollcn.
S
AnLoinc
PcLiL and Samicl TissoL makc massivc usc o Lonics Lo LrcaL Lhc rank
obcsiLy o lic dc BcaumonLunpcrLurbcd by Lhc lawycrs lamcnLs and
rccriminaLions.CrcamsoLarLar,pillsoasafoetida,Commandcrsbalm,
BalarucwaLcr(judgcdwondcrulorLhcsLomachbyLhcEncyclopdie),bal-
samicormulasmcanLLoincrcascmovcmcnLoLhcbloodandrcsolvc
obsLrucLions,
0
andminLlozcngcs,cspcciallyFnglishoncs(judgcdcom-
orLingandgoodorLhcncrvcs),
1u
wcrcallprcscribcdLobcLLcrcxciLc
Lhc paLicnL. In addiLion, Lhcrc wcrc aphrodisiacsdiscusscd and criLi-
cizcdaLlcngLhandachoiccosLimulaLingsoLcningpowdcrsaswcll
asrccommcndaLionsabouLhowbcsLLoposiLiononcsbodyLoavorLhc
unionrcquircdoroncsconjugalduLy.OncisLosLand,Lhcwiclying
back on Lhc cdgc o Lhc bcd wiLh Lhighs raiscd and rcsLing againsL Lhc
armsoLhchusbandwiLhLhclcgshangingovcrLhcshouldcrs.
11
Powcr-
lcssncssisindccdaglobalcvil.AndLhcdocLorsanswcrwillalsoconccrn
iLsclwiLhLhcvcncrcalacL.
Toning Up 101
The Virtue of Excitants
TonicsarcnoLaloncinpromisingvigor.FxcrciscsarcalsopromoLcd,now
wiLhncwcxplanaLions.MovcmcnLissaidLosLrcngLhcnlcssbydryingouL
Lhanbyrmingup.ILworksonLhclamcnLs,cnlivcningwhilchardcn-
ingLhcm.FxcrciscrcanimaLcsbcrsandmainLainsLhcsupplcncssand
spring o musclcs.
12
ILs Lhc invcrsc o a babys ovcrly Lcndcr csh LhaL
LoLal abscncc o movcmcnL would rcndcr aL and swollcn.
13
Rcinorcc-
mcnLdcpcndsonconLracLions,shocks,shakcs,andconvulsions,cvcni
provokcd rom Lhc cxLcrior. Tis is whaL MonLcsquicu inLcnds Lo con-
crcLcly bring abouL wiLh horscback riding. Fach sLcp o horsc provokcs
apulscinLhcdiaphragm,andovcralcagucLhaLamounLsLoabouLour
LhousandpulsaLionsoncwouldoLhcrwiscnoLhavc.
14
Tcsamcrcason-
ingisbchindLhcinvcnLionoLhcmcchanicalarmchair,Lhcmcchanical
horsc, and Lhc horscback sLool dcscribcd in Lhc Encyclopdie and Lhc
journal Posters, Announcements, and Diverse Opinions.
15
A curvcd rocking
chairbascandoLhcrspccialhandlcsallowoncsclorascrvanLLoinducc
rcgularmovcmcnLandLhuspcrmiLcxcrciscinoncsownroom.
16
ConLinuous work, Lravcl, and busincss arc whaL AnLoinc PcLiL and
Samucl TissoL rccommcnd Lo Lhcir paLicnLs.
17
Tcir vision o cxcrcisc
is bascd on agiLaLion and Lcnsion. William Cullcn sccs Lhcsc pracLiccs
asLhconlycccLivcwayLocombaLobcsiLy.
1S
licdcBcaumonLyiclds
docilcly Lo Lhc rccommcndaLions. Hc spccics Lhc Lypcs o movcmcnLs
hcpcrorms,LhcirduraLion,andLhcprccauLionsorcach,noLingLhcmix
ormingupandclcaningouLLhaLgocson.HcwalksLhroughParisor
onchourinawarmovcrcoaL.HcdocsLhisciLhcrinLhcmorningaL6:o
orinLhccarlyaLcrnoonbcLwccnand:.HcLhcnrcLurnshomcswcaL-
ingprouscly.HchasscrvanLsrubhimwiLhadryLowcl,LhcnawcLonc,
LhcnwiLhasLibrush,bcorcdonningaslighLlywarmcdshirL.
10
Tis
showsLhcconLinucdimporLanccoricLionandpcrspiraLion.
licdcBcaumonLhardlyloscsanywcighLdcspiLcallLhisccrvcsccncc.
OnLhcconLrary,hcgcLsaLLcr.TisiswhaLconvinccshimLhaLhchasa
rcalillncss,andiLiswhyhccclssodisappoinLcdbyLhcmanyandsomc-
LimcsconLradicLoryprcscripLionsohisdocLors.OncisagainsLLca,Lhc
oLhcrisoriL,oncsaysLocuLbackonmcnLalwork,LhcoLhcrsccsnoLh-
ingwrongwiLhiL.
2u
MorcLhancvcr,obcsiLycansccmlikcadisordcrLhaL
rcsisLsLrcaLmcnL.AnobsLaclcordocLorsandasourccodisillusionor
paLicnLs now provokcs ncw orccul cclings o biLLcrncss. All Lhc morc
sincc hcavincss hardly aciliLaLcs physical movcmcnL. CcrLain cxcrciscs
arcsomcLimcsimpossiblcLopcrorm.
21
AwholcncwdarksidcLoobcsiLy
bcgins Lo cmcrgc whcn Lhc body docs noL obcy corLs Lo conLrol Lhc
cvilLhaLmayarisc.Howcvcr,LhcrcisnomcdicalrcsponscLoLhisobscurc
incrLiaandunchangingsLaLcdcspiLccloscsupcrvisionandrcsLricLions.
BaLhs urLhcr mulLiply Lhc panoply o LrcaLmcnLs. Tc cold baLh, o
coursc,wiLhiLsprovocaLionoLcnsionandLighLcningisassociaLcdwiLh
cold air, wind, cxcrLions, and oLhcr mcLhods or Loning up Lissucs. Tc
arscnal o hardcning agcnLs grows, invcrLing LradiLional pracLiccs and
mulLiplyingLhcaimsandcxplanaLions.BaLhsarcavasLLopicLhaLcxLcnds
wcll bcyond slimming programs Lo Lhc gcncral mainLcnancc o hcalLh
andhygicnc.InLhc,6osPoiLLcvinopcnshisLhcrmalboaLonabanko
LhcScincLoocrLhcsLimulaLionocoldbaLhs.
22
TcscparLicularbaLhs
bccomcaocalpoinLoPicrrc-MaricdcSainL-UrsinsbcauLyandhcalLh
LrcaLmcnLaLLhccndoLhcccnLury.
23
ManyoLhcscbaLhsarcaimcdspccicallyaLslimming.AllLhosc,or
cxamplc,LhaLinduccaparLicularcomprcssionandancvacuaLingcccL,
aLLcnuaLingLhcbloodLomakciLmorcuidandrunny.
24
AlsoLhosco
Madamc du Barry, which link rcgular cold baLhs Lo Lhc rmncss o hcr
busL.ShcproudlydisplaycdLhcrcsulLsLoDuorLdcChcvcrny,whopaid
hcr a visiL in Lhc ,8os and had Lhc surprisc o bcing inviLcd Lo ccl or
himscl undcr hcr cloLhcs.
25
Tcrc is also Lhc casc o Pommcs paLicnLs
whosLayinLhcwaLcrorhourshopingorarcLighLcningoLhcirorgans
LhaLwillcliminaLcLhcirobsLrucLionsandcngorgcmcnLs.
26
Electric Dreams
AnoLhcrcxciLanLLurncdLoisclccLriciLy.TisuidandiLscommoLions
and shocks wcrc cxpcrimcnLcd wiLh by amaLcurs and savanLs sLarLing
around ,o. Schwilguc proposcd a cold baLh wiLh clccLric currcnL LhaL
hc cxpccLcd Lo producc rcLighLcning and sccrcLions.
27
Tc Abbc Nol-
lcL rccommcndcd dirccL clccLricaLion and providcd sLaLisLical cvidcncc
o iLs succcss. An clccLricd caL bccamc scvcnLy grains lighLcr, a pigcon
LhirLy-vcLoLhirLy-scvcngrains,asparrowsix-scvcngrains.
2S
Tcscg-
urcsmaysccmsilly,buLLhcyLcsLiyLoLhcinLcnscinLcrcsLinwcighLloss
andiLsnumcricalvcricaLion.TccalculaLionsarcmorcLcnLaLivc,how-
cvcr,whcniLcomcsLohumanwcighLloss.ALcrbcingclccLricdorvc
ull hours, a man and woman o bcLwccn LwcnLy and LhirLy ycars losL
scvcral ounccs o wcighL.
20
Bccoming lighLcr is cquaLcd wiLh grcaLcr
livclincss. Picrrc BcrLholon ocrs many cxplanaLions abouL sLicncd
bcrsandabouLLhcmaLcrialcccLsoLhcclccLriccurrcnL.HccommcnLs
Toning Up 103
on Lhc Lypcs o hcavincss susccpLiblc Lo LrcaLmcnL and spcaks indicr-
cnLlyabouLhydropsyandobcsiLy.AsorunivcrsalinLumcsccnccs,Lhosc
rclaLcdLocorpulcncc(polysarcia),whcrcLhchumanbodyisdisgurcdby
a Loo grcaL quanLiLy o aL, Lhosc rclaLcd Lo swclling and Lo lcucophlcg-
macywhicharccmphiscmaLicorcdcmicinLumcsccnccs,clccLriccommo-
LionandsLrongclccLriccurrcnLdirccLcdagainsLccrLaincxccsscsolong
duraLionandinLcnsiLyappcarLobcappropriaLcrcmcdicsorLhcscLypcs
ocachcxia.
3u
PicrrcBcrLholonciLcsLhccascoLooaLpcoplcwholoscaparLo
Lhcir cxccss wcighL aLcr Lhc applicaLion o a grcaL numbcr o commo-
Lions.
31
AllconsLiLuLionsarccagcrLorcccivcclccLriciLy,inLhcwordso
NoclRcLzin,8,andarclighLcncdLhanksLoLhcowocurrcnL.
32
Tis
pracLicc,howcvcr,isnoLLhcmosLusual,norwiLhouLiLscriLics.ILspopu-
lariLydcpcndsonLhcncwidcaobodyparLssusccpLiblcLobcingcxciLcd
andmadcmorcslcndcrLhanksLoaparLicularLcnsionasLaLcinwhich
LhcbcrsdominaLcovcrLhcwaLcrysubsLanccs.
The Nerve Regimen
Finally Lhcrc arc Lhc rcgimcns or dicLs dcsigncd Lo acL posiLivcly on
Lhcbcrs.TcyopposcconLracLingoodsLoslackcningoods,aromaLic
planLsLoroughoncs,andcxciLingcccLsLosoLcningcccLs.Adoublc
acLionissysLcmaLicallypursucdLocombaLobcsiLy:atensionLhaLpcrmiLs
Lhc cvacuaLion and a stimulation LhaL pcrmiLs Lhc rcsLoraLion o orccs
by cxalLaLion. William Buchan oricnLs in Lhis dual dirccLion wiLh all Lhc
oodsandliquidshcprcscribcsLohydropics,scdcnLaryarLisans,andliL-
crary Lypcs in his Domestic Medicine, a work publishcd cighLccn Limcs
inFnglishandLcnLimcsinFrcnchbcLwccn,,oand8o.
33
Tcrcisan
insisLcnccondryoods,sLimulaLingplanLs,
34
andoncaLingsmallquan-
LiLicsomcaLLhaLwillorLiyLhcbcrsoLhcsLomach
35
Lhrushand
parLridgcbcingLhcbcsLcxamplcs.Tcrcisalsoancmphasisonchoosing
LhcrighLliquids,suchasliqucursknownasspiriLsLhaLwillorLiyLhc
spring o body masscs.
36
CcrLain oLhcr pracLiccs arc also said Lo avor
cxciLaLion, such as inhaling Lhc smokc o burning parLridgc caLhcrs,
which supposcdly sLrcngLhcns Lhc ncrvcs. Tis is mcnLioncd wiLhin a
long invcnLory o good oods and oLhcr hcalLh producLs by an Fnglish
docLoraround,o.
37
Whcn lookcd aL closcly, howcvcr, Lhc conLcnL o Lhcsc dicLs hardly
changcs aL all during Lhc cighLccnLh ccnLury. Pcrhaps duc Lo a lack o
chcmisLry knowlcdgc, LhoughLs abouL ood rcmain as inLuiLivc as Lhcy
arcdogmaLic.TclighL,Lhchcavy,Lhcdry,LhcwaLcry,andLhcaLrcmain
primaryrccrcnccpoinLs,wiLhLhcsLickyandLhcroughmoLivaLinga
rcjccLion,asLhoughLhcscnsualandcspcciallyvisiblcqualiLicsoingcsLcd
oods dcLcrmincd Lhcir slimming or aLLcning poLcnLial. A numbcr o
rcjccLcdiLcmsconLinucLobcshunncd.TcscincludcanimalsbclicvcdLo
livcogarbagcsuchasducksandpigs,
3S
animalsromsLagnanLwaLcrs
(bogsandponds),
30
biLLcrandairyplanLs,
4u
viscousmcaLs,andoily
sh.TcdangcroLhcscoodsisLhcymighLormaLcnaciousdoughy
mass insidc Lhc body or provokc wind and bloaLing.
41
And all o Lhcm
LcndLosoLcninsLcadoLighLcn.AllavorobsLrucLioninsLcadoLransiL.
Onc is rcmindcd o Lhc slow, diculL scLLing asidc o rccrcnccs Lo Lhc
simplicdcxplanaLorymodcloLhchumors.
TcoriginaliLyaLLhisLimcisancwwayoLalkingabouLdicLsandLhc
solcmn prcsLigc accordcd Lhcm in lcLLcrs, mcmoirs, and oLhcr auLobio-
graphicalwriLings.HcalLhysimplcoodsarcmcnLioncdrcgularlybyLhc
PrinccdcIigncduringhisvisiLsLoBaillcul,
42
bowlsohoLwinc,spicy
roasLsandwincs,andcupsoLcaorcoccarcrcgularlyciLcdby1amcs
BoswcllinhisdailydiaryasLhingsLomakchimcclwcll,
43
andLhcrcgi-
mcnoLhcFnglisharmcr,
44
bascdonsobcr,lighLbroLhs,ismcnLioncd
inlcLLcraLcrlcLLcrbyHoraccWalpolc,whowasaicLcdbyacascogouL
hccouldnLovcrcomc.
45
Ccorgc Chcync inauguraLcs Lhis dcLailcd aLLcnLion in Lhc rsL hal
o Lhc cighLccnLh ccnLurylinking dicL Lo Lhc bodys orm, and noLing
cvcrysinglcLhingconsumcdandiLscccLdaybyday.HcissoinsisLcnL
LhaLhcsccsiLncccssaryLojusLiyhispionccringways:
I know how indcccnL and shocking cgoLism is, and or an auLhor
LomakchimsclLhcsubjccLohiswordsorworks,cspcciallyinso
Lcdious and circumsLanLiaLcd a dcLail. BuL so various and conLra-
dicLory havc bccn Lhc rcporLs o and snccrs on my rcgimcn, casc,
and scnLimcnLs, LhaL I LhoughL Lhus much was duc Lo LruLh, and
ncccssaryormyownvindicaLion.AndpcrhapsiLmaynoLbcquiLc
usclcss Lo somc low, dcsponding, valcLudinary, ovcrgrown pcrson
whosccascmayhavcsomcrcscmblanccLominc.
46
DicL bccomcs a Lopic o convcrsaLion and commcnLary among Lhc
FnlighLcnmcnLs culLivaLcd classcs. IL is worricd ovcr and invcnLoricd
Lo Lhc smallcsL dcLail and always wiLh Lhc consLanL ccrLiLudc o giving
hcalLhyadviccLoLhconcaddrcsscd.
Toning Up 105
Morc gcncrally, bcginning aL Lhc cnd o Lhc scvcnLccnLh ccnLury
Lhcrc is a hcighLcncd imporLancc accordcd Lo LasLcs and a dcvclop-
mcnL o a morc rcncd, morc dclicaLc Lypc o cooking LhaL condcmns
Lhc hcavy caLcr morc Lhan Lhc gourmcL.
47
Tc lighL suppcrs o aris-
LocraLic houscholds in Lhc cighLccnLh ccnLury avor aLLcnLion Lo qual-
iLy. SLcphcn Mcnncll rccrs Lo iL as a civilizing o Lhc appcLiLc.
4S
Tc
hcavy usc o spiccs dccrcascs and LhaL o vcgcLablcs, lighL rcsh mcaLs,
and ruiLs incrcascs aL Lhc samc Limc LhaL growing mcLhods and Lrans-
porLaLion possibiliLics improvc. Tc daily cuisinc o Lhc cliLc avors
dclicacy ovcr shccr abundancc, a ncw qualiLy ovcr Lhc old prioriLy o
quanLiLy. Tis is cvidcnL in a passionaLc dcscripLion by PicLro Vcrri
in,6.
TcLablcisllcdwiLhLhcmosLdclicaLcoodspossiblc.AllLhcnuLri-
mcnLsarchcalLhulandcasyLodigcsL.TcrcisnoLovcrabundancc
or cxaggcraLion, simply whaL is sLricLly ncccssary and plcasing.
Hcavy, viscous mcaLs, garlic, onions, sLrong liqucurs, salLcd oods,
Lrucs,andoLhcrLhingspoisonousLohumansarcLoLallyprohib-
iLcd rom Lhis Lablc. Onc nds csscnLially chickcn and oLhcr bird
mcaL,hcrbs,andorangcsandLhcirjuicc.TcLasLcsarccxquisiLcbuL
noLsLrong. . . .TisisourmcalandwccomplcLciLwiLhancxccllcnL
cup o cocc. Onc ccls saLiscd, ull, buL noL sLucd or slccpy as
oncwouldromcaLingroughhcavyoods.
40
Plants or Meats?
Tc ncw cusLom o scrving mcaL on a rcgular basis conLribuLcs Lo Lhc
sLrikingoriginaliLyoLhccighLccnLhccnLury.ForAnLoincIcCamusand
hisdocLorAbdckcr,
5u
LhcrcisnodoubLLhaLmcaLsLhaLwillkccpLhcLrunk
rombccomingLoosLouLarcLobcchoscnonLhcbasisoLhcmanicsLly
slcndcr physiqucs o carnivorous animals.
51
Ccorgc Chcync is also surc
ohimsclashcsurvcyswhaLoodshccaLsaLLhcbcginningoLhccigh-
LccnLhccnLury.TconlyvcgcLablcshcincludcsinhisdicLarccxclusivcly
LhoscLhaLprovokcLhchcLy,hcavycclingomcaL.AclcarconLradicLion,
whichshowsccrLiLudccarricsLhcdayovcrdcbaLcordoubL.
A dcbaLc inLcnsics howcvcr around a culLural maLLcr LhaL has bccn
sLudicd aL lcngLh, namcly, Lhc criLicism o luxury and arLicc, urban
ashions and cxccss rcncmcnL, and Lhc soLcning LhaL caLing Loo
much mcaL is said Lo conLribuLc Lo.
52
Rousscau adds Lo Lhcsc criLicisms
in Lhc ,6os wiLh Lhc Lhcmcs o asphyxiaLion in ciLics, cloLhing con-
sLrainLs,andLhccviloscdcnLarincss.TcLhrcaLoacollccLivcpcrish-
ing is hcrc puL orward in a way markcdly dicrcnL rom Lhc old cars
abouL moral backsliding and loss o rcligious aiLh. Tc worry now is
abouL physical diminuLion rom aLLacks on Lhc organs LhaL arc Lhc prc-
sumcd conscqucnccs o ccrLain pracLiccs as wcll as a ccrLain prccious-
ncss. Tc conccrn is how Lo prcvcnL an cvil rom halLing progrcss and
convcrLing modcrniLy inLo wcakncss, and Lhc mcans includc alLcring
publichcalLh,nowspokcnocollccLivclyorLhcrsLLimc.Tcmcnaccis
adccliningslopcwhcrcraccspcrishordcgcncraLcwiLhinacwgcncra-
Lions.
53
FnlighLcncd humanism condcmns Lhc mass killing o animals,
Lhc massacrcs, pcoplcs voraciousncss, and Lhc consLrucLion o vasL
buLchcrics LhroughouL Lhc world.
54
AL Lhc cnd o Lhc ccnLury, Franis
Mundy cvcn dcnounccs Lhc cruclLy o Lhosc who hunL harcs and shooL
birds.
55
ConsuminganimalscomcsLobcconsidcrcdasboLhnoxiousanda
signoinscnsiLiviLy.FaLingplanLs,howcvcr,isancnLirclydicrcnLmaL-
Lcr.PlanLsarclicarmingandvalucdorquickcningLhcrccxcs,rcsLor-
ingoncsoldvigorandorccs,andwardingoindolcnccandblindncss.
ObviouslyvcgcLarianismdocsnoLrcccivcunanimousbacking.VolLairc
includcs an amuscd look aL Lhc inLcrdicLion o mcaL in an cnLry wiLhin
hisPhilosophical Dictionary(,6).
56
AnumbcrohcalLhspccialisLsmain-
LainaavorablcopinionabouLcaLinghcalLhy,juicymcaL.
57
Buon,who
sccmsLohavchadrcscrvaLionsabouLLoLalvcgcLarianism,rccommcnds
mixingandmaLchingLhcoodrcgimcsodicrcnLpcoplcsandLaking
inspiraLion rom Lhc bcsL o Lhcsc, whaLcvcr Lhc choiccs may bc.
5S
Tc
vcry cxisLcncc o so many alLcrnaLivcs LcsLics Lo Lhc adopLion o ncw
considcraLions, noLably FnlighLcnmcnL culLurcs incrcasing awarcncss
abouLLhcLwo-cdgcdswordoprogrcssandiLsclaboraLionophiloso-
phicsooodwhcrcLhcsLakcsarcsignicanLlymorcspcllcdouLLhanin
ormcrLimcs.
The Chemistry Revolution
An cnLircly unprcccdcnLcd dimcnsion o Lhc ncw ood culLurc would bc
addcdwiLhLhcchcmisLryrcvoluLion,whichgoLsLarLcdaLLhccndoLhc
cighLccnLhccnLury.ILisnoLLhaLallLhcinLcrcsLsoLhcParisianchcmisL
Iavoisicr,orcxamplc,convcrgcdaprioriwiLhLhcconccrnsodigcsLion
physiologisLs.NorisiLLhccascLhaLLhccarlyqucsLionsoIavoisicrcvcn
LookupLhcphysicalcconomyoanimals.TcmanipulaLionsoair,waLcr,
Toning Up 107
mcLals,andLhcinquiryinLoclcmcnLarybodicsdubbcdsimplcarcnoL
aimcd aL nuLriLivc subsLanccs and Lhcir combinaLions. Nor wcrc Lhcir
scalcd chambcrs, balls, and rcLorLs madc wiLh Lhc purposc o analyzing
oodsLus.ILwasLhcdiscovcryooxygcnandiLsrolcinLhcrcspiraLory
sysLcm LhaL allowcd ncw ways o Lhinking Lo dcvclop, noLably a LoLally
rcviscdconccpLionooodswiLhinLhcalimcnLarycanalandLhcircccLs.
TccxpcrimcnLscarricdouLin,,8onpcoplcplaccdinscalcdcham-
bcrscnLirclychangcLhcwaypcoplcLhinkabouLLhcorganic.Tcanaly-
sisoLhcairbrcaLhcdinsidcLhcchambcrrcvcalcdLhaLoxygcnhadbccn
absorbcdandcarbondioxidccxpcllcd.TcincviLablcconclusionwasLhaL
rcspiraLion is a orm o combusLion.
50
Tc acL is Lhcrcorc Lo bc rcinLcr-
prcLcd. ILs uncLion is cnLircly dicrcnL: brcaLhing is no longcr abouL
hclping Lhc hcarL conLracL or rcrcshing and rcning Lhc blood, as doc-
Lors and scicnLisLs had always LhoughL, buL insLcad plays a viLal rolc in
mainLaininganimalhcaL,andmorcgcncrallylic,bymcansosomcsorL
oinvisiblcurnacc.AamccxisLsorwhichLhcprcscnccooxygcnmusL
bc a ncccssary condiLion. Somc combusLiblc maLcrial musL also cxisL,
likcacandlcswaxorLhccoaloasLovc.FoodmusLbcLhisalimcnL,and
oncoiLsLransormaLionsiscxplaincdbyLhisconLribuLionLoLhcacL
ocombusLion.
Somc complcLcly ncw lincs o Lhinking bcgin, cvcn i Lhcy arc noL
prcscnLinIavoisicrswriLings.Forcxamplc,LhcaLLcmpLLodisLinguish
oods bascd on Lhcir combusLivc propcrLics and on Lhcir prcscncc or
abscnccinLhccombusLivcproccss.TcrcisalsoancwinLcrcsLindcn-
ing principlcs o a balanccd dicL LhaL assimilaLc cxccss wcighL Lo a
paLhologyanalogousLoLhcinsucicncyorinccicncyoaproccsso
burning.IavoisicrhimsclLurnsLhcscalcinLoajudgcsvcrdicL.Tc
samcindividual,aLcrincrcasinginwcighLbyLhccombincdamounLo
all LhaL hc has ingcsLcd, rcLurns aL Lhc cnd o cach LwcnLy-our-hour
cyclcLoLhcsamcwcighLhchadbcorc,andiLhisdocsnoLLakcplacc,
LhcindividualissucringromsomcLhingorill.
6u
Tc rcasoning is noL ycL cxprcsscd in Lcrms o calorics and caloric
counLing.ArcvoluLionhassLarLcd,Lhough,inwhichslackLissucisno
longcrLhchcarLoLhcmaLLcr,andinsLcadbalanccLakcsonarolciLhad
ncvcrhadandcombusLivcpowcrLransormsallrcprcscnLaLions.Tisrcv-
oluLionwillullyasscrLiLsclduringLhcnincLccnLhccnLury.
. AncicnL miniaLurcs did noL disLinguish dicrcnL prolcs. In Lhc gluLLon consuming ood
is noL shown in his prcsumcd acLual sizc. Sobriety and Gluttony, ms. 6:, olio :oov, Biblio-
Lhcquc dc lArscnal, IaurcnL dOrlcans, Ia Sommc lc Roi, Picardic, . Bibliothque nationale
de France
:. Te Marriage of the Virgin, :Lh ccnLury.
No dicrcncc ycL is rcprcscnLcd bcLwccn
Lhc conLours o Lhc bodics. Frcnch MS.
Rue de Archives
. Te Marriage of the Virgin, Lh ccnLury. Tc
rsL rcprcscnLaLion o Lhc aL, awkward oa who
undcrsLands hc has no chancc o marrying Mary.
His sizc (grosseur) is synonymous wiLh gauchc
vulgariLy (grossiret). 1can FouqucL, Tc Hours
o Licnnc Chcvalicr, ms. ,, olio :, Condc
Muscum, ChanLilly. Bridgeman Giraudon
. Hydropsy, Lhc sprcad o liquid LhroughouL Lhc body, or a long Limc, is poorly disLinguishcd rom
Lhc sprcad o aL LhroughouL Lhc body. Head and Face of a Hydropic Man, a drawing aLLribuLcd Lo
Hans Holbcin Lhc Fldcr, laLc Lh ccnLury, Iouvrc Muscum, Paris. Runion des Muses Nationaux
. AlbrcchL Durcr is onc o Lhc rsL Lo cxplorc Lhc LraiLs o cxLrcmc aLncss: Lhc sunkcn ncck,
Lhc sphcrical appcarancc o limbs, a diusc rigidiLy, and a prolicraLion o olds o Lhc skin. Tc
drawing Women Bathing LhaL inspircd Lhc cngraving daLcs rom 6. KunsLhallc Muscum, Brc-
mcn. Bridgeman Giraudon
6. Rubcns cxplorcs cxLrcmc aLncss likc no onc
bcorc, cxposing crackcd and collapscd csh.
Picrrc Paul Rubcns, drawing or Te Fall of
the Damned (6:). BriLish Muscum, Iondon.
Runion des Muses Nationaux
,. Rubcns is scnsiLivc Lo gcncrous csh
whcn LrcaLing myLhological subjccLs, buL
hc also knows how Lo dcpicL in cvcryday
painLings Lhc ormal rcquircmcnLs o his
Limc: narrow waisLs and LighL bclLs. Picrrc
Paul Rubcns, Portrait of a Young Woman,
carly ,Lh ccnLury or 6o. Uzi Callcry,
Florcncc. Leemage
8. During Lhc FnlighLcnmcnL comc Lhc
rsL comparaLivc cxploraLions o dicr-
cnccs in possiblc dcgrccs o body sizc.
Hcrc Lhc volumc o Lhc mcrchanLs bclly
is acccnLuaLcd, Lhc clcrks volumc is lcss
pronounccd, Lhc domcsLic scrvanLs arc
Lhinncr sLill, and Lhc cmalc gurcs show
Lhc obligaLory LighL waisLs. Mill, Te
Household of the English Merchant, 8Lh
ccnLury. Bibliothque nationale de France
. OLhcr carly FnlighLcnmcnL-cra cxplora-
Lions inLo Lhc dicrcnL possiblc orms
o bigncss Lakc inLo accounL individual
variaLions. ObcsiLy can manicsL iLscl in
a varicLy o curvcs. 1amcs Cillray, Two-
Penny Whist, ,6. Bridgeman Giraudon
o. A hcighLcncd inLcrcsL in obcsiLy in
Lhc cighLccnLh ccnLury can bc sccn in Lhc
scarch or phcnomcnal cascs LhaL arc
rcprcscnLcd and cxhibiLcd. Tcsc cxLrcmc
gurcs boLh challcngc and rcinorcc
norms, limiLs, and Lhrcsholds. 1ohn Fair-
burn, Separate Portraits of Daniel Lambert
() and Edward Bright (),
Stone and Stone, Respectively, cngrav-
ing, 8o6. Wcllcomc Iibrary, Iondon.
(Uppcr-righL hand corncr)
Tc rcprcscnLaLion o Lhc aL pcrson bcgan
Lo havc a spccically social and poliLical
dimcnsion in Lhc cighLccnLh ccnLury as
an abuscr, proLccr, cxploiLcra swollcn,
obLusc spiriL. Tc aL pcrson is a pos-
scssor o ill-goLLcn gains, Lhc aL malc
bcing Lhc characLcr spccically LargcLcd.
Wellcome Library, London
. 1oscph Franois CoLz, Te Financier, in
Imaginative Exercises in Inventing, Painting,
and Drawing Dierent Characters and Human
Forms, Augsbcrg, ,8,8. Runion des
Muses Nationaux
:. Reverendissimo Viro V.H. Huntington, an ink drawing by
Tomas Rowlandson (,68:,). Bridgeman Giraudon
. Te Patriotic Weight-Loss Machine, PaLicncc, Monscigncur, your Lurn will comc. Fngraving,
laLc 8Lh ccnLury, CarnavalcL Muscum, Paris. Leemage
. Two opposing prolcs: Lhc bourgcois rcassurcd by his bclly vcrsus Lhc dandy cxhibiLing
his sLouL chcsL and narrow waisL. In Lhc 8os social succcss is gcncrally judgcd Lo bclong Lo
Lhc ormcr. 1can-Igancc Crandvillc, All Tat Glitters Is Not Gold, in Cent Proverbes (Paris, 8).
Kharbine-Tapabor
. Tc invcnLion o Lhc pcar-shapcd cgy in Lhc 8os. Tc bourgcois gurc is rcduccd
Lo his digcsLivc uncLions wiLh Lhc ocus on lowcr-body collapsc and a gradual widcning
rom acc Lo abdomcn. Honorc Daumicr, Te Pear, a caricaLurc o Iouis-Philippc in
rcsponsc Lo an insulL addrcsscd Lo Lhc arLisL. Archivc or ArL and HisLory, Bcrlin. AKG
6. Tc hcavily rcighLcd imagc.
Fnglands Fdward VII (8o), a
parLicularly aL king, is ridiculcd hcrc
or his colonial ambiLions, dcspiLc
apparcnLly good rclaLions wiLh Francc
aL Lhc bcginning o Lhc LwcnLicLh
ccnLury. 1can Vcbcr, Caricature du roi
douard VII dAngleterre, Le Foudre de
guerre, an illusLraLion rom LAssiette
au Beurre (Tc buLLcr plaLc), ScpLcm-
bcr :8, o.
Tc cnduring bclic in Lhc pos-
sibiliLy o molding Lhc bodys conLours
wiLh a rigid shcaLh is bchind Lhc vcry
long hisLory o a slowly cvolving gar-
mcnL: Lhc corscL. From mcLal ramcs
Lo Lhosc madc o various abrics, rom
sLrapping down Lhc busL Lo cncasing
Lhc hips, rom a gcncric look Lo morc
individualizcd oncs. Rue de Archives
,. Tc cvoluLion o Lhc corscL and
womcns lingcric ovcr Limc. IllusLra-
Lion, Lh ccnLury. Leemage
8. Te Marvelous Eect
of Lacing... a View of the
Pretty Millers Wife, prinL,
,:8o. Bibliothque
nationale de France
. For a vcry long Limc,
an approximaLc rough
idca o bigncss gcLs by
wiLh pracLically no usc o
scalcs whaLsocvcr. AL Lhc
bcginning o Lhc scvcn-
LccnLh ccnLury, SancLo-
rius insLalls a hcavy and
complcx balancc scalc
suspcndcd rom Lhc ccil-
ing Lo conducL his prccisc
cxpcrimcnLs abouL
wcighL gain, wcighL loss,
and Lhc cccLs o pcrspi-
raLion. SanLorio SanLori,
De statica medicina
(Iipsiac [Icipzig], 6:).
Leemage
:o. Tc populariLy o spas and Lhcrmal baLhs lcd Lo incrcascd usc o
human scalcs in Lhc middlc o Lhc nincLccnLh ccnLury. Tc Tcrmal
Wcighing Machinc, Vichy, Francc around oo. AKG
:. Two innovaLions appcar in anLi-obcsiLy advcrLising aL Lhc bcgin-
ning o Lhc LwcnLicLh ccnLury: an insisLcncc on Lhc inclcgancc o malc
obcsiLy and Lhc sLandard rccoursc Lo a pcrsonal scalc wiLh a raiscd dial aL
cyc lcvcl. AdvcrLiscmcnL, :os. ObcsiLy makcs onc ridiculous. Mcn wiLh
big bcllics, gcL rid o Lhc silhoucLLc LhaL makcs you look disgraccul by
wcaring Lhc Franck-Braun bclL. Kharbine-Tapabor
::. Tc rcvoluLion o Lhc cmalc
silhoucLLc aL Lhc bcginning o Lhc
LwcnLicLh ccnLury: abandonmcnL
o Lhc corscL, lcngLhcning o Lhc
body, and a rclaLivc disappcar-
ancc o Lhc hips. WhaLs now
groLcsquc arc Lhc aL, mocking
mcn. Te New Game, a caricaLurc
by Charlcs Icandrc. LIllustration
(8,), BiblioLhcquc dcs ArLs
dccoraLis, Paris. Bridgeman
Giraudon
:. Tc insisLcncc on skinnincss raLhcr Lhan
obcsiLy aL Lhc bcginning o Lhc LwcnLicLh ccnLury
is accompanicd by an impcraLivc Lo slim down in
rcsponsc Lo Lhc carlicsL signs o Lhc slighLcsL wcighL
gain. An advcrLiscmcnL or Clarks Slimming BaLh
SalLs in Les Dimanches de la femme (A womans
Sundays), :. Kharbine-Tapabor
:. Ncw insLrumcnLs and ncw sLandards in Lhc :os: an appliancc dcsigncd Lo
passivcly sculpL Lhc silhoucLLc, a massagc rolling pin, hcadgcar dcsigncd Lo
passivcly sculpL Lhc acc, and a porLablc pcrsonal scalcall or a pcrson whosc
aL dcposiLs arc noL ycL visiblc. PhoLograph, :os. Viollet
Busincssmcn,nancicrs,andciviclcadcrsoLhcFnlighLcnmcnLcrasuc-
cccdcd in making a promincnL bclly inLo a mark o prcsLigc, cvcn i Lhc
sLricLrcquircmcnLorwomcnwasLorcmainLhin.YcLLhiscclcbraLiono
masculincvolumcisambiguous,sincccighLccnLh-ccnLurysocialcriLicism
sLronglydcnounccsLhcphysiqucsoLhoscjudgcdLobcproLccringor
LhcmsclvcsandsLarvingoLhcrs.TiscquivocaLionabouLLhcbourgcois
rcmainsidcnLicalduringLhcRcsLoraLion(88o)andLhc1ulyMon-
archy(8o88).HisphysicalLhickncssmaybcpcrsuasivc,cvcnwhilc
saLircsLhaLmockLhcpcar-shapcdbcllyoccrLainauLhoriLygurcsmulLi-
ply.TcdcnunciaLionincrcascsinLandcmwiLhLhcprousionodcscrip-
LivcdcLails.WiLhLhcrcncmcnLonuanccsabouLLhcaLpcrson,aLncss
gainsinnoLoricLy.
AncwprccisionappcarsonLhcsccncaswcllwiLhLhcslowbuLsLcady
cnLryonumcricalcvaluaLionsomorphologics.Tcgazcbccomcsamca-
suringinsLrumcnLuscdonpcoplcjusLasiLcanbcuscdLosizcupLhings
in busincss and indusLry. Figurcs arc incrcasingly uscd Lo mcasurc Lhc
pcrimcLcrolimbs,LhcdcnsiLicsoaLaLdicrcnLlocaLionsinLhcbody,
andLhcraLiosohcighLLowcighL.Morcdccply,Lhcimagcoorganicunc-
Lionchangcs.TcbodyisnowancncrgyapparaLus,aurnacc,ancnginc
LhaLallowsorLhccalculaLionoLhcquanLiLyohcaLinLroduccdandLhc
quanLiLy o work produccd. Tus cvaluaLions o ccicncy and ouLpuL
bccomcimporLanL,asdocsaquanLicdvisionopossiblcimprovcmcnLs
Lhanks Lo variaLions in Lhc amounL o combusLiblcs and adjusLmcnLs
PART 4
THE BOURGEOIS BELLY
110 THE BOURGEOI S BELLY
inLhcircxploiLaLion.TcscidcasarcarromLhcoldmodclsohumors,
bcrs, and ncrvcs. Chcmical analysis LhaL or Lhc rsL Limc links aL Lo
aninsucicnLorganiccombusLioncxLcndsLhccalculaLionscvcnurLhcr
inLodiscussionsabouLchangingdicLs,climinaLingsccminglyinnoccnL
oods,sugarsandsLarchcs,andcvaluaLingcombusLivcpoLcnLials,supcr-
vising caloric ouLpuLs and wasLcd cncrgy. Tcsc arc hugc changcs LhaL
amounLLoancwwayolookingaLandLakingcarcoLhcbodyincluding
sLigmaLizingiLswcakncsscsandpossiblcincrioriLics.
Tc incrcasing imporLancc o gurcs mcriLs aLLcnLion. IL is noL wcighL
LhaLrsLbccomcssignicanL,buLraLhcrcircumcrcnccsandvisiblcvol-
umcsandconLours.ILissighLLhaLrsLsccksLhcsupplcmcnLogurcs
LojudgcLhcphysicalcnvclopc,whcrcaswcighLrclaLcsLoamorccomplcx
scLorccrcnccs.NcvcrLhclcss,inLhcwakcoindusLrializaLionLhiscul-
LurcrclicsmorconmcasuringinsLrumcnLs.FigurcsarcLhcccnLcroLhc
suddcncxplosioninsLaLisLicalpublicaLionsaLLhcbcginningoLhcninc-
LccnLhccnLuryLhaLscrupulouslyrccordquanLiLicsoproducLion,rcsulLs,
cLc.
1
NumbcrschangcLhcwaypcoplcLhink.
The Presence of Numbers
By Lhc bcginning o Lhc nincLccnLh ccnLury, LrcaLiscs on obcsiLy had
bccomc common, alLhough Lhcy conLinucd Lo bc sLrongly ocuscd on
cxLrcmccascs.OnlyLhcbiggcsLbodicsarcLrulysLudicd.TcprcscnLa-
LionoLhcsccascs,howcvcr,includcssomcLhingncwaurryonum-
bcrs accompanics Lhcm as Lhough suddcnly all mcasurcmcnLs wcrc now
considcrcduscul.In8o,orcxamplc,AngcMaccaryinsisLsonhiswish
LoLakcmcasurcmcnLswhcnhclcarnsosomconcsvcrybigsizc.
2
Whcnhc
hcarsoancwcasc,hcsccksLhcpcrsonouLandrccordsLhcmcasurcmcnLs
hcwanLs.TccxccpLionalcascsholdouLLhcpromisconcwknowlcdgc.
Hcs cxpccLing somc ncw rcvclaLion rom Lhcsc cxccssivc anaLomics
12. The Weight of Figures
LhcdiscovcryinLhcmoasccrcL.TcidcaisLorccordinnumbcrswhaL
hadupunLilLhcnncvcrbccnrccordcdandrsLoallwhaLcouldbcsccn,
LhcsuraccsLhaLarcimmcdiaLclyapparcnL.FirsLcircumcrcnccs,oarms,
Lhighs, calvcs, nccks, waisLs, bcllics. FaL Lhickncss is also rccordcd aLcr
havingbccnmcasurcdorLhcrsLLimcbyCuillaumcDupuyLrcnin8o6
on Lhc body o a woman who dicd rom suocaLion undcr Lhc wcighL
o hcr csh, a woman so cxaggcraLcdly swollcn LhaL Lhis surgcon aL Lhc
HLcl-DicudccidcsLomakcamoldohcrbodyandpuLiLoncxhibiL.
TcrcisnoLhingmorcormallycarricdouLLhanLhcnumcricalcalcu-
laLions o Cuillaumc DupuyLrcn who cxplorcs Lhc prcscncc o aL righL
downLoLhccars,cyclids,andngcrs.HismcasurcmcnLssilcnLlyocra
LopographyoaL.TcourinchcsinLhcpubicrcgionconLrasLwiLhLhc
oncinchaLLhcabdomcn,whilcLhcourinchcsinLhchiparcaconLrasLs
wiLh Lhc onc inch aL Lhc shouldcrsall clucs LhaL suggcsL hcavincss is
morcconccnLraLcdaLlowcrlcvcls.
3
AnoLhcrrcqucnLmcasurcmcnLoncndsinLrcaLiscsonobcsiLyaLLhc
bcginningoLhcnincLccnLhccnLury,cvcninoLLhcdominanLonc,isLhc
numcrical pairing o hcighL and wcighL. Angc Maccary noLcs Lhc mca-
surcmcnLsoadcormcdchildinhis8osLudyasollows::opounds,
ccL inch Lall, and ccL in circumcrcncc. By including Lhc pcrimc-
Lcr,LhcnumbcrsaloncgivcaclcarimagcoLhisunusualbodywhcrcLhc
hcighLandcircumcrcnccarcrcprcscnLcdbyLhcsamcgurc.
4
Oncnds
LhcsamccorrclaLionohcighLandwidLhwhcnBrillaL-SavarinmcnLions
a ricnd in his Physiology of Taste (8:6) who is ooL , and wcighs :
kilos.
5
Civing Lhcsc numcrical valucs o widLh and hcighL LogcLhcr sug-
gcsLsawillLomakcaLopographyoLhcbody.
Figuring the Waist-Weight Relation
FvcryLhing changcs, howcvcr, around 8: whcn Lhcsc paircd obscrva-
LionsarcsubmiLLcdLosLaLisLicalanalysis.FirsL,mcasuringwcighLLakcs
on morc imporLancc. Sccond, Lhis imporLancc is magnicd by iLs bcing
givcninLhcormoakcyrclaLionshipLhaLcoordinaLcsascalcowcighLs
andascalcowaisLmcasurcmcnLs.In8:AdolphcQucLclcLisLhcrsL
LoconsLrucLgridsandLablcsLhaLgoarbcyondLhcroughiniLiaLivcso
BuonbyincludingLhcvariablcsoscxandagc.
6
ForcachhcighLanor-
mal wcighL is sLaLisLically csLablishcd. Bascd on a widc samplc spacc,
Lhc hcighL o .6 m, or cxamplc, is said Lo corrcspond on avcragc Lo a
wcighLo,.kilosormcnand6.,kilosorwomcn,ahcighLo.,m
The Weight of Figures 113
corrcspondsLoawcighLo6.:okilosormcnand6.:8kilosorwomcn.
7
QucLclcLalsocsLablishcsquoLicnLsLhaLallowoncLocalculaLcLhcdcgrcc
odiscrcpancybcLwccnagivcnLhinoraLindividualandLhcabsLracLsLa-
LisLicalavcragc.TisisLhcbcginningoLhccsLablishmcnLonormsand
Lhcirabusc,allcnLirclydcrivcdrommanipulaLingnumbcrs.ILisnoLLhc
normaliLy o an idcal, buL o rcaliLy. Man is dcning himscl bascd on
whaLhclivcsmorcLhanonhisjudgmcnLsorwishcs.
S
ILsimporLanLnoL
LorcadLhcscnumbcrswiLhLodaysrccrcnccpoinLs.NoncoLhcmsccms
inLcndcd Lo guidc any individuals slimming program. Tcsc numcrical
comparisons wiLh progrcssivc, graduaLcd scalcs o Lhc human body arc
ncvcrLhclcssunprcccdcnLcdbcnchmarks.
Ncw Lypcs o invcsLigaLion guidcd QucLclcLs pracLiccs. Bcginning aL
LhccndoLhccighLccnLhccnLury,LhcrcarcsLudicslaunchcdbyLhcsci-
cnLic communiLy and public adminisLraLors LhaL makc usc o Lhc laws
o largc numbcrs, acLs calculaLcd cn massc such as crimcs, birLhs, and
dcaLhs,whicharcallrclaLcdviaavcragcsLhaLrcporLincrcascsordccrcascs
ovcrLimc.
0
TcscprojccLswcrcgrcaLlycxpandcdbyscicnLisLsandadmin-
isLraLors in indusLry during Lhc pcriod 8o8:o. CcrLain dcmocraLic
aimsalsoLransormcdcxpccLaLionsLhaLnowcxLcndcdLocvaluaLingLhc
proccdurcsogovcrnmcnLLhcirccicncy,orcxamplcandmorcgcn-
crally Lhc physical and moral sLaLc o populaLions. Tc variablcs choscn
arcconcrcLcandhavcasocialaim:grcaLcrknowlcdgcabouLLhcorganic
oundaLion o human groups via an cxploraLion o Lhc csh o sLaLcs.
AdminisLraLorshavcLhccclingLhaLancwLoolisinLhcirhands:aLcch-
niquc or asscssing corporcal quanLiLics and Lhcir disLribuLion. IL is a
limiLcdprojccL,howcvcr,oncconchcarsLhcwordsuscdbyQucLclcLLo
jusLiyhiscalculaLions:LobcLLcrknowLhcburdcnLhaLccrLainconsLruc-
LionscansLand,
1u
LobcLLcrknowLhcpcrsonalwcighLomansoasLo
bcLLcrorganizchiswork,LobcLLcrknowvariouswcighLsaccordingLoagc
andscxsoasLobcLLcrhclporcnsicspccialisLsidcnLiycorpscsandoLhcr
bodics.TcscarcpragmaLicLasksandacLiviLics.AndLhcirrcalizaLionand
ccicncyncccssiLaLcsaLcchnicalvision.BcauLyisnoLmcnLioncd.
OncissLruckbyLhcimporLancconumcricalmcasurcmcnLs,Lhcpro-
ducLionoLablcsandLhcirrolcinshapingLhinking.
The Question of Self-Weighing
TcscalcandwcighingoncsclarcnoLycLcommonplaccinLhcrsLdccadc
o Lhc nincLccnLh ccnLury. A look aL Frcnch and Fnglish rccruiLmcnL
hisLory o LhaL Limc clcarly shows LhaL mcasuring aLncss or Lhinncss
was noL cvcn mcnLioncd in Lhc documcnLs laying ouL miliLary rccruiL-
mcnL rulcs. Morcovcr, Lhc labcl wcak consLiLuLion,
11
applicd Lo :8o o
Lhc:,8orccruiLsinLhcrccordsoLhcUppcr-Rhincrcgionor8:6and
Lo o 6,o, rccruiLs in Lhc NorLh rcgion or 8,
12
is ncvcr cxplic-
iLlybackcdupwiLharccrcnccLowcighL.
13
AccordingLoLhcPhysiology of
the Conscript(86),LhcwaisLisLhconlyLrucobjccLoconccrnorLhc
rccruiLmcnLboardaLLhaLLimc.
14
Tcrcdocs,howcvcr,sccmLohavcbccnanincxorablc,subLlcdcvclop-
mcnLwiLhinLhcmorcsoLhcnincLccnLhccnLuryoancwvisionwhcniL
comcsLophysicalmcasurcmcnLs.IiLcrarydcscripLionsprovidccvidcncc
o Lhis. Tcrc is Lhc allurc o Balzacs CrandcL wiLh his vc ooL waisL,
shorL and squaL wiLh calvcs Lwclvc inchcs in circumcrcncc.
15
Tcrc is
alsoLhcunorLunaLcpricsLromTourswho,bccomingpainullyskinny,
noLiccs onc morning whilc puLLing on his bluc moLLlcd sLockings LhaL
his calvcs had losL ovcr an inch in circumcrcncc ( lignes).
16
Tcrc arc
also LcsLimonics in mcmoirs such as Lhc CounLcss dc Boigncs obscrva-
LionsabouLIouisXVIII,whosucrcdromgouL,andhcrsurpriscin8:6
LhaLinacwshorLmonLhsLhcblackvclvcLgaiLcrsLhaLcovcrcdhiscalvcs
haddoublcdinsizc.
17
TcrccxisLalsoLhcwriLingsoLailorssuchasaccr-
LainBardcwhoinsisLsorLhcrsLLimcin8oonusingacorpimcLcr,
a dcvicc or calculaLing diamcLcrs wiLh a sorL o compass insLcad o Lhc
usualsLripsopapcrLhaLupunLilLhcnhadbccnuscdLocalculaLccloLh
mcasurcmcnLs.OnlyLhcdiamcLcrsoLhcbodyindicaLconwhaLsidcLhc
proLubcranccswhosccircumcrcnccisLobccloLhcdarclocaLcd.
1S
Tccyc
andhandoLhcLailorhavcchangcd.TccvaluaLionovolumcsbccomcs
all-imporLanL.IndicaLorsoaLncssandLhinncssarcclcarlycxplorcd,and
cachisrccordcdasanumbcrcdcirclcaccordingLoLhcgraduaLcdspacings
oLhccompass.
Rccrcnccs Lo wcighL arc rarcr, morc spccic, and ycL also sLriking.
WcighL is inrcqucnLly mcnLioncd in daily aairs cxccpL whcn Lalk-
ing abouL cxLrcmc cascs likc Lhc Fnglishman cncounLcrcd by Alcxandrc
Dumas around 8:o whosc wcighL is csLimaLcd aL o pounds.
10
WcighL
docs comc up morc oLcn in discussions o slimming Lcchniqucs. Bril-
laL-Savarin makcs iL a rulc in his Physiology of Taste. Tc rsL rulc is Lo
wcighoncsclaLLhcbcginningandcndoLhcLrcaLmcnLinordcrLohavc
amaLhcmaLicalbascandvcriyrcsulLs.
2u
BaronIouisCrculhc,whois
scriouslyonLhcvcrgcoobcsiLy,comcsLoaskorhisadviccandacccpLs
wcighinghimsclrcgularlycachmonLh.ALLhcbcginningoLhcccnLury,
IordByronalsorcporLsLryingaslimmingrcgimcnLhaLhcspcaksowiLh
The Weight of Figures 115
numbcrsgoingromookilosLo,okilos,orcxamplc,andLhcmcnLion
o spccic amounLs o wcighL loss such as Lwo pounds aLcr lcaving a
circlcoricndsin8o,whoscncgaLivcinucncchccarcd.
21
Popular LhcaLrc producLions in Lhc 8os also rccr Lo bodywcighL
whichrcvcalsLhcnoLionspcncLraLioninLobroadcrscgmcnLsosocicLy.
Pcrormanccs o Adolphc dFnncrys bouonerie abouL Lhc aL and Lhc
LhinaLLhcTcLrcduPalais-Royalin88isLhcbcsLcxamplc.
22
Chapo-
Lin,anobscurcbigwiginaprovincialLown,dcplorcshisdaughLcrsond-
ncssoradisLanLcousin.HcconsidcrsLhcyoungmanLobcLooLhinand
wcak.HcscLsouLLoaLLcnhimupandlaLcrdccidcsLondouLhiscxacL
wcighL. DisasLcr! Tc young man has bccomc Lhinncr insLcad o aLLcr.
Tc audicncc laughs. BuL Lhc imporLanL Lhing hcrc is LhaL or Lhc rsL
LimcascalcimposcsapublicvcrdicL.SizcisnowidcnLicdwiLhwcighL
LhaLismcasurcdandannounccd.
Onc disLincLivc imagc rcvcals Lhc prcscncc as much as Lhc rariLy o
Lhcscalcinordinarycvcrydaylic.InanissucoLhcmagazincCharivari
rom8awomanwiLhancnormouslyroundbodyisshowncnLhroncd
on an armchair-scalc in Lhc middlc o a minusculc air sLall, lisLcning
aLLcnLivcly as hcr wcighL is rcad ouL rom Lhc mcLcr abovc hcr.
23
Wcll,
honcy bun, youvc losL wcighL sincc lasL ycar. You only wcigh :6. In
oLhcrwords,shcisLcascdabouLhcrsizcviaasupplcmcnLarydigaLLhc
sublimiLyomaLhcmaLicswiLhLhccxprcssionohcrwcighLasapowcro
Lhrcc:,,86,8:8,: kilos! Tis cxamplc also says somcLhing abouL
LhcroundabouLacccssLoscalcsandbcingwcighcd.TcscalccxisLs,buL
as an cxccpLional curiosiLy. A air, wiLh iLs Lcmporary sLands and sLalls,
sccmsLobcLhcsclccLspaccwhcrcLhcpubliccanwcighiLscl.Tcprcs-
cnccnowoarccrcnccLowcighL,cvcnimosLlymcnLal,isncvcrLhclcss
dccisivc.ILcnLirclyrcoricnLswaysolookingandjudging.
13. Typology Fever
Tc prcscncc o numbcrs is noL Lhc only acLor conLribuLing Lo Lhc ncw
cvaluaLion o silhoucLLcs aL Lhc bcginning o Lhc nincLccnLh ccnLury.
TcrcarcalsosocialacLors,cspcciallyLhcsLir-upLhaLLhcRcvoluLionis
saidLohavcinLroduccdinLoLhccodcsophysicalappcarancc.Travclcrs
andobscrvcrsinLhcycars8:o8orcporLbcingsuddcnlyconronLcd
wiLhamorcconusingworld.CasLcsarcsaidLohavcdisappcarcd.Tc
old bordcrs crascd. Rcscmblanccs mulLiply oncc Lhc socicLy o ordcrs
isabolishcd.
TisgivcsriscLoLhcdcsircLolookwiLhgrcaLcrprccision,invcnLory
morc, singlc ouL spccic looks and Lhcir mainLcnancc, and x physiog-
nomics, poscs, gcsLurcs, and grimaccs.
1
And also posiL caLcgorics. Tis
givcsriscLoapublishingcnLcrpriscoancwsorL:Te English Depicted By
Temselves, Te French Depicted by Temselves, Te Parisian Museum, cLc.,
allinvcnLoryLhcsocicLyinpicLurcs.
2
BalzacsTeHuman ComedysLands
asLhcsuprcmccxamplcosuchcnLcrpriscs.
3
TcrcisnoscicnLicsociologygoingoninLhcscinvcsLigaLions,domi-
naLcd by subjccLivc obscrvaLion. No ovcrarching gcncral vision ciLhcr.
WhaLoncobscrvcsisancwwayoidcnLiyingphysiqucsLhcirprolcs,
LhcirpossiblcoriginalparLiculariLicsandLhisinvolvcsncwcvocaLions
oLhcaLpcrson,includingncwsharpcrLcchniqucsoscl-dcscripLion.
4
Typology Fever 117
Gastrophoric Men, Adipose Women
DcscripLivc aLLcnLion undcrgocs a rcvoluLion aL Lhc bcginning o Lhc
nincLccnLhccnLury.ILbccomcsmorcimporLanLinliLcraLurc,inucnccs
social sLudics o morcs, and posiLivcly invadcs Lhc world o cngravings
and illusLraLions.
5
Progrcssions o wcighL arc morc cxacLingly dividcd
up.DcormaLionsarcanalyzcdinchbyinch.NoLingdcgrccsoLhisor
LhaLhappcnsmuchmorcLhancvcrbcorc.FspcciallyindcmocraLicand
indusLrial socicLics such as CrcaL BriLain. For cxamplc, Lhc wcighL gain
oTracyTupman,PickwicksricndinCharlcsDickcnssrsLnovclrom
86, happcns in slow sLagcs LhaL arc cach dcscribcd in prccisc dcLail.
TimcandccdinghadcxpandcdLhaLonccromanLicorm,Lhcblacksilk
waisLcoaL had bccomc morc and morc dcvclopcd, inch by inch had Lhc
goldwaLch-chaindisappcarcdromwiLhinLhcrangcoTupmansvision,
andgraduallyhadLhccapaciouschincncroachcduponLhcbordcrsoLhc
whiLccravaL.
6
Tcrc arc also rcqucnL allusions Lo agc, which scl-dcscripLions may
spcakoasLhcLhickcningLhaLcomcswiLhmaLuriLy.TcacLivcman,or
cxamplc,noLiccsoncmorningwhilcclippinghisbcardLhaLhiswaisLis
roundcrandhishairLhinncrandwhiLcr.
7
OrLhcmoLhcrwhocndcdup
monumcnLally aL wiLh loLs o childrcn and grandchildrcn.
S
Onc noLcs
changcsLhaLhavcbccomcsourccsounplcasanLncss,suchasLhcncga-
LivcasscssmcnLsLhaLarcscruLinizcdbyLhccaricaLurisLsinLhcPhilipon
Museum.
0
Tc man Lurning orLy wiLh Lhc Lhickcning silhoucLLc o onc
whosc avoriLc rcading maLcrial has bccomc rcsLauranL mcnus.
1u
Or Lhc
biLLcrdcclaraLionomoLhcrsovcrLhirLywholamcnLhavingcurscdlic
whilcyoungbccauscwcwcrcLhinasnails,andnowaLLhirLy-sixwcrcso
aLwccanLkissourchildrcn.
11
WhaL maLLcrs now arc progrcssions. Agcs bccomc sLagcs, Limc con-
vcrLsinLoamorphology.AnoLhcracLor,pcrhaps,isLhcgraduallcngLh-
cning o lic cxpccLancics during Lhcsc rsL dccadcs o Lhc nincLccnLh
ccnLury. Tc numbcrs o modcraLcly Lhickcr pcoplc incrcasc, and Lhcir
aL orms sLick around longcr inLo old agc. Tc slow dcclinc o dcaLh
nccdsLobcLakcninLoaccounL,cvcniiLsimpacLdocsnoLincrcascsig-
nicanLlyamongadulLsunLilLhccndoLhcnincLccnLhccnLury.
12
Tcsc
obscrvaLionsabouLbccomingaLLcrdonoLinLcnsiyslimmingpracLiccs,
howcvcr,LhcyarcsimplypassingrcmarksocuriosiLyandaLaliLy.
Tc morc imporLanL nuanccs arc bcing arLiculaLcd clscwhcrc in Lhc
claboraLion o a classicaLion o morphologics LhaL csLablishcs a Lypol-
ogy o sizcs and Lransorms Lhc public gazc. IL is no longcr a qucsLion
odcgrccsanddivcrsiLicsasinLhcFnlighLcnmcnLcra,buLocaLcgorics
LhaL dividc sizcs inLo gcnrcs. For cxamplc, in 8:6 BrillaL-Savarin is Lhc
rsLLocaLcgorizcsLricLlyabdominalcxccssinLoaspccicallymalcsymp-
Lom.TcrcisaLypcoobcsiLyLhaLisconncdLoLhcbclly.Ihavcncvcr
sccniLinwomcn.AsLhclaLLcrhavcgcncrallysoLcrLissucs,whcnobcsiLy
aLLacksLhcm,noparLoLhcbodyissparcd.TcmalccondiLionIcallgas-
LrophoriaandgasLrophorcsLhoscwhohavciL.
13
TisrcmarkisrcpcaLcdinmcdicalLrcaLiscsromLhcmiddlcoLhcccn-
Lury,inLhcliLcraLurconmorcs,andinLhcarLworldbycngravcrssuchas
Daumicr who givcs a primc cxamplc wiLh his 8o scrics o big-bcllicd,
skinny-lcggcdgcnLlcmcn:M.Pruncllc,BcnjaminDudcsscrL,FclixBarLhc,
M.Harlc,cLc.
14
TcrcarcalsospcciallyLailorcdrockcoaLsLhaLhavcbccn
dcvclopcdLoaccommodaLcLhcouLsizcdproLubcranccomcnsbcllics.
15
Tis is in cvidcncc in BcrLalls bourgcois couplc. His A Sunday in Paris,

amongoLhcrworksrom8,sysLcmaLicallyconLrasLsLhcwcll-advanccd
bcllyoLhcmanLoLhcovcrallplumpncssoLhcwoman.
16
TcimagcLakcs
hold, and Lhc malc wiLh sLick lcgs and a largc circular bclly bccomcs a
sLockrcprcscnLaLioninLhcycars8o8o.TcdrawingsoHcnriMon-
nicrcvcnmakciLinLoasymbol.HisBraulard,LhcgrccdyspccLaLorwho
appcarsinLost Illusions,isnoncoLhcrLhanaaiLhulvisualLranscripLion
oLhcLcxLualdcscripLioninBalzac,wiLhhisovcrsizcdbclLandlargcoval
panL lcgs LhaL gaLhcr LogcLhcr narrowly aL Lhc anklc.
17
ILs noL Lhc LoLal
body ball as had bccn dcpicLcd in carlicr Limcs, buL Lhc bclly ball alonc.
TcrcisnocxplanaLionorwhaLinourdayiscallcdandroidobcsiLy,buL
LhcrcisanaLLcmpLLospcciyscxuallydisLincLormsobigncssLhaLhad
ormcrlynoLbccnsocaLcgorizcd.
1S
BrillaL-SavarinhadadicrcnLwayo
lookinganddcvclopcdoLhcrclassicaLions.
Tcsc bcllics, manicsLly, do noL all suggcsL a collapsc. In Lhc casc o
manyoLhcscsLouLbourgcoisgcnLlcmcn,allsignspoinLLoaraLhcrmca-
surcdadiposiLy.TcrcisanimpcrccLycLinLacLphysicalcasc,aorLhrighL
posc,andanalcrLcycLhaLisvcryunlikcLhchcavybankcrNucingcninBal-
zacsScenes of Parisian Life.TischaracLcr,asquarc-shapcdman,
10
acubc,
hcavyasasack,
2u
isrccrrcdLobyhiswicasLhcaLAlsaLiansLump
21
and
byhisscrvanLsasLhcbigclcphanL.
22
TcgasLrophorcwhoismorcdis-
crccL,as,orcxamplc,SirWalLcrMurphinFugcncSucsMysteries of Paris,
can bc alcrL and robusL dcspiLc bcing sLouL.
23
Hc can bc combaLivc and
almosLaghLcr,whichaccounLsorhispossiblcprcsLigc.BaronNucingcn,
onLhcoLhcrhand,haslosLallvalucLhroughwcighLgain.DicrcnLkindso
aLncsscnLaildicrcnLlcvclsoacLivcncss.TcbcllyhasiLsdcgrccsandiLs
caLcgorics,whicharcinvcnLcdandinvcnLoricdnoworLhcrsLLimc.
Typology Fever 119
Tcrc arc also incviLablc rccrcnccs Lo Lhc somcLimcs agrccablc or
plcasingprolcoLhcull-bcllicdlookcxclusivclymalcagainandusu-
allyoLhcmiddlingclasscs.OncLhinkshcrcoLhcccnLurics-oldambigu-
iLyoLhcbonvivanL,LhcamusingroLundgurc,andLhcjollygoodman
o popular culLurc. Tc Lravcling salcsman in Te Illustrious Gaudissart
(8:)romTe Human ComedyscricsincarnaLcsLhisLypcincvcrydcLail,
mixingmaliccandsuaviLy,clumsincssandclcvcrncss.Tcmanisagood
sLoryLcllcr,agoodcompanion,ribaldcvcn,
24
andplaysonhislumpish
looksandhcavincssworscncdbyLravclincoachcs.
25
AccrLainvolubil-
iLyandsLrccLsmarLscarryhimalongaswcllascasybanLcr,jokcs,andan
cngaging manncr whcrc cvcryLhing is big ycL mcasurcd. Hcs cshy buL
noL obcsc, bloaLcd buL noL collapscd. His hcavy casc bccomcs a orm o
sociabiliLy.1okcs,bcllylaughs,amonkishgurc,andcobblcrsaccovcr
a Rabclaisian bodyhis cloLhcs, body, spiriL, and posc uniLcd Lo makc
orhilariLyandjokingLhroughouLhispcrson. . . .CaudissarL[couldalso
bccomc]LhcncsLandmosLablcoambassadors.
26
Tcrcisanundcniablcambivalcncc,ocoursc,LhaLallowsLhcaLpcr-
son Lo somcLimcs bc boLh scducLivc and rcpulsivc. A doublc judgmcnL
cxisLs in Lhc myLhology o Lhc aL pcrson, cvcn a conLradicLion LhaL is
hardly cxpliciL. IL Lakcs popular vivaciLy and a coaLing o aL LhaL is noL
hanginghcavily.
TcnLhcrcisLhcvcriLablcball,ocoursc,LhcpoL-bcllicdjokcr(ven-
trigoulard),
27
Lhc amply diusc gurc, LhaL also Lcnds Lo bc cxclusivcly
masculinc, among Lhc cndlcss variaLions on roundncss o gcncralizcd
obcsiLy. Honorc Daumicr produccd mulLiplc cxamplcs wiLh his policc-
mcn,dcpuLics,andoLhcrsquaLgrandccs.
2S
TcdcpuLyBoulayisaprimc
cxamplcromLhc88Comic ReviewinwhichoncndscombincdboLh
physicalandlcxicalcxccss:TisadorablcballisBoulay . . .inLhcvoLing
boxcvcryballoLwasaliLLlcBoulayball.
20
Roundcdcurvcsarcmorcspccicallycmininc,howcvcr,accordingLo
Lhc ncw classicaLions aL Lhc bcginning o Lhc nincLccnLh ccnLury. Tc
advanccoLhcglobularisaccclcraLcdbyinacLion,aawjudgcdLypically
cmininc.Tclowwcnch(poissarde)inTe French Depicted by Temselves,
orcxamplc,LriggcrslaughLcrbyLhccarullylargcproporLionsohcr
body and cspccially Lhc ncarly monsLrous dcvclopmcnL o hcr waisL.
3u
TcoldmaidinTe Human ComedyhashadaLranquil,ordcrlylicLhaL

accounLs or hcr Lriplc chin and xcd mass LhaL has mclLcd inLo onc
piccc.
31
Hcrc again is a social vision whcrc or Lhc rsL Limc aL gurcs
arc dividcd up according Lo Lhcir gcographical locaLion (Lown/counLry)
andsocialsLaLus(collccLivc/individual).TcncwgazcsLigmaLizcsgroups,
dividcsupaliaLions,andhighlighLsciLyncighborhoods.TcsLouLncss
o prosLiLuLcs, or cxamplc, oLcn rcmarkcd on, bccomcs Lhc ocus o a
sLaLisLicalsLudybyAlcxandrcParcnL-DuchLclcL,LhcrsLinvcsLigaLiono
iLskind,in86.
32
TisParisiandocLor,LrulyasociologisLavant la lettre,
cxplainsLhcirlargcsizcasducLoLhcmanyhoLbaLhsLhcyLakc,LoLhcir
consLanLcaLingducLoLhcirirrcgularschcdulcs,andmosLccrLainlyLhc
rcsulLoancnLirclyinacLivclicsLylcnoLcdornonchalanccandabscncc
omovcmcnL.
33
TcirlivcsarcalmosLanimal,
34
inoLhcrwords,andsimi-
larLoLhoscoadiposccourLcsansaLLcncdbyidlcncssandwomcncon-
ncdinnarrowspaccs,
35
suchassalcsladicsinLinysLandsoryounggirls
whobccomcscdcnLarypcLiLcsbourgcoiscsbyagcLhirLy-vcandLurn
dcplorablyLowardobcsiLy.
36
OncLhingisccrLain:man,noLwoman,cangcLawaywiLhanacccpL-
ablc roundncss, cvcn i Lhc idcal o a LighL bclL is bcginning Lo asscrL
iLsclorhimLoo.
The Bourgeois and the Avowed Belly
Tc gasLrophorc sccms Lo posscss an idcnLiLyLhaL o Lhc bourgcois.
TischaracLcrLookonaspccicroundcdshapcLhaLhasucLuaLcdsincc
Lhc days o Lhc nancicrs and mcrchanLs o Lhc old rcgimc. WiLh Lhc
oval bclly, his gurc sccms Lo havc Lakcn on a sLabiliLy LhaL clcarly con-
crsrcspccLabiliLy.
Tis suggcsLs a rsL modcl: armaLion Lhrough looks. Considcr, or
cxamplc, Lhc coachmasLcr in Te French Depicted by Temselves, whosc
pronounccdsLouLncssgivcshimaccrLainaplombLhaLisraLhcrdash-
ing,
37
or Lhc bourgcois rom Solognc,
3S
in Lhc samc scrics, who domi-
naLcs pcasanLs and villagcrs wiLh his hand on his gravc abdomcn and
advanccs bclly rsL inLo socicLy. Bigncss is conncd Lo Lhc bclly, how-
cvcr, whilc Lhc lowcr body rcmains Lhinncr and acLivca dry lowcr
lcg is BrillaL-Savarins cxprcssion Lo indicaLc casc o movcmcnL.
30
Big-
ncss is acccpLablc so long as iL can sLand or a pcrsons imporLancc
andscriousncss.
TcsLrongLummyoLhcbourgcoisinviLcsLhcconLrasLwiLhLhcwcak
silhoucLLc and morc Lubby Lummy o oLhcrs such as Lhc Solognc pcas-
anLhis poor, vcgcLablc dicL condcmns him Lo acquirc swollcn visccra
and Lhc bclly o a ruminanL.
4u
Tc dicrcnLiaLion is wiLhouL a doubL
crudc buL rm in asscrLing as ncvcr bcorc a social spccLcr around Lhc
aL pcrsonbcLwccn Lhc sLrong, poL-bcllicd bourgcois and Lhc wcak,
Typology Fever 121
poL-bcllicdpcasanLandbcLwccnLhcrmcshoLhcormcrandLhclaL-
LcrsabbycshrcsulLingromabusivcconsumpLionoapparcnLlycrudc
andunhcalLhyoods.InLhisrcgardLhcpcasanLsoLhcAugcrcgionarc
ciLcdorLhcirsLouLncssdcgcncraLingprompLlyinLoobcsiLy.
41
TccaLc-
goricsmulLiplyasLhcyLryLodisLinguishamonggasLrophorcs,conLrasL-
ingLhcsLrongandLhcwilLcd.AlongsidcLhcscdivisionsLhcrccmcrgc
oLhcrncwdisLincLionsLosaLisyLhccuriousduringLhc8os,suchasLhc
disLincLion o physical hcighLpcoplc arc ound Lo bc Lallcr in Lhc ciLy
LhaninLhccounLryorbcLwccnmorLaliLyraLcspcoplcarcsaidLodic
youngcrinLhccounLryLhaninLhcciLy.
42
TcscclaimsaLLhcbcginningo
LhcnincLccnLhccnLuryrcinorccLhcbourgcoisLransposiLionoabigrm
bcllyinLoapossiblcsignoauLhoriLy.
AnoLhcr aspccL o Lhis conLcnLmcnL o bourgcois happincss is Lhc
coldncssandcvcndisLanccoLhisgurcasLhcrcsulLohisgcncralcorpu-
lcncc.HcrcLooLhcdcscripLionsandLhcirdcLailsarchighlypoinLcd.Tc
noLaryinTe French Depicted byTemselveshidcshisinscnsiLiviLyundcr
a Lhick laycr o aL and wcll-bcing,
43
a aL and shorL man, whosc scl-
assuranccisLranslaLcdbyancarlyalwayssLarchcdlook.Tcrcisalsoa
noLaryinBalzacsTe Tirty Year Old Woman(8)whoisalsobigand
aL and always scrcwcd onLo his chair in a posiLion o pcrccL impcr-
LurbabiliLyducLohiswcighL.
44
Tis hcavincss can only bc apprcciaLcd so long as iLs masculinc. For
a long Limc iL gcLs by as a corpulcnL sLaLurc whcrc musclc and aL arc
onc.
45
IL implics rcsourccs or iLs mainLcnancc and incarnaLcs a ccr-
LainsLaLus.
46
The Bourgeois and the Lampooned Belly
ConscqucnLlyLhcrcisanunsLablcambiguiLybccauscaprolcLhaLuscs
LhcbcllyLosymbolizcpowcrmayprovokcironicrcvcrsal.Anironicdcri-
sion,morcsLrikingLhansLraighLcriLicism,owsmorcrcclyduringLhc
ycars8o8o.IargclyprcscnLinmass-produccdmagazinccngravings,
LhisdcrisioninvcrLsLhcarmaLivcimagcsoLhcbourgcoisicconvcrLing
LhcroundbcllyinLoawcakncssandcclingsopridcinLoaLuousncss.
BalzachadalrcadynoLcdLhcanaLomicdisproporLionsoLhcscpar-
Licular morphologics whcn Lhcy wcnL bcyond a ccrLain poinLa lowcr
bodyabiLLoorail,aLoohcavyabdomcn,arickcLyoundaLionimplying
imbalancc.MaLrcMaLhias,LhcnoLaryinTe Marriage Contract,isaprimc
cxamplc:HispunyliLLlcLhighssccmLobcndundcrLhcwcighLoaround
bcllyandaLorsodcvclopcdlikcLhcchcsLsomanyoccworkcrs.
47
Tcn
LhcrcsLhcdisproporLionoLrouscrssuchasLhoscoLhcnoLaryinScenes
of Provincial LifewhoscwaisLbclLaLLaincdanamplcncssLhaLwouldhavc
mcriLcdancpicdcscripLionbySLcrnc.
4S
FromnowonLhcscarcnolongcr
imposingormsbuLobjccLsodisgraccanddcjccLion.
Morcdccply,criLicismoLhcdayuniLcswiLhiLsculLurcandLimc.Tc
dcnunciaLion o Lhc bclly, cvcn i ar rom cxLrcmc obcsiLy, is a dcnun-
ciaLionoaccrLainworldasocicLyinwhichanumbcrocxpccLaLions
promiscd by civic lcadcrs sccm orgoLLcn, in which conLcnLmcnL sccms
supcrcial, and Lhc saLiscd look o bigwigs mcans a rcusal o all
changcdcspiLcmanicsLimpcrccLions.Tccxposurc,inoLhcrwords,o
anarcaosocialpaLhologyruiningLhcdominanLmoraliLy.
40
TisisLhc
mcssagc o Lhc rsL cngraving o Charlcs Philipons rsL pcriodical, La
Caricature(8),whcrcLhcorganizcroLhcncwsysLcm,Lhcbourgcois,
hasabcllyasbigasLhccighLccnLh-ccnLurynoblcmanwhorulcdovcrLhc
oldsysLcm.
5u
TcillusLraLorhasgivcnprioriLyLocmphasizingLhcLwo
prolcsLranslaLion:LhcabuscshavcnoLchangcd.
51
Tc insisLcncc on Lhc bourgcois bclly suggcsLs ycL anoLhcr vindicLivc
corL. IL is noL only a criLicism o dispariLics or cxposurc o abuscs and
proLs.ILhasamorcinLimaLcLargcL,namcly,LhcdcnunciaLionobrokcn
promiscs and an asccndancy Lurncd inLo vaniLy. Tis invcrsion LhaL con-
vcrLsLhcaLLyphysicalcoaLinginLoprcLcnsionisccnLralLoancpisodc
inScenes of the Public and Private Life of Animals,aromanLicworkillusLraLcd
by 1. 1. Crandvillc in 8: LhaL plays on animal allcgorics. A cmalc Fng-
lishcaLwanLsLomarryPuacaLmadcamousbyhisimposingbody.
Indccd,hisprcsLigcissosLrikingLhaLhchasbccngivcnapccragc.Disillu-
sioncomcs,howcvcr,wiLhacclingoLrickcry.InoLiccdLhcnLhaLagcand
cxccsscs aL Lablc had givcn Lhc Fnglish pccr LhaL alsc and orccd graviLy
whichinFnglandiscallcdrespectability.HissLouLncss,whichmcnadmircd,
hindcrcdhismovcmcnLs.TiswasLhcLrucrcasonorhisnoLanswcringLo
mygcnLlcadvanccs.HcrcmaincdrcsLingcalmandcoldonhisunnamablc,
movinghiswhiskcrs,waLchingmcandsomcLimcsclosinghiscycs. . . .Icavc
owiLhLhisdrolloldPuwhoslccpslikcapccrinLhcFnglishParliamcnL.
52
Tus Lhc criLicism hcrc adds Lo Lhc Lhcmcs o Lhc prcvious ccnLury
abouL abusivcly aLLcncd bigwigs a morc subLlc, psychological dcnunci-
aLion o Lhc abusivcly scl-assurcd and prcLcnLious. Tc moral spacc is
morcclaboraLc,dccpcrinvcrLingLhcwillorgrandcur,sningouLalsc
appcaranccs, playing on poscs Lo bcLLcr rcvcal Lhcir smallncss and cvcn
inamy. Tc opposiLion bcLwccn high and low is also morc spccicd,
changing Lhc allurc o Lhc bclly inLo a lurc, rccasLing Lhc ull abdomcn
Typology Fever 123
as vulgariLy. Tc rcsulL is a comcdy o rcvcrsal wiLh Lhc bclly aLLribuLcd
invcrLcdvalucs.
AdcLcrmininggraphicinvcnLiondccpcnsLhiscriLicisminLhcsccond
LhirdoLhcccnLury:LhcpcarimagcandsymboladrawingLhaLLrans-
poscs rom Lhc planL world Lo Lhc human world an inniLcly rcpcaLcd
curvaLurc. Tc amplc waisL now Lips rom imposing inLo obsccniLy. Tc
majorcxamplcisLhccaricaLurcoIouis-Philippc,Lhcbourgcoiskingpar
cxccllcncc,modclcdonLhcruiL,
53
sLackingaccandbodyandcxaggcraL-
ing Lhc digcsLivc rccrcncc wiLh cxccssivc dcvclopmcnL o Lhc jaws and
abdomcn inLo hypcrbolic cxaggcraLion.
54
Tc lowcr body carrics him
invisibly,LhusdcniLivclyxingaprolcLhaLCrandissarL,Balzacscom-
mcrcialLravclcr,inauguraLcdwiLhinliLcraLurcaproLubcranLbcllyLhaL
rcscmblcdapcarandshorLLhinlcgscapablcosomcagiliLy.
55
IL is vcry much a graphic invcnLion, a rccombinaLion o LraiLs LhaL
ocuscs on Lhc digcsLivc sysLcm. Tc originaliLy o Lhis arrangcmcnL is
madcallLhcmorcsLrikingbyLhcacLLhaLanaLomicalcxccllcnccandiLs
modcls arc Lransormcd simulLancously. Physiological discovcrics arc
largclyrcsponsiblc.TcidcnLicaLionooxygcnbyIavoisicrin,,8,Lhc
ncwimporLanccLhisgivcsLoLhcchcsLandiLscxpansion,LhcslowmaLu-
raLion o Lhis imagc, and Lhc ncw rolc accordcd Lo brcaLhing all gradu-
allydisplaccdmorphologicalpolariLics.TisncwdynamicgurcgivcsLo
bourgcoisiniLiaLivcLhcsorLodrivcLhaLsraLhcrdicrcnLromLhcsLaid
auLhoriLyoLhcbclly.
Romantically Thin?
InconLrasLLoLhcpcar,LhismodcloLhcgcncrousbusLchcsLouL,waisL
in,panLsLighLispuLorwardbylcadingcngravcrsoLhcday.Tcmcn
in Lhc magazincs Parisian Fashion and Tailors Journal in Lhc ycars 8o
8o all havc convcx Lorsos and amplc ouLsizcd coaLs LhaL acccnLuaLc a
gcncrouslaycrocxLrapaddingandbigcus.
56
NcwwordsarcinvcnLcd
Lo dcscribc Lhcsc mcn, such as sLranglcd waisL and pinchcd waisL,
57
andncwwardrobcinsLrumcnLsarcdiscusscd,suchasLhcbcsLbucklcsor
bclLsandLhcvcsLasmasLcrpicccoLhcwardrobcoriLsrolcinacccn-
LuaLing Lhc busLs promincncc. Show mc a mans vcsL and Ill Lcll you
who hc is.
5S
Balzacs dandy wcars a rock coaL LhaL clcganLly holds Lhc
waisL,aswiLhMaximc,orpinchcsLhcwaisL,
50
aswiLhCharlcsCrandcL.
Fugcnc Sucs 8: hcro has an idcnLical silhoucLLc: a svclLc Lhin waisL
joincdLomusclcsosLccl.
6u
AnoLhcr anLagonism bcsidcs Lhc opposiLion bcLwccn Lhc good rich
bigncssandpoorskinnincssorbadbigncssalsoinLcrvcncsLoopposc
dicrcnL volumcs during Lhc 1uly monarchy ycars, namcly, youLh vcrsus
maLuriLy, sociocconomic insLabiliLy vcrsus Lhc csLablishcd. milic, Lhc
hcroincoBalzacsTe Ball at Sceaux,rcuscsLomarryamanLhclcasLbiL
ovcrwcighL.ForhcrLhinncssisLhcsignoclcganccandrmncssocharac-
Lcr.Howcvcr,hcropinioncanbccomcanobjccLomockcry.
61
IsnoLLhc
achicvcd, surc man somconc o a ccrLain Lhickncss` And isnL a biL o
cxLrapaddingLhcnaLuralcompanionopowcrandnoLoricLy`Tisambigu-
iLyisaLLhchcarLoTcophilcCauLicrsbiLLcrncss:LhcmanogcniusmusL
bcaL.
62
AndAlrcddcVignysvcxaLion:WhaLdidmcLhcmosLwrongin
licwashavingblondhairandaLhinwaisL.
63
TcclcrkDouLrcmcrinHcnri
Monnicrs Scenes of Oce Life also cxprcsscs irriLaLion aL bcing dry and
Lhin.Tisspankingclcanpcrson,whoisaLLcnLivcabouLhiscloLhcsand
Lakcsspccialcarcohishandsandnails,hasLodcalwiLhsupcriorsLhaLarc
mosLlymodcraLclysLouL,wiLhsomcvcryaL.
64
ConLrasLingsilhoucLLcs
incarnaLcLhcdicrcnccbcLwccngcncraLionsandhicrarchicsopowcr.
TcproblcmisquiLcdicrcnLamongwomcnorwhomLhinncssand
ragiliLyarcobligaLoryLraiLs.Asusual,allcmalcbigncssisdcprcciaLcd.
TcbusL,howcvcr,isdisplaycdmorcLhanbcorc,asinLhcScoLLishcam-
bricdrcssdcscribcdinLhcJournal for Young Peoplein8.
65
ILsshouldcrs
and waisL orm a sorL o invcrLcd isoscclcs Lrianglc wiLh arcd cloLh Lo
allowLhcwcarcrLobrcaLhrccly.
DcscripLions mulLiply likc ncvcr bcorc, Lo Lhc poinL o giving risc
Lo somc paradoxical Lypcs o Lhinncss LhaL, whilc noL bclonging Lo big-
ncss, arc no longcr cxamplcs o Lhc carlicr slcndcrncss ciLhcr. Balzacs
AnasLasic dc RcsLaud, or cxamplc, has ull round orms and ycL can-
noL bc accuscd o bcing Loo plump.
66
And Lhc sylph Fanny OBricn, a
ncclcganLbcauLy,isdcscribcdashavingbccomcslighLlyplump,ycL
hcr dclicaLc hips and svclLc waisL havcnL sucrcd in Lhc lcasL.
67
Bal-
zac insisLs on Lhc roundncss, making Lhc skin pulpy and nourishcd
and Lhus having Lhc woman as blossom wiLhouL alling inLo aL.
6S
Tc
dcmandsarcprccisc,andLhclimiLsaswcll.TcwaisL,orcxamplc,musL
rcmaindclicaLclikcLhaLoAnasLasicdcRcsLaud,whohasoncoLhc
prcLLicsL waisLs in Paris
60
, Lhcir curvcs cannoL bc Loo round, as in Lhc
cascoCamillcinBatrix,whoscncckhaslosLiLssinuouslankincss,
7u
Lhc
skinmusLnoLhavcLhclcasLwrinklclikcRoscsinTe Old Maid,
71
and
LhcgaiLmusLknowhowLorusLlcLhccloLhsoasLobcLLcrcommunicaLc
oncslighLncss,cvidcncc,andsccrcL.
72
RoundncssisunLhinkablcwiLh-
ouLaccrLaindclicaLcncssandslcndcrncssinLcrmixcd.
Numbcrs and mcasurcmcnLs acccnLuaLcd a morc prccisc rcckoning o
aLncssaLLhcbcginningoLhcnincLccnLhccnLury.CaLcgoricsarccsLab-
lishcd.DicrcnccsinsizccarrysocialconscqucnccsoLcndcncdLhrough
LolcranccsorrcjccLions.Hcavyprolcs,malcocoursc,mayhavcaposiLivc
valucLhaLconrmsasccndancy,buLmayalsobcdcaLcdwiLhirony.
Alongsidc Lhis social dimcnsion, Lhc scicnLic work on paLhologics,
maLcrialidcnLicaLions,andchcmicalchangcslcadsLoabodyoknowl-
cdgcabouLaLLhaLisincrcasinglydisLanLromLhcsponLancouspopular
noLions o carlicr Limcs. Toroughly rcviscd Lhinking abouL physiologi-
calmcchanismssLarLsaLLhcbcginningoLhcnincLccnLhccnLury.Tcsc
ncwidcaslcadinLurnLovcrydicrcnLwaysoLhinkingabouLLhccauscs
andprcvcnLionoaLncss.ALurningpoinLisclcarlycsLablishcdonccLhc
mcchanism o organic combusLion bcgins Lo bc undcrsLood. Oncc Lhc
bodyisconsidcrcdlikcarc-powcrcdcnginc,LhcsourccoaLisrccon-
ccivcd as unburncd ucl. In Limc Lhis rcdcniLion cnLircly shakcs up
idcas abouL obcsiLy as wcll as abouL iLs LrcaLmcnL, including slimming
programswhosclogicsccmsirrcuLablc.
The Aqueous and the Adipose: New Distinctions
ArsLchangcaLLhcbcginningoLhcccnLuryisLhccndooldconusions
bcLwccn aL and waLcr. IL is now admiLLcd LhaL volumcs may rcscmblc
14. From Chemistry to Energy
cachoLhcr,buLhavcdisLincLsourccs.Tcchcmicalanalysisoliquidsand
LhcpaLhologisLsscruLinyoanaLomysorganschangccvcryLhing.Tcold
idcasoslackcncdbcrsandLhcircxciLaLionalsoloscmuchoLhcirscnsc.
In86accrLainMonsicurRollin,agcsixLy-cighL,prcscnLshimsclaL
LhcChariLchospiLalcomplainingoadullpaininLhclumbarrcgion.
1
Tc
docLorsnoLcLhcpromincnccohisbclly,hisswollcnlimbs,andLhcprcs-
cnccoskincdcmasLypicallyassociaLcdwiLhhydropsy.Tcrcisonlyonc
cxplanaLioninLhccycsoLhcpaLicnL:ycarsolivinginadamproomand
badcaLinghabiLsadiagnosisLhaLwassLandardacwdccadcscarlicr.
WhcnRollindicssomcwcckslaLcr,LhcdocLorsclaimLovcriyavcry
dicrcnL hypoLhcsis Lhanks Lo chcmisLry. In 8: Lhc Fnglish physician
RichardBrighLdiscovcrcdhowLochcmicallyanalyzcLhcurincohydrop-
ics, showcd Lhc prcscncc o albumcn in many cascs, and dcduccd Lhc
prcscncc o oodsLus unLransormcd inLo uria. Tis was Lhc casc wiLh
Rollin.TcschydropicssucrcdromaormoncphriLiskidncydys-
uncLionLhaLlcdLoimpaircdlLcringorcvcnailurc.Tcproblcmwas
noLconccivcdascxccssivcsccrcLionbuLinadcquaLclLcring.TcauLopsy
oRollinconrmcdLhis.Hiskidncyswcrccnlargcd,misshapcn,parLially
dccomposcd, and wcrc rclcasing various liquids inLo Lhc body caviLy. A
ncwhypoLhcsisincviLablyorms:LhcdysuncLionoaspccicorganmay
cxplainhydropsy.
1can-BapLisLcBouillaudadds,aLLhcsamcLimc,anoLhcrcausc:possi-
blcinLcrnalcomprcssionsLhaLmayadvcrsclyaccLparLsoLhcbody.Hc
ocrsmanycxamplcs.TcdcaLhaLLy-vcoAnncVillard,orcxamplc,
whosc body had rcLaincd much waLcr and whcn dissccLcd rcvcalcd hcr
ovaricscnlargcdsuchLhaLLhcyprcsscdwiLhallLhcirmassonLhcmajor
vcinsoLhclowcrbody,orLhcdcaLhoCuillaumcCaillcLaLsixLy-cighL,
whoscdilaLcdabdomcnrcvcalcdupondissccLionavcnacavaobliLcraLcd
byamushy,brcakablcbrousmaLcrialmixcdwiLhcoagulaLcdblood.
2
In
Lhc words o 1can-BapLisLc Bouillaud, Lhcsc dams cxplain Lhc inlLra-
Lions and abnormal volumcs, and Lhcir divcrsiLy cnLircly dcsLroys Lhc
carlicrdocLrinc.
3
Tc old amalgam LhaL avorcd a conusion bcLwccn inLcrnal maLcri-
als simply collapscd. Hydropsy is rcporLcd morc rarcly, buL Lhc cascs
arc also morc harmul and oLcn aLal, as Lhc obsLrucLions rapidly puL
Lhc paLicnLs lic in dangcr. Tcrcorc iL has a discrccL placc in mcdical
indcxcs. RcLrospccLivcly, onc can rcasonably imaginc LhaL a numbcr o
diagnoscs o hydropsy in carlicr Limcs would havc bccn diagnoscd as
obcsiLyin8oducLoLhcradicalchangcsbroughLabouLbymorcmodcrn
mcdicalinvcsLigaLions.
From Chemistry to Energy 127
Fat and Fire
Tc mosL original dcvclopmcnL aL Lhc bcginning o Lhc nincLccnLh ccn-
LuryisLhcrcviscdcxplanaLionowhaLaLis.ModcrnchcmisLryLoLally
changcs Lhc imagc o Lhc body. Conc arc Lhc humor and ncrvc modcls.
TcbodyisnowaLoLalmachincwhoscuniqucorcccomcsromcom-
busLion,
4
and Lhis has incviLablc conscqucnccs or how dicL, sizc, and
hcalLharcvicwcd.
Iavoisicrs cnLircly ncw vocabularycarbon, hydrogcn, oxygcn,
cLc.has Lhc cccL o aging Lhc LradiLional words and conccpLs.
5
Tc
quasi-pocLicrccrcnccsLoanimalaLLcningLhaLspcakopasLurcs,Lcn-
dcrsucculcnLgrass,andncandsavorygrass
6
arcdisplaccdbyconcisc
dcscripLionsLhaLdcLailLhcchcmicalclcmcnLsonly.
7
ForallinLcnLsand
purposcs, aL has bccomc a ncw objccL oncc iL is considcrcd in Lhis ncw
wayasacomposiLcosimplcrbodics.
NcxL comcs a radical LransormaLion o Lhc imagc o ood. In ,,8
Iavoisicr csLablishcd oxygcn as Lhc combusLivc agcnL o organic rc.
S
FoodisLhcoLhcragcnLLhaLwillbcanalyzcdmorcclosclyinLhcninc-
LccnLh ccnLury. Foods arc or Lhc animal body whaL ucl is or Lhc
sLovc.
0
In Lhc 8os Iicbig advanccd Lhc mosL rcalisLic Lhcorics
bascd on Lhis ncw oricnLaLion, namcly, Lhc division o ood inLo Lwo
caLcgorics: Lhosc LhaL conLribuLcd Lo rcncwing Lhc organs and Lhosc
LhaL conLribuLcd Lo kccping Lhc organic rc going. Tc rsL hc callcd
plasLic oods, Lhc sccond rcspiraLory oods. Tc rsL havc morc
niLrogcn, which cxplains Lhcir associaLion wiLh csh and Lhc body,
whcrcasLhcsccondconLainmorccarbonandarcLhusassociaLcdwiLh
rc.InLhcrsLcaLcgoryarcanimalmcaLs,albumin,cascin,andplanL
brin and in Lhc sccond aL, sLarch, gum, sugar, pccLin, bassorinc,
winc,brandy.
1u
AcwkcycxpcrimcnLsdcLcrmincLhcoriginoaL.RcspiraLoryoods
play a ccnLral rolc. IL is noLcd LhaL pigs cd largc quanLiLics o plasLic
oodsbccomcmorcmcaLy,whilcpigscdlargcquanLiLicsorcspiraLory
oodsbccomcaLLcr.CowsLhaLarcmadcLowalkandarcnourishcdin
pasLurcs, Lhus burning ucl, urnish milk LhaL is high in cascuma
nonaLLymaLcrial,whilccowsLhaLmovclcssandarcnourishcdinsLa-
blcs,Lhusburninglcssucl,urnishmilkLhaLishighinbuLLcrconLcnL
Lhc vcry symbol o aL. Womcn who arc rclaLivcly scdcnLary and con-
sumclargcamounLsosLarchcs,alcadingcxamplcorcspiraLoryood,
produccmilkwiLhahighcrproporLionobuLLcr.
11
AncxccssamounL
oLhcscrcspiraLoryoods,LhcirdcposiL,inoLhcrwords,ciLhcrbymorc
caLingorlcsscxcrciscoLhclungs,sccmsLoprovokcaL.Tcchcmical
analysis o Lhcsc subsLanccs would sccm Lo conrm Lhis hypoLhcsis
whcniLsrcvcalcdLhaLLhcproporLionsocarbonandhydrogcnarcLhc
samcinaLandinrcspiraLoryoods,buLLhcproporLionsooxygcnarc
noL. IL is Lhus concludcd LhaL Lhcrc musL bc a simplc changc in Lhc
rcspiraLory oods LhaL Lurns Lhcm inLo aL, namcly, Lhc loss o a ccr-
LainamounLooxygcn.Tccarbon-conLainingsubsLanccsLhusbccomc
adiposc subsLanccs, accumulaLing in Lhc casc o noncombusLion, buL
disappcaring in Lhc casc o inLcnsc rcspiraLory acLiviLy. Iicbig is morc
dcclamaLoryLhandcscripLivcabouLLhcscinLcrnalmcchanisms,noLing
Lhcchangcs,buLwiLhcwdcLails.TcrcisLhisdccisivcarmaLion:sug-
ars, sLarchcs, and gums can dirccLly givc risc Lo adiposc maLcrial. Tis
armaLionissurprisingaswcllsincciLchallcngcscommonscnscand
LradiLional Lhinking. IL gocs againsL oncs immcdiaLc scnsc cxpcricncc
byassociaLingLwoLhingsLhaL,onLhcsuracc,sccmsodissimilar:sugar
andaL.TcscncwidcaschallcngcLhcoldLhinkingandcnLirclychangc
LhcworldoobcsiLy.WhcncarbonaccumulaLcsinLhcbodyandisnoL
uscdorLhcrcncwalosomcorgan,LhiscxccssisdcposiLcdinLhccclls
inLhcormoaLandoil.
12
Tc unburncd carbon bccomcs a aLLy rcscrvc, a sorL o ailurc pilc
duc Lo lack o hcaLing. By crcaLing aL, Lhis ailurc undcrlincs Lhc
ull imporLancc o Lhc burning mcchanism, Lo Lhc poinL o Lurning iL
inLoLhcbodysccnLraluncLion.TismcchanismrcgulaLcspowcrsand
acLiviLics,mainLainsbalanccs,andslowsoraccclcraLcslic.ILalsopro-
oundlyrcviscsLhcwholcidcaoLhcorganicLoLhcpoinLomakingiL
sccmlikcaninvisiblcsLcamcngincLhcburncroPapinandWaLL,as
1can-BapLisLc Dumas and 1can-BapLisLc BoussingaulL puL iL in 8.
13
TcanalogyisurLhcramplicdbyamajordiscovcrybySadiCarnoLin
8:,namcly,LhcmcchanicalcquivalcnLohcaLcxprcsscdascaloricaL
work.
14
HcaL cngincs LhaL acLivaLcd whccls, cranks, and lcvcrs in ncw
acLorics wcrc Lhc symbol: Lhc lcvcl o combusLion in Lhc urnacc had
acorrcspondingcccLonLhcdynamicinLcnsiLyoLhcmachincsorcc
and ccicncy. A prccisc consumpLion o hcaL LranslaLcs inLo a prccisc
amounLoworkproduccd,whichcanbccxprcsscdasLhcmachincslcvcl
occicncy.
UnuscdhcaL,onLhcoLhcrhand,issLockcdinLhcbody.AncxplanaLion
Lakcs hold LhaL is casy Lo grasp: aL comcs rom an cxccss o unburncd
maLcrial.TcLwocauscsoLhclaLLcrarcovcrcaLingandundcrcxcrcising.
TisLidydcscripLionconvcnicnLlylcavcsallcomplcxiLybchind.
From Chemistry to Energy 129
Fat and Morbid Imminence
AsaLcomcsLobccxplaincddicrcnLlyaLLhcbcginningoLhcccnLury,
iLscccLsalsobcginLobccxplorcddicrcnLly.
ALLhcbcginningoLhcnincLccnLhccnLury,anaLomyinvcnLcdancw
approach or iLscl. IL proposcd no longcr looking only aL Lhc sLaLc o
organs, buL aL Lhcir maLcrial lcsions and possiblc dcconsLrucLion.
15
TiscrcaLcdancwobjccL:anaLlasodisordcrsLhaLmappcdmaLcrialdys-
uncLions.TcnoLionomcmbrancsandLissucconLribuLcdLoLhisinno-
vaLionbyprovidingLhcidcaodisLincLsorLsocnvclopcsLhaLrcmaincd
idcnLicalindicrcnLlocaLionsinLhcbody.
16
TcscsLrucLurcsscparaLcly
Lravcrscd Lhc organs, limbs, and csh.
17
Tis crcaLcd Lhc possibiliLy o
condiLionsLhaLwcrcrigorouslysimilaracrossdicrcnLparLsoasinglc
organism.TcspccicsympLomsLhaLcharacLcrizcmucousmcmbrancs,
or cxamplc, arc disLincL rom Lhosc LhaL characLcrizc scrous or brous
mcmbrancs.
1S
FvcrycondiLionwouldhavciLsrulcsandsysLcm.Tusan
ordcringolcsionsbccomcspossiblclikcanyoLhcr.Amorbidorganiza-
Lion LhaL compromiscs Lhc hcalLh o Lissucs would havc iLs own logic
cxacLly likc a normal organizaLion LhaL mainLains Lhosc samc Lissucs.
Tis undcrscorcs Lhc undamcnLal imporLancc o anaLomical paLhology.
WiLhiLcomcsarcinvcnLionoLhcLaskoobscrvaLion.Tcgoalisnolon-
gcr,asiLwasinLhcpasL,aninvcnLoryocxLcrnalsympLomsodisordcrs
LhaLarcimmcdiaLclyvisiblc,buLinsLcadLoprccisclyidcnLiLyLhclocaLion
andrulcsosuspccLcdinLcrnalalLcraLionsaswcll.TisambiLiousprojccL
isdcscribcdwiLhgrandiloqucnccby1canCruvcilhicr,LhcprcsidcnLoLhc
AnaLomySocicLy.ILwillbcagrandandbcauLiulscicnccorsLimpor-
LanccLhaLwillgivcanaccounLoLhcvasLdomainomorbidlcsionsoall
organisms rom planLs Lo mana scicncc LhaL will show Lhc analogics
anddicrcnccsamongLhclcsionsoccurringinsuchdicrcnLspccics,as
wcllasLhciroccurrcnccacrossdicrcnLorgansanduncLions.
10
Tc cadavcrs o obcsc paLicnLs bcgin Lo bc cxamincd dicrcnLly. Tc
condiLionoLhcirLissucsisrccordcddicrcnLly.TccvaluaLionisnolon-
gcr simply ocuscd on Lhc placc o aL dcposiLs and Lhcir orm and sizc,
buLcxLcndsLoLakcinLoaccounLinLcrnaldcormaLions,LhccomparaLivc
volumc o organs, and any comprcssion, swclling, or crushing Lhcy may
havc undcrgonc. IaLcnL condiLions and hiddcn disordcrs arc cvaluaLcd
dicrcnLlyaswcll.TclisLoMichclIcvyLhaLmapsanorganicgcography
oLhcobcscpcrsoncharacLcrizcsLhismaladyassncakyamulLiorm
dangcrsccrcLlyoccurringhcrcorLhcrcinvariousLissucsandcsh.
Tc Lhorax is mashcd and diminishcd in hcighL duc Lo Lhc cxpan-
sionoLhcabdomcn,LhccomprcsscdlungshavclcssvolumcLhan
inLhinsubjccLs,LhchcarL,cnvclopcdbysoliddcposiLsoaL,isin
gcncrallcsslargc,Lhclivcr,cnlargcdincvcrydimcnsionandundcr
prcssurc,sccrcLcsaaLLyuidmixcdwiLhclcarbilc,Lhcgallbladdcr
is dilaLcd by Lhc ncarly clcar uid iL conLains, Lhc capaciLy o Lhc
sLomachiscnlargcdandiLsmuscularcovcringhighlydcvclopcd,Lhc
pancrcas is cnlargcd and covcrcd wiLh aL, Lhc mcscnLcry is ovcr-
loadcdwiLhaL,LhckidncysarcsmallandburicdinaL,Lhcbladdcr
issmallandshrunkcn.
2u
TccccLsoaLncsshavcbccomcacaLaloguc.TcdcormaLionsarc
considcrcdinLcrmsoLhciranaLomicalmaLcrialiLyaswcllasLhcirphysi-
ological conscqucnccs. Tc samc holds or Lhc ncw wcighL charLs LhaL
nowLakcinLoaccounLLhcinLcrnalorgans.1ohnHuLchinson,orcxam-
plc, shows in Lhc middlc o Lhc ccnLury LhaL whcn a givcn body wcighL
cxcccdsbyopcrccnLLhcavcragcwcighLcalculaLcdorLhaLbodyshcighL,
rcspiraLorycapaciLyislowcr.
21
TcscobscrvaLionsarcnumcricallycalcu-
laLcd and LabulaLcd wiLh gradaLions. Tc amounL o Lhis diminuLion
ncwly vcriablc Lhanks Lo Lhc spiromtre, which can mcasurc brcaLhing
capaciLyis proporLional Lo Lhc amounL o wcighL gain. HuLchinson
rccordsiLinuniLsocubicccnLimcLcrsolosLLhoraxvolumcasauncLion
okilogramsgaincd.InoLhcrwords,lungspaccdccrcascsinproporLion
LoincrcascdprcscnccoaL.TcrcsulLisanobjccLivcdcscripLionoaprc-
ciscandvariablccondiLion,orLhcrsLLimc,amaluncLionismcasurcd
andplaccdinparallclLoacharLobigsizcs.
TclogicogradaLionsiscxLcndcdandalLcrsLhcvisionoLhccnLirc
organism. Tc ncw Lcrm morbid imminence cmcrgcs aL Lhc bcginning o
Lhc ccnLury Lo dicrcnLiaLc pcrccL hcalLh and limiLcd hcalLh.
22
Whcn
accdwiLhillncss,ccrLainorganismsarcmorcragilcLhanoLhcrs.Somc
arcmorcvulncrablc,andLhcirmcmbrancsmorccasilyalLcrcd.ILisLhis
immincncc,amongoLhcrLraiLs,LhaLdocLorsaround8oidcnLiywiLh
obcsiLy.ILisLhcirnamcorwhaLLhcdocLorsnoLiccinLhcorganswhosc
LissucsarcprogrcssivclyaLLackcdinsidc.
Tcsc ncw dcLails abouL Lhc phascs o Lhis ncgaLivc condiLion also
undcrscorc morc clcarly iLs dangcrous progrcssion. Tc worry bccomcs
morcprcciscasLhcLhrcaLbccomcsmorcnclygradaLcd.
Numbcrs, knowlcdgc, and idcas abouL Lhc organic arc signicanLly
rcviscdaLLhcbcginningoLhcnincLccnLhccnLury.Tcobcscbodyisnow
vicwcd as a body morc scnsiLivc Lo morbidiLics. And Lhc organic is now
conccivcdasancncrgy-producingmachinc,anapplianccwhoscinpuLs,
ouLpuLs,andsurpluscscanallbcmcasurcd.InLhisconLcxLaLLakcson
ancwmcaning,whcnlinkcdorLhcrsLLimcLoanaccounLoccicncy
andyicld,asaproducLounconsumcdcncrgy.TisinLurnrcoricnLsLhc
dicLorLhcobcscpcrsonLhaLnowrulcsouLmanyoodslongconsidcrcd
ordinary sLaplcs, noLably brcad, sugars, and sLarchcs. Tc rcsponsc var-
icsromindicrcnccLoLcnscrcsisLancc.NoissucopposcsLradiLionand
modcrniLyinaclcarcrconronLaLionaLLhisLimcLhandcbaLcsabouLsizc.
The Consequences of Energy
TcmaLcrialcardsarcrcshucd,asiLwcrc,onccLhcoodsdcsLincdor
combusLionarcidcnLicd.TcLonicsLhaLwcrcpraiscdaccnLurycarlicr
inLhcEncyclopdieorcombaLingobcsiLyloscLhcirmcaning.Sugars,or
cxamplc,LhaLwcrcorlongconsidcrcdcccLivcsLimulanLs,andsLarchcs,
LhaLhadbccnconsidcrcdcomorLingproducLs,bccomcsuddcnlyambig-
uousoods.BiscuiLsandcookicswhoscrcncddclicacysccmcdaguaran-
Lcc o lighLncss arc suddcnly suspccLcd o invisiblc dangcrs. Fvcn brcad
loscs iLs innoccncc as iLs various ours comc Lo bc vicwcd as possiblc
15. From Energy to Diets
sourccsohcavincss.BrillaL-SavarindcscribcsLhcsiLuaLioninLhc8:os
in his Physiology of Taste, a work LhaL subLly combincs an invcnLory o
subsLanccsinallLhcirchcmicaldcLailwiLhLhaLoLhcircccLs.MyCod!
youwillallcxclaim,mydcarrcadcrs.MyCod,buLhcsapcrccLbarbarian
Lhisprocssor!IookaLhowinoncblowhccliminaLcscvcryLhingLhaLwc
lovcLhcohsowhiLcbrcadoIimcL,LhcAchardbiscuiLs,Lhccookics
all Lhc good Lhings madc wiLh buLLcr and our, our and sugar, sugar
and cggs! Hc pardons nciLhcr Lhc poLaLo nor macaroni! Could wc havc
cxpccLcdsuchLhingsromaood-lovcrwhosccmcdsogood`
1
BrillaL-Savarins maLurc LhoughLul sLudy o ood was carricd ouL
indcpcndcnLly rom his acLiviLics as a lawycr and mcmbcr o parlia-
mcnL. IL undcrscorcs ncw dividcs LhaL arc Lhc ouLcomc o boLh Lruc
knowlcdgcoLhcncwscicnccochcmisLryandbourgcoissaLisacLion.
Hc dcniLivcly condcmns sugars, gums, and sLarchcs in Lcrms LhaL
sLigmaLizc oods LhaL unLil Lhcn had bccn considcrcd suspccL buL noL
sLrongly dcnounccd. Hc rcdcncs mcaLs, undcrlining in Lhc Lhin Lis-
suc o ccrLain sh Lhc prcscncc o a air amounL o phosphorus and
hydrogcn
2
LhaL signal Lhcm as ciLhcr hcaL producing or hcL pro-
ducing. Tcsc arc noL isolaLcd rcmarks morcovcr. Scvcral conLcmpo-
rary LrcaLiscs on hygicnc comc Lo Lhc samc conclusions. Howcvcr, Lhc
auLhor o Lhc Physiology of Taste docs somcLhing LoLally ncw whcn hc
pursucs Lhc plcasurc o caLing dcspiLc calls or vigilancc. Hc insisLs on
Lhc ncccssiLy o a parLicular dicL whilc simulLancously sharpcning iLs
croLicdimcnsion.
3
ScLLingasidcLhcinLcrdicLions,Lhcrcgimcnhcrcc-
ommcndsoravoidingorcuringobcsiLylcavcsroomorroasLs,salads
andvcgcLablcsarLullyprcparcd,aswcllasjcllicswiLhalcohol,orangc,
andLhclikcandwcll-choscnjams.
4
PlcasurcgainslcgiLimacyinasoci-
cLywhoscLhinkingisbccomingmorclibcralasocicLywhcrcLhcgoal
oModcrnman[bccomcs]LhcsccuriLyLopursucprivaLcplcasurcs
5
and
whcrcindividualinLcrcsLisdccndcdanddccpcncdwiLhncwLhinking
LhaLgarncrsncwoundrcspccL.
6
Morc gcncrally, Lhc projccL consisLs in claiming Lo uLilizc Lhc mosL
rcccnLlydcvclopcdscicnccsLoinsLiLuLcagasLronomy,inoLhcrwords,
arcasoncdknowlcdgcoallLhaLrclaLcsLohumannourishmcnL.
7
AsLhc
inLclligcnccoLhcsLomach,LhisgasLronomyclaimsamagisLcrialvoca-
Lion. Tc scicnLic and culLural ambiLion asscrLs iLscl likc ncvcr bcorc
LocccLLhisconvcrsionoLhcbourgcoisicandLhcscicnLiccommuniLy
bydcmonsLraLingmasLcryovcrLhcdigcsLivcproccssandovcrallLhcnc
dcLails o LasLc. BrillaL-Savarins rcgimcn concords wiLh a ncw ovcrall
visionocuisincaLLhcbcginningoLhcnincLccnLhccnLuryLhaLabandons
From Energy to Diets 133
Lhc old-sLylc arisLocraLic Lablcs in avor o ncw bourgcois rcsLauranL
spaccsoundcdonLhcidcaocombiningscicnccandplcasurc.
CasLronomy is indcbLcd Lo naLural hisLory which providcs a clas-
sicaLion o all oodsLus, Lo physics which providcs Lhc Lools Lo
cxaminc Lhcir composiLion and qualiLics, Lo chcmisLry which aids
oncinprcparingmcalsandmakingLhcmagrccablcLoLhcLasLc,Lo
busincssLhaLlcLsoncbuywhaLoncwishcsLoconsumcaLLhclow-
csL pricc and scll mosL advanLagcously whaL onc has Lo ocr, and
nallyLopoliLicalcconomyorLhcrcsourccsLhaLarcablcLocircu-
laLcbcLwccnnaLions.
S
FsLablishinggoodcaLinghabiLsandmodcraLionarcincviLablyccnLral
LoLhisambiLiousapproach,LhcgoalbcingLodcLcrmincLhcpoinLwhcrc
plcasurc cnds and abusc bcgins
0
and Lo mainLain a balancc bcLwccn
oncsorccandoncsnccds.
1u
The Question of Creating an Art of Living Well
Tcrcisnoproo,howcvcr,LhaLLhisrcgimcnwasgcncrallyadopLcdinLhc
rsL dccadcs o Lhc nincLccnLh ccnLury.
11
Tc gasLronomy promoLcd by
LhcprivaLcplcasurcsomodcrnssuggcsLsjusLLhcopposiLcinacL.Tc
bourgcois bclly sccms Lo havc gonc in Lhc dirccLion o prousion. 1can-
PaulAronhadlongcxpcricnccdcpicLingLhcnincLccnLhccnLurycaLcr
asunapologcLicallyhungryoragoodsprcadandoLhcrplcasurcs,agurc
bliLhclyunconsciousoLhcoldimagcoLhcLransgrcssivcgluLLon.
12
Mcals or big sLomachs LhaL mighL lasL a wholc day wcrc organizcd
in Lhc 8os.
13
Tcsc occasions Lo caL and drink wiLhouL sLopping or
rcsL
14
arccvidcnccLhaLsuchplcasurcswcrcbccomingcvcrmorccxpliciL,
soughLaLcr,andLalkcdabouL.IconCozlandcscribcsBalzacassupcrbly
ullovcgcLablcPanLagruclism.
15
TcConcourLbroLhcrsdcscribchimas
caLinglikcapigLoLhcpoinLoindigcsLion,hisbcllyaballoonochow.
16
Tc CounL o Vicl-CasLcl spcaks o making cvcrish bcLs such as daring

somconcLoingcsLinLwohoursavc-hundrcdrancdinncr,Lhcannual
rcvcnucoanordinaryworkcr,andsLillbcrcshandrcadyLogo.
17
TisisundoubLcdlyacocksurcmalcaLLiLudc,aslighLlyLipsyswaggcr
propcllcdbyLhcpcrccivcdmcriLoLhcindividualwhoasccndsalongwiLh
LhcblossomingoindusLrialisLs
1S
proLingromancvcrhighcrcclcbra-
Lion o abundancc and ux. Tc cvocaLion o Lhc oods o Paris in Lhc
carly ycars o Lhc ccnLury is characLcrisLic o Lhis condcnL display o
graspingandbusLlingLhaLvicwsingcsLionasasourccopridc.Fachycar
Lhc quanLiLy o provisions swallowcd up by Lhis gaping holc incrcascs,
insLcadobccomingull,iLbccomcswidcranddccpcrasmorcandmorc
isingcsLcdarighLul,awcsomcprogrcssion.
10
WhaLs mosL imporLanL, howcvcr, is happcning aL anoLhcr lcvcl. Tc
dccpLransormaLioninLhccarlynincLccnLhccnLuryhaslcssLodowiLh
quanLiLicsLhanwiLhqualiLaLivcchangcs.TcdominanLgurcislcssLhc
gluLLon and morc Lhc gourmcL. Tc Lhcscs o BrillaL-Savarin arc morc
imporLanL Lhan Lhcy sccm. Crimod dc la Rcynicrcs gasLronomc inau-
guraLcs Lhc Lhcmc aL Lhc vcry bcginning o Lhc ccnLury: Lo guidc and
cnlighLcnbigcaLcrsinLhclabyrinLhoplcasurcsLhcycnjoymosL.
2u
Tc
rsLillusLraLioninhisbookgcLsLhcpoinLacross.ILshowsjarsocanncd
goods and oLhcr nc producLs sLackcd on shclvcs rom oor Lo cciling,
all arrangcd in ordcrly ashion likc books in a procssors library. In Lhc
middlcoLhcroomisLhcbigcaLcrinLhoughLulmcdiLaLionwiLhhishcad
lowcrcd,andscaLcdnoLaLadiningLablcbuLinsLcadaLadcsk.
21
Wcarc
wiLncssinghcrcLhccmcrgcnccoancwarL
22
romLhckiLchcnLocui-
sincLhcarLLhaLwillbcnamcdinLhcLiLlcoMarc-AnLoincCarcmcs
LwovolumcclcmcnLaryandpracLicalLrcaLiscpublishcdin8.
23
TcbonvivanLpraiscdbyLhcphysiologysLudicsaLLhcbcginningo
LhcccnLurydocsnoLskimponquanLiLy,buLwiLhouLbcinggluLLonous,
hcisrsLoallagourmcLandgrandcaLcr.
24
The Archaic and the Modern
FvcrydicLrccommcndcdinLhccarlynincLccnLhccnLurydocsnoLrclyon
Lhc ncw chcmisLry. Farlicr bclics and habiLs pcrsisL Lo varying dcgrccs
andwiLhmorcorlcsspublicacknowlcdgmcnL.TcconvicLionabouLLhc
usculncss o acids is onc cxamplc. In 88, William Wadd asscrLs wiLh
pridc LhaL rcgular doscs o vincgar curcd Lhc Spanish gcncral Chiapin
ViLcllis o his obcsiLy.
25
In 86, AnLoinc Bossu also noLcs Lhc pcrsis-
Lcncc o popular cusLoms.
26
And in 8, Michcl Icvy conLinucs Lo miss
Lhc usc o lcmons and oLhcr sour oods by young pcoplc sccrcLly hop-
ing Lo rcducc Lhc prccocious onscL o cxubcranL orms.
27
Tis is hardly
surprisinganddcmonsLraLcsLhaLinLhcrsLhaloLhcccnLuryLhcncw
chcmical knowlcdgc and Lhc combusLion Lhcory o ood had noL ycL
sprcadbcyondarclaLivclysclccLscicnLiccommuniLy.TccnLryorDicL
[Rgime]inLhcEncyclopdie moderne(8o)iscvidcnccoLhiswiLhiLs
classic rccommcndaLion o sobricLy and noL Lhc lcasL mcnLion o Lhc
niLrogcnorcarbonconLcnLooods.
2S
TcrcishowcvcrnogcLLingaroundLhcsLrikingrupLurcLhaLLhcchcm-
isLryoIavoisicrandhisollowcrsinLroduccd.OnccanalsonoLovcrlook
LhcincrcasinglysysLcmaLicrccrcnccsLoslimmingLcchniqucsindiscus-
sions o obcsiLy. Tis obscrvaLion by BrillaL-Savarin is Lypical: Having
LhcpropcramounLoplumpncss,nciLhcrLoomuchnorLooliLLlc,isor
womcnalicLimcsoccupaLion.
20
AlongLhcsamclincs,buLwiLhadosco
irony,magazincauLhorsoLhcdaycouldinsisLonLhcashionablcwom-
ansunccasingwaLchulncssowhaLshccaLs:WhaL!yousay,shcscaL-
ing!Ycs,shcsurccaLs.AndwhaLLhcscwomcnarccaLingarcoodsand
drinksLhaLarcsLomachy,chcsLy,incisivc,andsoLcning.
3u
TisLcasing
dcmonsLraLcs Lhc incrcasing imporLancc o cmalc slcndcrncss LhaL is
boLhsoughLaLcrandcxpccLcdLoLhcpoinLobccomingaccordingLo
all availablc cvidcncc a maLLcr o daily conccrn. Tcrc sccms liLLlc cxag-
gcraLioninCcorgcSandsdcclaraLionduringaLripLhroughsouLhwcsLcrn
FranccinLhc8osLhaLiLwasncxLLoimpossiblcorhcrLocaLLhcsauccs
andaLLhaLshcconsidcrcdLobcaLypcopoisoning.
31
Considcr, nally, Lhc archaism and modcrniLy o Lhc corscL. Tc old
shcaLh livcs on. Tc csh rcmains shapcablc cvcn i Lhc conccpLion o
iLs maLcrial subsLancc is alLcrcd by consLanL rcscarch and dcmanding
commcnLarics.PaLcnLsmulLiplyinLhcpursuiLocxibiliLyandcomorL.
SixLy-cighL paLcnL applicaLions arc lcd bcLwccn 8:8 and 88 alonc.
32
TccriLcriaarchighlyprccisc:cascolacing,rcspccLorLhcvariousposi-
Lions, rcLaining Lhc possibiliLy o movcmcnL, and usc o noblc maLcri-
alswaLcrcdsilk,saLin,silkLacLa.
33
Masculinc obcsiLy aL Lhis Limc can also inciLc Lhc wcaring o corscLs.
Tc wcalLhy bourgcois dcscribcd by Fugcnc BriaulL in 8 aL a swim-
mingschoolisnomorcLhanadcormcdbarc-chcsLcdgurcaLLhccdgc
o Lhc pool oncc hc has Lakcn o his corscL aL Lhc door o Lhc swim
club.
34
TcrigidcnclosurcoLhcchcsLconLinucsLocxcrLiLsusculncss
in Lhc popular imaginaLion aL Lhc bcginning o Lhc nincLccnLh ccnLury,
including in simplicd vcrsions such as Lhc anLi-obcsiLy bclL sLrongly
rccommcndcdbyBrillaL-Savarin.
35
The Misfortune and Me: The New Status of Obesity
Crandvillcs porLrayal o Lhc obcsc pcrson posscsscs an undcniablc
originaliLy, lcss bascd on acLs howcvcr Lhan on Lhc commcnLarics and
scnsaLionsiLprovokcs.
36
AncwrcgisLcropcnsup,ancwocusonsucr-
ing. MisorLunc bccomcs a ccnLral Lhcmc. In a sLory rom 8 narraLcd
in Lhc rsL pcrson, Lhc obcsc pcrson givcs an accounL o daily miscrics.
Hcsharcshiscclings,andLhcsucringsLhaLarcrccounLcdarcnoLonly
physicalbuLmoral,cvcnpsychological.ILconLrasLssharplywiLhLhcpcr-
sonal narraLivc o lic dc BcaumonL rom ,6o. In LhaL cighLccnLh ccn-
Lury documcnL, Lhc Parisian lawycr Lclls o his cxhausLion and powcr-
lcssncss. Howcvcr, Lhc big, aL, and sad pcrson in Small Miseries rom
8dcscribcsanawkwarddiscomorLLhaLisrsLoallsocial.
37
Tccvil
is inLcrior. And humiliaLion is a big parL o iLin parLicular Lhc ccling
o a dccidcdly unjusL osLracism LhaL lcads Lhc individual cndowcd wiLh
a ccrLain aLal corpulcncc Lo vicw himscl as a vcriLablc social pariah
(oo,o:).Tcwordmalheur(misorLunc,sadncss,unhappincss)cropsup
cvcrywhcrc: I will noL bc ablc Lo avoid Lhc mosL poignanL misorLuncs
[malheurs]aLLachcdLomysLaLc,orYcs,IwasraLhcrmisorLunaLc[mal-
heureux](::,:).MisorLunc[infortune]isspokcnoasaaLaliLy,an
ingratitudecndurcdinsadncssorinbiLLcrncss[aigrissement](:6).
Tcrc is hardly any originaliLy as Lo Lhc circumsLanccs o Lhcsc rcl-
cgaLcd individuals. Tcrc is mockcry o Lhc obcsc pcrsons aLiguc, Lhc
rcbus o morc scducLivc rivals, and a ccling o disgracc LhaL is
rcvivcd wiLh cvcry social cncounLcr (:). An invcnLory o schoolyard
pranksdirccLcdaLLhcobcscisminuLclycloqucnLonLhcsubjccL.Tcrcis,
orcxamplc,Lhcgamcoposte,whcrcbyLhcobcscchildisinLcrminably
pushcdbyjokingclassmaLcsandobligcdLorunnonsLopLoLhcpoinLo
cxhausLion.TchumiliaLingcxpcricnccssLarLcarly,occuroLcn,andarc
dccplywounding.WhcLhcrLrucorinvcnLcd,howcvcr,LhcscLcsLimonics
arcnoLLhconlyinLcrcsLingLhingabouLLhisLcxL.
Much morc imporLanL is Lhc cvocaLion o a ccling, an obscrvaLion
LhaL Lravcrscs Lhc cnLirc LcxL, namcly LhaL Lhc obcsc pcrson has bccn
dcprivcd o happincss (:) and LhaL Lhis privaLion is Lo bc sLudicd,
pcrhaps or Lhc rsL Limc, as a pcrsonal maLLcr. Tc originaliLy o Lhc
LcxL,Lhcrcorc,isiLscmphasisonanampuLaLionlivcdromLhcinsidc,
a drama bcLwccn Lwo sclvcs. Tis givcs obcsiLy a ncw sLaLus. No longcr
asimplcinrmiLy,norsimplyLhcrcsulLodcvianLbchavior,iLisnowa
sucrancc,andLhcdisLrcssinvolvcd,Lhcpsychicabsccss,LhcconLinuous
LormcnL arc all Lo bc Lakcn inLo accounL. In shorL, Lhc imagc o Lhc aL
pcrsonbccomcsmorccomplicaLcd.OncdocsnLncccssarilyhavcinmind
anylongcrLhccrringindividualindulginginsomcculpablcpassion,Lhc
randomgluLLon,norcvcnLhcsickpcrsonlaboringwiLhhisphysicalinr-
miLicsasCcorgcChcyncandlicdcBcaumonLdidaLancarlicrLimc.Onc
LhinksrsLoLhcaLpcrsonsLrugglingwiLhsocialdiculLics.Tcmis-
orLunc urLhcr inLcnsics wiLh Lhc pursuiL o slimming programs LhaL
allcomcLonaughL.TcdicLquicklyabandoncd,Lhcvincgar,LhccorscL
noLhingsccmsLoworkandLhcwcighLgainconLinucsonasoncsaLc.
ObcsiLy had Lo bccomc bcLLcr undcrsLood scicnLically or Lhc limiLs
andailurcsoiLsLrcaLmcnLLobcnoLiccd.TcadvcnLoamorcmodcrn
mc lcd Lo Lhc dcvclopmcnL o morc sophisLicaLcd proccdurcs o scl-
obscrvaLionwiLhmorcinLimaLcLcsLimonics,inLcrrogaLionsabouLscnsa-
Lions,andrcporLsomoralsucring.
3S
TogcLhcrLhcscallowcdobcsiLy
Lo bc incrcasingly vicwcd as an ovcrwhclming cvil LhaL onc undcrwcnL,
an immovcablc sucring, a poorly conLrollcd collapsc. ObcsiLy simulLa-
ncouslybccomcsamulLi-accLcdanddccpcrproblcm.AmorccondcnL,
asscrLivc scicnLic approach combincd wiLh a scl morc succcssul aL
inLrospccLionmakcLhcsucringassociaLcdwiLhaLncssinLoasubjccLo
unsuspccLcdinLcrcsL.
TcLhcmcoorganiccombusLiondcvclopcdinLhcrsLhaloLhcninc-
LccnLhccnLuryLransormcdLhcwayobcsiLywasapproachcd,corrccLing
cxplanaLions and modiying LrcaLmcnLs. IL Look Lhc sccond hal o Lhc
ccnLury,howcvcr,orLhisLhcmcLoullyandprccisclyasscrLiLscl.Tis
camc,orcxamplc,wiLhhcighLcncdaLLcnLionLoLhccaloricspcciciLics
o various dicLs, Lo cxcrcisc and licsLylcs, and Lo disLincLions bcLwccn
organismscaLcgorizcdasmorcorlcsshighburningandLhcrcorcmorc
or lcss susccpLiblc Lo bccoming aL. Tc idca o Lhc body as a rcplacc
Lakcs hold dcniLivcly. Tc obcsc pcrson Lhcrcorc has a viLal wcakncss
LhaL,maLcriallyspcaking,isacombusLionproblcm.
AncwbaLLlcbcginsagainsLwcighLgaininLhcsccondhaloLhcccn-
Lury.TcadvcnLopasLimcs,arcdcniLionoLhccminincLhaLallows
or morc acLivc womcn and dicrcnL idcas abouL privacy and nudiLy
allplayLhcirrolcsinmakingdiscussionsoobcsiLyoccurcarlicrandiLs
rcjccLionmorcdcLcrmincd.
IL is also impossiblc Lo ignorc Lhc noLc o disappoinLmcnL and pain
associaLcdwiLhanLi-obcsiLyLrcaLmcnLs.TisiscspcciallyLrucaLLhcsLarL
oLhcLwcnLicLhccnLuryasaccounLsovariouscurcsmulLiplyinparallcl
wiLh Lhc growing numbcr o pcrsonal LcsLimonics. Psychological analy-
sisisbornandquicklysprcadsLhroughconLcmporarysocicLy.Tcobcsc
spcak, judgc Lhcmsclvcs, and dcLail Lhcir misorLunc. CrcaLcr knowl-
cdgc o physiologics and morc closcly analyzcd slimming pracLiccs and
gcncral body carc lcad Lo Lhc acknowlcdgmcnL o LhcrapcuLic obsLaclcs.
PART 5
TOWARD THE MARTYR
140 TOWARD THE MARTYR
TcbodycannoLbcLransormcdoncommand.HcnccLhcpossiblcail-
urcovariousLhcrapicsanunavoidablcLrialagainsLorganiclawsLhaL
arc oLcn incxiblc. Bcsidcs Lhc ordinary sLigmaLizaLion o Lhc obcsc
pcrson, onc now accs Lhc morc inLimaLc narraLivc o Lhc vicLim. Tis
allowsoradiscourscoLhcmarLyrLocmcrgcconLcmporarysocicLys
slanLonLhcLriumphoLhcLhinanddisLasLcoraL.
AnillusLraLionbyCraLyinanissucoParis on Horsebackrom88mighL
sccmanccdoLal.ILshowsahcavycmalcridcrbcingliLcdwiLhdiculLy
inLo Lhc saddlc. Tc siLuaLion is raLhcr dclicaLc and Lhc physical conLacL
noLaliLLlcbiLambiguous.Tchclpcrhashishandsull,liLcrally,andLhc
bodyiswobbling.CraLysLcasingcapLionrcads,OncoLhcLhousand
rcasonswhywomcnovcrLykilosshouldgivcuphorscbackriding.
1
Tc
dcrisionisclcarcvcnwiLhouLLhccapLion,buLLhcwcighLrccrcnccpuLs
iL ovcr Lhc Lop. Such rccrcnccs arc bccoming ordinary and rcsonaLc in
cvcryoncs mind as a ccrLain widcly undcrsLood indicaLor. Onc noLcs a
similarmcnLionowcighLsinLhcliLcraLurcoanarmsmanuacLurcrin
SainL-Licnnc who divcrsicd inLo bicyclcs in Lhc 8os. His salcs piLch
makcsanassociaLionbcLwccnLhcidcalwcighLoLhcbikcandLhcridcr:
kilograms minimum or Lhc bikc, on condiLion LhaL Lhc cyclisL
wcighnomorcLhan,okilogramsmaximum.
2
BodilywcighLsandmca-
surcsbccomcprogrcssivclymorcandmorccommonplaccasLcchnology
movcsinLocvcrydaylic.
OLhcrpracLiccscncouragcanunprcccdcnLcdaLLcnLionLonuanccs.For
cxamplc, pcoplc rcvcal Lhcir bodics morc aL Lhc cnd o Lhc nincLccnLh
ccnLury,ancwhabiLLhaLinciLcswaLchulncssoLhcadiposc,asdopublic
and privaLc pasLimcs as wcll as ashion and body carc. Bccoming big is
alsoLalkcdabouLinycarsyoungcrLhanbcorc,andassomcLhinggcncr-
allyunplcasanLandugly.FaLsncgaLivcpubliciLydcniLclygainsininLcn-
siLyLhroughouLLhcpcriod.
16. The Dominance of Aesthetics
The Spread of Weighing
Widcsprcad wcighing is a sign o Lhc sLandardizaLion o norms LhaL
occursinLhclasLdccadcsoLhcnincLccnLhccnLury.In88,AlbcrLMil-
laud spcaks o a woman who arrivcd aL a spa Lown pcrchcd on a scalc
wiLh a builL-in mcLcr. Wcighing bccomcs sLandard pracLicc, and Lhc
appliancc uscd bccomcs simplcr, oLcn wiLh Lhc mcchanism cncloscd in
awoodcncascwiLhLhcnccdlcandnumbcrsraiscdcloscrLoLhccycs.Tc
acLisalsopcrormcdmorcrcqucnLly.TcspagocrmcnLioncdbyAlbcrL
Millaud wcighs hcrscl consLanLly and Lclls anyonc wiLhin carshoL LhaL
shc has losL Lcn or Lwclvc pounds in a givcn wcck.
3
A ncarly idcnLical
sccnc Lakcs placc in a MaupassanL sLory, My TwcnLy-FiLh BirLhday,
whcrc a spa gocr carcully wcighs himscl Lo Lhc closcsL gram.
4
And a
similarsccncalsooccursinParisian Life (886)whcrcacoqucLLishwoman
wcighshcrscldaily.ShcbcginshcrdaybywcighinghcrsclwiLhalmosL
noLhing on.
5
Zola Loo, in answcr Lo a journalisLs qucsLion, rcporLs his
cxacLwcighLlossLhanksLoarcmarkablcdicLhcollowcd.HcclaimsLo
havclosLcighLohisoriginalLwohundrcdpoundsinLcndays,andorLy-
vcpoundsinLhrccmonLhs.
6
TisdcclaraLiondccisivclyshowsLhaLLhc
acLowcighingisnowconsidcrcdworLhwhilcandcspcciallyLhaLiLisrcn-
dcrcdinboLhnumcricaluniLsomassandinrclaLionLoLimc.
TccumulaLivccccLovariousadviccgivcrswhcniLcomcsLowcighL,
allowhommakcincrcasinguscoscalcsandLablcs,willrcsulLinurLhcr
sLabilizaLionousagc.
7
Onccanndcvidcnccoawidcruscowcighing,
also accompanicd by a ccrLain popular rcsisLancc, in an cngraving LhaL
appcarsinanissucoLIllustr nationalromo.ILshowsasimplcman
bcingLcascdorwanLingLowcighhimsclLhrccLimcs,buLonlyaLhirdo
hisbodycachLimcbccauscLhcnarrowscalcwasill-adapLcdLohissizc.
S
TcrcisalsoLhcprovocaLivccngravinginLhcsamcpcriodicaloaLravclcr
whowishcsLousconcoLhccarlyscalcsinsLallcdinLrainsLaLionsaLLhc
bcginning o Lhc LwcnLicLh ccnLury. Hc is shockcd by Lhc high numbcr
LhaLLhcmachincrcporLsashiswcighLunLilhcnoLiccshchasmisLakcnly
placcdhispackagcsonLhcscalcsplaLormalongwiLhhimscl.
0
HcrcLhc
modcrn laughs aL Lhc unmodcrns unamiliariLy and incpLncss whcn iL
comcsLoscalcsandwcighing.
Pcrsonalscalcsbccomcmorcvaricd.AparLmcnLscalcs,orcxamplc,
arcadvcrLiscdinLhcArchives gnrales de mdecine aLLhcbcginningoLhc
LwcnLicLhccnLury.
1u
AroundLhcsamcLimc,LhcdicLionaryomilcBris-
saudandAdolphcPinardproposcsplacingascalcinLhcbcdroomoLhc
obcscpcrsonLomorccasilyrcgisLcrLhcwcighLcurvc.
11
The Dominance of Aesthetics 143
Tc pracLicc grows sLcadily morc common, Lo Lhc poinL whcrc noL
wcighingisasourccoannoyancc,suchasinLhccascoBruno,Lhcscr-
vanL o Van MiLLcn, a hcavy DuLch mcrchanL in 1ulcs Vcrncs Kraban
(88).BrunowanLsLochcckhiswcighLlosscauscdbyancxhausLingvoy-
agcLhroughLhcNordiccounLrysidcoCcorgia.NoscalcisavailablcLhc
habiLsoCcorgiansnoLbcingLhcsamcasLhoscoWcsLcrncounLrics.Hc
Lhcrcorc Lurns Lo Lhc commcrcial balanccs hc comcs across in Lhc porL
oPoLi.
12
TcdcLailcdaccounLoascarchorawcighingmachincinLhis
novclisurLhcrindicaLionoiLsimporLancc.
The First Conicts Between Charts
Tc complcLcly ordinary usc o numbcrs by Lhc cnd o Lhc nincLccnLh
ccnLury lcads Lo anoLhcr sLriking dcvclopmcnL, namcly, Lhc divcrsica-
LionosizccharLsLhaLrclaLchcighLandwcighL.TcwcighLcxpccLcdor
agivcnhcighLiscalculaLcdingrcaLcrdcLail,animporLanLsLagcLoward
Lodays body mass indcx graphs.
13
In Lhc ycars 86o88o William
BanLingandIouis-AlcxandrcdcSainL-CcrmainocrcdLhcirownscalcs
bcsidcLhcscalcandwcighingapparaLusdcvclopcdbyAdolphcQucLclcL
in 8.
14
Iouis-Alcxandrc dc SainL-Ccrmain scL ouL Lo simpliy Lhc usc
o such charLs. Tc gurc or wcighL cxprcsscd in pounds had Lo corrc-
spondLoLhcgurcorhcighLcxprcsscdinccnLimcLcrs.Apcrson.68m
Lall would bc considcrcd normal i his wcighL wcrc 68 lbs or roughly
8okilos.
15
TisnumbcrwasimmcdiaLclydispuLcdbyAdricnProusLand
AlbcrL MaLhicu in Lhcir sLudy, Hygine de lobse, in which Lhcy sLick
closcrLoQucLclcLsLablcs.ForLhcmLhcwcighLgurcinkilosshouldcor-
rcspondLoLhchcighLcxprcsscdinccnLimcLcrsminusoo.
16
Tismakcs
abigdicrcncc,sinccorLhcmLhc.68mpcrsonshouldwcigh68kilos.
All Lhc rccommcndcd gurcs arc now advanccd rom boLh a mcdical as
wcllasanacsLhcLicpcrspccLivc,buLLhclingcringqucsLionoLhcrcla-
Livc and Lhc conLingcnL rcmains a problcm. Tc normal wcighL in Lhc
88osdcpcndsonwhaLcharLoncconsulLs.ForLhcsamc.68-mpcrson,
LhcrccommcndcdwcighLaccordingLoQucLclcLis6.kilos,whcrcasor
SainL-CcrmainiLis8kilos.
TcscvariaLionsalsocropupinordinarycircumsLanccs.Iisa,Lhcpork
buLchcrinZolasTe Belly of Paris(8,8),isawomanwiLhanamplcbuL
rmbody,abiLovcrwcighLbuLnormal,shcoccupicsLhcwidLhoLhc
door,buLshcsnoLLooaLaLall.
17
Shchasasupcrbrcshncss,
1S
whiLc
pinkish skin, hcr complcxion rccalls Lhc Lransparcncy o aL.
10
Hcr
allurcisalcrLandpalpiLaLingdcspiLchcrbusLbcinginLcnsclysLrappcd
down.
2u
Tiswoman,knownLhroughouLIcsHallcsasbcauLiulIisa,is
quiLcdicrcnLromanoLhcrcnLirclynormal,bcauLiul,andalluring
LypcowomandcscribcdinissucsoLhcpcriodicalMonde lgantduring
Lhcsamcycars.Tissccondwomanislankicrandmorcmobilc,hcrLhin
bodycomparcdLoLhaLoadragony.
21
TusLhcrcisLhcpopularscnsi-
biliLy,ononcsidc,andLhccliLisLscnsibiliLy,onLhcoLhcrLhcLhrcshold
incachcascowhaLconsLiLuLcsaLisccrLainlynoLLhcsamc.Tcgazcin
cachcascisobviouslydicrcnL,andLhoughLhccharLs,Lablcs,andgurcs
arcullyavailablc,LhcyarchardlybroughLupaLallinsuchcircumsLanccs.
DcspiLc Lhcsc many dicrcnccs, Lhcrc is a common accord. In boLh
cascs Lhc aL pcrson is dcsignaLcd by Lhc samc principlc, namcly, Lhc
lossoallcxibiliLyinLhcwaisL,LhoughiLmighLbcjudgcddicrcnLly
incach.
22
TcmodclwaisLisundamcnLal.Tcwordthinnessapplics,rsL
o all, Lo Lhc middlc o Lhc body, no maLLcr whaL Lhc cxpccLaLions or
oLhcrbodyparLs.TcLcrmissopowcrulLhaLiLalonccanbcLhcocus
onosLalgicouLpouringsabouLbcauLy:ShcwhouscdLohavcsuchaLhin
waisL . . .
23
IL is also Lhc primary aLLracLion o anoLhcr bcauLy in Ics
HallcsLhaLZoladcscribcs.IikcIisa,LhcbcauLiulNormanwomanisa
populargurcwhoiscloscLobcingovcrwcighL(forte),buLisnoLrcally.
ShchasLhcbigbodyoagoddcss,roundarms,abcauLiul,moving
waisLLhaLswayshcrskirLs,andsupcrbbrcasLs.
24
Alongsidc such gurcs, Lhcrc is an inLcnsicd will Lo Lhinncss in Lhc
sccond hal o Lhc nincLccnLh ccnLury. Tc prcssurc is sLrongcr, morc
rcqucnL, and cxcrciscd rsL o all on Lhc bodics o womcn, as may bc
sccninLhcashionmagazincswhoscLoncgrowsmarkcdlymorcscrious,
cvcnLoLhccxLcnLosoundingalarmsandinciLingcars.CcLaL`Why
iLsLhcnighLmarcocvcrywoman!
25
OncalsonoLcsLhcwordsoash-
ion dcsigncrs who associaLc youLh wiLh Lhinncss morc Lhan bcorc and
linksysLcmaLicallygcLLingLhinncrwiLhgcLLingyoungcrwiLhLhchclpo
closc-cuLrobcs,bolcrovcsLs,andshiLdrcsscs.
26
IisaissLrappcdLoLhc
poinLosuocaLioninhcrcorscLs,wcrcLold.
27
BuLLhcLrucaimoLhis
rcmarkisacriLiqucbyhcrrivals.IshcLighLcnshcrsclinLhisway,say
hcr advcrsarics, iLs bccausc shc musL bc a righL nakcd.
2S
Tc suspi-
cion o whaLs undcrncaLh is cxprcsscd morc. Allusions Lo maskcd csh
bccomcmorcrcqucnL,asLhoughcloLhcsoughLnolongcrLobcLrayLhc
anaLomy.AllusionsLoopcnandcloscdcorscLsbccomcLopicsinboLh
novcls and imagcs. An cvocaLion o Lhc hiddcn is Lakcn up in mcmoirs,
lcLLcrs,andsLorics.InhiscngravingsromLhccndoLhcccnLurycnLiLlcd
simplyAround Women,HcnriBouLcLmulLiplicsLhcimagcsoordinary
womcnwhosccshissuggcsLcdundcrncaLhLhccloLhcsoncsympLom
oamuchlargcrculLuralmovcmcnLLippinginLhcdirccLionoourcon-
Lcmporaryworld.
20
TcmcaningsowordsarcLippingLoo.TcmcaningandconnoLaLiono
embonpoint,orcxamplc,shiLsinlcssLhanagcncraLion.ForLhcDiction-
naire de lAcadmie franaise(88),LhcLcrmisdcniLclyassigncdLoaaL
pcrson,whcrcasinFmilcIiLLrcsDictionnaire de la langue franaise(866)
iLisassociaLcdwiLhsomconcwhoscbodyisinagoodsLaLc.Embonpoint
nolongcrdcsignaLcsancquilibrium,buLadcccLLhaLannounccsaL.
3u
The Exposure of Bodies
Rccrcnccs Lo Lhc hiddcn progrcssivcly incrcasc Lhc dcmand or slim-
ming. Tc sLcady incrcasc in rcc Limc also adds Lo Lhis dcmand as
baLhing and scasidc vacaLions suddcnly bccomc onc o Lhc abrupL
ncw culLural changcs aL Lhc Lurn o Lhc ccnLury. CloLhcs LhaL arc morc
sLrippcd down also conLribuLc Lo Lhc imagc o a morc cxposcd body.
InaddiLion,gazcsLhaLarcrccrlingcrovcrmorcvaricdbodilydcormi-
Lics. ConLours can go awry and provokc surpriscs and rcjccLion. Tcir
glowingadiposiLyisdisplaycdinLhcsunwiLhouLLhcirconsciousncsso
oLhcrpcoplcsdisgusL.
31
SLarLing in Lhc ycars 8,o88o, Lhc simplc rupLurc bcLwccn Lhc
lighLncss o swimwcar and Lhc cnvclopmcnL o womcns drcsscs chal-
lcngcsappcaranccs.MadcmoiscllcX,whowasLhcquccnoLhcballwhcn
shc circulaLcd Lhrough drawing rooms, is no longcr aL all prcLLy on Lhc
bcach.
32
1ulcsMichclcLmakcsacruclcxhibiLionouLoLhcwcaringo
simplc swimsuiLs LhaL makc pcrccLly normal-looking womcn ugly.
33
Hugucs Rcbcll rccalls Lhc disdain LhaL is somcLimcs lcvclcd againsL

womcn who, Lhough admircd or Lhcir arL o drcssing wcll,
34
arc mali-
ciouslybcLraycdbyccrLainbodycaLurcsrcvcalcdaLLhcbcach.
Sagging bodics arc consLanLly bcing Lcascd by illusLraLors o Lhc day.
SurpriscandwisccracksarcvisiLcdonbaLhcrsLakcnorballs,balloons,
bcams,Lowcrs,buoys,whalcs,andLorpcdocs.
35
Tcridiculousncss
oaLladicsismorcliablcLobcvoiccd.
36
NcwpasLimcsallowmonsLrosi-
LicsLobcglimpscd,andLhiscxcrLsurLhcrprcssurcLogcLLhin.
AnoLhcrLypcoinLimaLcobscrvaLionLhaLgrowscommonorLhcrsL
Limc in Lhc sccond hal o Lhc ccnLury is Lhc pracLicc o vicwing oncs
cnLirc body nakcd in a mirror. Hcrc Loo iL is Lhc undcrncaLh LhaL gcLs
rcvcalcd, buL in a rcccLion liLcrally ncvcr sccn bcorc wiLh ull-lcngLh
mirrors,noLjusLLhcmodcsLovalmirrorsLhaLsLoodaLopdrcsscrsinold
alcovcs.NowmirrorscanrcccLbodicsandobjccLsromoorLocciling.
TckindomirrorsLhaLBarbcydAurcvillyinLhc8,osconsidcrcdindis-
pcnsablcandimagincdasanimmcnsclakcaLLhccndoLhcroom.
37
AnumbcroLcchnicalandcconomicchangcsmadcLhcscncwmirrors
possiblcinLhcsccondhaloLhcccnLury.
3S
Ncwandlcsscxpcnsivcchcmi-
calproccsscsorsilvcringLhcglasswcrcdcvclopcd,LhuslowcringLhccosL,
whilcindusLrialproducLionoglassandbcLLcrLransporLaLionsysLcmsalso
playcdimporLanLrolcs.IargcsLorcsadvcrLiscsuchmirrorsLhroughmail-
ordcrcaLalogucsascarlyasLhc8,os.TiscauscsLhcproducLLobccomc
morc divcrsicd and widcly diuscd. Wardrobcs wiLh mirrors, largc wall
mirrors,anddoublc-accdmirrorsbccomcsLandardcquipmcnLinLhcliv-
ing spaccs o Lhc bourgcoisic and pcLiL bourgcoisic, and cvcn cnLcr Lhc
homcsosmallsavcrsbyLhccndoLhcccnLury.CuriosiLyincrcascs.Tc
pracLicc o looking aL oncscl bccomcs maLcrial or liLcrary LrcaLmcnL as
wcllasLhcvisualarLs.TcrcisapromoLionoLhccomplcLcvcrLicalsilhou-
cLLc,nowrcvcalcdwiLhalliLsanaLomicalundulaLionsincludingLhclowcr
oncsandnolongcrjusLLhcuppcroncs.ZolamakcsamajorsccncoLhis
cncounLcr in Nana (88:) aLcr having sLudicd Iucic Icvy, a wcll-known
ParissocialiLcoLhc8,os,ormanyycars.WiLhanakcdbcllyandLhroaL,
shc approachcd hcr wardrobc mirror and smilcd aL Lhc rcccLion o hcr
bcauLyLhaLhadbccomcpinkromLhcamcsoLhcrcbchindhcr.
30
Tc
ConcourL broLhcrs also cvokc a ccrLain MancLLc Salomon sLanding and
obscrvinghcrnakcdbodysradianLslcndcrncss.
4u
TcpcriodicalParisian
Life rccyclcs Lhc samc sccnc in sysLcmaLic ways, playing consLanLly wiLh
dcsirc,LhcdisLancingoprudishncss,andLhcwishorcmancipaLion.
41
The Ascendancy of Womens Hips
TypcsoaLLcnLioncmcrgcLhaLdidnoLcxisLbcorcaworrisomccycor
discrccLchangcsororclcarlylocalizcdcaLurcs.SLandingbcorcLhcLall
mirrorohcrdrcssingroom,shcconLcmplaLcdwiLhLcrrorwhaLormcrly
had bccn only a slighL plumpncsshcr hips had grown, hcr LhroaL was
nowswollcn,hcrdclicaLcaccasroundasLhcbourgcoisic.
42
AyoungwomaninParisian Life(8)hasLhcsamccxpcricnccwhcn
shcsurvcyshcrsclcachmorningbcorcLhcmirrorohcrdrcssingroom.
ShcsworricdbyadcvclopmcnLoLhchips.
43
McasuringLapcandbal-
ancc scalc arc dcploycd, buL Lhc gazc is ccrLainly playing a ncw rolc
morcsubLlc,morccquippcd,morccxploraLivcooldsnoLjusLaround
LhcwaisLbuLonLhchipsnowLhaLLhcirLraiLsarcsuddcnlyapparcnLand
considcrcdLoLhickcnbcorcalloLhcrbodyparLs.
Tis dcvclopmcnL is acccnLuaLcd by anoLhcr changc LhaL happcncd
during Lhc 8,os, namcly, a sLylc rcvoluLion whcn iL comcs Lo womans
drcss.TcLradiLionalampliLudcoLhclowcrhaldisappcars,Lhusclimi-
naLingLhcmaskingohipsandlcgs.TccusLomaryarcdcmalcorm
LhaL sprcad ouL in largc olds bclow Lhc waisL loscs iLs dominancc. Tc
linc rcplaccs Lhc bouanL, Lhc conLinuous curvc rcplaccs Lhc brokcn
olds. Tc hips bccomc morc uid, Lhc curving conLours morc naLural
as Lhcy prcss almosL againsL Lhc cloLh. Hips imposc Lhcir prcscncc and
ouLlincorLhcrsLLimcinLhc8,os.LIllustrationundcrlincsLhispoinL
in 8,8 in a mulLiLudc o LcxLs and drawings. Tis bcll, which rulcd or
ycarsandorwhichnodoorwaywascvcrwidccnough,hassuddcnlybccn
ovcrLakcnbyLhisshcaLhLhaLwomcnarcwcaringnow. . . .WhaLwasor-
mcrlyhiddcnisnowshown. . . .FvcryconLourisnowonvicwundcrncaLh
LhcscskirLswiLhouLolds.
44
TccloLhcsinNanaLhaLZolasiLuaLcsaLLhccndoLhcSccondFmpirc
(roughly8,o)markasLagcalongLhcwayLowardLhcscchangcs.TcronL
oadrcssisdcscribcdassLraighLandiLsbackcurvcdandliLcdslighLly
byLhcbusLlcramcworkLhclasLvcsLigcoLhcaringsLylc.Tcdrcss
drawsboldaLLcnLionLoLhcLhighsaLaLimcwhcnskirLswcrcsLillraLhcr
ballooning.
45
Tc progrcssion is acccnLuaLcd whcn Lhc rigid, loin-liLing
busLlcisabandoncdduringLhc88os.ALLhaLpoinLLhchiddcnbccomcs
morcvisiblcLhancvcrbcorc.TcsilhoucLLcisnowmorcsinuous,morc
mobilcchangcsnodoubLlinkcdLoLhcchangingsLaLusowomcndur-
ingLhclasLdccadcsoLhcccnLury.Amorcavailablc,supplcbodycvcn
iLhccorscLconLinucsiLscncasingholdcorrcspondsLoamorcsLriking
cmalcprcscnccinLhcpublicsphcrcandhighcrcxpccLaLionsasLoLhcir
iniLiaLivcsandacLiviLics.
46
TcgrcaLcrarmaLionowomcnprovokcsLhc
armaLionoLhcirprolc.
TislcadsLochangcsinLhcwayormsarcdcsignaLcd.Tchipsarcmorc
visiblcLhancvcrbcorc,andwiLhLhaLcomcsLhcpossibiliLyorcvcaling
dcormiLy and cxccss. Tc rcprcscnLaLion o sizcs rcccLs Lhis and now
Lakcs inLo accounL Lhc cxccssivc dcvclopmcnL o Lhc hips among iLs
ormsanddcgrccs.
47
Le CapricecxplainsLhcphcnomcnoninoo,wriL-
ing o Lhc incviLablc risks o drcsscs LhaL arc cvcr sLraighLcr ocusing
aLLcnLiononLhchips,LhcrsLrcgionwhcrccmalcobcsiLyLakcshold.
4S
TwoLypcsocmalcobcsiLyarcdcscribcdaLLhcLurnoLhcccnLury.
Tc rsL is Lhc classic aLLcning up inLo a sphcrc likc Lhc proLagonisL in
MaupassanLs sLory Boule de Suif (Ball o FaL): round cvcrywhcrc, Lub
o lard . . . wiLh LauL, damp skin.
40
Tc sccond is lowcr-body obcsiLy
as dcscribcd, or cxamplc, by Lhc ConcourL broLhcrs wiLh ovcrsizcd
orms LhaL appcar Lo havc owcd and moldcd Lhcmsclvcs aL Lhc lowcr
lcvcls.
5u
As a rcsulL, closcr aLLcnLion is paid Lo Lhc hip and pclvis arca,
vigilanccbcingparLicularlysLrongamongdclicaLcwomcnwhoworryaL
LhcrsLsignochangcsLoLhcircaLurcs.Tus,orcxamplc,LhcrcisLhc
minuLclycxamincddcLailinspccLcdcvcryLccnminuLcsinLhcmir-
rorbyMadamcIanlaircinDiary of a Chambermaid.
51
InconLrasL,Lhcrcis
LhcovcrallaLLcningupoanordinarycharacLcrinLhcsamcbook,Mari-
anncLhccook,dcscribcdasaL,soL,abby,andsprcadouL.
52
Tcrcis
alsoCcrvaiscinZolasLAssommoir,whoaLLhccndohcrlicpowcrlcssly
conLcmplaLcs hcr round prolccnormous, squaL, groLcsqucwhich
shcsccsinshadowonLhcsidcwalkaLnighL.
53
From the Masculine Waist to the Muscular Discovery
Tcadvancingbclly,howcvcr,rcmainsaprcdominanLlymasculincimagc.
BcrLall darkcns his illusLraLion in 8, whcn hc calls Lhc bclly onc o
LhcmosLmaliciousacLsonaLurcagainsLman.
54
TcmaLLcrisporLraycd
orLhcrsLLimcindramaLic,combaLivcLcrms.
InyouLh,LhcrcsisLanccoLhcsoLparLslocaLcdbcLwccnLhcback-
bonc and Lhc hip boncs succs Lo ghL againsL Lhc cnlargcmcnL
o Lhc abdominal caviLy. BuL wiLh agc, Lhis rcsisLancc is dccaLcd.
SucculcnLlunchcs,opulcnLdinncrs,anddrinksoallkindsaccumu-
laLcanddisLcndaLwillLhcclasLicLissucsLhaLballoonliLLlcbyliLLlc,
bccoming a round bump LhaL daily proLrudcs bcyond Lhc sLraighL
and narrow. An addiLion bcgins Lo bc consLrucLcd ouL ronL. IL is
Lhcn LhaL wiLh waisL bclLs and clcvcrly cuL Lrouscrs, onc Lrics Lo
impcdcLhcurLhcrcxpansionoLhcbcllydownbclow.
BcLwccn LhirLy and LhirLy-vc, Lhc bclly carrics iLscl high and
mighLy,onccouldsay,LowardLhcchcsL.TcnonccomcsLobcaliLLlc
shorLobrcaLhwhilccaLing.TobrcaLhmorccasily,LhcbclLisloos-
cncd.AndcvcnLuallyLhcbaLLlcislosL.OnccndsuplcLLingLhings
slidc. RcsignaLion is unavoidablc. FurLhcr rcsisLancc is impossiblc
whcnLhchouroLhcbcllyLolls.
55
BcrLall innovaLcs wiLh Lhis clcar dcpicLion o phascs o a baLLlc. IL
sLandsinmarkcdconLrasLLoLhccvocaLion,alsoinsLagcs,oLhcobcsiLy
o Tracy Tupman in Dickcnss Pickwick Papers (86). Pickwicks ricnd
graduallysagswiLhliLLlcopposiLion,hcundcrgocsaproccsswiLhhardly
anyrcsisLancc.
56
BcrLallorchcsLraLcsarcplyLhaLisiLsclaprogrcssion.Hc
innovaLcsurLhcrwiLhavcriLablcLapcsLryoFrcnchbcllicscnumcraLing
or Lhc rsL Limc a spccLrum o characLcrs and Lhcir prolcs. Rouhcrs
bclly is a rcclamaLion, CambcLLas a hypcrbolc, CourbcLs an insulL. Tc
bclly ball o Adolphc Ticrs is dcsLincd Lo bccomc hisLoric.
57
Hcrc Lhc
namcs,bodics,andsocialmilicuowcll-knowngurcsarcprcscnLcdand
comparcd. Tc LcxL poinLs and inspccLs as Lhough invcnLorying, insisL-
ing on Lhosc, likc Alcxandrc Karr or Roqucplan, who Lriumph ovcr Lhc
cncmyaswcllasonLhosc,likc1ulcsSandcauor1ulcs1anin,whogivcup
wiLhouLaghL.
5S
WhaLsmorc,inLhc8,osLhisLhcmcisnolongcrscparablcromrccr-
cnccs Lo slimming. DocLors sccm Lo bc morc rcqucnLly invokcd. By Lhc
cndoLhcccnLury,MydocLorLoldmc . . .bccomcsLhcsLandardphrasc
LosLarLadiscussionabouLdicL.
50
OncalsonoLiccsprcssing,discrccLrccr-
cnccsLovcilcdrcsisLanccLomcdicaladvicc.IdonLlikchunLing,buLmy
docLorhasprcscribcdiLasparLomyLhinningprogram.
6u
Tcnamcso
LhcprcscribingdocLorsarcalsomcnLioncdnow,cspcciallyLhoscoamous
pcoplc such as Zola and CambcLLa.
61
Ccncrally spcaking, an obligaLion
Lakcshold,ancwprcssurc.TocvokcamanslargcsizcisLocvokcLhcpossi-
biliLyocrasingiL.AlrcadyFlaubcrLsccmsLoconsidcrLhcmajcsLicbclly
ausclcssmarkcr,anouLmodcdsignoold-ashioncdnoLoricLywhcniL
was cusLomary or Lhc bclly Lo cnnoblc.
62
SaLirical pcriodicals rom Lhc
cnd o Lhc ccnLury insisL on Lhis vicw wiLh parodics o LhrcaLs and pun-
ishmcnLs. Considcr, or cxamplc, Lhc rcbukc uLLcrcd by Chams worldly
womanrom86whoallsbackinanarmchairandscoldshcrlovcr,say-
ing,Mydcar,wcshallinLcrrupLourmccLingsduringIcnL.YouarcaL.
63
OrLhcwicoagovcrnmcnLdcpuLywhomakcsacrackabouLbudgcLary
rcsLrainL:YouwanLLorcduccLhcbudgcLwhcnyouhavcnLcvcnbccnablc
Lorcduccyourscl!
64
OrLhiswicrom88poinLingouLLhcindigniLyo
iLall:YouwanLLorunorclccLionaLsuchascnsiLivcLimcwiLhabcllylikc
LhaL`
65
Closc acquainLanccs also inLcrvcnc, as in Lhc casc o CambcLLa,
whoscricnds,worricdabouLhisimmancnLobcsiLy,cxhorLhimLoacL.
ParLiallyconvinccd,LhchcraldoLhcRcpublicagrccsLowcarabcllybclL
and Lo cnroll in cxcrcisc scssions undcr Lhc dirccLion o Fugcnc Paz, hc
abandonsLhaLprojccLaLcralongLripinLhcSouLh,
66
laLcrhcLhinkshcll
subsLiLuLcmounLainwalksinsLcad,buLLhcscarcmadcimpossiblcbyhis
commiLmcnLsinParis,andsoaLLhccndohislichis.,omramcwcighLs
:kilos.
67
SuchcascslcndaccrLaincrcdcnccLoLhcconLinucdccrLiLudcomany
LhaLsomccxamplcsobigncssarcnaLuralLhcidcaLhaLLhcrcjusLarc
somcbigpcoplcwhocannoLbcLhoughLoanyoLhcrway.Tisblankcon-
vicLionisoLcnLobcoundinpopularscLLingswhcrcanincxorablcaLal-
ismismorccommon.RcsigncdpowcrlcssncssandcvcnmildamuscmcnL
arcLhcrulchcrc,asinLhccascoToinc,acacowncrinTourncvcnLina
MaupassanLsLory,whobccomcsacuriosiLy
6S
romcaLinganddrinking
somuchLhaLhcnolongcrrcacLsLoLhccriLicismsohiswic.TcrcsjusL
so much aL iL makcs my hcarL achc.
60
Toincs ricnds jokc, drink wiLh
him,andrcacLcrudclywhcnapoplcxyparalyzcshim,andLhingsbccomc
cvcnmorcburlcsqucwhcnoncoLhcmsuggcsLsmakinghimwarmcggs
inLhcdampshccLs.
7u
TcsccncillusLraLcsLhcdispariLicsacrossdicrcnL
pcrccpLionsandscnsibiliLics.
A lasL novclLy during Lhc 8,os whcn iL comcs Lo dcscripLions o Lhc
bcllyandLhcprcssurcLoslimdownarcrccrcnccsLoLhcmuscularwall
oLhchcalLhyabdomcnandinvcnLionoLhcwordbedonnement(poLbclly)
LodcsignaLcLhcsaggingcollapscoLhiswall.
71
BcrLallcxprcsscsLhcidca
in his characLcrisLic manncr in 8,, indicaLing Lhc progrcssivc soLcn-
ingoLhcclasLicLissucssiLuaLcdbcLwccnLhcbackboncandLhcpclvic
boncs.
72
HcproposcsnospccicbcllygymnasLics.TcimagcoLhcbody,
howcvcr,isdcniLclyrcconccivcdasanarchiLccLuralramcworkhcldup
by musclcs, somcLhing Lhc physiologisLs o Lhc 88os clcarly insisL on.
Firm and vigorous abdominal musclcs arc Lhc bcsL guardrail againsL
obcsiLy.
73
TisLhcmcisalsoLakcnupincxcrciscmanualsromLhcLurn
o Lhc ccnLury. Tcy sLigmaLizc Lhc wcakncss o abdomcn musclcs,
74
LoLhccxLcnLodisLinguishingamongmorphologicsaspccicabdomi-
nalLypc,characLcrizcdbyapromincnLabdomcnandslackcningoLhc
walls o Lhc bcll, and a rcspiraLory Lypc, wiLh a promincnL chcsL and
slighLabdomcn.
75
NoLhing sccms morc ordinary Lhan Lhis muscular vision o Lhc body
sincc anaLomisLs had long drawn musclcs, spcciying how Lhcy wcrc
aLLachcd.
76
And ycL Lhcrc is noLhing ncwcr and morc original Lhan Lhis
rolc aLLribuLcd Lo Lhc abdomcns movcmcnL. IL rcquircs a mcchanis-
Lic rcprcscnLaLion o Lhc body. IL prcsupposcs a dccomposcd vision o
movcmcnLs ocusing on Lhc rclaLions o lcvcr Lo lcvcr LhaL could only
bc suggcsLcd by a Lcchnical univcrsc LhaL promoLcs numcrically prccisc
mcasurcd gcsLurcs, Lhcir simplicd rcprcscnLaLion in gcomcLric Lcrms,
and an awarcncss o modcrn indusLrys paLLcrns and noL simply Lhosc
ocarlicrworkshops.PhysiologisLs,gymnasLs,andcnginccrsoLhccarly
nincLccnLhccnLurywcrcLhcrsLLocnvisionLhcscparLialmovcmcnLs.
77

TcysLudicdLhcpossiblcscrics,monLagcs,dccomposiLions,andrccom-
posiLions.TcywcrcLhcrsLLocxplaininLcrmsomusculardccicncics
ccrLain vcrLcbral dcormaLions, archings, LwisLings, rigidiLics, and inr-
miLics o Lhc waisL.
7S
Tcy Lransposcd Lhc qucsLion o muscular mobil-
iLy inLo a play o possiblc supporLs and lcvcrs. Howcvcr, Lhcir univcrsc
rcmaincd or a long Limc raLhcr ormal and conccnLraLcd on dissymmc-
LricsandaulLyposiLionsmorcLhanonLhcLoniccnvclopcandiLsovcrall
cccLs.TcyhadnogcncralmusculaLurcLhcoryinmind.
Howcvcr,LhcLurn-o-Lhc-ccnLuryimporLanccgivcnLoLhcabdominal
wallrcncwsmusclcawarcncss,cspcciallyamodularvisionwiLhaLLcnLion
LoposLurcandmobiliLy.Tisisaidcdbyhavingbigncssconsidcrcdmorc
Lhan bcorc a problcm o Lhc silhoucLLc and noL mcrcly o spccic con-
Lours. Tc imagc o Lhc body as ramcwork is whaL counLs nowalong
wiLhiLsdynamicvccLors,orccs,LcnsionsmuchmorcLhanLhcbodyas
simplcvolumcorconLaincr.
From Aesthetics to the Conict of Images
FvcryLhing changcs wiLh Lhc survcillancc o minuLc and mcasurcd
indcxcs. AcsLhcLics grows dcniLivcly dominanL, and pcoplc bccomc
suprcmclyalcrLLouglincss.UglincssisLhcocusoaninLcrminablcarray
ocouplcssccncsandLablcausomorcscaLurcdinsaLiricalmagazincsaL
LhccndoLhcccnLury,suchasLhcchubbymanwhoqucsLionsapoLcnLial
conqucsL.Hc:DoyounoLndmcpassablyaLLracLivc`Shc:Indyou
pasLaLLracLivc.
70
TcrcsLhccourLcsancxaspcraLcdbyLhcsunkcnsLaLc
ohcrlovcrwhoquips,NoLchcaLingonhimwouldbcanocnscagainsL
Cod.
Su
AndcquallypuLoisLhcgrousingprosLiLuLcwholamcnLswhcn
accdwiLhancxLrcmclysaggingclicnL,ILsallLhcsamc,buLagirlsgoL
Lo bc prcLLy hard up Lo do iL wiLh you!
S1
Tcsc arc porLraiLs o ridiculc
againsLabackgroundoscducLion.TcaLpcrsonisabovcalluglybcorc
bcing Lhc big caLcr, Lhc graspcr, or Lhc abuscr. And Lhis uglincss, as Lhc
bcachandbcdroomsccncsaLLcsL,isnowLhccarlicsLconccrnaswcll.Tis
isrcinorccdbyLhccxLcnLLowhichprccrcnccsarcannounccdaLLhccnd
oLhcccnLury,armingaparLiculardcsircandiLslcgiLimacyandaLLrib-
uLingLoindividualconqucsLandiLsinclinaLionsandchoiccsaplacciLdid
noLormcrlyhavc.ILalsodcmonsLraLcshowmuchpsychologyandLasLc
havcwonouLbyLhcnovcrLhcoldcrmoralizaLions.
Tcrc arc incviLably oLhcr ncw sccncs caLurcd in Lhc world o saLiri-
cal magazincs. Two o Lhcm ccrLainly rcsulL rom Lhc sLigmaLizaLion o
uglincss.TcrsLcxLcndsLhcoldLradiLionorcprcscnLingclasswararc.
Adiuscradicalism
S2
pcrvadcsLhcscsccncs,bcyondLhcailurcoLhc
ParisCommuncin8,,aparLicularinLransigcnccacccnLuaLcsLcnsions
andopposiLions.
S3
TcillusLraLionsinLhcmagazincLe Pre Peinard(Tc
ComorLablc FaLhcr) gcL Lhc poinL across aggrcssivcly aL Lhc cnd o Lhc
ccnLurywiLhsharpopposiLionsbcLwccnrcdundanLbigwigsandahal-
sLarvcdlookingpcoplcLhaLgripcabouLLhcpowcroaL.
S4
RoLhschild,
orcxamplc,hasgoLLcnaLaLLhccxpcnscoourlcanncss,
S5
jusLasLhc
mosL richly cloLhcd havc Lhc lcasL burdcncd shouldcrs.
S6
Tcsc arc
sLriking imagcs ccnLcrcd on dispariLics o alimcnLaLion LhaL wcrc oLcn
rccognizcdbuLlcsscasilyacccpLcd.TcinvcsLigaLionsoFrcdcricIcPlay
inLhclasLdccadcsoLhcccnLuryocrLhcclcarcsLcvidcnccrcvcaling,
orcxamplc,LhcsmallquanLiLicsomcaLprcscnLinLhcdicLoworking-
classamilicscomparcdLoLhcsizablcquanLiLicscaLcnbywcalLhicrami-
lics.
S7
ConscqucnLlyLhcclcarlydicrcnLprolcsLranslaLcLhclcssappar-
cnL dicrcnccs in dicL bcLwccn groupsLhc rcal or imagincd hcavincss
o Lhc rich uncLioning as a commcnLary on Lhc concrcLc diminuLion
o Lhc poor. Armand CauLicr makcs a similar poinL aL Lhc cnd o Lhc
ccnLurywhcnhccomparcsLhcoodoLhcbourgcoisoPariswiLhLhaL
o Lhc avcragc populaLion. Hc claims Lhc ormcr consumcs o grams
o aL pcr day as comparcd Lo a sLandard consumpLion o 8 grams.
SS
TcscndingsarcsosLarkLhaLLhchcighLandwcighLcharLsuscdbyLhc
miliLarysmcdicalchcck-upcommiLLccscanLoLallyignorcLhcproblcmo
ovcrwcighLconscripLsromLhcpopularclasscs.Tclabclweaknessisonly
applicdLodcsignaLcLhcovcrlyLhin,suchasarccruiLwhois.8ombuL
lcssLhan,okilosorsomconcwhois.,ombuLwcighslcssLhan6okilos.
S0
WasLhcidcaoLhcobcscworking-classsoldicrasycLunLhinkablc`
In 8,8 Zola puLs Lhc Lhcmc aL Lhc ccnLcr o a major novcl, Te Belly
of Paris,LhaLcaLurcsLhcunrcmiLLingconronLaLionbcLwccnLwoFran-
ccs
0u
an opposiLion bcLwccn Lhc Lhin and Lhc aL cngagcd in social
wararc.
01
Tchal-sLarvcdpainLcrClaudcIanLicrsumsupLhcconronLa-
LionaLiLsclimax:TcaLarcvicLorious
02
LhcyscndoLopcnalcolo-
nicsLhcanLasizingagiLaLors,LhcmcnwiLhillusorydrcamssuchasFlo-
rcnL,LhcvcrymodcloLhcLhincampwhohadswornLocrushLhcrcign
opiggingouLandboozing.
03
TcaLpcrsoninTe Belly of ParisisrsLoallagurcoallusion.Hcis
animagc.TisisallLhcmorcclcarsinccLhcaLLribuLionisnoLlimiLcdLo
Lhchavcs,buLisalsoapplicdLoLhciradmircrs,supporLcrs,andinsomc
cascsclccLors,inoLhcrwords,LoLhcmix-uphcLcrogcncousmassinLhc
Hallcs markcLs whcrc in Lhc novcl ordinary pcoplc, arLisans, and shop-
kccpcrsdominaLc.TcaLarcLhcproLccrswhocxploiLLhcsysLcmand
makciLprospcr.TusLhcphysicalprolcisrcallyonlyparLoLhcargu-
mcnL.TcHallcsarciLsphysicalLransposiLion:poLbcllicdParisdisplaying
ancgoisLicandconLcsLcdorLunc.
04
TcsccondLypcoLoLallyncwsccncaLLhccndoLhcccnLurydcrivcs
rom imagcs in conicL and crosscd opposiLions. Hcrc Lhc aL can bc
ordinary pcoplc, groLcsquc cgics, or crudc drunkcn sacklikc pcoplc
imagincd by individuals who arc wary o popular public acccss or who
conLcsLLhcvcrycxisLcnccoLhcRcpublic.AllLhcscopposiLionsbccomc
morc cmphaLic, cmbiLLcrcd, and pcrvcrLcd aL Lhc cnd o Lhc ccnLury.
TcRcpublicsailurcwhcnpiLLcdagainsLCcrmany . . .askcpLicalqucs-
LioningomodcrnsocicLy . . .inconLrasLLoRcpublicanopLimism,con-
dcnLnaLionalism,andbclicinLhcprogrcssoscicncc,anoLhcrFrancc
slidcs inLo anxicLy and pcssimism. Tc ccling o discomorL o Lhis
oLhcrFrancciscxprcsscdviaLhcnoLionodccadcncc,aLcrmLhaLwas
rcpcaLcdcvcrywhcrc.
05
In88:LhcroyalisLpcriodicalLe TribouletprcscnLsTodaysKingsas
acollccLionoallcnSanchoPanzas
06
clog-wcaringpcasanLsswollcnby
drunkcnncssandoLhcrcxccsscs.TcRcpublicoLhcdccaLcdisonco
inamyandvulgariLy.
07
TaLsamcidcaisconvcycdinancngravingoLhc
auLhorZolaina8,issucoTe Young GuardwhcrchcisprcscnLcdasa
aLLcncd-up pig
0S
a cshy sphcrc whosc paunch and groin dominaLc
ovcralloLhcrcaLurcs.TcsamcidcaisalsosuggcsLcdinLhcgroLcsquc
rcprcscnLaLion o Lhc 1cw, which associaLcd Lhc virulcnL obscssion ovcr
aorcignpcrilwiLhLhcpscudo-scicnLicLhcoricsLhaLwouldhavcsuch
disasLrouscccLs.InhisJewish FranceDrumonLmulLiplicsvipcrishrc-
crcnccs Lo blcary cycs, cnormous jawboncs,
00
and Lhc roLundiLy o
Lhc princcs o Isracl.
1uu
Le Grelot (Tc 1inglcbcll) accumulaLcs chargcs
iniLscngravingswiLhrccrcnccsLoLhc1cwishpigandLo1cwishdump-
lingsorsalc.
1u1
TcimagcoaLncssisurLhcrwcighLcdwiLhhaLcand
abjccLion.
Tc acsLhcLic dimcnsion incrcascs iLs dominancc as Lhc caricaLurc o
LhcaLpcrsonprocccdsalongascLoculLuralpaLhways,cxhibiLcddicr-
cnLlybydicrcnLparLicsinavaricLyoconicLs.
17. Clinical Obesity and Everyday Obesity
In Lhc sccond hal o Lhc nincLccnLh ccnLury, Lhc way o pcrcciving and
judgingbodilyormswasinucnccdbyLhcasccndancyorccLimc,Lhc
rcvoluLionarychangcsincusLomsodrcss,andLhcrcorganizaLionopri-
vaLclivingspaccs.AncvcrydayobcsiLydcvclopsLhaLrclicsoncaLcgoriz-
ingprolcs,disLinguishinghips,chcsL,bclly,andabdominalmusclcs,di-
crcnLiaLingmalcandcmalccascs,andusuallysLigmaLizingLhcsccond
morc Lhan Lhc rsL.
1
A Lhrcshold o cxpccLaLions o slcndcrncss is also
csLablishcd cvcn as a ccrLain convicLion holds rm, namcly, LhaL Lhcrc
arcmorcobcscpcoplcinLhcuppcrclasscsLhaninLhcworkingclass.
2
AlongsidcLhislaypcrsonsvisionoobcsiLy,mcdicalscicnccadvanccs
anoLhcr vicw. ObcsiLy now cnLcrs iLs scicnLic pcriod,
3
bccomcs Lhc
subjccLocxpcrimcnLsandcalculaLions,iscxplorcdbymcansochcm-
isLryandphysiology,
4
andacquircsLhcsLaLusoaspcciccldosLudy
as or oLhcr paLhologics. Ncw dccisivc sorLs o vcricaLions arc inLro-
duccd LhaL no longcr simply disLinguish sizcs buL dicrcnLiaLc Lypcs o
aLLcning. A ncw wcakncss also cmcrgcs, onc almosL mcasurablc by Lhc
knowlcdgcablc cxpcrL. IL conccrns Lhc lack o rc, Lhc organic malunc-
LionrooLcdinLhcbodysorgansalowlcvclocombusLionLhaLprovokcs
LhcaccumulaLionoaLasarcsulLoinsucicnLburning.TcrcsulLisLhc
LoLallyncwwayodisLinguishingaaLncssromcxccssLhaLcomcsrom
an ovcraccumulaLion o ood, and a aLncss by dcaulL, as iL wcrc, LhaL
comcsromadccicncyinLhcburncr.AndLhcrcisalsoLhcconvicLion
LhaLcnlivcningLhcrcwillcrascaL.
Clinical Obesity and Everyday Obesity 155
Forms and Numerically Measured Degrees
Arc Lhcsc somc o Lhc cccLs o incrcascd social prcssurcs` Or o bcL-
Lcr cquipmcnL or mcasuring Lhc organic` In Lhc sccond hal o Lhc
nincLccnLh ccnLury, mcdical scicncc radically changcs Lhc caLcgorics o
sizcs and Lhcir cxplanaLions. Rcscarch now ocuscs on Lhc spccicaLion
o dcgrccs. FaLLcning is dividcd up inLo small, mcdium, and largc
dcgrccs o obcsiLy. 1can Sicard providcs Lhc mosL prccisc ormulaLions
aLLhcbcginningoLhcLwcnLicLhccnLury.SmallobcsiLyisdcncdasa
wcighLLhaLcxcccdsby/oLhcwcighLjudgcdnormaloragivcnhcighL,
kilos,orcxamplc,iLhcnormalwcighLwcrc,okilos.Mcdiumobc-
siLy is dcncd as a wcighL LhaL cxcccds Lhc normal wcighL by /o, c.g.,
o kilos vcrsus a norm o ,o kilos. And largc obcsiLy is dcncd as all
dcgrccs o cxccss grcaLcr Lhan o pcrccnL ovcr Lhc norm.
5
Mcasuring
insLrumcnLs csLablish Lhrcsholds such LhaL a Lhorough diagram wiLh all
sLagcsandlcvclsaccounLcdorisdcniLivclyavailablc.
Morc imporLanL, Lhc cxLcnsion o Lhc sLaLisLical univcrsc lcads Lo
ncr dicrcnLiaLion o Lhc caLcgorics Lhcmsclvcs. In 88: Charlcs
Bouchard, a procssor o paLhology aL Lhc Paris school o mcdicinc, is
oncoLhcrsLLoaLLcmpLLocvaluaLchcrcdiLaryacLorsinnincLy-our
cascs. O Lhcsc, orLy-Lhrcc had a sLrong prcscncc o obcsiLy among
Lhcir rclaLivcs, in orLy-Lwo oLhcrs Lhcrc was Lhc prcscncc o illncsscs
rclaLcd Lo ood assimilaLion (gouL, diabcLcs, arLhriLis, cLc.), whilc only
ninchadnopaLhologicalanLcccdcnLswhaLsocvcr.
6
InoLhcrwords,Lhis
suggcsLsprcdisposingcauscs,owhichonccxamplcisamilyhisLory,
andoccasionalcauscs,owhichonccxamplciscxccssoodanddrink.
7
And Lhis lcads Lo Lwo Lypcs o aLLcning LhaL arc morc disLincL Lhan
cvcr bcorc: onc LhaL dcrivcs rom somc supcrabundanL consumpLion
and a sccond LhaL dcrivcs rom anccsLral inucncc. OLhcr sLaLisLics
conrm Lhis Lhcsis. Charlcs Bouchard claims LhaL ouL o onc hundrcd
obcscindividuals,LycaLnormally,orLycaLLoomuch,andLcndonL
caLcnough.
S
TusLhcdcniLionoanallncwLypcobigncssLhaLwould
noL bc rclaLcd Lo cxccssivc caLing or an cxaggcraLcdly scdcnLary lic-
sLylc bccomcs possiblc as wcll as bcing ar rom Lhc ormcr modcls
oslackbcrsorovcrabundanccoccrLainhumors.Twowaysobcing
obcscnowcxisLLhaLunLilLhcnhadbccnconuscdlygroupcdLogcLhcr
and noL disLinguishcd: cxccss blood (sanguins plthoriques) and ancmic
lymphaLics(lymphatiques anmiques).
0
TcrsLLcndLogcLaLromLhcir
cxccsscs, Lhc sccond rom Lhcir consLiLuLion (complexion). ILs noL LhaL
LhcrsLcndupavoidingancmia,LhcycanmcrclysuggcsLoraLimcLhc
dynamicappcaranccovulgarobcsiLyassociaLcdwiLhpolysarciaand
cxLralargcappcLiLcs.
1u
Tcsc dcvclopmcnLs mark a dcniLivc brcak wiLh Lhc ormcr disLinc-
Lion bascd on LcmpcramcnLs, a disLincLion LhaL was oLcn imprccisc,
bcLwccn a phlcgmaLic pcrson sucring undcr cxccss uids and an ovcr-
caLcrsucringundcrcxccsscsh.TcyalsopcrmiLaclaricaLionbcLwccn
LwoconLradicLorynoLionsLhaLoLhcsLrongobcscandLhcwcakobcsc,
LhcasccndanLandLhcsagging.TwopolcsmarkingLwodisLincLpaLhsLo
obcsiLybccomcmorcclcarlyidcnLiablc:LhconcisrclaLcdLoopulcncc,
Lhc oLhcr Lo a dcciL. Tc laLLcr dcsignaLcs a malady o bigncss whosc
originisnciLhcrovcrcaLingnorascdcnLarylicsLylc.
Retarding Nutrition and Excess Nutrition
Charlcs Bouchard insisLs LhaL a hcalLhy pcrson can consumc and cvcn
ovcrconsumc aL wiLhouL bccoming polysarcous,
11
whilc anoLhcr pcrson
cangcLaLwiLhouLanycxaggcraLcdconsumpLion.TccascsoLhcanc-
micobcsc,whogainwcighLromlackorc,andLhoscbccomingillrom
Lhcir consLiLuLion bccomc parLs o a ncw cld o rcscarch. A parLicular
characLcrisLicidcnLicsLhcm,namcly,Lhcirpallor,aLigucorsoLcsh.
12
TisisconrmcdbyanalobscrvaLion:LhccxhalaLionocarbonicacid
diminishcs in Lhcsc obcsc individuals duc Lo wcak brcaLhing, whcrcas
Lhcir cLid qualiLy incrcascs duc Lo insucicnL combusLion o volaLilc
aLLyacids.
13
TusLhcbodysusccpLiblcLoaLLcningupisalowburncr.
Tc caloric principlc is gcncralizcd Lo Lhc poinL o subvcrLing Iicbigs
divisionohumanalimcnLaLioninLorcspiraLoryoodsandplasLicor
body-building oods. Now iLs bclicvcd LhaL all oods can parLicipaLc in
combusLion. An cxpcrimcnL conducLcd by PcLLcnkocr and VoiL in 8,
dcmonsLraLcsLhis.Adognourishcdcxclusivclyonlow-aLmcaLcanab-
ricaLcaL,LhusLransormingaplasLicoodinLoarcspiraLoryood.
14
Morcovcr,albumincanbccombusLcd.PlasLicoodsgcncraLchcaLcvcn
ilcssorwiLhlcssinLcnsiLy.
15
TcLhrccbigoodgroups,carbohydraLcs,
aLs,andalbuminousmaLLcr,
16
canallconLribuLcLoaLLcningLhroughLhc
LransormaLionocarboninLoaaLLysubsLancc.TisunicsLhcLhcmco
Lhc rolc o cncrgy-producLion and givcs iL primary imporLancc. Tc crc-
aLionanddcsLrucLionoaLarcnowvicwcdasrclaLcdsysLcms.
A ncw argumcnL ccnLcrcd on hcaL and iLs cccLs also cmcrgcs now.
TcapplicaLionoLhccaloricprinciplcisnoLlimiLcdLobodilywork.ILis
alsoprcscnLinplasLiccccLs,i.c.,LhcorganicconsLrucLionsLhaLrcncw
LhclicoLhcLissucsLhcmsclvcs.ILisacLivcinLhcvcryconsLiLuLiono
Lhccsh.InLhc8,os,MarcclinBcrLhcloLLookaninLcrcsLinadvancing
achcmisLryosynLhcsisalongsidcLhcusualchcmisLryoanalysis.
17
Tis
cxplainsLhcprcscnccorcwiLhinLhcmosLsccrcLsynLhcLicrcacLions
1S
whicharcincrcasinglyinvokcd.WcvicwphysiologicalcombusLionasLhc
grcaLrcgulaLorouncLions.
10
TisarmaLioncsLablishcsLhcprimacyo
Lhccaloricprinciplc.
DicLcannowbccxprcsscdalmosLcxclusivclyinLcrmsocombusLivc
valucsLhoscindispcnsablcorlicaswcllasLhoscLhaLsignalabusc.Tc
cncrgy-producing rccrcncc cnLircly guidcs Lhc pronounccmcnL o Lhc
dicLandiLsconLcnLs::,ocaloricspcrdayoranavcragcman,drcsscd
andaLrcsL,inaLcmpcramcnLclimaLc,
2u
buL:,8ooLo,ooocaloricspcr
daydcpcndingonLhcinLcnsiLyocorLundcrLakcn.
21
Tiscaloricrc-
crcncc allows onc Lo cxprcss viLal insucicncy, Lhc lack o rc as wcll
asiLscxccss.ILsimporLanLLodisLinguishorganismsLhaLhavcasLrong
combusLivcpowcrromLhoscLhaLhavcawcakcombusLivcpowcr.
FaLLcning LhaL happcns wiLhouL any cxccssivc caLing is now cxplain-
ablc or Lhc rsL Limc: aL burning dcciL.
22
Charlcs Bouchard sLudicd
Lhc subjccL aL lcngLh and rccrrcd Lo iL as slow nuLriLion or rcLarding
nuLriLion(nutrition retardante).
23
HissysLcmaLicsLudycxLcndsLooLhcr
paLhologics such as orms o arLhriLis and gouL, boLh o which arc pro-
vokcdbyLhcprcscnccoorganicacidsLhaLarcpoorlycombusLcd.Inall
LhcsccircumsLanccs,LhcorganicacidsmaynoLbcburncd,alkalinclcvcls
ouidsdiminishcs,Lhcuricacidinurincincrcascs,uraLccrysLalsorm
morccasily,andoxalicacidappcars.
24
WcakrcisaproblcmLhaLmanicsLsiLsclinmanyorms,amalunc-
LionLhaLvaricsaccordingLoLhcmaLcrialsconccrncd.TcproximiLylong
supposcd bcLwccn maladics as dicrcnL as gouL, diabcLcs, and obcsiLy
can now bc bcLLcr undcrsLood as bcing dicrcnL orms rcsulLing rom
a uniquc causc. In cach casc a dicrcnL subsLancc causcs Lhc problcm:
AlbuminoidsanduricacidorgouL,carbohydraLcsandsugarsordiabc-
Lcs,aLandaLLyacidsorobcsiLy.
25
RcLardingnuLriLionasaacLorinobcsiLybccomcsasLandardmcd-
ical cxplanaLion aL Lhc cnd o Lhc ccnLury wiLh docLors all poinLing Lo
insucicnLoxygcnsupplyasLhccausc.
26
WhaLcauscsLhaLrcmainsLo
bccxplaincd,andiLisconLrovcrsyonLhaLpoinLLhaLmakcsrccommcnd-
ingLrcaLmcnLdclicaLc.SomcsccLhcproblcmarisingromLhccomposi-
LionoLhcblood,orLhcmalackorcdbloodccllscxplainsLhcprcscncc
o unburncd maLcrial: as oxidaLion slows, aL accumulaLcs.
27
OLhcrs
poinLLoaslowingoLhchcarL,bloodsLasis,oroLhclungs,carbonic
asphyxiaLion.
2S
OLhcrspoinLLodicrcnLobscurcwcakncsscs.BuLallLhc
LhcoricsrclyonLhccncrgymodclandvicwaLLcningasanimbalancco
rc, a discordancc bcLwccn whaLs rcccivcd and Lhc nccds.
20
All Lhcrc-
orccxpccLLosccadccrcascinaLromanincrcascocombusLion.
TwoLypcsoobcsiLyLhaLwcrcciLhcrpoorlyornoLaLallcxplaincdby
LhcrsLcncrgyLhcorisLs,includingIicbig,comcinLovicw:aLypcdcriv-
ingromcxccssandascconddcrivingromlack,Lhcsccondbcinglinkcd
LoanorganicinsucicncyoLhcorccanduscorc.
The Degenerative Obsession
AmorcgcncralrccrcncccmcrgcsinLhcconLcxLoLhisvcryspccicwcak-
ncss, an all-cncompassing insucicncy LhaL Lurn-o-Lhc-ccnLury cul-
LurcLcndsLovicwasabchavioralLraiLsignalingsomcunLncssorlic.IL
bccomcsLhcmodcrnwayoinvokingsomcinsidiouslacklodgcdinLhc
humanhcarL.TcsubjccLisapproachcdinLcrmsoLhcvcryrcquircmcnLs
orrc.ManuclIcvindiscusscsmanycascsopaLicnLswiLhdcrcgulaLcd
ncrvoussysLcmsandlossovigor,cspcciallyadcbiliLaLingirriLaLion
LhaL is said Lo provokc sponLancous aLLcning duc Lo cxccss amounLs o
uncombusLcd carbon.
3u
In 8: Lhc Review of Medicine and Surgery links
Lhc possiblc suddcn dcaLh o obcsc individuals Lo Lhosc LhaL occur in
ncuropaLhologicalamilics.
31
InLhiswayobcsiLyiniLsancmicvcrsionhaschangcdgrounds.Asncaky
malady,iLnowbccomcsparLoLhclargcrmaladyLhaLndcsicclcculLurc
wassLigmaLizing:anungraspablcviLallack.Tisisalsoconvcycdbyancw
Lcrm,degeneration,LhaLwascauLiouslypuLorwardbyAdricnProusLand
AlbcrLMaLhicu.
32
TcprcsLigcoLhccvoluLionisLvisionoLhcworldinLhcsccondhal
o Lhc nincLccnLh ccnLury aggravaLcs Lhc cars o rcgrcssion.
33
Invcr-
sions may cxisL, aLavisms may cxcrL an inucncc ovcr Lhc body. In a
mcdical book dcsLincd or Lhc gcncral rcadcr, 1ulcs Rcngadc claimcd Lo
havc idcnLicd lymphatiques gras and phthoriques mous by invcsLigaL-
ingbackupLoLhcirrclaLcdanLcccdcnLorms.
34
ALLhcsamcLimc,VicLor
Calippc sLudicd Lhc sLigmaLa o dcgcncraLion in Lhc Habsburg amily
and condcnLly dcclarcd LhaL Lhc hcrcdiLary obcsiLy o Lhc Dukcs o
Parma in Lhc scvcnLccnLh ccnLury was a sign o organic rcccssion. IL is
claimcdLhaLLhccxccssivccorpulcnccoRanuccFarncsc,bornin6o,
madchimunLLogovcrn,andsoonLhroughLoAnLoincFarncsc,who
dicd in ,: wiLhouL an hcir, supposcdly bccausc o his cxLraordinary
corpulcncc.
35
TcrcisalsoCcsarcIombrosowhoscinLcrminablcscarch
inLoLhcphysicalanLhropologyoborncriminalsdocsnoLncglccLLolisL
wcighLamongLhcdcgcncraLivcsignsocriminalsandprosLiLuLcs.WiLh
quasi-numcricalprccision,hcarmsLhaLLhciravcragcwcighLishighcr
Lhan Lhc norm and, whaLs morc, mosL o Lhcm bccomc wiLh agc cnor-
mouslyovcrwcighLLoLhcpoinLobcingLrucpolysarcousmonsLcrs.
36
Tc Lhcmc o dcgcncraLion, which was prcscnL in Lhc Lurn-o-Lhc-
ccnLurymindLoLhcpoinLobccomingahaunLingobscssion,incviLably
crosscdLhcpaLhoobcsiLy.
The Explosion of Diets
TcrcisamulLipliciLyoncwcascsLhaLdrawaLLcnLionaLLhccndoLhc
ccnLuryandacorrcspondingnumbcroncwLrcaLmcnLsarcdcvclopcdin
rcsponsc.TcrcisaninsisLcncconLhcncccssiLyodicrcnLapproachcs
Lo abby (atonique) obcsiLy and vigorous obcsiLy, or cxamplc, and
bcLwccnLhoscprcdisposcdLoobcsiLyandLhoscwhoarcnoL.Tcrcis
alsogrcaLcrrcliancconchcmisLrysdiscriminaLingcapabiliLics.Forcxam-
plc, Lhc advicc Lo conducL carly analysis o urinc samplcs in ordcr Lo
bcLLcr dcLccL oLhcr acLors wiLhin Lhc obcsc individual rclaLing Lo urca,
lymphaLism,gouL,orancmia.
37
PaLhologicalprolcsarcmorcnumcrous,
andsoarcLhcproposiLionsorLrcaLmcnL.
TcwriLingsinLhclasLdccadcsoLhcccnLuryhavcLhcmosLLosay
abouL ovcrcoming cxccss caLing. Rcducing calorics, rcducing sugars
and aLs, and waLching whaL onc drinks. Tis is cvidcncc o an ovcrall
incrcasc in body carc. Prolcs bccomc morc disLincL and dicL propos-
als bccomc morc divcrsicd. Icwis WorLhingLon dcscribcs our in his
8,,LrcaLisconobcsiLy.
3S
PaulIcCcndrclisLscighLinLhcarLiclcObc-
siLy,in1can-MaricCharcoLsTrait de mdecine(8).
30
AdricnProusL
and Adolphc MaLhicu ocr LhirLccn in Lhc Hygine de lobse (8,).
4u
TcvaricLyonocrincrcascssLcadily,buLLhcmosLamousdicLoLhc
dayrcmainsLhaLoWilliamBanLing,asixLyycar-oldFnglishbusincss-
man. In Lhc carly 86os hc publishcd a shorL pamphlcL dcLailing how,
bycliminaLingccrLainspccicoods,hcwasablcLoovcrcomchisdis-
LrcssingobcsiLy.
41
HcsayshcsLricLlyobcycdLhcrccommcndaLionso
chcmisLscliminaLion o sugars and carbohydraLcsand a sLricL cyc
onproLcinslcanmcaLandgrillcdsh.WilliamBanLingrcporLslosing
6poundsinoncycarhavingsLarLcdaL:o:pounds(orahcighLovc
ooLvc,.6m).
Fqually imporLanL, Lhc dicLs arc gradcd in scvcriLy according Lo Lhc
scvcriLyoLhcobcsiLyLobcLrcaLcd.TcprccisionodcgrccsoobcsiLy
naLurallyrcquircdcorrcspondinginvcnLionodcgrccsoscvcriLyorLhc
curcs. Adricn ProusL and Adolphc MaLhicu suggcsL Lhrcsholds o which
Lhc mosL scvcrc is ,:o caloricshal Lhc daily amounL judgcd nor-
mal.
42
Tcrc arc now progrcssions, sLagcs, and lcvcls which all lcad Lo
ncwormsoaLLcnLion,cspcciallyLhcawarcncssoLhcgnawingscnsa-
Lion o hungcr during Lhc LrcaLmcnL,
43
Lhc ghL againsL obsLaclcs, and
Lhc discouragcmcnL. TacLics arc invcnLcd LhaL arc supposcd Lo hclp onc
copcbcLLcrwiLhLhcscdicLs,whicharcbccomingsLandardizcd:smallrc-
qucnLmcals,avoringsalads,LhcoccasionaldrinkingoaLoniccupo
LcaorabowlolighLbroLh.
44
InaddiLion,LhcrcarcLhchappyLcsLimonialsosucccssulLrcaLmcnLs
ocascswhcrcLhcpolysarciaiscauscdbynoLhingoLhcrLhanavicious
cxaggcraLcd alimcnLaLion.
45
Paul Ic Ccndrc rcporLs wcighL losscs o
ncarly : kilos in a cw monLhs,
46
hc insisLs on changcs in bchavior
bccoming acLivc again and rcgaining vivaciLy. William BanLing lisLs Lhc
improvcmcnLsinhishcalLhbcyondLhcsimplcrccovcryophysicallighL-
ncss.MysighLhascomcbackandIcanhcarbcLLcr.MyoLhcrindisposi-
LionsarcaLhingoLhcpasL.
47
ZolasricndsspcakoachangcdaLLiLudc
subLlysummarizcdbyKarinBcckcr.Hcisdiscovcringancwjoyinliving
LhanksLohisrcjuvcnaLcdbody.Hccyclcs,hchasLakcnupphoLography,
andhashadamorousrclaLionswiLhLhcscrvanL1canncwhoisgoingLo
bcarhimLwochildrcn.
4S
Is Lhis a doublc cmancipaLion or Zola whcn iL comcs Lo womcn and
physical iniLiaLivcs` By Lhc cnd o Lhc ccnLury, Lhc curc has bccomc an
objccLocxploraLionaswcllasLhcocusosLoryLclling.AndiLssucccss
ocrsquasi-psychologicalbcncLs.
RaLhcr morc complcx, incviLably, arc Lhc LrcaLmcnLs proposcd or
Lhosc sucring rom aLavisLic obcsiLy. Tc prognosis rcmains opaquc.
CcrLain LrcaLiscs arm LhaL Lhc Lruc obcsiLy o adulLs, which comcs
onprogrcssivclyiniLsmosLscvcrcorm,isnoLcurablc.
40
Tisocoursc
has an cccL on Lhc hopc o Lhc paLicnL. Tc cvil is ccnLral, Lhc dcciL
all-cncompassing,andLhusncccssiLaLcsamodicaLionoLhcconsLiLu-
Lion.
5u
TisinLurnprovokcsaprolicraLionodcmandsLosLimulaLcLhc
ovcrall viLaliLy and Lonc up Lhc cnLirc organism.
51
Tc mcans proposcd
rccr Lo Lhc ncrvcs, cclls, Lhc blood, and Lo Lhc livcr LhaL somc cxpcri-
mcnLs provcd had burning capabiliLics.
52
Tcrc arc also rccrcnccs Lo
rcconsLiLuanLs, iron, quininc, and biLLcrs,
53
Lhc usc o cxciLanLs, Lhc
imporLancc o rcd blood cclls, and Lhc mulLiplicaLion o pracLiccs and
LrcaLmcnLs.TcbodyoLhcaLavisLicobcscisLobcsoliciLcdandcxciLcd
so as Lo sLcadily improvc iLs burning capaciLy.
54
Tc Lcchniqucs includc
massagc, hydroLhcrapics, showcrs, cxcrciscs, Lhc applicaLion o cold,
LripsLoLhcmounLainsandLoLhcsca.TcinvcnLionoallLhcscpracLiccs
is parL o Lhc nincLccnLh ccnLurys sLcadily incrcascd invcsLmcnL, or a
growingnumbcropcoplc,invarioussLimulaLions,changcsoair,vaca-
Lioning,andvoyagcs.
ALLcnLionLoLhcbodysinsidcs,iLsbalanccsandchcmicalcomposiLions,
lcadsLourLhcrdivcrsicaLionodicLprogramsduringLhc88os.Invcs-
LigaLionsinLoglands,LhcirrcmovalsLudicdinanimals,andLhcprcscncc
orabscnccoLhciruidsdcmonsLraLcabrusqucappcaranccosympLoms
LhaLhadunLilLhcnbccnliLLlcnoLiccd.KnowlcdgcabouLLhcrolcoLhc
Lhyroid, in parLicular, is complcLcly rcviscd. ILs abscncc in ccrLain ani-
malsandhumansallowsoncLoobscrvcaLonccavcryparLicularcxccsso
aL(mucin),accompanicdbywcakncssanddcbiliLyaswcllasswcllingo
LhcaccandskinacondiLionknownasmyxcdcmaorhypoLhyroidism,
a hcavy illncss dcscribcd or Lhc rsL Limc by William Ord in 8,8.
55
ConrmaLion camc rom Lhc invcrsc proccdurc. Tc muLilaLing condi-

LioncouldbccrascdwiLhrcgularinjccLionsoLhyrodinc,ancxLracLo
Lhcnormalgland.TislcdLoanumbcroadvcnLurousLrcaLmcnLs.Tc
Journal de la beautrccommcndsiLLorcadcrsin8,,cspcciallyLhyroid
cxLracLsromshccporcalvcscarcullyprcparcdbypharmacisLs.
56
Acw
ycarslaLcr,morccarcwasLakcn,includingLhcrccommcndaLionLoavoid
Lhyrodinc.
57
AccidcnLshadhappcncd,uncxpccLcdLroublcs,andailurcs.
BuLLhcimporLanccoLhcscaLLcmpLsandLhcncwvisionoLhcbodyLhaL
cmcrgcdisundcniablc.TcbodywasnowsccnasanorganismrcgulaLcd
by an inLcrior milicu whosc balancc nccdcd Lo bc discovcrcd, an organ-
ismwhcrcLhcglandsandLhcncrvoussysLcmcombincdwcrcparLoLhc
indispcnsablcsLimulaLingprinciplcsLhaLconLribuLcdLoapcrccLnuLri-
Lion.
5S
ILs a ncw Lypc o physical piloLing LhaL bccomcs cvidcnL, now
wiLhparLicularaLLcnLionLosccrcLions,anawarcncssabouLLhcconLribu-
LionoLhcglands,includingLhcLhyroid,ovarics,LcsLiclcs,andpiLuiLary
gland,
50
awaLchulncssabouLchcmicalbalanccs,wiLhancwdisLincLion
bcLwccn Lhosc provokcd by oods and Lhosc provokcd by Lhc inLcrior
milicu.TcccrLainLyoLhcParismcdicalschoolprocssorsaLLhcbcgin-
ningoLhcLwcnLicLhccnLuryischaracLcrisLic:TcmorcwcsLudynuLri-
Lionalproblcms,LhcmorcwcbccomcconvinccdoLhcprcpondcranLrolc
playcdbyinLcrnalsccrcLions.
6u
FxcrciscalsoiscomplcLclyrcnovaLcdLoLndcsicclcLhinking.Num-
bcrsandprccisiononccagainarcall-imporLanL.1oscphOrLclprcscribcs
Lwo hours o morning walking on an cmpLy sLomachand aL an inLcn-
siLylcvclsucicnLLoLoncupLhchcarL.
61
TccurcogcLLingouLsidc,
pcrhaps Lo do onc o scvcral loops o dicring lcngLhs and diculLics,
bccamcpopularinLhc88os,cspcciallyinCcrmanyandSwiLzcrland.Tc
walkcrswouldhavcdcLailcdmapswiLhLhcdisLanccsanduphillsccLions
markcdLoindicaLcaLorsLccp,longorshorL.
62
TisinLurncould
provokc ncw diculLics, sincc cxcrcisc incrcascs appcLiLc,
63
Lhus mak-
ingLhcdicLmorcdiculLLopuLupwiLhorLhcpaLicnLnoLLomcnLion
LhcincrcascdcorLandLhcrcorcpossiblcLhrcaLLoLhchcarL.
Oxygcn and combusLion rcmain LhroughouL Lhc ccnLral LcncLs o all
LhcscLhcoricsLhaLrclyonconvicLionsabouLrc.
The Socializing and Chemistry of Spa Life
TcrapcuLic inLcrcsL in spas or balncology bccomcs imporLanL in Lhc
sccond hal o Lhc nincLccnLh ccnLury as parL o a major Lransorma-
Lion o Lhc knowlcdgc and habiLs o a widc swaLh o Lhc middlc class.
64
ChcmisLry dcvclopcd Lhc analysis o waLcrs, spa Lowns invcsLcd cxLcn-

sivcly in Lhcir amcniLics, and railroad lincs madc gcLLing Lo Lhcm much
casicr.TcscopcnairsiLcswiLhLhcirgrccncryandgurglingwaLcrslcnL
LhcmsclvcsLoLhcdcvclopmcnLoscicnLicrcgimcnsLhaLlcdLodrcams
oLoLalphysicalLransormaLionandrcsLoraLionohcalLh.Formcrlypur-
sucdasboLhasocialpasLimcandcasualbodycarc,spalicnowbccomcs
aplaccosLudyandcxpcrimcnLaLionaswcll.Knowlcdgccxpandsanda
mulLiLudcoclaimsarcpuLorwardLocsLablishcvcrmorcspccicbcn-
cLsoparLicularspringwaLcrsorparLicularLypcsomaladics.Individu-
als wiLh dicrcnL Lypcs o obcsiLy, or cxamplc, arc dirccLcd Loward Lhc
waLcrs mosL suiLcd or Lhcir condiLionLhc lymphaLic Lo waLcrs LhaL
LoncupandLhchcavycaLcrsLolaxaLivcwaLcrs.
Tcrmalspasbccomcspccializcd.Forcxamplc,MaricnbadandCarls-
bad in Ccrmany wcrc said Lo havc purgaLivc waLcrs and wcrc rccom-
mcndcd or Lhosc wiLh cngorgcd livcrs and ouL-sizcd abdomcnsa
paLhology judgcd vcry common in Ccrmany according Lo a Frcnch
guidc.
65
In Francc, ChLclguyon in ccnLral Francc spccializcd in Lhc
laxaLivcmcdicalizaLion,
66
whilcBridcsspccializcdinoxidaLionoLhc
blood.InLhc8,os,milcPhilbcrL,LhcviccprcsidcnLoLhcParisSoci-
cLy or Mcdical Hydrology, oundcd a spccial obcsiLy curc in Bridcs in
Lhc Frcnch Alps LhaL aLLracLcd morc paLicnLs cvcry ycar.
67
Tc Paris
docLor advcrLiscs his rcgimcn cxLcnsivcly, obscrving and codiying
purgaLivcs,sudaLion,oodlisLs,andphysicalcxcrciscandmakingdaily
uscowcighLcharLs.
6S
A parLicular Lypc o carc dcvclops aL Lhcsc spccializcd spa siLcs, and
manyLcsLimonicsrccounLiLsrcgulariLyandrigor.Tcschcdulingopar-
Licular program clcmcnLs ovcr scvcral wccks, Lhc prcscripLion o dicLs,
baLhs, body rubs wiLh ricLion glovcs, massagcs wiLh soap, cold com-
prcsscsonLhcbclly,andwalksovaryinglcngLhanddiculLy.
60
TcghL
againsLobcsiLyisLhcccnLcrocvcryinsLanLoLhcday,wiLhmosLaLLcn-
Lion accordcd Lo calorics and combusLion. Tc incrcascd markcLing o
LhcscscrviccslcadsLoamulLiormspccializaLionoLypcsocarc,Limcs,
andlocaLions.
TchumorousobscrvaLionsinan88issucoCharivarimakcuno
LhcapparcnLconLradicLionsLhaLcouldarisc,inLhiscascaroundLhcsup-
poscdbcncLsoLhcwaLcrsoSLilbainCorsica.Amansayshcslcaving
orLhcwaLcrsoSLilbabccauschcscnscsLhccarlysLagcsoobcsiLy,
buL his moLhcr-in-law is going Loo bccausc shc sucrs rom consump-
Lion(tisie,cxLrcmcLhinncss).
7u
TaLLhiscanbcLhcpunchlincoajokc
showsLhccxLcnLLowhichspagoinghadgrownordinaryaswcllashow
aLLcnLivcpcoplchadbccomcLocarlyandallchangcsinsizc.TcspaLown
oVichy,whoscwaLcrswcrcclaimcdLocombaLanomalicsonuLriLion,
71
had:,visiLorsin8o,o,oooin86o,andoo,oooin8o.
72
vian,
anoLhcr incrcasingly popular spa dcsLinaLion, had Lo cnLircly rcdcsign
iLscl aL Lhc cnd o Lhc ccnLury Lo accommodaLc Lhc crowdsbuilding
ncwrailplaLorms,widcrboulcvards,ancwundcrgroundwaLcrpipcsys-
Lcm,and,ocoursc,morcandbiggcrhoLcls.TcollowingcxccrpL,giving
an accounL in raLhcr absLracL languagc o a mcdical sLudy Lrip undcr-
Lakcnino,insisLsonLhcspascccLsonalloLhcdigcsLivcproccsscs.
TcscosmoLicmaLcrialsaidincomplcLingandacLivaLingLhcorganiclic,
rcsulLinginbcLLcrrcspiraLion,oxidaLions,assimilaLions,andccllulardis-
chargcs,aswcllasaciliLaLingLhcbrcakdownoorganicwasLcsandLhcir
climinaLion,andLhcsolubiliLyouscdmaLLcr.
73
DigcsLivc maluncLion and Lhc corrccLion o cxccss caLing arc Lhc
dominanLLhcmcsinLhcworldobalncology.TcwaLcrdrinkcrrcprc-
scnLcdinLhcPhysiologies parisiennesin88,isLhcbigcaLcrinscarchoa
ncwcquilibrium.ILisgcncrallyaParisianwhohasgonconabingcand
LhcnrcLircsorLhrccorourwccksLoawaLcringholcsiLuaLcdncarsomc
AlpincvillagcorpcakinLhcPyrcnccs.
74
TcsimplisLicidcaodraining
LhcbodywiLhsomcpuriyingwaLcrisLhcsubLlcsuggcsLioninmanyo
Lhcsc cnLhusiasLic iniLiaLivcs LhaL promoLc waLcr springs, grccn mcad-
ows, and orcign air. Tc LhcrapcuLic acLion aims aL casing assimilaLion
anddigcsLion,andiscxpccLcdLoworkwondcrsorLhcskin,rhcumaLism,
cxccss wcighL, and Lhc ncrvcs. MulLiplc posiLivc cccLs rom a singlc
lincoacLiondcsigncd,inLhclanguagcobalncology,LoLrcaLindolcnL
cngorgcmcnLsandobsLrucLionsoLhcvisccraoLhcabdomcn.
75
The Ascendancy of Advertisers
AdvcrLisingcampaignsinLhcsccondhaloLhcnincLccnLhccnLuryur-
LhcrconrmLhcdcvclopmcnLoslimmingpracLiccsandLhcirmarkcLing
Lo Lhc public.
76
Many o Lhcsc campaigns gcL sLarLcd in Lhc 88os and
LakcavcrydirccL,succincLlinc.
Pcrsian Pills: Lo losc wcighL whilc sLrcngLhcning oncs hcalLh, a
Lwo-monLh LrcaLmcnL succs Lo climinaLc all cxccss wcighL in
boLhscxcs.
77
AdocLorgcncrallyassociaLcshisnamcwiLhLhcproducL,Lhcrcbyguar-
anLccingaccrLainnoLabiliLy,unlikcLhcsccrcLormulasoormcrLimcs.
TusLhcrcarcDocLorBlynsPcrsianPills,DocLorSmiLhsHinduLca,
cLc.
7S
TcproducLsvary:pills,poLions,baLhs,bclLs,corscLs.SomcLradi-
LionalidcasconLinucLocxcrLaninucncc,aswiLhrccrcnccsLodrying
ouLorLoningup.
Somc allusions Lo smclls and odors may lcnd an addiLional pcrsua-
sivcncss. Tus Lhc CigarLina pills comc rom sca algac, Brahms waLcr
ispcrumcdwiLhBcngalowcrs,andLhcIsmaclbclLiscomposcdo
aromaLicplanLs.
70
SomcrccrcnccsLophysicalcaLurcsarcaddcdaswcll
inkccpingwiLhLhcanaLomicgazcoLhcndcsicclc.TusBcauLygcnc
Lca is supposcd Lo rcducc Lhc hips, slim Lhc bclly, and producc a nc,
svclLcwaisL.
Su
TcanonymousproducLLhaLLhcChardonpharmacyin
Lhc ruc SainL-Iazarc in Paris wanLs Lo bring Lo Lhc aLLcnLion o iLs cus-
LomcrsissupposcdLorcduccLhcbcllyandhips,slimLhcwaisL,andcrasc
doublc chins.
S1
Tc LrcaLmcnLs arc as simplc as possiblc: pills, drinks,
andbclLs.TcrcsulLsccrLicd,surcandrapid,asurcsucccss.
S2
Tc
rhcLoricplaysonimagcsandwords,suchasconLrasLingpicLurcsshowing
LhcbigpcrsonbcorcandLhcLhinpcrsonaLcr,anduscsdcclaraLions
LhaLcombincpromiscswiLhguaranLccssuchaswondcrwaLcr,aLruly
inalliblcmcLhod,orLhcmainLcnanccocLcrnalyouLhandrmcsh.
S3
All Lhcsc cxclamaLions arc rushcd and inLuiLivc, o coursc, buL Lhcir
vcry cxisLcncc dcmonsLraLcs Lhc sLcady cmcrgcncc o a wcighL loss
markcLaLLhccndoLhcnincLccnLhccnLuryaswcllasLhcsLubbornrcsis-
LanccoLradiLionalnoLions.TcadvcrLisingalsoinsisLsonLhcabbrcvi-
aLcdsidcoLhcdicLs,whicharcLhcmsclvcsslimmcddownLoLhcbarcsL
ouLlinc:LhcrccourscLomagicalclixirs.ILalsorcvcalsLhcrclaLivclysclccL
populaLion pursuing Lhcsc pracLiccs. Tc producLs vary in pricc rom
bcLwccn vc and LwcnLy rancs in Lhc 88os, a Limc whcn Lhc avcragc
workcrsdailywagcswcrcbcLwccnvcandsixrancs.
S4
ILalsoundcrlincs
Lhc pcrsisLcncc o LradiLional idcas LhaL cxpccL slimming Lo rcsulL rom
LhcsimplcsLacLions.
18. The Thin Revolution
SilhoucLLcsbccamcLhinncrinLhcsccondhaloLhcnincLccnLhccnLury,
and LrcaLmcnLs or obcsiLy bccomc morc numcrous. Tc mulLiplicaLion
opasLimcs,LhcncwaLLcnLionLoLhcscl,andLhcrcvoluLioninmcdical
knowlcdgcwcrcallacLors.OncimporLanLchangcLhaLisLoLallydccisivc
LakcsplaccinLhc:osandisLhcouLcomcnoLoncwknowlcdgcbuLncw
habiLs. Tc LransormaLion o Lhc sLaLus o womcn brings wiLh iL a ncw
Lhinncssan avoidancc o rccrcnccs Lo brcasLs and oLhcr curvcsand
a ncw Lcchnically inspircd imaginary LhaL insisLs on uidiLy, rcacLiviLy,
agiliLy, and lankincss. Tcrc is also a hcighLcncd cxpccLaLion o conLrol
andarmaLionoLhcscl.AplainarmaLionrcpcaLcdmorcLhanoncc
in1canPrcvosLsEssay on the Human Body(:)sumsupLhisncwaLLi-
Ludc:OurbodicsarcmosLlymusclc.
1
TcaLhlcLiclook,wiLhiLscoordi-
naLcdlincs,isorLhcrsLLimcLhcnorm.
2
ILisccrLainlyLhccascLhaLLhc
body o Lhc :os is cvokcd dicrcnLly Lhan bcorc. ILs dynamic qualiLy
Lakcsonanall-ncwimporLancc.Onlymusclcisnoblc.
3
MusclcLoncis
hinLcdaLinLhcsLaLicposc,movcmcnLisimpliciLinLhccurvcs.Ocoursc
LhisalsoholdsLrucorLhccmalcbody,LhcinLcrminablcdcscripLionso
whichundcrlinciLssLraighLsupplcncss,LhcscrpcnLincallurc,andLhc
springinLhcdcrricrc.
4
TcprcscnccomusclcisnoLasuddcndiscov-
cry.ILsrolc,howcvcr,iscnLirclyrcLhoughL,dclibcraLc,andcnnoblcd.All
LhinkingabouLaLisconccrncd:LhcLhrcsholdsbcingaLLaincdcarlicr,Lhc
dangcrsundcrlincdmorc.TcbodyoLhc:osisquiLcsimplyLhchcrald
oLodaysbody.
The Thin Revolution 167
AnoLhcr changc LhaL cmcrgcs arc Lhc sLrongcr doubLs as Lo whcLhcr
ccrLain Lypcs o obcsiLy can bc succcssully LrcaLcd. A numbcr o cascs
sccmLolcadLowardLhcmarLyr.TcinLroducLionoLhisncwgraviLy
alsoprcparcsqucsLionsLhaLpcrsisLLoday.
The Defect of Civilization
Tc social conscicncc o bigncss changcs in Lhc :os. AdiposiLy is sud-
dcnly morc prcscnL in cvcryday lic. Imagcs o Lhc day provc iL. Work-
crs and pcasanLs LhaL appcar in caricaLurcs o Lhc pcriodicals Le Canard
enchan,Rire,orLIllustr nationalshowacapaciLyorsLouLncssLhaLhad
ormcrlybccnrcscrvcdorLhcwcalLhy.Tcpoor,whohadLradiLion-
allybccnrcprcscnLcdashal-sLarvcd,suddcnlyacquircaphysicalvolumc
Lhcy didnL havc bcorc. Tc drawings o AlbcrL DubouL rom Lhc carly
oscaLurcmanyworking-classaLpcoplcwiLhoaLingbrcasLs,bcllics
ouLoconLrol,andsaggingchins.TcPort of Marseille,whichwasdrawn
byLhcarLisLaLLhcsamcLimc,ocrsLhcmosLvividcxamplc.
5
TcsLi-
ncssandLhcncckLicsoLhcdisLinguishcdsilhoucLLcsconLrasLwiLhLhc
slackappcaranccandopcn-ncckcdshirLsoLhcordinaryworkcrs,buLLhc
voluminous csh and aLLincss arc disLribuLcd among Lhc Lwo groups.
TcamplcabdomcnismorcdcmocraLicallysharcd.Consumingandovcr-
caLingarcbccomingmorcwidcsprcadassocialphcnomcna.
CcrLainsLaLisLicsmakcLhisvcryclcar.TcCSIR(InLcrnaLionalScicn-
LicCommissiononNourishmcnL)dccrccsLhcidcalconsumpLionomcaL
anddairyproducLsas,gramspcrdaypcrpcrsonoavcragcsizcand
LhcngivcsLhcacLualgurcsordicrcnLcounLricsvis--visLhisLhrcsh-
old.
6
Ccrmany,Fngland,andFranccpassabovcLhisLhrcsholdinLhcncw
ccnLury, rcporLing rcspccLivcly :6 g, :o g, and 86 g during Lhc pcriod
o.TchighcrnormsoLhcscLhrccindicaLcaradicalchangcin
ood consumpLion
7
Lhc pcrccnLagc o proLcins and sugars rom ani-
malsishighcrLhanLhaLcomingromvcgcLablcs,signalingamorcrich
andadiposcdicL.
CommcnLaricscspcciallychangcaLLhisLimc.InCcorgcsdAvcncl
claimsLhcrcisalcvclingoplcasurcsandancasconourishmcnLor
cvcrgrcaLcrnumbcrsopcoplc.
S
Ino,FrancisHcckclclaimsLoscca
dcccLocivilizaLioninLhcalLcraLionsomorphologicsrcsulLingrom
Lhc various abuscs and disordcrs provokcd by Lhc comorLs o Lcchnol-
ogy,
0
Lhc widc diusion o machincs, and surplus nourishmcnL. And
Lhc cvil has sprcad. PcasanLs and working class pcoplc arc bcginning
LosucrrommaladicsLhaLcarlicrprovokcdLhcphysicaldcclincoLhc
wcalLhyandLhcnobiliLy.CouL,obcsiLy,diabcLcs,arLcriosclcrosis,ncuras-
Lhcnia,angina,brainhcmorrhagcs,andparalyscswcrcormcrlyrcscrvcd
orLhcmasLcrs.TodayLhcyoccuramongacLoryworkcrs,scrvanLs,and
pcasanLsincquallyhighnumbcrs.
1u
Tc ncw siLuaLion is LhaL Lhc cnLirc populaLion is now conccrncd.
AnoLhcrncwconLribuLingacLorisLhcprcdicLablcaLLcningupoauLo-
mobilisLs,
11
givcn Lhc augmcnLcd scdcnLarincss o siLLing in cars. All
Lhcsc changcs arc characLcrizcd as viLal pcrvcrsions.
12
An alcrL gocs
ouL Lo civilizcd man LhaL dcnounccs bingcing and cxccss. As a parL o
Lhis alcrL, onc noLiccs aL Lhc bcginning o Lhc LwcnLicLh ccnLury a sud-
dcn incrcasc in Lhc numbcr o comparisons LhaL praisc primiLivcs or
LhcrugaliLyLhaLhasprcscrvcdLhcmvcrsusLhccivilizcdwhoscabuscs
havcdcormcdLhcmaLoLalinvcrsionoLhccarlicrhicrarchy.AdisLincL
naLurismcmcrgcsinLhc:osLhaLsprcadsLhroughpopularLcachings,
sporLs, and pasLimcs.
13
A ccrLain sLridcnLmiliLancyagainsL aL dcvclops
aswcll.
The Dashing Slender Male
IncviLablc qucsLions rcmain. Vaguc imprcssions wiLhouL sLaLisLical sup-
porL o Lhcrc bcing morc aL pcoplc among Lhc driving classcs or Lhc
working classcs donL provokc ncw cxpccLaLions or Lhinncss so much
as Lhcy arc iLs cccL.
14
As Lhc dcnunciaLion o aL incrcascs, Lolcrancc
dccrcascsandLhcaLpcrsonsccmsallLhcmorcprcscnLandallLhcmorc
omniprcscnLasighLcausingsorccycs.
Tcsc changcd aLLiLudcs dcrivc rom alLcraLions in daily pcrccpLions,
cspcciallyLhcrcoricnLaLionoLhcidcaoccicncyandvivaciLy.Tco
FuLurisLManicsLoboldlyasscrLsLhaLaroaringauLomobilcLhaLsccms
Lorunonmachinc-gunrcismorcbcauLiulLhanLhcVicLoryoSamo-
Lhracc.
15
Paradoxically,iLisLhcworldoLcchnologyandnoLnaLurcLhaL
Lransorms Lhc imagc o Lhc body by cnlivcning iL. Tc ormcr is a uni-
vcrsc o powcr and cxiblc pcrormanccs Lhanks Lo various machincs
whcrcuncLionaliLyandouLpuLcounL.
16
TcsccriLcria,inLurn,Lransorm
pracLiccsandmakcspccdandadapLabiliLycvcrmorcimporLanL.Tisncw
LcnsionrcwardsccrLainvirLuosiLicsLhaLLcndLodcniLivclyprivilcgcLhc
acLivcandslcndcr.
17
ALLhcsamcLimc,Lhcrcisacorrcspondingdcnuncia-
LionoLhcwcakandscdcnLary.TchcadocmploymcnLinHcnriBcrauds
:: novcl Le Martyre de lobse symbolizcs Lhis aLLiLudc. Hc climinaLcs
cvcry job candidaLc aL Lhc slighLcsL hinL o sLouLncss. Comc back aLcr
youvc losL somc wcighL. Wc nccd acLivc mcn noL bloaLcd micc.
1S
Tc
AmcricanmodclwhcrconccanbcrcdoranydccrcascinouLpuLalso
gcLsLhcpoinLacrossclcarly.
10
MalcashionsinLhc:osadopLLhcsccriLcriaaswcll,privilcgingan
acLivc look and LighLcncd orms.
2u
A mulLiLudc o Amcrican advcrLis-
ing campaigns arm Lhcsc LriumphanL valucs by caLuring suiLs wiLh
Lapcrcdlincs.
21
TcCatalogue de la Manufacture de Saint-tienneor:
caLurcsLhcdoublc-brcasLcdsuiL,
22
asLylcLhaLisnoLvcrywcarablcby
aLLcr mcn. Trimmcr cuL shirLs associaLcd wiLh naLurc and sporLs also
bccomcmorcpopular,
23
andpuLancndLoLhcamplc,owingsLylcLhaL
hadbccnprccrrcdbcorc.
24
TcrcisnowasysLcmaLicrcusaloanyLhing
LhaL oaLs or curvcs Loo much, and Lhis cxplains Lhc obcsc proLagonisL
inHcnriBcraudsnovclwhodcclarcs,ModcrncloLhcsarcLhccncmy.
25
The Dashing Slender Female
AsccondculLuralshakcupLakcsplaccaLLhcbcginningoLhcLwcnLicLh
ccnLuryaroundLhcimagcoLhccmalcbody.TcdcscripLionoVincain
ColcLLcs : novcl Le Bl en herbe is a dccisivc sympLom. Tc allusions
LoLhcLhinwcll-LurncdspindlcsoLhcyoungwomanarcparLoaclcar
insisLcncc on a silhoucLLc o a ncw Lypc, onc LhaL imposcs Lhc linc as
Lhc singlc LcncL LhaL dicLaLcs all conLours.
26
FvcryLhing changcd in only
a cw ycars. Tc dynamic rcplaccd Lhc sLaLic, Lhc sLraighL rcplaccd Lhc
curvcd. Tc ovcrLhrow is LoLal. WhaLs in arc long lcgs, a Lapcrcd waisL,
and a lanky Lorso. Tc ormcr S prolc, wiLh iLs supplc undulaLion LhaL
acccnLuaLcdLhcgcnLlcbcndsoLhcbusLandloinsasLhcycambcrcdand
curvcd,givcswayLoLhcIprolcLhaLinsisLsonasysLcmaLiclcngLhcning
ophysicalcaLurcsandcloLhing.
TcchangcoccurrcdduringLhcycarso:o.TcLradiLionalcorscL
LhaLacccnLuaLcdacambcrcdlookisphascdouLinavororcsoluLclyclon-
gaLcdorms,cspcciallyanarrowlincandnowaisL.
27
TisgivcsLhinncss
an cnLircly ncw mcaning ar rom Lhc old connoLaLions o dclicaLc and
ragilc.TcnarrowhasmcLamorphoscd.SLrcLchingandslimminglcnda
dccisivcncwparLiculariLyLoLhccmalcbody,whichnowrcjccLsconLours
judgcdLoomammaryandavorslincarphysiqucsLhaLprivilcgcagiliLy
andmovcmcnL.TiswirybodymobilizcsaculLurcandcspcciallyaman-
ncrLosinglcouLawomanwhooccupicspublicspaccmorcLhancvcra
womancxisLingouLsidcasshcboLhparLicipaLcsmorcinLhcworkworld
andcnjoysLhcgrcaLouLdoors.
2S
AmajorchangcisLhispcrccpLionoLhc
acLiviLy and availabiliLy LhaL bcing Lhin and narrow makc possiblc. Vic-
LorMargucriLLcs::novclLa GaronnesymbolizcsLhcmovcmcnLLhaL
Lriumphs in magazincs o Lhc :os, playing wiLh masculinc codcs and
cnLirclyLransormingLhclookohair,hips,andprolc.Tcgurcgrows
cvcrLhinncrasLhcsLunningsucccssohcrwillormobiliLyandcman-
cipaLionadvanccs.
20
TisprovokcsaurLhcrandcvcnmorcprooundchangc.Tcphysical
ormisnolongcrdcncdbycshbuLbymusclc.FaLandLhinarcnow
also conLrasLcd via LcxLurcs and Lhc LacLilc. Tc curving conLour is now
associaLcd wiLh rmncss raLhcr Lhan crcamy smooLhncss. IL signals Lhc
sculpLcd and marks Lhc Lcnsc buL rcal bordcrlinc bcyond which lics Lhc
aL.AshapclydryncssisLhcrighLLhinncss.
3u
Tobcsupplc,adroiL,and
harmoniousoncmusLhavcrcgularlycxcrciscdmusclcs.
31
ColcLLcsVinca
isagoodcxamplc,wiLhhcrlongLhighmusclcsanddiscrcLcmusclcs.
32
AnoLhcr cxamplc is MonLhcrlanLs characLcr Madcmoiscllc dc Plcmcur,

inLes Olympiques(:),wholanguishcsbcLwccnLhinandaLromLhc
momcnL shc lacks cxcrciscI saw Lhc aL comc back and my musclcs
sLicnup.
33
Tcrcisancwprolc,whichVogueclcarlyspccicdaround
LhissamcLimc.TcsvclLcaLhlcLicsilhoucLLc,Lhclimbsncandmuscu-
larwiLhouLanylingcringaL,ancncrgcLicopcngurcLhisisLodayLhc
idcalocminincbcauLy.
34
Tis modcl can bc rcplicaLcd all Lhc morc casily and on a largc scalc
LhanksLoLhcncwinormaLionLcchnologicsoLhcdaymagazincs,cin-
cma, and advcrLising in Lhc :os rcach ncw audicnccs, mulLiply Lhcir
impacL, and indusLrializc Lhcir proccdurcs.
35
CommunicaLion sprcads,
sLandards arc madc, unicd, and bccomc amiliar on Lhcir way Lo bcing
LurncdinLoamarkcLwhcrcarapidlygrowingmiddlcclasswillbcinviLcd
LocirculaLc.
36
The Graduated Anatomy
TcscimporLanLchangcsdcrivcromsocialchangcs,iLshouldbcrccallcd,
morc Lhan rom any Lypc o mcdical prcssurc.
37
Tcy arc so pcrvasivc
LhaL anaLomisLs in Lhc :os inauguraLc a LoLally ncw cld o rcscarch.
WcighLgainisnolongcrmcrclyLhcsubjccLoanccdoLcsandbccomcsan
objccLorigoroussLudyLhaLscckssysLcmaLicknowlcdgcoiLssLagcsand
progrcssions, much as gcologisLs rccord ndings abouL scdimcnLs and
mincrals.Formsohcavincssarc,liLLlcbyliLLlc,convcrLcdinLodiagrams.
Tcsc invcsLigaLions arc so mcLhodical LhaL Lhcy rcvicw and in somc
waysrcconnccLwiLhLhccarlicsLcsLablishcdLhrcsholds.Forcxamplc,Lhc
casc o looscning sLudicd by Iouis Chauvois in : whcrc aLLcning
sLcmsromskinnincssiLsclducLoLhclamcnLablcmuscularLhinncss
LhaLprovokcsasaggingbclowLhcnavcl.
3S
TcrcisLhcidcaoancwsorL
oaLLhccompacLaspccLoLhcmusclcdpcrsonisclaimcdLoLriggcr
obcsiLy,sLarLingwiLhLhcsacklikcbcllyoaskinnypcrsoncauscdbyLhc
collapscoallbodyLonc.
30
TcsysLcmaLicsLudyophascsisalsoncw.In:oPaulRichcrclassi-
csdicrcnccsinLhcbuLLocks,Lhighs,dclLoidarca,andpclvisarcaand
works Lhcm up inLo charLs so as Lo ll a void ncglccLcd, in his vicw, by
LradiLionalanaLomy.
4u
TcsamcycarCcorgcHcbcrLsLaLisLicallyanalyzcs
Lhcir gradaLions: Lhc Lhrcc dcgrccs o chubbincss o Lhc ncck, Lhc Lwo
dcgrccsoswcllingoLhcacc,LhcLhrccsLagcsosaggingbrcasLs,cLc.
41
Tc caLcgorics o possiblc disordcrs arc also cxLcndcd and dcLailcd: a

bcllyswollcninalldirccLions,ball-likcroundlowbclly,ahangingsag-
ging bclly, a bclly LhaL bccomcs progrcssivcly a hanging bclly.
42
And,
invcrscly, dcgrccs o lankincss arc also spccicd: shorL lincd, mcdium
lincd,longlincd.
43
SomccombinaLionsbccomcncarlyincomprchcnsiblc
duc Lo Lhc mulLiplicaLion o dcLails, which bcgin Lo losc much o Lhcir
scnsc.Tcirmcrcprcscncc,howcvcr,isprooLhaLLhisncwaLLcnLionLo
morphologicsiskccncrLhancvcrbcorc.
The Creation of the Monstrous
DcgrccsoobcsiLyarcrcvoluLionizcd.
44
TccxLcnsionophascsbccamcsys-
LcmaLizcdduringLhc:os.TisalsochangcsLhcimagcoLhculLimaLc
obcsiLy,whichisnowmorcprccisclyspccicd,buLsomcLimcsLakcsonLhc
curiouscasLoaspccLcrwiLhouLlimiL,asLaLcomonsLrosiLyLhaLLhcrcalism
ophoLographydisplaysasaLragcdywiLhcshallingLoLhcground,unbc-
licvablcbclLs,anddisproporLioncdnavcls.
45
TcanaLomicsoLhcsccxLrcmc
cascs arc no longcr jusL sLrangc or unusual, Lhcyvc bccomc so surprising
LhaLamaskissomcLimcsplaccdovcrLhcaccoLhcsubjccLphoLographcd
LoproLccLLhcpcrsonsidcnLiy . . .andhumaniLy.AllLhcvaryingdcgrccsarc
rcLhoughL.TcoldLrcaLiscsLhaLlimiLcdLhciraLLcnLionLoLhcvcryaLarc
updaLcd.
46
1udgmcnLandiLscursorhavcbccnmovcd,Lhcocusoworry
isnowLhcaL,andLhisLipsLhcvcryaLinLoaLragiccxLrcmiLy.
Ovcr Lhc prcvious cw dccadcs, morcovcr, Lhc badgc o bigncss was
no longcr dcrivcd rom Lhc world o Lhc aL buL associaLcd wiLh LhaL o
LhcmonsLrous.FxLrcmclymisshapcnanaLomicshadbccomcliLLlcmorc
LhancxamplcsoLhcgroLcsquc,curiosiLicsprcscnLcdrombchindcur-
LainsaLairs,likcinLhcpccpshowsdcscribcdby1ulcsVallcsaLLhccnd
o Lhc nincLccnLh ccnLury. Tc public cnLcrs, Lhc aLLracLion riscs. . . .
Yougoin,yougoouL,LhaLsiL.
47
1ulcsVallcsdcscribcsLhccascoCras-
soL,glimpscdinapccpshowinParis:ancnormousmassocshLhaL
lookcdsounalcrLonchcsiLaLcdLoLhinkoiLasliving.
4S
Somccxamplcs
ocxLrcmcanaLomicalhcavincssarcscrupulouslyrcporLcdaLLhccndo
Lhc nincLccnLh ccnLury and prcscnLcd as symbols o abnormaliLy. For
cxamplc,LhcrcwasMissConlcy,whowascxhibiLcdinaLravclingcircus
inAmcrica.ShcwcighcdalmosLookilosandhadlosLLhcabiliLyLoLurn
ovcrinbcdunaidcd.TcrcwasLhcParisiancacowncrwhoaLLracLcdLhc
curiousaroundNoLrcDamcbccauschcsaLonLhrccchairssimulLancously
bcorcabarLhaLhadbccnspcciallydcsigncdLoaccommodaLchiscorpu-
lcncc.AndLhcrcwasLhcoo-kiloyoungwomanwhodicdinPlaisanccin
8o.ShchadagrccdLoappcarinaairLhcycarbcorc,buL,dcspiLcLhc
corLsocighLmcn,wasunablcLocxLracLhcrsclromhcrroom.
40
PosLcards also cxploiL Lhc monsLrosiLy Lhcmc. Tcrc is Lhc imagc o
Cannon,orcxamplc,whichcirculaLcdaLLhccndoLhcnincLccnLhccn-
Lury: Lhc hcavicsL man in Lhc world is shown crushing a scalc bcorc
spccLaLors who appcar minusculc in comparison. And Lhcrc is Madc-
moiscllc Tcrcsina, anoLhcr woman in a carnival sidcshow, whosc mon-
sLrous olds o csh arc rcndcrcd cvcn morc disconccrLing by a vagucly
croLic posc.
5u
ConLinuiLy wiLh Lhc mcrcly big is crascd. Tc cxisLcncc o
LhcvcrybigisnoLhingbuLagrosscrror,iLsappcaranccnoLhingmorc
LhanmonsLrosiLy.
TisrupLurcis,wiLhouLadoubL,somcwhaLdaLcd.ILasscrLsiLsclLhc
momcnLnormsbccomcsLronglyuniorm,LhcmomcnLwhcnmasssocicLy
crascs old rcgional dicrcnccs and Lhc brusquc accclcraLion o all Lypcs
ocommunicaLionLurnsLhclocalshaggincssLhaLhadlongbccnLolcr-
aLcdinLosLrangcoddiLics.FairsandcarnivalsLhcncxposcLhoscLhings
LhaLhavcbccomcphcnomcna.TcycxhibiLLhcabnormal.ApracLicc
LhaLquiLcsimplyhasasiLsgoalLhcpropagaLionoabodilynorm.
51
And
LhisdynamicisrcinorccdwhcnLhissamcnormissLronglysharpcncdaL
LhccndoLhcnincLccnLhccnLury.TcgamcinLhcsidcshowconsisLsin
juxLaposing Lhc aLLcsL pcrson wiLh Lhc LhinncsL or Lhc LallcsL wiLh Lhc
shorLcsL.
52
TcspccLaLorLhuscclsmorcwhaLmusLbcwhcnwiLncssing
whaLclcarlyrcprcscnLsncccssiLyscxLrcmcbcLrayal.TcspccLaLorisLhus
conronLcdallLhcmorcwiLhanclscwhcrc.
SLarLinginLhc:osLhcrupLurcwidcns,asurgcocompassionlcads
Lo considcring anaLomical inrmiLics quiLc dicrcnLly. Iooking aL Lhcm
onlycvokcssucring,andLhcyarcvicwcdonlyasgurcsoLhcunbcar-
ablc. All Lhc norms sLricLurcs crcaLcd monsLrous obcsiLics LhaL arc
LoLallyalicnromLhcunivcrscoLhcacccpLablc.
53
TcirrcaliLybclongs
cxclusivclyLoscicnccnolongcrLoLhccuriousvisiLorLoLhcamuscmcnL
park.TcgazcpoliccshunLsLhcmasidc,
54
andpublicamuscmcnLLurns
clscwhcrc.ObcsiLycascsdcclarcLhcmsclvcsaLcarlicragcs,andbigncssis
LhcmorcworrisomcasiLbccomcsmorcamiliarindailylic.BuLcxLrcmc
bigncssLipsLowardLhcunvicwablcandLhcunnamcablcandisabandoncd
LoLhccxclusivcvicwoLhcscicnLisL.TcbigarcsccnLocmcrgccarlicr
invariousdiscrccLorms,whilcLhccxLrcmccannolongcrbcsccnaLall.
19. Declaring the Martyr
Tc spccLcr LhaL riscs up in Lhc :os bchind Lhc incrcasingly sophisLi-
caLcdwcighLcharLsinucnccsLhcdcvclopmcnLoacorrcspondinghaunL-
ingprospccLsurroundingpaLhologics.ObcsiLysgradaLionsdcvclop,asdo
iLscvils.McdicalconccrnchangcsiLsLoncandcmbraccsLhcncwculLurc
o Lhinncss. PublicaLions o Lhc day show Lhis Lhrough Lhcir insisLcncc
noL jusL on cvaluaLing bigncss buL on LacLics LhaL will guaranLcc wcighL
loss.How to Lose Weight,Why Lose Weight?Why We Get FatHow to Lose
Weight,Te Art of Losing Weight,cLc.
1
WcighLlossbccomcsLhcprioriLy
Lo Lhc poinL o imposing a ncw injuncLion during Lhc ycars :oo:
WcighLIossaLAnyCosL.
2
TishasLhccccLodisplacingLhcormcrsLigmaLizaLions.Nolongcr
LhcgluLLonorLhcoa,LhcovcrwcighLpcrsonisabovcallnowLhcsncaky
oncwhododgcsLhcordcrLoslimdownandrcuscsLoworkonhimscl.
HisawisncglccL,hisinLimaLcinaLLcnLionadcrclicLionoduLy.Hispas-
sionsaLLracLlcssnoLiccLhanhisindicrcncc,hcslcssculpablcorgcLLing
carricdawayLhanorlackoconLrol,LhcimpossibiliLyosclrcgulaLing
andLransormingoncscl.
FailurcLakcsancwshapc,oncrcinorccdbyLhcgcncralizaLionoLrcaL-
mcnLandLhcincrcascdsignicanccopsychology.NarraLivcsosucring
mulLiply,jusLasscl-cvaluaLions,scl-dcscripLions,andinLimaLcmcmoirs
in conLcmporary culLurc bccomc incrcasingly common. Tc prcsLigious
placcaccordcdLoLhcLhindoublcsLhcsLigmaLizaLionoLhcaL.Tcobcsc
arcnoLjusLaLpcoplcbuLpcoplcwhocannoLchangcLhusanidcnLiLy
Declaring the Martyr 175
odccaLissLuckLoLhcmaLaLimcwhcnworkingononcsclandadapL-
abiliLy bccomc obligaLory criLcria o valuc. ObcsiLy dcclarcs a manicsL
ailurcLorcormoncscl.
Revolutionizing the First Degrees
OncoLhcoriginalaspccLso:osculLurcwasLoscckouLLhcaLpcr-
soninunobscrvablcLroublcs,inimpcrccpLiblcconicLsLhaLaccumulaLcd
wiLhinLhcsilcnccoLhcbody.TcvcryuscoLhcwordobesitychangcs
aL Lhis Limc in rcsponsc Lo Lhc vicw LhaL iL was bcing uscd Loo laLc Lo
dcsignaLcphascsLhaLwcrcLooadvanccd.
3
TiswonLdoaLaLimcwhcn
Lhc aL pcrson is LhoughL Lo lurk bchind an unassuming appcarancc
4
whcn iLs considcrcd an invisiblc prcscncc, a sccrcL mass, hiddcn wiLhin

Lhc csh, Lhcrc whcrc Lhc orm o Lhc bodys caLurcs comcs noL rom
musclcbuLromaL.
AllncwinLcrmcdiaLcphascsalsoLakconsignicancc.CclluliLc,or
cxamplc, wiLh iLs padding, ocrs Lo Lhc Louch Lhc idca o an orangc
rind or Lhc appcarancc o marqucLry LhaL signals an carly sLagc o
aLncss.
5
InvcnLionisimporLanLduringLhc:osasparLoLhcinLcnsc
rcncwal o Lhc dcmand or orm. IL bccomcs imporLanL Lo uncovcr or-
mcrlyignorcdanaLomicsandLoLurninLoobjccLsoconLcmplaLionLhosc
nuanccsLhaLLhccycoralongLimchadalrcadydisLinguishcd.DcbaLcs
ariscabouLLhccauscsoLhcscdiscrccLdcormiLics.DocsinammaLion
o Lhc skin dcvclop simply rom Lhc inlLraLion o aL` Is sLicning duc
LosomcrcsisLanccopposcdLoaLLyLcxLurcsÀrcsupcrcialdcposiLsLhc
sign o incomplcLcly climinaLcd wasLcs` Such qucsLions lingcr as ccllu-
liLcandLhcassociaLcdvciningarcincrcasinglydiscusscd.Tcimaginary
dcvclops, combining classic aL disordcrs Lo Lhosc judgcd morc spcci-
cally cmininc. ScdcnLarincss, cxLcndcd Limc spcnL in Liring posiLions,
ncuro-arLhriLus,marriagcLrauma[traumatisme conjugal],andamongvir-
ginsLroublcwiLhLhcrhyLhmouLcro-ovariancirculaLionandhormonal
sccrcLions.
6
CclluliLcislongLhcocalpoinLoacsLhcLicanxicLicsabouL
skinimpcrccLions,LhccarlysignsowcighLgain,andalloLhcrsympLoms
oprccociousobcsiLy.
ILsimpossiblcnoLLonoLiccLhccxLcnLLowhichLradiLionalvicwswcrc
upcndcd aL Lhc bcginning o Lhc LwcnLicLh ccnLury. Tc docLor no lon-
gcrhasLocvokcsomccaricaLurcdinrmiLyLoinciLcworricdconccrn,
7
hc
onlyhasLomcnLionLhccarlyphascs,LhcrsLsignsowcighLgainLhaL
arcnLnormal.ILsnoLLhaLLhinncssisbcingvalorizcdorLhcrsLLimc.
TcchangcisnoLasuddcnLurnaroundromarcjccLcdslcndcrncssLoa
praiscdslcndcrncss,buLalongcvoluLionoLhcgazcLhaLlcadsLoLhcncw
manncroLriggcringuncasconLhcbasisosignsLhaLdidnLcxisLbcorc
andorcdcningLhinncssinrclaLionLouidiLyandLonc.
The Multiplication of Pathologies
Tc morc pronounccd suspicions around aL lcad Lo a rcinLcrprcLaLion
o Lhc rclaLcd paLhologics, sLarLing wiLh Lhc ncarly unuLLcrablc prob-
lcmsassociaLcdwiLhsmallobcsiLyLhaLquicLlyLroublcLhcscnsibiliLics:
bloaLing,acidsLomach,hcarLburn,diarrhca.
S
Worrics and sLudics grow apacc. Tc paLhology bccomcs morc gcn-
cral and uniLcs Lhc classic maladics o shorLncss o brcaLh, poor circu-
laLion, and digcsLivc Lroublcs wiLh numcrous oLhcr disordcrs o vari-
ous sorLs.
0
Tcrc is inLoxicaLion, or cxamplc, which rccalls Lhc inLcrnal
inccLion associaLcd wiLh visions o badly proccsscd wasLc. Also canccr,
which, according Lo Lhc cxplanaLory modcls o Lhc Limc,
1u
was LhoughL
Lo comc rom parasiLical accumulaLions.
11
Tc solc prcscncc o adipos-
iLyisconsidcrcdnoxious:Chronicpoisoning,brainpoisoning,cxccss
Loxinsandorganicpoisons.
12
AncwvisioncomcsgraduallyinLoocusaL
LhcbcginningoLhcccnLuryLhcidcaLhaLLhcLhrcaLcomcsnolongcr
jusLromhcavincss,LhcmasswcighingdownLhcorganism,buLroman
inLcrnalpolluLion,LhcsprcadoLhisdclcLcrioussubsLanccaL.
Onc rcsulL is Lhc cndlcss and widc discussion o chcmical proccsscs,
unassimilablcaLs,andLhcirdangcrs.ILisalsoanoccasionLorcncwold
culLuralopposiLionsaswcll.Forcxamplc,LhccriLicismobigCcrmans
bysomcFrcnchcxpcrLsin,asparLorcscarchinLowhaLLhcycallcd
cLhno-chcmisLry.
13
TcyclaimcdLhcirncighborscasLoLhcRhinccxhib-
iLcd an abnormally ovcracLivc inLcsLinal uncLion, wiLh conscqucnccs
orLhcirinLcrnalacidiLyandcxhalaLion,i.c.,LhcallcgcdsLinkybrcaLho
LhcCcrmanraccissLigmaLizcdbyLhcFrcnchsavanLshaLrcd.
14
Tc psychological dimcnsion is invokcd morc Lhan cvcr bcorc wiLh
oLhcrpossiblccxaggcraLions.AnumbcromarkcrsarcposiLcdLhaLdi-
crcnLiaLcLhccxciLcdplcLhoricsromLhcdcprcsscdancmics.
15
Tcsc
juxLaposiLions o anxious accs and dull accs,
16
or cxamplc, arc all
psychological vcrsions o oldcr moral caLcgorizing. Onc cxamplc would
bcLhccaricaLurcdvicwodouardHcrrioLaLcrhisLcrmasConseilprcs-
idcnL in : as bcing a vicLim o Lhc aL pcrsons mcnLaliLy. IL is an
cxLrcmcinLcrprcLaLionLhaLillusLraLcshowbigncsshadbccnLurncdinLo
agcncralcvil.AncrudiLcgrammarian,honcsLbuLwcakcncdbyillhcalLh
and lack o judgmcnL, hc sharcd somc o Lhc rcsponsibiliLy or Lhc col-
lapscoLhcranc,LhcsccrcLinaLion,AlsaLianauLonomy,LhccxploiLa-
Lion o small savcrs, rcligious inLolcrancc, Lhc dishonorablc rccogniLion
oLhcSovicLs.
17
Morc scrious arc Lhc sLaLisLics abouL obcsiLy-rclaLcd morLaliLy LhaL
makcasuddcnappcaranccaLLhcbcginningoLhcccnLury,rsLinNorLh
Amcrica Lhcn in Furopc. Insurancc companics in parLicular arc bchind
Lhis iniLiaLivc. SLarLing in Lhc os, Amcrican issucrs o lic insurancc
caLcgorizc policyholdcrs according Lo cighL lcvcls ranging rom : kilos
undcrwcighL Lo : kilos ovcrwcighL. Tcir charL is noL dirccLly applicd
in Francc, buL iL is adapLcd by popular magazincs LhaL makc Lhc idcas
bchindLhcprogrcssions,dcgrccs,andnumbcrsmorcwidclyknown.
1S
Tc
McLropoliLanIicInsurancccompanyrcncsLhcirnumbcrsanddcgrccs
in ::, claiming, or cxamplc, LhaL morLaliLy is o pcrccnL highcr Lhan
avcragcamongmcn:opcrccnLovcrwcighLwhomcasurc.,omandarc
bcLwccnorLyandorLy-ourycarsold.ILissaidLobc8opcrccnLhighcr
orindividualsinLhcsamchcighLandagcgroupwhoarcopcrccnLovcr-
wcighL.Ingcncral,longcrliccxpccLancyispromiscdLopcoplcwiLhlowcr
Lhan avcragc wcighL, so long as iLs a modcraLc dcciL LhaL docsnL all
inLoskinnincss.
10
The Multiplication of Therapies
WiLhLhccxLcnsionoscalcs,paLhologics,andLhcsophisLicaLcdcalcula-
Lion o risks, Lhc vision o obcsiLy by Lhc :os approximaLcs our con-
Lcmporaryvicws.TcaLpcrsonisboLhanacsLhcLicLhrcaLandahcalLh
risk.AndhcorshcisboLhLhcscLhingsromLhccarlicsLsLagcsobarcly
pcrccpLiblcsigns.AsarcsulL,LhcrapcuLicproposalsbccomcmorcnumcr-
ous,divcrsc,andwidclyavailablc.
FirsLoall,LhcscalcbccomcssLandardcquipmcnL.AconsLanLguidc,
an impcrLurbablc judgc.
2u
Tc Lool again changcd shapcnow lowcrcd
andLLcdwiLhahorizonLalmagniyingglassLhaLcnlargcdLhcnccdlcand
numbcrdial.AmcricanadvcrLiscrsinLhc:osarcLhcrsLLoproposciL
or Lhosc wishing Lo losc wcighL scicnLically.
21
Tc scalc is arLisLic,
pracLical,andgivcscvcryoncLhcchanccLousciLinoncsLcp.
22
ILquickly
gains iLs placc in Francc as wcll. AL Lhc cnd o Lhc :os Lhc magazinc
FminainsisLsLhaLLhccompacLscalcisLobcoundincvcrywcll-ordcrcd
baLhroom.
23
ILs rccommcndcd or daily uscan inscparablc parL o
oncs morning baLhroom rouLinc.
24
Tcrc arc also a growing numbcr o
publicpcrsonalscalcssuchLhaL,byLhcmid-:os,oomillionwcighings
pcrycararcrccordcdonLhcminLhcUniLcdSLaLcsalonc.
25
TcrapcuLicpracLiccsinLcnsiyLhcuscoscalcsaswcllasrccourscLo
dailyLracingobarygraphiccurvcs.TcmajorgoalisLoollowLhcrcsulLs
obLaincd sLcp-by-sLcp and nc-Lunc oncs dicL according Lo changcs in
Lhc curvcLhus, in cccL, Lransorming caLing inLo a scicnLic cxpcri-
mcnL.OvcrLhccourscohypoLhcscs,LcsLs,andrcoricnLaLions,LhcdicL
bccomcsaguidingnarraLivc,along-LcrmadvcnLurcwiLhiLscxpccLaLions,
surpriscs,andLwisLsoaLc.
Wcighing paLicnLs during Lhc LrcaLmcnL aL dicrcnL momcnLs, aL
rcsLandduringphysicalacLiviLy,whcnoodinLakcisrcsLraincdin
varicLyandquanLiLy,wcighingLhcmagainLomcasurcLhccccLso
allaLLcmpLcdpracLiccs,ollowingdayLoday,cvcnsomcLimcshour
Lohour,LhcvariaLionsinLhcirwcighLduringLhcsccxpcrimcnLs
LhcscproccdurcsarcnoLbcyondLhcabiliLicsoagoodobscrvcr,i
hc is paLicnL, Lcnacious, and has aL his disposal a largc amounL o
inormaLion.
26
Bcyond dicLing, a largc cohorL o pracLiccs gcL sLarLcd, wiLh Lhcir
spccialisLs and Lhcir clcarly dcncd Lcchniqucs, Lhus conrming Lhc
dcniLivcly paLhological sLaLus o obcsiLy and Lhc dcniLivc cxisLcncc
oanobcsiLyLrcaLmcnLmarkcL.AnLi-obcsiLyscrviccsbccomcmorcpro-
cssional. Tcrc arc spccic massagcs, supcrcial and dccp, lighL
Louch, vibraLions, and Lappings,
27
cvcn massagc undcr waLcr,
2S
a
spccialLyaLVichy,andscl-massagcrccommcndcdasarcgularacLiv-
iLy.
20
Tcn Lhcrc arc gymnasLicsrom global cxcrciscs Lo abdomi-
nal cxcrciscs all dcsigncd Lo prcvcnL obcsiLy orcvcr.
3u
Tcrc is also
an cvcr widcr array o spccializcd physical agcnLs: clccLriciLy (clccLro-
Lhcrapy), Lhc sun (hclioLhcrapy), hcaL (LhcrmoLhcrapy), showcrs and
baLhs (hydroLhcrapy), and machincs and passivc movcmcnL (mccha-
noLhcrapy).
31
ObcsiLy rcccivcs cnormous aLLcnLion rom Lcchnical and
bodycarccxpcrLs.TcrcarccvcnadvcnLurousgraLsaLLcmpLcdinLhc
:os by Scrgc Vorono who implanLcd cxLracLs o monkcy and billy
goaLLcsLiclcswiLhLhcidcaorcvcrsingsympLomsoswcllingandanc-
mia. Tcrc is Lhc noLablc casc o Lhc rcLircd Fnglish govcrnmcnL o-
cialsucringromobcsiLyandgcncralsaggingwhoin:allcgcdly
bccamcLhinandsLaLucsqucaLcrbcinggraLcdwiLhbaboonLcsLiclcs.
TcaLmclLcd,Lhcmusclcsbccamcrm,LhcbodysLraighLcncd.
32
Tc
proccdurcdidnoLcaLchon,buLiLshowsLhccxLcnLLowhichbodycarc
hadbccomcwidc-rangingandcxpcrimcnLal.
TcLrucoriginaliLyoLhcncwLrcaLmcnLslicsclscwhcrc,howcvcr,and
has Lo do wiLh Lhc ncw vision o Lhc progrcssivc sLagcs onc undcrgocs
ovcrancxLcndcdpcriodandLhcirassociaLionwiLhawholcgamuLoncw
sorLsoprojccLsaLLhcbcginningoLhcLwcnLicLhccnLuryLhaLallaimaL
pcrsonaldcvclopmcnL,workononcscl,andpcrsonalLraining.Tcgoal:
Lo accomplish cvcry day and wiLhouL grcaL aLiguc an amounL o work
grcaLcrLhanLhcdaybcorc.
33
TcLrcaLmcnLsarcalsoaccompanicdbya
ncwliLcraLurcpromoLingscl-rclianccandscl-condcncc,
34
dcLailing
howLobccomcsLrongcrandmakconcswayinlic.
35
TcirprioriLyis
clcar:LodcvclopapcrsoninasocicLyacinggrcaLcrcqualiLyandcompcLi-
Lion.AlargcparLoLhcpopulaLionapplicsLhcscprcccpLsinvariousways,
ndinginLhcmawayLobraccLhcmsclvcsandworkonLhcmsclvcsso
as Lo progrcss bcLLcr in lic. Tis is Lhc rcaliLy o a world ovcrLakcn by
scrviccs,scalcs,gradcs,posiLions,andpromoLionsinahicrarchyLhccon-
scicnLiouscmployccscLsouLLoconqucrsLcp-by-sLcp.
Indoor cxcrcisc bccomcs so popular aL Lhis Limc LhaL a Danish book
on Lhc subjccL publishcd in o, My System: Minutes Exercise a Day
for Healths Sake, sclls :,ooo copics in iLs rsL Frcnch cdiLion in o,
LhcnanoLhcro,ooocopicsoaourLhcdiLionino8,and,6,ooocop-
icsLhcsamcycarinadozcnFuropcancounLricsTcauLhor,1. P.Mullcr,
insLanLlybccamconcoLhcworldsrsLLncssgurus.
36
The Evidence of Therapeutic Failures
Tcrc is a paradox howcvcr. IL is prcciscly whcn obcsiLy bccomcs Lhc
objccL o dcLailcd invcsLigaLions, whcn numbcrs rclaLing Lo iL abound,
and dicrcnL programs and rouLincs Lo LrcaL iL sprouL up cvcrywhcrc,
LhaLobcsiLyLhcrapybcginsLorcvcaliLslimiLaLions.WhaLhadbccncvi-
dcnL is suddcnly lcss so. TrcaLmcnLs as Lhcyrc sLudicd urLhcr bccomc
morc opaquc, noL lcss. ObcsiLy, as iLs ollowcd morc closcly, bccomcs
morccomplcx.Ncwsoailurc,ormcrlyncglccLcd,sprcads.Tcsucr-
ingoLhcobcscpcrsonishcardorLhcrsLLimc.
A Lurning poinL is Lhc discovcry o an innovaLivc LhcorcLical insLru-
mcnL, basal mcLabolism, in a Ncw Fngland laboraLory aL Lhc cnd o Lhc
nincLccnLh ccnLury. Wilbcr Olin ALwaLcr, Francis Cano BcncdicL, and
Fdward BcnncLL Rosa, rcscarchcrs aL Wcslcyan UnivcrsiLy in ConnccLi-
cuL,scLouLLopcrccLIavoisicrsoriginalmcasuringchambcr
37
andbuild
a sophisLicaLcd our-by-cighL ooL sLccl rcspiraLion calorimcLcr Lo rigor-
ously mcasurc oxygcn inLakc, carbon dioxidc ouLpuL, and all oLhcr uc-
LuaLions.
3S
Tcir conclusions arc prccisc: a pcrson placcd aL rcsL on an
cmpLysLomachinascalcdroomLhaLcanmcasurcallchangcsproduccs
a mcasurablc quanLiLy o hcaL, namcly, orLy calorics pcr squarc mcLcr
pcr houra gurc LhaL is roughly consLanL among normal individu-
als.
30
TcsccxpcrimcnLsprovidcdaunicd,mcasurablccalculaLionoLhc
amounLocncrgyindispcnsablcLomainLainLhcbodyaLrcsL,knownas
LhcbasalmcLabolicraLc(BMR)orrcsLingmcLabolicraLc(RMR).
4u
TcconscqucnccorLhcobcscsccmsobviousiLsimpossiblcormany
oLhcmLoaLLainLhisnormalcondiLion,vicLimsasLhcyarcoLhcinsu-
cicnLcombusLioncapabiliLyLhaLhasrcsulLcdinLhciraLncss.
41
Tishad
bccnallcgcdordccadcsaccordingLoLhcLhcoryoLhcrcLardingoods
andsaggingcncrgyLhaLcharacLcrizcdancmicobcscpcoplchcrcdiLarily.
Vcryquickly,howcvcr,mcLaboliccxpcrimcnLsonobcscpcoplcrcvcal
asurprisingacL.TcgurcsobLaincdruinLhcLhcoryocombusLivc
wcakncss.
42
AL Lhc cnd o Lhc os, Marccl Iabbc and Hcnri SLcvcnin
discovcr a normal mcLabolic raLc among mosL o Lhc obcsc subjccLs
sLudicd.OnlyasmallminoriLyhavcalowcrmcLabolicraLc,whichLhcy
cxplain as Lhc rcsulL o lowcr cndocrinc lcvcls (rom Lhyroid problcms
among oLhcr causcs) LhaL havc slowcd combusLion.
43
In oLhcr words,
ccrLainLypcsoaLLcningmusLconLinucLobcundcrsLoodasLhccccL
ocxccssinLakc,cxacLlyaswiLhLhcorccdccdingogccsc.
44
OLhcrs
bccomc morc obscurc, Lhc rcsulLs o wcakncsscs LhaL cscapc analysis.
BuL lack o rc is no longcr a sucicnL cxplanaLion. How high wcighL
gaincouldbcpossiblcamongpcoplclcadingnormallyacLivclivcsoncc
again bccomcs mysLcrious. Obcsc subjccLs aL rcsL and on an cmpLy
sLomachconscrvcdnormalcombusLivcorccasindicaLcdbyLhcirbasal
mcLabolic raLc, howcvcr, or somc unknown rcason, iL was dccicnL
whcn Lhcy aLc ood. FmoLions, raLc o caLing, gcncral rushing, lack o
LasLc,lackoinLcrcsLwcrcsomcoLhcgucsscs.FrancisHcckcl,alcrLcd
by somc cascs o accidcnLs and ncrvous shocks ollowcd by unconLrol-
lablc wcighL gain, advanccs Lhc hypoLhcsis o a possiblc imbalancc o
glandsandncrvcs.
45
MarcclIabbc,LargcLingnoLcombusLivcorccbuL
LhcobsLaclcsiLmaycncounLcr,suspccLspoordiusionandcvaporaLion
LhroughLhcskin.ObcsiLyiscauscdbyLhcinabiliLyinccrLainindividu-
alsogcLLingridoLhccxccsshcaLproduccdbycaLingducLoamalunc-
LionoLhcskin.
46
SoLhcidcaisLhaLLhcobcscpcrsonsburncrisnormalcxccpLwhcn
accdwiLhood.WhaLcxacLlyLhccxplanaLionsarcislcssimporLanLLhan
LhcirdivcrsiLy,whichalllinkupLoasinglcirrcmcdiablcavowal:insomc
individualsdicLingisdiculLandgivcslimiLcdrcsulLs.
Tcconscqucnccsarcmajor.OnLhconchand,LhccxisLcnccoarcgu-
laLingprinciplcLhaLmodulaLcscncrgyhighcrorlowcrbccomcsmorc
ccrLain. On Lhc oLhcr hand, alLhough Lhc combusLivc principlc and Lhc
rcgulaLingprinciplcarcconsidcrcdinbalanccdassociaLionasbcingLhaL
which pcrmiLs incrcasing or dccrcasing Lhc cncrgy lcvcl bascd on ood
availabiliLy and nccds, whaL Lhc mcchanism is LhaL mainLains LhaL bal-
anccrcmainsunknown.In:MarcclIabbcsumsupLhcsiLuaLionwiLh
procssorial auLhoriLy: A rcgulaLing mcchanism cxisLs, buL wc donL
knowwhaLiLis.
47
RcgulaLionanddcrcgulaLionrcmainraLhcrobscurc.IL
sccmsasLhoughLhcrccanbcavailablcwiLhouLbcingpuLLousc.
Tus obsLaclcs Lo LrcaLmcnL ariscidcnLiablc buL uncxplainablc
cspccially unalLcrablc wcighL gain dcspiLc numcrous corLs. CcrLain
Lypcs o obcsiLy provc rcsisLanL Lo dicLs, physical Lhcrapics, and chcmi-
cals.AvcryparLicularimagcoLhcobcscpcrsonariscs,whichisLhaLoa
paLicnLwhoscrusLraLcdcxpccLaLionssymbolizcailurc.TisisnoLLruc
orall,ocoursc,anumbcroplcLhoricpcoplcandhcavycaLcrsrcspond
LoLrcaLmcnL.Howcvcr,iLisincviLablyLhccascoragrowingnumbcro
paLicnLsasLrcaLmcnLsbccomcmorcwidclyavailablc.AdoublcvcxaLion
ariscsorLhcscindividualsLhaLcxLcndsdownLoLodayrsL,Lhcsucr-
ingcauscdbyLhcdiculLacccpLanccoaLpcoplcand,sccond,Lhcsucr-
ingcauscdbyLhcdiculLyoobLainingwcighLloss.
AncwLypcohcalLhpracLiLioncralsocmcrgcsapcrsonwhoscdis-
courscisarrcmovcdromLhcoldccrLiLudcsandsimplcgcsLurcsand
whoagrccsLoaccompanyLhcpaLicnLLhroughlong-LcrmLrcaLmcnLllcd
wiLhobsLaclcsandcvcnimpossibiliLics.
Between Trial and Martyr
TrcaLmcnL narraLivcs Lhcrcorc Lakc on rcal poignancy. Tcir incrcasc
alonc is sLriking, as is Lhc sLandard ploL linc: rsL aL bccoming a domi-
nanLprcoccupaLion,LhcnLhcrapy,whichbccomcsciLhcrahcroicorLragic
advcnLurc,LoLhcpoinLwhcrcLhcLrcaLmcnLbccomcsLhcdcningocus
oalic.
On rsL glancc Lhcsc narraLivcs display no doubLs. Magazincs in Lhc
:os conccnLraLc mosLly on Lhc succcss sLorics o wcighL loss by mcn
andwomcnwhorouLinclyrcporLhowmuchandhowlong.CalLonpills
allowcd mc Lo losc kilos bcLwccn ScpLcmbcr and OcLobcr :o. Sincc
Lhcn,IhavcconLinucdLohavcrcmarkablcrcsulLswiLhouLhavingLosLop
workoranyLroublcwhaLsocvcr.
4S
TisisLypicaloLhcsorLoupbcaLsLo-
ricsLhaLwcrcmorcorlcsssoliciLcdbyLhcscmagazincs.
HowcvcrbcyondLhcccl-goodormulas,LhrccLoLallyncwsLorygcnrcs
cmcrgcinLhc:osLhaLwillconLribuLcLodcncourmodcrniLy.
TcrsLisLhcsLoryorclcnLlcssxaLiononsubLlydiscrcLcsigns.For
cxamplc, Lhc muLaLion o a Bcrlin Marlcnc DicLrich inLo a Hollywood
Marlcnc DicLrich aL Lhc cnd o Lhc :os. Tc comparison is consLanL,
Lhough hcr body, alrcady lanky, shows o Lapcrcd lcgs and an angular
acc. Tcrc is Lhis rcqucnLly rcpcaLcd armaLion: I am Loo aL. . . . I
musL Lakc morc laxaLivcs, drink morc cocc and smokc wiLhouL caLing
anyLhing clsc. Tc rcmark I am Loo aL bccomcs morc rcqucnL and
insisLcnLovcrLimc,
40
ollowcdbyoodrcsLricLionsandcocclaccdwiLh
magncsiumsulaLcLosLimulaLcaLburning.TcrcisLhcaddcdLcnsion
o iL going on or a long Limc and always having Lo bcgin again. IL!a
slimming program organizcd around Lhc invisiblc. So bcgins onc o Lhc
conLcmporary orms o dicLing: a prcoccupaLion wiLh somcLhing LhaL
canhardlybcsccnslimmingasaconsLanLcombaL,andoncgivcnsuch
imporLanccLhaLiLcanhardlyailLoail.
TcsccondsLorygcnrcismorccomplcx.ILisLhcnarraLivcoahcalLh
pracLiLioncr acing a parLicularly sLubborn casc o obcsiLy and rclaLing
hishcsiLaLionsandchoiccs.Tcrcarcdiscussionsoprogrcssivclyrcviscd
calculaLions, proccdurcs, and cxpcrimcnLs and nc-Luning various Lrial
corLs such LhaL Lhc wholc LrcaLmcnL Lurns inLo a saga o succcssivc
cpisodcs. Onc hcars abouL Lhc cccL o dicrcnL dicLs, various baLhs
and massagcs, and combinaLions o cxcrcisc and mcdicaLions. Tc doc-
LorsowncxpcricnccbccomcsLhcsubjccLocommcnLary.Hcsharcshis
dcLailcd rcacLions Lo changcs in rclaLion Lo Lhc wcighL curvc and Lo any
adapLaLionsandadjusLmcnLs.ILricdvariouscxpcrimcnLswiLhncarlyall
mypaLicnLsduringLhcLrcaLmcnL. . . .NcrvcLroublcandviolcnLcmoLions
havcaparLicularinucncconwcighL.
5u
Tc docLor rccounLs a casc hisLory as an advcnLurc ovcrlaid wiLh Lhc
uncxpccLcdwhcrcLhingsarcalwayschangingandnumcrousdcLcrmining
gurcsandvariablcscnLcrandcxiL.
Tc Lhird sLory gcnrc consisLs o Lhc LcsLimony o obcsc pcoplc Lry-
ingwiLhdiculLyLoloscwcighL.MagazincsrclaLcLhcscpainulcxpcri-
cnccs,cvokingcascsoobcsiLyLhaLpcrsisLdcspiLcmuchdcLcrminaLion
and planning. My chcsL is aL and alling, Im .,o m Lall, and I would
ncvcr darc wcar a baLhing suiL, Im dcspcraLc.
51
Tc ConcourL Prizc
winncr or ::, Te Martyrdom of the Obese Man by Hcnri Bcraud, is a
primc cxamplc o Lhis Lypc o sLory. Hcrc obcsiLy is as invinciblc as iL
isplainlyvisiblc.
ALrsL,LhccvildocsnoLsccmLragic.TcaLpcrsondocsnoLsucr
physically.HcisnciLhcrincapaciLaLcdnorLircd.Hciscnormousin
Lhc cycs o oLhcrs, pcrhaps, buL noL Lo himscl. Hc is modcraLcly ovcr-
wcighL,inoLhcrwords,LhcoriginaliLybcingLhaLLhisasscssmcnLismadc
byLhcsubjccLhimscl.
Tc ploL Lurns on cxamplcs o ailcd scducLion. A long lovc qucsL
dcscribcd by Lhc obcsc man Lurns LorLuous whcn Lhc woman hc ycarns
orrcuscshisadvanccsandrcgularlycallshimmyaLLy,myniccaLLy,
andmypooraLLy.
52
HissucringbccomcssuddcnlymorcacuLcwhcn
hisappcaranccsccmsLocngcndcralossoidcnLiLy.TcoLhcrwisccndcar-
ingaLLribuLcsobonhomic,ingcnious,andwiLhouLmaliccarcrcg-
isLcrcdasharmulmisundcrsLandingsohisLrucscl,crrorsojudgmcnL
abouLhowhcrcallyis.
53
Physicalappcaranccislivcdasamislcadingmcs-
sagc.SoLhcnarraLorsccksLoloscwcighL,LricsvariousdicLs,undcrgocs
massagc,docsgymnasLics,Lakcsdrugs,andvisiLsTurkishbaLhsallLo
no cccL. Worsc, Lhc scalc suddcnly announccs hcs rcachcd oo kilos,
LhusconrmingLhcundcniablc.TcnovcldramaLizcsamosLpainulpar-
adox: an apparcnLly LrcaLablc cvil, mcnLally rcsolvcd wiLh casc, pcrsisLs
andrcsisLsallLrcaLmcnL.
TcpaindccpcnsoranoLhcrrcasonaswcll,namcly,LhcacLLhaLonc
cxhibiLsabodyvisiblyunchangcd,whichisprimaaciccvidcnccLhaLonc
isincapablcochangingoncscl.TisisallLhcmorcdamagingsinccLhc
pracLicc o slimming had dcniLivcly imposcd iLscl as a social prioriLy
sincc Lhc bcginning o Lhc LwcnLicLh ccnLury. Tc cmploymcnL dirccLor
said iL all in his impcraLivc Lo Lhc obcsc pcrson: Iosc wcighL!
54
WhaLs
dicrcnL abouL Lhc sLigmaLizaLion now is Lhis poinLing ouL o a lack o
workononcscl,ancgligcnccooncsinLimaLcscl,andnoLLhcoldmoral-
izing.TcobcscmanisLhclicoLhcparLy,cspcciallywhcnhcscLsouLLo
loscwcighL.
55
WiLhLhcncwincapaciLycomcsancwkindoLcasing.Tc
awLurnsaroundanobscurcinadcquacyallcgcdlackomasLcry,acrack
inoncspowcrovcroncsclLhaLbccomcssignicanLagainsLabackdrop
whcrclosingwcighLhascomcLobcrcgardcdaswcll-adjusLcdbchavior.
A progrcssion in pcrsonal LcsLimonics during Lhc modcrn pcriod is
clcarlypcrccpLiblcnowwhcnoncconsidcrsLhccvidcnccovcralongLimc
span.1can-BapLisLclicdcBcaumonL,oncoLhcrsLindividualsinLhc
cighLccnLhccnLuryLocxprcsshispcrsonalsucringaLbcingaL,conccn-
LraLcs on physical diculLics, his scxual impoLcncc, and gcncral inscn-
sibiliLy.
56
Hisunhappincsscamccspcciallyromphysicalsucring,rom
ccling wcak, and rom Lhc woundcd pridc o noL bcing ablc Lo aLhcr
childrcn. Tc obcsc gurc in Cranvillc in Lhc middlc o Lhc nincLccnLh
ccnLury Lalks morc abouL a rclaLional sucringabouL social humilia-
Lions,soliLudc,andacclingodisgracc.
57
HisunhappincsssLcmsrom
arcjccLionhchassucrcdandromrcpcaLcdvcxaLionsundcrgonc.Hcnri
Bcrauds LwcnLicLh-ccnLury obcsc man, on Lhc oLhcr hand, undcrlincs a
morcinLimaLcdcspcraLionLhcimpossiblcsaLisacLionoadcsircjudgcd
sociallylcgiLimaLcplusLhcaddcddiculLyogcLLingoncsLrucidcnLiLy
propcrly rccognizcd. ILs no longcr a qucsLion o simplc rcjccLion, hcrc
cclingsarcLramplcdupon,inLcrioriLyisdcnicd.TcunhappincssoLhis
obcscpcrsonsLcmsrombcingablcLonciLhcrscduccnorLakcplcasurc
norbcLakcnorwhaLhcLrulyis.InsomcwayshcisalrcadyLhcarchcLypc
oLhcconLcmporaryindividualarminghissingulariLy.HismisorLunc,
lcLs rcpcaL, sLcms rom rcvcaling Lo cvcrybody LhaL hc cannoL changc,
hcssLuckinabodyLhaLcvcryoncconsidcrsmoldablcbuLLhaLcvcryonc
can plainly scc is noL budging. BcLwccn Lhc pcrsonal accounL o lic dc
BcaumonLandLhaLoBcraud,iLiswiLhouLadoubLLhcinLcrrogaLiono
LhcsclLhaLhasdccpcncd.
WiLhBcraudsgcncraLion,LhcmalaiscoLhcobcscpcrsonundcrgocs
anoLhcr Lurn o Lhc scrcw, Lhis Limc morc sLabbing and inLcrior. Con-
dcmncdLoappcardicrcnLromwhaLhcis,LhcpoLcnLialorancwailurc
cmcrgcsLhaLonoLbcingablcLorcduccLhcgapbcLwccnwhaLhcisand
whaLhcwouldlikcLobc.HismarLyrcclingsgrowallLhcmorcsincc
LhcusclcssncssodicLingsLrcngLhcnsLhcrcvolLbyrcducinghisguilLy
cclings.InsLcad,LhccclingoanunhcardoinjusLicccmcrgcsLhaLo
livinginahumiliaLcdbodyLhaLcvcryoncandcvcryLhingdcmonsLraLcsLo
LhcobcscpcrsonisnoLrcallyhisbodyaLallbuLsomcorcignLhing.
TisisaccnLralLhcmcLhaLundcrscorcsnoLonlyLhcappcaranccoa
ncwsorLosucringbuLalsohowLhcdiscourscoobcsiLyhascomcLobc
incrcasinglyshapcdbyscl-LcsLimony,inLcrioranalysis,andpcrsonalnar-
raLivc.BcyondLhcoldsLigmaLizaLions,bcyondinsulLsandhumiliaLions,
Lhc culLurc o obcsiLy Lurns inLo a narraLcd commcnLary o ailurc and
sucring. Tc growing imporLancc givcn Lhc subjccL in WcsLcrn socicLy
incviLably avors Lhc corrcsponding imporLancc accordcd Lo Lhc vicLim
andhumiliLy.
AncnLirclyncwphcnomcnonshapingalldiscussionsoobcsiLyLodayis
iLscpidcmicsLaLus.ObcsiLyhasbccomcacommonmaladyLhaLisgcn-
crallyidcnLiablcandidcnLicd.ILisconsidcrcdLobcasLcadyinvasion,
ill-conLrollcd, and aLLribuLcd as much Lo ovcrconsumpLion as Lo ccrLain
licsLylcs. Tcsc aLLiLudcs sharpcn Lhc publics vicw o Lhc obcsc pcrson
andohisorhcrproblcm,whichisjudgcdapublicdisLurbanccasocial
maladyandcosLlyproblcmrcsulLingromLhisindividualslackowill.In
addiLion, Lhcrc arc Lhc ambiguiLics o LrcaLmcnL LhaL ordinary Lhinking
considcrssimplcandsLraighLorwardbuLcmpiricalcvidcnccandLcsLimo-
nicsrcvcalLobccomplcxandobscurc.
Scl-LcsLimonyhasalsochangcd.TcincrcasingidcnLicaLioninLodays
socicLybcLwccnLhcindividualandhisorhcrbodyacccnLuaLcsinLhcobcsc
pcrsonaninsurmounLablcinLcriorLcaring:livingabrokcnidcnLiLywhilc
aLLhcsamcLimcnoLingLhcimpossibiliLyoovcrcomingLhaLbrcakagc.Morc
prooundly,LhcpcrsonislivingwiLhabodyLhaLLhcsubjccLcclsbcLraycd
byandLhaLycLconsLiLuLcsabasiccxprcssionooncsscl.ILisabodyLhaL
isorcignandoncsclaLLhcsamcLimc(autre et soi en mme temps).Tcrc
ariscs Lhcn Lhc ncw diculLy o abandoning whaL is, aLcr all, oncs own
idcnLiLy.InLhccnd,LhisisawayLoinLcnsiyasncvcrbcorcLhcconLcm-
poraryinvcsLmcnLinoncsbodilycondiLionasamanicsLaLionoabsoluLc
idcnLiLy,whichromnowonissusccpLiblcLomaladicsandmisundcrsLand-
ings.TodaysobcsiLyculLurcconrmshowmuchLhingshavcswungrom
accusaLionLoscl-LcsLimony,romsLigmaLizaLionLovicLimizaLion.
PART 6
CHANGES IN THE
CONTEMPORARY DEBATE
An Identity Problem and an Insidious Evil
186 CHANGES I N THE CONTEMPORARY DEBATE
The Afrmation of an Epidemic
SLaLisLicscvcnLuallybccamcanundispuLcdmcnLalLool.
1
Mcasuringobc-
siLy,whichhadlongbccnsubjccLivcandapproximaLc,hasLodaybccomc
sLandardizcd. ConLours and wcighL arc dcniLivcly quanLicd according
Lo univcrsal norms. QucLclcLs gurcs arc sLill uscd, buL now LranslaLcd
byasinglcsimplcindcxobodymasscalculaLcdaccordingLoLhcrcla-
Lionship bcLwccn wcighL in kilos Lo Lhc squarc o Lhc hcighL (in squarc
mcLcrs). Tc spccLrum o dcgrccs is normalizcd: rsL ovcrwcighL,
whichissiLuaLcdbcLwccnLhcnumbcrs:and:.,LhcnobcsiLy,which
is dcncd as any gurc ovcr o wiLh Lhrcc subcaLcgorics: modcraLc,
scvcrc(abovc),andvcryscvcrc(abovco).
2
TisscalcLakcsLhcoldcrsLaLisLicalmcasurcmcnLLoiLslogicalconclu-
sion.ILdcLailsLhrcsholds,dcscribcslcvcls,andcrcaLcsiLsownvocabulary,
noLablyLhcLcrmoverweight,whichLodayhasbccomcasordinaryasiLis
unLhinkablc wiLhouL iLs quanLicd dcniLion. Tcrc is Lhus no surprisc
whcn ChrisLianc Collangc and Clairc Callois bcgin Lhcir cxchangc
o vicws abouL aL and skinny by sharing wiLh Lhc rcadcr Lhcir own
mcasurcmcnLsonLhcvcryrsLpagc.
3
TcoriginaliLyoLodayscalculaLionslicsclscwhcrc.ILhasLodowiLha
ncwsLaLisLicLhaLcvaluaLcsLhcprcscnccoLhiscvil(mal).SLudicscon-
rmiLsincrcasc.In:oo.:billionpcoplcinLhcworldwcrccaLcgorizcd
asovcrwcighL,oomillionasobcsc,
4
and,oomillionarccxpccLcdLobc
obcscby:o.
5
Tcprcvalcnccisalsoincrcasing.InFrancc,.pcrccnLo
LhcpopulaLionwasobcscin:,:.pcrccnLin:oo6,and.pcrccnL
in:oo,
6
whcrcasLhcpcrccnLagcwassLablcinLhcycars8oo.Tc
incrcascismorcsLrikinginLhcUniLcdSLaLcswhcrcLhcobcscpopulaLion
doublcdinLhcLwcnLyycarsbcLwccn8oand:ooo,andadccadclaLcrin
:ooLwo-LhirdsoadulLAmcricansarcciLhcrovcrwcighLorobcsc.
7
Tis cxplains Lhc dramaLic rcmarks onc hcars, such as Lhc ollowing
rom onc o Lhc laLcsL sLudics conducLcd in Francc: For roughly Lwo
dccadcsnow,ancwcpidcmichassprcadLhroughouLLhcworld,iLscallcd
obcsiLy, and Francc has noL bccn sparcd. I wc includc Lhosc who arc
ovcrwcighL,Lhcrcarcnow:omillionpcoplcconccrncdwiLhLhcproblcm
ocxccsswcighL.
S
AnoLhcrobscrvaLionLhaLhasbccomccommonknowlcdgcLodayisLhaL
LhcprcvalcnccoobcsiLyisinvcrsclyproporLionalLohouscholdincomc.
0
TisovcrLurnsLhcbourgcoisschcmaoanobcsiLyLhaLisspccicLoLhc
dominanL class, modics Lhc morc rcccnL idca o a socially sharcd obc-
siLy,andgivcsriscLoinLcrminablcqucsLionsabouLLhcncwaulLsand
insucicncics o Lhc caLing habiLs o Lhc poor, cspccially spcculaLion
CHANGES I N THE CONTEMPORARY DEBATE 187
abouLcasycaloricsandincxpcnsivcoodsLhaLarcparLicularlyaLLcning.
OncLhushasLhcLoLallyncwparadoxoancxponcnLialincrcascocxccss
wcighLLhaLsLrikcsandpcnalizcsLhcpoorancxccsssharcdbyall,buL
vcry dicrcnLly disLribuLcd.
1u
Tis suggcsLs indispcnsablc uLurc rccc-
Lion abouL rcducing growLh, conLrolling markcLs, and convcying clcar
producLinormaLion.
TisdimcnsionosocialincqualiLyisincrcasinglyundcrlincd.Among
LhccounLlcssacLorsLhaLarcrcccivingmorcLhoroughsLudyarcalacko
nuLriLioninormaLionamonglowcr-classpopulaLions,lackocarcwhcn
iLcomcsLocookingandcombiningvariousoods,acccssLooodsLhaLarc
lcss noblc or supcrviscd, and divcrsc orms o compcnsaLion via Lhc
display o quanLiLy and surplus. Tc dicrcnccs arc backcd up by num-
bcrs:onavcragc,LhcmiddlcanduppcrclasscsingcsLLwohundrcdcalo-
ricslcsspcrdayLhanLhclowcrclasscs.
11
Tc invasion Lhcmc is highly prcscnL in any casc. ObcsiLy is now a
hcalLhLhrcaL,agrowingcpidcmic,aninsidiousglobalplaguc.AndLhcrc
arcrclaLcdriskssuchashypcrLcnsion,whichisLhrccorourLimcsmorc
rcqucnLamongobcscorovcrwcighLindividuals,diabcLcsmclliLus,which
isourLonincLimcsmorcrcqucnL,
12
andancarlylincarrclaLionbcLwccn
morLaliLy raLcs and body mass indcx.
13
Tcrc arc also cosL acLors. Tc
hcalLhcosLsarcdoublcoranobcscpcrsonascomparcdLoanormal
pcrson, :,oo curos vcrsus ,:6 curos.
14
Ovcrall, obcsiLy rcprcscnLs
bcLwccn .,, pcrccnL o hcalLh carc cosLs in Lhc U.S. and :. pcrccnL
inFuropc,
15
wiLhLhcprcdicLionLhaLbillioncuroswillbcspcnLonLhis
paLhology alonc in Francc by :o:o,
16
which has lcd somc Lo spcak o a
ncwFrcnchcvil.
17
Counterattacks?
Tcsc samc sLaLisLics csLablish Lhc dangcr o obcsiLy as a public hcalLh
problcm. Two cxprcssions csLablish LhaL imagc: social plaguc and
social challcngc.
1S
A high-inLcnsiLy mobilizaLion has goLLcn undcrway
wiLhcallsorcmcrgcncy
10
mcasurcsandapoliLicizcddcbaLc.
2u
IL is imporLanL Lo undcrlinc apprchcnsions LhaL Lakc on or Lhc rsL
Limc an insLiLuLional dimcnsion, namcly, Lhc consLrucLion o collccLivc
dccnscs againsL obcsiLy. Tcy rcvcal Lhc cxLcnL Lo which cxccss wcighL
has comc Lo bc pcrccivcd dicrcnLly wiLh unprcccdcnLcd inquirics inLo
LypcsandconcurrcnLacLors,suchasadvcrLising,indusLrialdisLribuLion,
Lhc dcriLualizaLion o mcals, orms o scdcnLarincss, cLc.
21
AL Lhc samc
Limc,oodbrandsarcpcrccivcddicrcnLlyandalsoalLcrLhcirsLraLcgics.
TcrcisLhcdcnunciaLionocxccss,ohighcrdoscsosugarandaL,or
cxamplc, criLicisms o porLions and drinks, o vcnding machincs and
Lhcir sLraLcgic placcmcnL LhaL scck Lo capLurc and kccp a hold on Lhc
consumcr.
22
SLaLisLics conrm Lhis, such as Lhc o pcrccnL incrcasc in
caloricsromsnacksconsumcdbyAmcricanmcnbcLwccn,,and6,
and Lhc : pcrccnL incrcasc or womcn.
23
Tc consumpLion o sugary
drinks by adolcsccnLs in Francc sLands aL :oo ml pcr day, whilc adulL
consumpLion is lcss Lhan hal LhaL.
24
Tc sLaLisLics abouL hcalLh cccLs
ocus morc Lhan cvcr on aL, or cxamplc, Lhc daily consumpLion o a
high-sugar drink by Lccnagcrs can incrcasc Lhcir risk o obcsiLy by 6o
pcrccnL,
25
whcrcaslimiLingaLLyoodscan,onLhcoLhcrhand,lcadLoa
modcsL buL signicanL loss o wcighL.
26
Tc hygicnic Lhcmc has LilLcd
LowardLhcdangcroLhcadiposc.
TccounLcraLLackinvcnLsalcgislaLivcsLraLcgy.ForLhcrsLLimc,obc-
siLyappcarsbcorcLhclaw.On1anuary:,:oo,LhcSccondCircuiLU.S.
CourL o Appcals in Ncw York SLaLc ovcrLurncd a lowcr courL dccision
and rcinsLaLcd Lhc chargcs o Lwo adolcsccnLs who accuscd McDonalds
o bcing rcsponsiblc or Lhcir obcsiLy.
27
On Fcbruary :,, :oo,, a Frcnch
govcrnmcnLdccrccrcquircdalloodadvcrLisingLoincludcahcalLhmcs-
sagc aimcd aL avoiding Lhc progrcssion o obcsiLy.
2S
On ScpLcmbcr 8,
:oo8, Lhc consumcr proLccLion group UFC-Que choisir askcd Lhc Frcnch
parliamcnL Lo pass a law orbidding advcrLiscmcnLs or high-aL and
high-sugarproducLsduringchildrcnsprogramming.
20
Asamorcgcncral
mcasurc,aproposaloralawrclaLcdLoprcvcnLingandghLingobcsiLy
wasinLroduccdinLhcFrcnchScnaLcduringLhc:oo,:oo8scssion.
3u
Tcrc arc also prcvcnLion campaigns such as Lhc NaLional HcalLhy
NuLriLionProgram(PNNS),sLarLcdin:ooandollowcdbyPNNS:and
PNNS , which bccamc morc ocuscd on Lhc mulLiplicaLion o mcssagcs
andadvicc.NaLurallycriLicismsanddispuLcsalsomulLiply,suchascom-
plainLs LhaL Lhc problcm is noL Lhc mcssagc, buL iLs applicaLion.
31
And
impcrccLionsarcnoLcd,suchasLhcvicwLhaLiLsLhcabscnccorlacko
physicalacLiviLyLhaLhasrcccivcdLhclcasLaLLcnLionandimprovcmcnL.
32
TcadiposcLhcmcnowoccupicsaccrLainLcrraininLhcarcaopublic
hcalLh,wiLhalliLsnormsandrulcs.TcbaLLlcagainsLobcsiLyiswagcdin
Lhcnamcoall.TccviloaLisnolongcraprivaLccvil.
The Dynamics of Thinness, The Dynamics of Obesity
Two social problcms, long vicwcd LogcLhcr, can Loday bc disjoincd: Lhc
growingprcscnccoanimpcraLivcoLhinncssandLhcgrowingprcscncco
adcnunciaLionoaLncss.TcrsLrcmainsanormosocialpublicappcar-
ancc, Lhc sccond bccomcs an indicaLor o a hcalLh LhrcaL. Tcir origins
cspcciallyarcdicrcnL.ForLhcrsL,LhcyarcculLural,wiLhLhccodicdsil-
houcLLcandposc,whcrcasorLhcsccondLhcyarccconomic,asLhcLhrcaL
isvicwcdasamcasurablccollccLivcrisk.NorarcLhcworricsLhaLLhcypro-
vokc ocuscd on Lhc samc objccLs. And in cach casc Lhc conscqucnccs o
possiblcailurcdonoLinvolvcLhcsamcsLakcs.TcrcisnoqucsLionLhaL
LhcLhinimpcraLivcmakcsLhcprcscnccoLhcaLallLhcmorcsLriking
Loday.ILLcndsLoundcrlinciLsgrcaLcrrcqucncyandcvidcncc.Tcrigor
cxcrLcd Lo obLain or mainLain a slcndcr prolc makcs all wayward orms
morcnoLiccablcandmakcsushypcrawarcoconLourailurc.Amajor,indis-
puLablcdispariLyrcmains,howcvcr:LhcsLrikingprcscnccoobcsiLyinour
socicLicscomcsmorcromlicsLylcsandLhciraLLcningcccLsLhanrom
Lhc conLrasL suggcsLcd by Lhc Lhin and iLs impacL. ObcsiLy has imposcd
iLsclcspcciallyLhroughchangcsinbchaviorandlcssLhroughchangcsin
Lhcpublicsgazc.AndagainLhcrcisLhisimporLanLdisLincLion:Lhccrusadc
againsLcxccsslipidsandsugarsandLhchcighLcncdworryabouLLhcrisks
andcosLshavcnoLbccnprovokcdbyascarchorLhinncssbuLbyLhccar
oancwspccicallyorganicaLLack,adangcrLhaLcngulsLhcphysicaland
Lhcsocial.InoLhcrwords,LhcdrivingvisionisnoLLhcidcaloLhcsvclLc,
buLLhcordcalsodysuncLionsanddisordcrs.
TcsharpcningaLLcnLionLhaLorccnLuricslcdLomorcprcciscobscr-
vaLionosizcs,LograduaLcdmcasurcmcnLsoLhcirdcgrccsandnuanccs
olanguagcLocapLurcLhcirdivcrsiLy,isnoLoccnLralimporLancchcrc.
WhaL dominaLcs is Lhc armaLion o an unprcccdcnLcd adiposc inva-
sion, iLs gcographic cxLcnsion, and iLs public harm. Tis disLincLion is
dccisivcandcxplainsLhcnovclLyoLhiscpidcmic.Morcgcncrally,iLis
whaLaccompanicsLhcqucsLioningoriskacLorsinoursocicLicsandLhc
incrcascincollccLivcvigilanccLhcyprovokc.
The Efects of Thinness
OnccLhcimporLanLdisLincLionbcLwccnLhcscLwoimpcraLivcsLhconc
orLhinncss,LhcoLhcragainsLobcsiLyhasbccnmadc,iLiscasyLoscc
LhaL crossing or blcnding Lhcm in various ways can makc Lhc problcm
morc complcx and conusing. Tc collccLivc imaginaLion also abricaLcs
iLscriLcria,andsubjccLiviLycanwinouL.TcincrcascdLcnscncssaround
Lhinncss is a dccpcr problcm Lhan iL appcars, avoring a parLicular Lypc
o haunLing wiLh iLs psychological and organic conscqucnccs. A num-
bcr o LcsLimonics dcmonsLraLc Lhis, wiLh Lhcir Lcndcncy Lo disrcgard
alldcgrccsornuanccsandjudgcLhcslighLcsLamounLocxccssasaL.
Tcsc arc LcsLimonics o a gcncral public, uscd Lo bcing scnsiLivc and
scruLinizingophysicaldcLails,kccnlyaLLcnLivcLoLhcbodymassindcx,
andinLhchabiLovicwingLhcslighLcsLincrcascasasurcsignohcavi-
ncss.Formc,oncisciLhcraLorskinny.TcrcisnoinLcrmcdiaLcwcighL.
IIgainonckilo,Imdoncor,IcclhcavyandbloaLcd.
33
Tc impcraLivc o a ncw Lypc o Lhinncss, Lonic and Lcnsc, bcgins in
WcsLcrn counLrics in Lhc :os, sprcads, and Loday has bccomc almosL
a unanimously sharcd norm. Fvidcncc o iL abounds in conLcmporary
sLudics.Forcxamplc,LhcmanmcnLioncdbyChrisLincDuri-BruckcrLor
whom onc or Lwo kilos Loo much is cnough Lo signal a dccisivc cxccss:
Tc criLcrion is Im ciLhcr OK or Im noL OK.
34
Or Lhc LcsLimony o a
youngwomaninLhcsamcsLudywhoconsidcrsLhcslighLcsLsignoLoo
much wcighL unbcarablc. IL docsnL Lakc much or mc Lo slump and
ccl unlovcd. Whcn LhaL happcns, iLs ovcr.
35
Tc bordcrlinc bccomcs
razorsharp.TcbodyisciLhcrLhinoriLisnL.
36
NomodulaLionisconsid-
crcdpossiblc.TransgrcssionbccomcsordinaryandgoingovcrLhcbor-
dcrlinc pracLically bccomcs Lhc common loL or risk o cvcryonc in Lhcir
ownjudgmcnLowhaLisLoomuch.DicLingisparLoawomansnormal
cvcrydaylic.
37
ToomuchLhickncssorwcighLbccomcsLhchorizono
dailyconLcmplaLion.
Howcvcr Lhcrc is noLhing clcarly alarming aL Lhis sLagc. Fccling aL
can rcmain an inncr pcrsonal ccling. WhaL cmcrgcs is only a possiblc
uncasincss: conLours LhaL arc hard Lo bcar ycL normal, a rcaliLy LhaLs
diculLLoacccpLandycLbarclysLigmaLizcd,iaLall.Tcrcis,howcvcr,
LhcsharpcncdlisLcningLooncsbody,adccpcningoscl-pcrccpLion,a
ocusLhaLbccomcsundamcnLalinLhcculLurcoourindividualisLicsoci-
cLics.TcrcisnoobjccLivcobcsiLyhcrc,nogravcpublicdcclaraLion,cvcn
iLhcworryLhaLisLriggcrcdcannoLbcignorcd.
A Multifactor Universe
FvcryLhingchangcs,howcvcr,wiLhccrLainpossiblcmodicaLionsocaL-
inghabiLs,noLablyLhoscprovokingbulimiccompcnsaLionsandanxicLy-
rclaLcddisordcrs.FvcryLhingchangcsaswcllwiLhccrLainorganicvulncr-
abiliLics. Tc rigorous aLLcnLion Lo Lhinncss can paradoxically provokc
an onscL o wcighL gain wiLh caLing disordcrs, criscs, or unconLrollcd
cxccsscs. Tc ovcrlap o Lhc psychological and Lhc alimcnLary provcs
unavoidablcincvcryapproachLoconLcmporaryobcsiLy.
3S
ALoLallyncwphcnomcnoncanbcsccnLodaymorcLhancvcr:wcighL
gaindcrivingromLhcimpcraLivciLsclLoloscwcighL.TisisLhcrcsulLing
imagcoLhcailcddicLcrswhocndupwiLhjusLLhcopposiLcoLhcdcsircd
ouLcomcwiLhananomiclawlcssaLncssLhaLhasbccndcnounccdcvcr
sinccdicLingbccamcancvcrydaypracLicc.TiscxplainsLhcalarmcddcc-
laraLionssuchas,IdodicLaLcrdicL,buLLhcydonLwork,
30
IsLaycdLhc
samcoronlyLwowccksandLhcnvcryquicklyIbccamcbulimic,somc-
Lhing LhaL I had ncvcr cxpcricnccd bcorc.
4u
Iongcr and morc rcqucnL
pcriodsodicLingbccomcncccssary,LhcanxicLyabouLLhinncssinLcnsi-
csaswcllasLhccvcrdccpcrpursuiLopsychologicalanalyscsLhaLrcvcal
somc insighL or urLhcr raisc somc consciousncss. Tcsc arc Lhc usual
obscrvaLions o conLcmporary sLudics LhaL arc dcscribcd hundrcds o
LimcsbydicLicians.WhcnIwasabouLclcvcnorLwclvc,jusLbcorcgcL-
Lingmypcriod,IsLarLcdgcLLingplump.Today,IknowLhiswasnormal,
buLormymoLhcriLwasabigdcal. . . .SoLhcnLhcrcwcrcdicLs,oncaLcr
anoLhcr, I was sLarving, so much so LhaL I snackcd in sccrcL. . . . TaLs
howIbccamcbulimic.VcryquicklyIballooncdupLoovcrsixLykilos,iL
wasmonsLrous.
41
A vicious circlc
42
gcLs csLablishcd whcrcby Lhc subjccL Lcnds Lo
caL signicanLly morc whcn Lhc poinL was Lo caL signicanLly lcss.
43
Tc obsLaclcs changc. A asLing syndromc can gcL going wiLh chaoLic

conscqucnccs,
44
noLably Lhc dclcLcrious cccL o scl-imposcd con-
Lrols, random snacking, and phascs o acccnLuaLcd wcighL gain. Tc
diculLy incrcascs cvcn morc whcn spccic gcncLic acLors also cnLcr
in.Forcxamplc,LhcclassiccascoLhcchildwiLhagcncLicdisposiLion
likchisparcnLsLocarrymorcwcighLLhanoLhcrs,buLwhoscrsLcpi-
sodcs o wcighL gain Lriggcr worricd rcsponscs.
45
PrcvcnLivc mcasurcs
arcaLLcmpLcd.DicLsandinLcrdicLionsollow.Tcncomccriscsanddi-
culLics. Tcn comc ailurc and disappoinLmcnL. ILs Lruc LhaL on Lhc
organicsidcLhcrcisrcsisLancc,iLslogicconLinucsandholdsupwiLh
iLsusualuncLioning.ILmaynoLobcy,LhusaggravaLingLhcpsychologi-
calcccLsmorcLhancvcr.TcsubjccLiswallcdbchindhis/hcrwcighL
andhis/hcrrcvolLishopclcss.
46
TiscxplainsLhchighsLakcsoalldriL-
ing o and Lhc irrcmcdiablc disLancc bcLwccn whaL is wishcd or and
whaLisobLaincd.
BcyondLhcpsychologicaldimcnsion,Lhcrcorc,iLisncccssaryLocon-
sidcr gcncs. Tcir discovcry signicanLly alLcrcd scicnccs knowlcdgc
abouLaL.ILalsoconrmcdiLslimiLsandmulLiplicdiLscomplcxiLy.Tcy
bccamcanindispcnsablcrccrcnccinalldiscussionsoobsLaclcsLoLrcaL-
mcnL.TcrsLgcncLicsLudicsinLhc6osscLLhccxamplc.Tcmousc
ob,orcxamplc,LhaLlackcdLhclcpLingcncaLcmorcLhannormalsincc
iLlackcdanyscnscoaLhrcsholdoLoomuch.
47
TaLmouschadlosLa
scnscosaLicLyandwasLhusinscnsiLivcLoLhcquanLiLicsooodiLwas
caLing, which cxplains why iL sLucd iLscl. An invcrsc phcnomcnon is
LriggcrcdbyncuropcpLidcY,whoscprcscnccsLimulaLcscaLingwhilciLs
abscncc Lriggcrs absLincncc.
4S
Bcsidcs LhaL, a numbcr o dicrcnL gcncs
arcoundLocccLlcpLinlcvclsLovariousdcgrccs.
40
OLhcrgcncs,jusLasnumcrous,modulaLccncrgylcvcls.InsLcadoood
inLakc raLcs, iL is physiological uncLioning LhaL alLcrs, noL jusL ucling
up buL burning up or oxidaLion. CcrLain gcncs can accL Lhc ccling o
Loo much in Lhc organism iLscl. DispariLics cxisL hcrc bcLwccn sub-
jccLs capablc o a signicanL caloric supplcmcnL wiLhouL wcighL gain
andLhoscwhoarcnoL.
5u
TcrsLarcsLrongburncrswhcnLhcircaloric
inLakcisincrcascd,LhcoLhcrsarcnL.TisdisLincLionhadbccnobscrvcd
or a long Limc,
51
buL Lhc rcason or iL was noL wcll undcrsLood and is
cxplaincd now Lhanks Lo an cnscmblc o insidc inormaLion, as iL wcrc,
rclaLcdLogcncs.
TcncwgcncLicallyinormcdmodcloLhcbodyacccnLuaLcsLhcimagc
o an inLra-organic piloLing LhaL associaLcs cncrgy principlcs morc
closcly wiLh rcgulaLory principlcs. Tis docs noL mcan LhaL Lhc idca o
inLcrnal conLrol is a ncw invcnLion.
52
Rccrcnccs Lo iL arc prcscnL rom
LhccndoLhcnincLccnLhccnLuryonward,noLablywiLhLhcdiscovcryo
cndocrincglands.BuLiLhasnowbccomcrmlycsLablishcdandoccupics
a ccnLral placc o boLh knowlcdgc and hal-knowlcdgc. Morcovcr, Lhcrc
sccms Lo bc an inniLc varicLy o gcnc mcssagcs scnding scnsory sig-
nalsabouLsaLicLy,inhibiLingsignalsLoLhcsLomach,hormonalmcLa-
bolicsignals,signalscmiLLcdbyrcscrvcorgans,lcpLinsignals,cLc.
53
WhaLcnsucsisLhcincrcasinglyncwrcprcscnLaLionoabodysubmiLLing
an cncrgy plan Lo an inormaLional plan, onc o mcssagcs issuing rom
organsdcsigncdLobcLLcrrcgulaLcLhcburncr.
54
FaLaccumulaLionhcrc
isconrmaLionoLhcailurcoLhcrcgulaLorysysLcm.
55
WiLhsomanygcncsandLhcircrossings,LhcconsciousncssogrcaLcr
causal complcxiLy incviLably grows. Tc possibiliLics o combinaLions
alsomulLiply.TcmajoriLyoobcsiLycascsarcLhcrcsulLoinLcracLions
bcLwccncnvironmcnLalandgcncLicacLors.
56
TcinvcnLoryopossiblc
dcLcrminanLsbccomcsLhcncwchallcngcalongsidcLhcLruismLhaLobc-
siLy is a mulLiacLor phcnomcnon.
57
Tis incviLably cxLcnds Lhc aura o
mysLcry.AdccisivcpoinLisLhaLLhcobsLaclcsanddiculLicsoLrcaLmcnL
bccomcdirccLlyaccLcd.ManygcncsrcmainpoorlyundcrsLooddcspiLc
Lhc clcar links csLablishcd bcLwccn abouL scvcnLy dicrcnL oncs and
obcsiLy.
5S
UnccrLainLicsandobsLaclcspcrsisL,cspcciallysinccLhcdivcr-
siLy o acLors Lo bc Lakcn inLo accounL has riscn,
50
and bccausc o Lhc
numbcr o mcchanisms LhaL musL sLill bc clucidaLcd.
6u
Such languagc
somcLimcsallowsarhcLoricohopcabouLknowlcdgcLocomcLosubsLi-
LuLcorscicnccscusLomarylanguagcoarmaLion.OncoLhcuLurc
LaskswillbcLodcLcrmincLhccombinaLionsogcncsandLhcmuLaLions
avoringLhcdcvclopmcnLoobcsiLyandinwhichsorLocnvironmcnL.
61
Knowlcdgc is obviously noL impossiblc. IL is simply diculL Lo
acquirc,opaquc,hcLcrogcncous,andsomcLimcsinacccssiblc,andLhcrc-
orcdocLorscomcLospcakwiLhagrcaLdcaloLacL.
TcclinicalproblcmisLoaLLcmpLLodcLcrmincorcachpaLicnLwhich
acLorsandmcchanismssccmLoprcdominaLcand,oLhosc,whichoncs
arcsubjccLLoLrcaLmcnL.
62
TcboLLomlincisLhaLsucccssulLrcaLmcnLisnoLguaranLccdandan
aggravaLionosucringcanoccur.
The Self, the Trial, and Identity
TisrcsisLanccisaLLhchcarLoallapproachcsLoLhcadiposcsiLuaLion.
IL consLiLuLcs Lhc spcciciLy o Lhc obcsc marLyr in ::Lhc pcrson
whocomplainsabouLhisimagcandycLcannoLchangciL.TcsiLuaLionis
probablymorcopprcssivcsLillLodaywhcnLhisrcsisLanccismcLwiLhncw
cxpccLaLions, cspccially an alLcrcd vision o Lhc obcsc pcrson wiLh Lhc
insisLcncconhisorhcrncglccLochanging,andLhcanaLhcmadirccLcdaL
LhcirsupposcdabandonmcnL,LhcirindicrcnccLowardoLhcrsandLhcm-
sclvcs.FarlicrcriLicismswcrcbascdonsupposcdaulLsandwcakncsscs
LhaL provokcd obcsiLy. ConLcmporary criLicism is incrcasingly bascd on
LhcidcaoinsucicncicsandaccrLainaudaciouscasualncssLhaLarcprc-
vcnLingwcighLloss.Tcobcscpcrsonissomchowincapablc.
TcdicrcncccouldnoLbcmorcclcar.TcoldcriLicismsaysihccaLs
LoomuchiLsbccauschcovcrdocsLhings.TccurrcnLcriLicismsaysihc
docsnoLknowhowLoloscwcighLiLsbccauschchasnoscl-conLroland
cannoLchangchimscl.TcrsLdocsLoomuch,LhcscconddocsLooliLLlc.
TisdicrcnccoccursagainsLLhcbackdropoLhcdominaLionoLhclong
and lanky silhoucLLc, a gurc LhaL is cvcr morc rcquircd and cxpccLcd.
AnoLhcracLorisLhaLLhcbodycomcsLobcjudgcdassomchowmorcmal-
lcablcandcxiblcinanalogywiLhLhcunivcrscoconLcmporaryLcchno-
logicalinnovaLion,whichhasiLsclcomcLobcinundaLcdbymachincsLhaL
arcsurgicallydcsigncdandappcndcdwiLhcompuLcrizcdsupplcmcnLs.
63

Tccclingoabroadorganicccicncyhasdcvclopcd.Workingononc-
scl is displaycd, Lraining bccomcs common pracLicc, and scl-Lransor-
maLioniscclcbraLcdandonvicw.AndiLsprccisclyLhcpublicscommon
posLulaLc LhaL Lhis work is abscnL in Lhc casc o Lhc obcsc pcrson LhaL
acccnLuaLcs Lhc sLigmaLizaLion. Hc has no will.
64
Tis noLion is rcin-
orccdbyconLcmporaryhcrocsinsaLiricalpublicaLionssuchasDupuy
orBcrbcrian,orcxamplcslumpcdcharacLcrswiLhnoscl-rcgardwho
puL up wiLh dirL and disordcr and prccr scrccns and vidco gamcs Lo all
oLhcracLiviLics.
65
TcLhcmcsconvcrgc:isolaLionandlcLLingoncsclgo.
Tc chasm widcns cspccially wiLh anoLhcr rcccnL changc LhaL has
ovcrLakcn our socicLics, namcly, Lhc changcd ouLlook on Lhc body. NoL
iLsimporLancc,ocoursc,noriLsLrcaLmcnL,buLLhcdisplaccmcnLoiLs
sLaLus Lo Lhc ccnLral spoL LhaL organizcs oncs idcnLiLy. Tis major dis-
placcmcnL,whichhasbccnsLudicdaLlcngLh,isanimporLanLcaLurco
individualisLic socicLics whcrc Lhc subjccL is prcsumcd Lo bc cnLircly
scl-rclianL and indcpcndcnL,
66
idcnLiying poinL or poinL wiLh whaL
oncsphysicalbody,wiLhiLsLraiLsandlimiLs,cxprcsscs.TcoundaLion
osclcrccLcdonaoundaLionocxprcssionandscnsibiliLy.
Tis changc dcpcnds in largc parL on Lhc dismanLling o insLiLuLions
LhaL LradiLionally guidcd norms and morcs. A grand ovcrarching socicLy
wiLh iLs pcdagogical LradiLions opcraLing Lhrough schools, churchcs, and
LhcmiliLaryisnolongcrLcllingcachpcrsonwhaLhcorshcmusLbccomc.
67
Iooks, silhoucLLcs, and cloLhcs arc lcss and lcss markcrs o oncs social
originsorcasLcasLhcyincrcasinglyconvcyoncspcrsonaliLyandparLicu-
lariLyinsLcad.IndividualsnolongcrcclconsLraincdLorcprcscnLagroup
ormilicu.OncssingulariLyrcvcalsiLsclbyiLscl.TcscmanicsLchangcs
suggcsL a dccisivc conscqucncc: Lhc subjccL is his or hcr appcarancc.
6S
WhaLs morc, Lhc subjccL crccLs in Lhc dcnsc corc o his or hcr organic
bcing,wiLhiLssingularhisLory,Lraumas,andLrials,LhchcarLooncsidcn-
LiLy.TiscxplainsLhcncwqucsLsLhaLLransormLhcorganicinLoaplacco
cxplanaLionwiLhanswcrsLoqucsLionsabouLLhcphysicalpasLocachpcr-
son,andorcccLionalsoononcscshysclLhaLissupposcdLobcLhckcy
Lo anoLhcr inLcrioriLy now LoLally inLimaLc and psychologizcd. Te Body
Remembers,
60
Te Talkative Body,
7u
Te Body Has Its Reasons,
71
Te Body Tat
Speaks.
72
TisisaLoLallyunprcccdcnLcdcxploraLionwhcrcsubjccLsclaim
Lo discovcr Lhcmsclvcs bascd on whaL Lhcy physically undcrgo and ccl.
WcarcwiLncssingLhccmcrgcnccowhaLcouldbccallcdabodycogiLo
LhaLwouldrcplaccLhcILhinkLhcrcorcIamwiLhIammybody.
73
ILisarcdoublcdarmaLionoLhcsubjccLwiLhLhcbodyasLhcprimc
anchorooncsidcnLiLy.PicrrcPallardysummarizcsLhcLhcmcinabook
whoscLiLlcirLswiLhcaricaLurcasiLarmsLhcncwoddlogicLhaLLhc
socicLysupposcdlylcadsoncLoadopL:And What If It Came from the Belly?
Fatigue, Weight Gain, Cellulite, Sex Problems, Beauty Problems, Depression,
Insomnia, and Back Ache Explained.
74
In Lhis way Lhc subjccL, along wiLh
hisorhcrhisLory,Lroublcs,anddiculLics,arcidcnLicdwiLhmanagc-
mcnLoLhcbody.
TcconscqucnccsarcdccisivcorLhcobcscpcrsonwhoiscncouragcd
LoabandonLhcbcLrayingprolccvcnLhoughLhisprolc,accordingLoLhc
dccpcr logic cvokcd carlicr, is Lhc onc Lhc obcsc subjccL idcnLics wiLh.
TcmarLyrcanbccomchighlycomplcx,wiLhvariousidcnLiablclcvcls,
cvcniLhcyarcnoLallaLworkarromiLincvcrycascoobcsiLy.
TcrsLcclingobcLrayalcomcswiLhLhcdcclaraLionoLhcdiagno-
sis.TcsimplcacLobcingLoldoncisovcrwcighLincrcascsdcprcssion
and lowcrs scl-csLccm.
75
Tc obcsc pcrson, as Bcraud alrcady dcmon-
sLraLcd,isconronLcdwiLhLhcimpossibiliLyoinhabiLingoncsimagc.
TcpcrsonislcdLowardalowcrscnscoscl-worLhandcvcndisappro-
priaLion.Tcpcrsonisdisplaccd.Whcrcasslimmingdown,onLhccon-
Lrary,wouldbcproooadapLabiliLy,oovcrcomingLhcsocialLrial,and
rcalizing oncscl. AdvcrLising gcLs Lhis poinL across clcarly: So LhaL
LhoscpoundsnolongcrwcighdownonyouandyoursocialrclaLions.
76
BcingaLamounLsLobcingdisrcgardcd.
TcsccondcclingobcLrayalcomcsromLhcorganicrcsisLancc.Tc
changcdocsnLhappcndcspiLcallcorLsLoloscwcighL.Tisisaamiliar
siLuaLion LhaL has bccn rclaLcd in much grcaLcr dcLail Loday. ALcr Lwo
dicLing aLLcmpLs during which I losL :o kilos, I quickly wcnL back up Lo
:o kilos and havc sLaycd Lhcrc.
77
Tc siLuaLion is all Lhc morc painul
whcnconronLcdwiLhLhcncwlawoidcnLiLyaccordingLowhichcvcry-
oncisrcsponsiblcorhowoncis.
7S
TcsLigmaLizaLionocuscsonlack
owillandwcakscl-conLrol.
70
TcaulLoLhcobcscpcrsonisinabiliLy
Lochangc,wiLhLhcsucringconsLanLlyincrcasingasLhisinabiliLyisrcn-
dcrcdmorcvisiblc.
TcLhirdcclingobcLrayalismorccomplcxandpcrhapsdccpcr.Tis
bodyisLhconcLhcpcrsonhasidcnLicdwiLhdcspiLcLhcdcsircLochangc
iL.TcpainulmixcdcclingsincrcascwiLhLhcquasi-conLradicLoryrcsis-
LanccLolcavingabodyLhaLhasbccomconcsidcnLiLy.Morcovcr,Loday
rcusals and rcvolLs cxisL, all claiming Lo bc opposcd Lo Lhis injusLicc.
FranoisCouprywasablcinhisdayLowriLcIn Praise of Fatness in a World
Without Substance.
Su
HcundcrscorcsLhcncccssiLyoLakingdisLanccrom
LhcgazcooLhcrsandLhcimporLanccoculLivaLingawillnoLLosub-
miLLoLhcircriLcria.
S1
InsLiLuLionshavcbccnoundcdLoghLagainsL
discriminaLion.
S2
TcassociaLionAllcgroorLissimohasorganizcdmany
iniLiaLivcs sincc 8.
S3
Tcir goal is Lo aid vcry corpulcnL pcoplc Lo
rccovcrLhcirscl-csLccm,LobuildarcassuringcnvironmcnL,andLocrc-
aLcorumsandsharcdacLiviLicsavoringLhchighcsLlcvclsoLolcrancc
anddivcrsiLy.
S4
Tcsc could pcrhaps bc considcrcd minor acLiviLics occurring on Lhc
marginsoLhcincxorablcsocialLumulLsurroundingobcsiLy,LhcncccssiLy
LoovcrcomciLandLorcspccLrcquircdnorms.TcncwrclaLionbcLwccn
Lhc body and idcnLiLy provokcs cspccially a morc ccnLral and complcx
qucsLionLhaLrcvcalsLhcinsidiousidcnLicaLionoLhcobcscpcrsonwiLh
his or hcr sizc and undcrscorcs Lhc diculLics o changing or Lhis vcry
rcason.AnumbcroLcsLimonicscxpandonLhisparadox:LhcauLhcnLic
willLochangc,ononchand,andLhcobscurcrcsisLanccLogcLLingchangc
Looccur,onLhcoLhcr.IknowdccpdownLhaLLhisplumpbodyalsogivcs
mc plcasurc.
S5
Such condcnccs comc up rcpcaLcdly in various sLudics,
all undcrlining a similar ambiguiLy. Ivc lcarncd Lo lovc my body and/
vcrsusIsucrrommyobcsiLy.
S6
1ocllcBouchcrhasinsisLcdmosLclo-
qucnLlyonLhcanxicLyobccomingdicrcnLLhroughLhcproccsso
dicLingcvcnLhoughshcwanLsLogoLhroughwiLhiL.
S7
HcrlongLcsLimony
rcpcaLs many o Lhc lincs o argumcnL onc nds in Lhc :: novcl Te
Martyrdom of the Obese Man, buL wiLh an cvcn ncr psychological acu-
iLy.TisobcsiLycndcdupbccomingmysignaLurc.
SS
TcobcsiLycorrc-
spondsLoLimcsandwaysolivingduringwhichLhcauLhorclaimsLohavc
succccdcd or Lo havc livcd mosL inLcnscly. Tc rcsulL is Lhis parLicular
diculLyorcconcilingadcsircLochangcLhcbodyandancquallyLcna-
cious dcsirc noL Lo changc iL. 1ocllc Bouchcr commcnLs on Lhis obscurc
rcsisLancc,Lhisill-disccrncdrcusalLocaccanobcsiLyLhaLhasbccomca
wayolic,aslowadjusLmcnLandadapLaLion,aprccariousbalancingacL,
andsomcLimcscvcnadclibcraLcarmaLion.WhcnlosingwcighL,obcsc
pcoplcarcapprchcnsivcabouLLhcmsclvcschanging.
S0
TcLcsLimonyis
cxLrcmclyvaluablcorrcvcalingLhissimulLancousacccpLanccanddcnial,
boLh wclcoming and rcusing changc. Tcrc is boLh Lhc misorLunc o
rccognizing oncscl in an unapprcciaLcd body and Lhc rccogniLion o
bcingoncsclinLhaLbodyandsobciL.
TcobcscpcrsonpushcsLoLhccxLrcmcaccnLralparadoxoconLcmpo-
raryidcnLiLy:LobclcdLoidcnLiycnLirclywiLhoncsownbodywhilcLhis
bodyisaLonccboLhorcignandoncscl.ALLhcsamcLimc,obcscpcoplc
cxhibiLancwwayobcingasLhcyspcakoLhcirsucringandmisorLunc.
Tcrc is no doubL LhaL Lhc sLigmaLizaLion o Lhc aL pcrson is sLrongly
dominanLinahisLoryoobcsiLy.TissLigmaLizaLionchangcsovcrLimc,
which jusLics Lhc hisLorical approach. Tc mcdicval gluLLon docs noL
rcccivc Lhc samc dcnigraLion as Lhc modcrn oa or Lhc obcsc pcrson o
LodaywhoisoLcnconsidcrcdincapablcolosingwcighL.Tcvalucso
aculLurcarcaLLhcccnLcroLhcdcnunciaLions.ToscccnLcrcdaround
Lhc sinncr, or cxamplc, in a prcdominanLly rcligious conLcxL arc noL
Lhc samc as Lhosc dirccLcd aL round-bcllicd graspcrs who makc oLhcrs
sLarvc in a world o class wararc, which in Lurn arc dicrcnL rom Lhc
dcnunciaLionsoLhcaLpcrsonwiLhnoallurcorwillinLodaysindividu-
alisLicsocicLics.
An imporLanL dicrcncc LhaL Lravcrscs all Lhcsc sLigmaLizaLions con-
ccrns Lhc doublc sLandard bcLwccn Lhc malc casc whcrc rclaLivcly big
sizcs arc LolcraLcd vcrsus Lhc cmalc casc whcrc Lhinncss is obligaLory,
a rulc conrmcd by Lhc sysLcmaLic and long-sLanding prcscncc o Lhc
corscL. IL is Lhus impossiblc Lo conccivc o any ancicnL gcncral aLLach-
mcnLLoanidcalobigwomcn.ILismorcLhcLransormaLionocriLcriao
LhinncssLhaLmusLbcinvcnLoricd.InormcrLimcs,orcxamplc,bodics
LighLlybclLcdaLLhcwaisLbounduncLuousorroundcdcsh,whcrcas
Lodays modcl body is jusL as Lhin in Lhc waisL buL composcd o musclc
andsculpLcdcurvcs.Ononchand,LhcrcisadclicaLcsoLLhinncss,onLhc
oLhcr,aLcnscLhinncssodynamismandrmncss.TcchangcdsLaLuso
womcnisaLLhcccnLcroLhccvoluLionoLhccmalcsilhoucLLcandiLs
Conclusion
conLours.Tinncss,howcvcr,nomaLLcrhowiLisinccLcd,isanuncon-
LcsLcdrulcacrossLhcccnLurics.
IL is also indispcnsablc Lo Lakc inLo accounL Lhc rolc playcd by dicr-
ingconccpLionsoLhcbodysuncLioningLhaLcondiLionLhcvisionoLhc
aLpcrsonaLdicrcnLLimcs.FxaggcraLcdconLourscauscdbyimbalanccd
humors and impropcr liquid ows, as was rccounLcd ccnLurics ago, arc
noLLhcsamcasLhosccauscdbyunburncdcaloricsandimpropcrcncrgy
lcvcls,asnincLccnLh-ccnLuryLhcoricscxplaincd.OvcrLimcLhcrcarcdi-
crcnLcxplanaLionsowhcrcaLcomcsrom,whaLiLis,andhowiLsLays.
AndLhcrcarcparLicularlydicrcnccsinLrcaLmcnLsandbodycarc.Fxccss
humorswcrcsupposcdLobcLrcaLcdbyprivilcgingdryingoodsanda
licsLylc LhaL avorcd cvacuaLion wiLh purgcs and bloodlcLLing as ncccs-
sary.FaLLhaLcamcromnoncombusLcdmaLLcrisbcsLLrcaLcdbyprivilcg-
inglow-caloricoodsandalicLhaLavorscombusLion:cxcrcisc,LhcgrcaL
ouLdoors,andoLhcrphysicalsLimulaLions.TchisLoryoLhcaLpcrson
incviLablyrunsparallclLoLhchisLoryoLhcbodyandLhcorganicingcn-
cral,wiLhiLschangingmodclsosLrucLurcsanduncLions.
Bcsidcs Lhc modcls o whaLs going on insidc, Lhc LransormaLions o
rclaLcd cxLcrnal phcnomcna arc also ccnLral Lo any hisLory o obcsiLy.
InvcnLionsoindcxcsandmarkcrsdcvclopcdgraduallyovcrLimcdicr-
cnLcaLcgoricsobigncss,andLhcadvcnLonumcricalcvaluaLionosizc
and wcighL havc all playcd crucial rolcs in Lhis hisLory. Tcrc is also Lhc
hisLoryoLhcgazcandsocialrcgardanddisrcgardLhaLhavcbccncondi-
LioncdbyasLrucLurcdandinvcnLivcplaywiLhimagcs,cxprcssions,and
words.TcrcisalsoLhccmcrgcnccoLhcindividualwiLhhisorhcrprc-
cisc, singular, codicd characLcrisLics. And, nally, Lhc masLcry o mca-
surcmcnLs wiLh Lhc dcvclopmcnL o prccisc Lcchniqucs and opcraLions
LhaLploLandgraphLhcmasscsandvolumcsoLhcbody.OncmusLalso
rccallLhcslowandrclaLivclyrcccnLarrivalowcighingmachincsincvcry-
daylic,wiLhLhcbaLhroomscalcbccomingcommonplacconlyaLLhcvcry
cnd o Lhc nincLccnLh ccnLury. Only Lhcn docs oncs pcrsonal wcighL
bccomcordinaryinormaLioninWcsLcrnculLurcandbcginLoinucncc
dailyhabiLsandscl-obscrvaLion.
TcscpcrsonalobscrvaLionsopcnupanoLhcrinsidchisLoryoobcsiLy.
WcsccLhisinLimaLchisLoryoaLLcnLionLooncsownimagcandpcrsonal
body carc and asscssmcnL bcginning in Lhc sixLccnLh ccnLury wiLh Car-
dansinLcrcsLinprcvcnLingwcighLgainandhiscloscmoniLoringomass
viaLhcprcssurcLhaLhisringswouldcxcrLonhisngcrs.AccnLurylaLcr
wcsccMadamcdcScvignccvaluaLinghcrslimmingcorLsbycvaluaLing
LhcLohcrcloLhcs.AnoLhcrccnLurylaLcrandwcsccLhcclcganLwoman
Conclusion 199
inLhcashionmagazincsoLhccndoLhcnincLccnLhccnLuryscruLiniz-
ingLhcvcrdicLooncoLhccarlypcrsonalscalcs.TishisLoryoobcsiLy
convcys imporLanL inormaLion abouL changing pcrsonal rcacLions ovcr
LimcLoLhcsLigmaLizaLionundcrgoncbyLhcaLpcrson.
AhisLoryoobcsiLyisLhusahisLoryoinLimaLccclings.Socialsucr-
ing,aswcvcsccn,comcsindicrcnLLypcsanddcgrccs.InLhccighLccnLh
ccnLury1can-BapLisLclicdcBcaumonLcomplainsabouLLhcpainohis
obcsiLy, cspccially his inrmiLy and impoLcncc, buL wiLhouL ciLing Lhc
social osLracism LhaL hc mighL havc sucrcd, a usclcss Lhcmc pcrhaps
in his cycs, a sccondary wound comparcd Lo Lhc physical obsLaclcs hc
cncounLcrcd.TcsocialwoundbccomcsmorcimporLanLinnincLccnLh-
ccnLury LcsLimonics whcn incrcascd imporLancc is givcn Lo Lhc psycho-
logical and Lo scl-cxploraLion. Tis Lcndcncy incrcascs in Lhc ollowing
ccnLury Lo Lhc poinL o bccoming a ccnLral obscssion. In addiLion, Lhc
LwcnLicLh ccnLury sccs Lhc advcnL o cclings o loss o idcnLiLy and o
inLimaLcrclaLionswiLharcjccLcdbody.TisprovokcsLhcimplacablcLcar-
ingorbrcakinginLhcmindoLhcobcscpcrsonaccdwiLhabodyrcjccLcd
byLhcobcscpcrsonhimscl,buLwhichisycLLhaLwiLhwhichhcorshc
idcnLicsandisinmanywaysaLLachcdLo.FornowourhisLorycndshcrc,
aLLhiscxLrcmcconLcmporarysLagcoourcondiLionwiLhrcspccLLoour
bodics.MorcLhancvcrbcorc,idcnLiLycomcsromLhcbody,andmorc
LhancvcrbcorcwchavcLhcanxiouscclingLhaLLhisbodycandoublc-
crossus.
NOTES
Introduction
.C. .dOrlcans,princcsscPalaLinc,Correspondancecomp|te(Paris,8),::.
:.Ibid.
.TeLaryojSamue|PepysM.A.F.R.S.(Iondon:CcorgcBcll,8[8:]),1unc,
66,.
.Ibid.,Aprilo,66.
. I. dc Rouvroy, duc dc SainL-Simon, Memores (,Lh8Lh ccnLury) (Paris, 8:8
[8]),:,.
6.Pcpys,Lary,1unc6,66.
,.Crossecrevee.lcLLcro1uly8,6,6,M.dcRabuLin-ChanLal,marquiscdcScvignc,
Correspondance(Paris:Callimard,,:),::.
8. In Frcnch Lhc shiL is all Lhc morc abrupL sincc iL comcs wiLh Lhc changc o a
singlcvowcl:gros(big)Logras(aL).TrtNs.
. A. Carrachc, Portrat carc, drawings (scvcnLccnLh ccnLury), Paris, colc dc
Bcaux-ArLs.
o.C.Andral,I.1.Bcgin,andPh.Fr.Blandin,ObcsiLc,inLctonnaredemedecne
etdechrurgepratques(Paris,8).
. . DauranL-Forgucs and 1. 1. Cranvillc, Les Pettes Msres de |a ve humane
(Paris,8),p.:.
:.Ibid.
.M.Icvcn,LaNevrose:Ftudec|nqueettherapeutque(Paris,88,).
.SincchcrcLhcauLhorisrccrringspccicallyLoalinguisLiccvoluLionwiLhinLhc
FrcnchculLuralconLcxL,iLmakcsnoscnscLoincludcFnglishLranslaLionsoLhcour
FrcnchLcrmshclisLsLhaLcxprcssdcgrccsochubbincss:grasset,ronde|et(sixLccnLh
ccnLury),grassou||et,ventru(scvcnLccnLhccnLury).TrtNs.
.N. P.AdcloncLal.,Polysarcic,inLctonnaredemedecne(Paris,8:,).
202 Introduction
6.SccH.Bcraud,LeMartyrede|obse(TcmarLyrdomoLhcobcscman)(Paris,
::).
Part 1. The Medieval Glutton
.BccauscgroscanmcanbigoraL,andbccauscLhcpossibiliLycxisLsinFrcnch
LoLurnsomcadjccLivcsinLonounsorcvcnpcoplcsimplybypuLLingadcniLcarLiclc
inronLrche,|erche,pauvre,|epauvre,gros,|egrosLhcauLhorhcrcdcploysscvcral
idcasaLoncc:bigncss,aLncss,LhcbigLhingorpcrson,LhcaLLhingorpcrson.Hcrc,
groswillbcLranslaLcdasbigwhcnLhcassociaLionsarcmosLlyposiLivc,andasaL
whcnLhcyarcmosLlyncgaLivc.TrtNs.
:.Scc.Barbazan,Fab|auxetContesdespotesFranosdesX!e,X!!e,X!!!e,X!veet
Xvesc|es(Paris:B.Warcc,8o8[,6]).
.LeRomandeRenart(LhccnLury)(Paris:Callimard,:oo6).
1. The Prestige of the Big Person
.CcsLliabliausdcCoquaignc(LhccnLury),in.Barbazan,Fab|auxetContes
despotesFranosdesX!e,X!!e,X!!!e,X!veetXvesc|es(Paris:B.Warcc,8o8[,6]),
:,.
:.R.Fossicr,IcTcmpsdclaaim,in1.DclumcauandY.Icquin,cds.,LesMa|h-
eursdutemps(Paris:Iaroussc,8,),p..
. Scc, R. I. RoLhbcrg and T. K. Rabb, Hunger and Hstory. Te !mpact oj Changng
Food Producton and Consumpton Patterns on Socety (Cambridgc: Cambridgc Univcr-
siLyPrcss,8),p..
.Barbazan,Fab|auxetContesdespotesFranos,:,,ibid.,:,.
. C. dc Iorris, Roman de |a rose (Lh ccnLury), in A. PauphilcL, R. Pcrnoud, and
A.-M.SchmidL,cds.,PotesetRomancersduMoyenge(Paris:Callimard,:),p.6.
6.DcsgrandsgcanLs,inD.Rcgncr-Bohlcr,cd.,LeCoeurmange.Rectserotqueset
courtos,X!!eetX!!!esc|es(Paris:SLock,8),p.:8.
,.LeMenagerdePars(Paris:CrcdiLIyonnais,6[]),p.6:.
8. La Pourgeose dOr|eans (Lh ccnLury), in R. CuicLLc, cd., Fab|aux et Contes
(Paris:SLock,6o),p.o.
.Tibaud,roidcNavarrc,Poese|yrque(LhccnLury),inPauphilcL,Pcrnoud,and
SchmidL,PotesetRomancersduMoyenge,p.8.
o.Barbazan,Fab|auxetContesdespotesFranos,:,6.
.Scc1.IcCo,LaCv|satonMedeva|e(Paris:ArLhaud,6),pp..Hcrc
IcCoisquoLingromaDominicanbookolcgcnds.
:.Ibid.
. Scc A. Iombard-1ourdan, Aux orgnes de carnava| (Paris: Odilc 1acob, :oo),
p.:o.
.Ibid.
2. Liquids, Fat, and Wind 203
.MarcoPolo,LeLvsementdumonde.LeLvredesmerve||es(LhccnLury),in.
CharLon,voyagesancensetmodernes(Paris,86),::.
6.Ibid.
,.CiLcdinI.CauLhicr,LaCheva|ere(Paris,8o[888]),p.6:.
8.Ibid.
.Ibid,p.6.
:o.Ibid.,p.6,noLc.
:.Ibid,noLc6.
::.A.Ricra-Mclis,SocicLccodalccLalimcnLaLion(XIIcXIIIcscclc),in1.-I.Flan-
drinandM.MonLanari,cds.,Hstorede|a|mentaton(Paris:Fayard,6),p.o,.
:. Scc M. MonLanari, La Fam et |Abondance. Hstore de |a|mentaton en Furope
(Paris:Scuil,),p.8.
:.CiLcdbyMonLanari,Icspaysans,lcsgucrricrscLlcsprcLrcs:imagcdclasocicLc
cLsLylcsalimcnLaircs,inFlandrinandMonLanari,Hstorede|a|mentaton,p.o,.
:.Ricra-Mclis,SocicLccodalccLalimcnLaLion,o,.
:6.SccR.Fossicr,CesgensduMoyenge(Paris:Fayard,:oo,),p.,.
:,.M.PasLourcau,LOurs(Paris:Scuil,:oo,),p.o.
:8.Scc1. D.Iajoux,LHommeet|Ours(Paris:ClcnaL,,),p..
:.1.FroissarL,Chronques(LhccnLury),inHstorensetChronqueursduMoyen
ge(Paris:Callimard,:),p.8.
o.Ibid.,p..
.Ibid.
:.SccN.ConLhicr,Sang|antCoupau||OrdeRbaude|.LesnuresauMoyenge
(Paris:PrcsscsUnivcrsiLaircsdcRcnncs,:oo,),p.o.
.Fnglish,crass,IaLin,crassus=solid,Lhick,aL,dcnsc.TrtNs.
.ConLhicr,Sang|antCoupau||OrdeRbaude|p.66.
. Scc A. BrachcL, Patho|oge menta|e des ros de France, Lous X! et ses ascendants
(Paris,o),p.:.
6.SccP.ZumLhor,Cu||aume|eConquerant(Paris:HachcLLc,6),p.,,.
,.Sugcr,vedeLous|eCros(:LhccnLury)(Paris:HonorcChampion,:),p.:,.
8.BrachcL,Patho|oge,p.:,.
.SccC.Hcnry,Cu||aume|eConquerant(Paris:FranccFmpirc,6),p.:,.
o.1.MichclcL,HstoredeFrance(Paris:Flammarion,8,[8,6]),::o6.
.Sugcr,vedeLous|eCros,p.:,.
:.Ibid.,p.:,.
2. Liquids, Fat, and Wind
. HippocraLcs, Aphorsms (oo s.c.c.), Lrans. Francis Adams, scc sccLion , On
Ath|etes.hLLp://classics.miL.cdu/HippocraLcs/aphorisms.hLml.
:. C. Aurclianus, Le morbs actuts et chroncs (Lh ccnLury) (AmsLcrdam, ,o),
p.6.
.H.dcMondcvillc,LaChrurge(Paris,8[o6:o]),p.::.
204 2. Liquids, Fat, and Wind
.BarLhclcmylAnglais,LeCrandPropretaredetouteschoses(LhccnLury)(Paris,
XVc sicclc), book . BarLholomacus Anglicus, Le propretatbus rerum. Texte |atn et
receptonvernacu|are(TurnhouL:Brcpols,:oo6).
.Ibid.
6. Ibid. On Lhc humors in mcdicval mcdicinc, scc also Fsscnccs: Tc Classical
Trail,inN.Agrika,PassonsandTempers.AHstoryojtheHumours(NcwYork:Fcco,
:oo,),p..ILhankD.SicardorbringingLhissLudyLomyaLLcnLion.
,.BarLholomacusAnglicus,Lepropretatbusrerum,book.
8. H. dc Bingcn, Les Causes et |es Remdes (:Lh ccnLury) (Crcnoblc: 1crmc Mil-
lion,,),p..
.AldcbrandindcSicnnc,LeRegmeducorps(LhccnLury)(Paris,),p.,.
o.M.ScoL,Lesecretsnatura(LhccnLury)(AmsLcrdam,6),p.o:.
.AldcbrandindcSicnnc,LeRegmeducorps,p.,.
:.ScoL,SignarcplcLionismalorumhumorum,inLesecretsnatura,p.oo.
.Ibid.
. ArcLcc dc Cappadocc, Causes et Sgnes des ma|ades agues (:d ccnLury) (Paris,
,:ooo).
.1.Ypcrman,Tratedemedecnepratque(LhccnLury)(Anvcrs,86,),p.::.
6.B.dcCordon,Ccommence|apratquedePernardCordonqusappe||eeurde|ys
enmedecne(LhccnLury)(Paris,o),p.oo.
,.SccWikipcdiacnLryorSyndromcocdcmaLcuxgcncraliscor,inFnglish,Lhc
cnLricsorFdcmaandAnasarca.
8. Ypcrman, Trate de medecne pratque. Ypcrman disLinguishcs our Lypcs o
hydropsy.
.Ibid.,p.::.
:o.Cordon,Ccommence,p.o:.
:.Ypcrman,Tratedemedecnepratque,p.::.
::.vedesanteLouce|ne(LhccnLury),inD.Rcgnicr-Bohlcr,cd.,voxdejemmes
auMoyenge.Savor,mystque,amour,sorce||ere,X!!-Xvesc|e(Paris:RobcrLIaonL,
:oo6),p.8.
:.Cordon,CCommence,p.o.Tcwordsuscdarctympanteandventoste.
:.C.dcSaliccL,Chrurge,Lrans.P.PiLcau(Toulousc,88[:,]),p.,.
:. A. dc Villcncuvc, Le conservanda bona va|etudne (Lh ccnLury) (Paris, ,),
p..
:6.Mondcvillc,LaChrurge,p.,o.
:,.C.dclaTourIandry,LeLvreducheva|erde|aTourLandrypour|ensegnement
desses||es(Paris,8[,]).
:8.C.dcPisan,LavsondeChrstne[o],inRcgnicr-Bohlcr,voxdejemmesau
Moyenge,p.8.
:. Scc Lhc disgrcgaLion dcs joinLurcs in C. dc Chauliac, La Crande Chrurge
(Paris,8o[6]),p.8,.
o. Scc CouLLc, in . IiLLrc, Lctonnare de |a |angue jranase (Paris, 866). Tc
FrcnchkingIouisXVIII(,8:)wouldbccallcd|eropodagre.
3. The Horizon of Fault 205
. Scc, 1.-N. Monmcrquc and F. Michcl, Le Tetre jranas au Moyen ge (Paris,
8),p.:.
:.BarLholomacusAnglicus,Lepropretatbusrerum,book,,chapLcr,.
.Ibid.
.Ibid.
.Ibid.
6.RuLcbcu,ciLcdinC.-1.-A.WiLkowski,LesMedecnsauthetre.Le|antquteau
Xv!!esc|e(Paris,o),p.6.
,.Chauliac,LaCrandeChrurge,p.8.
8.WiLkowski,LesMedecnsauthetre,p.6.
.Sugcr,vedeLous|eCros,p.:,.
o.Ypcrman,Tratedemedecnepratque,pp.:::.
.Chauliac,LaCrandeChrurge,p..
:.Ibid.,p.:o.
.Ibid.,p.:.
.Ibid.
.OnLhcLhcmcobloodlcLLing,cvacuaLions,andincisions,scc1.-Cl.SchmiLL,Le
Corps, |es Rtes, |es Rves, |e Temps. Fssas danthropo|oge medeva|e (Paris: Callimard,
:oo),p.:.
6.SaliccL,Chrurge,p.8:SaisirccLLcumcccnLrcdcuxligaLurcs.
3. The Horizon of Fault
..Barbazan,Fab|auxetContesdespotesFranosdesX!e,X!!e,X!!!e,X!veetXve
sc|es(Paris:B.Warcc,8o8[,6]),:8.
:. AL agc LwcnLy-our, William Lhc Conqucror is dcscribcd as bcing Lallcr Lhan
avcragc, buL noL by much, and having a widc and robusL corpulcncc, in C. Hcnry,
Cu||aume|eConquerant(Paris:FranccFmpirc,6),p..
.Sugcr,vedeLous|eCros(:LhccnLury)(Paris:HonorcChampion,:),p.8.
. N. BulsL, IFssor (XcXIXc sicclc), in 1.-P. BardcL and 1. Dupquicr, cds.,
Hstore des popu|atons de |Furope, vol. : Les orgnes aux premces de |a revo|uton
demographque(Paris:Fayard,,),p.,6.
.SccArspracdicandi,inH.MarLin,LeMeterdepredcateurenFranceseptentro-
na|e|anduMoyenge(:,o:,.o)(Paris:Ccr,88),p.:8.
6. 1can dc Salisbury, La Cuerre et |e Lebat entre |a |angue |es membres et |e ventre.
Cestassavor|a|angue,|esyeu|x,|esore||es,|enez,|esmans,|espedz,qu|sneveu|ent
p|usrenba||erneamnstrerauventre(:LhccnLury)(Paris,n.d.[c.6Lhc.]).
,.SccAndrcVauchcz,cd.,Farecrore.Moda|tesde|adusonetde|areceptondes
messagesre|geuxduX!!eauXvesc|e,Romc,colcranaiscdcRomc(Paris:dcBoc-
card,8).
8. Scc M. VinccnL-Casscy, Ics animaux cL lcs pcchcs capiLaux: dc la symboliquc
lcmblcmaLiquc, in Le Monde anma| et ses representatons au Moyen ge (X!e-Xve
sc|e),ProcccdingsoLhcFiLccnLhCongrcssoLhcSocicLyoMcdicvalHisLorianso
206 3. The Horizon of Fault
PublicHighcrFducaLion,Toulousc8(Toulousc:UnivcrsiLcdcToulousc-lcMirail,
8),p.:.
. A. Iccoy dc la Marchc, La Chare jranase au Moyen ge, speca|ement au X!!!e
sc|e,daprs|esmanuscrtscontemporans(Paris,868),p.,6.
o. Scc C. Casagrandc and S. Vccchio, Hstore des peches captaux au Moyen ge
(Paris:Aubicr,:oo[:ooo]),pp.:::.
.1.IcCo,LaCv|satonMedeva|e(Paris:ArLhaud,6),p.6:.
:. C. dc Pisan, Le Lvre des tros vertus (Lh ccnLury), in D. Rcgnicr-Bohlcr, cd.,
vox de jemmes au Moyen ge. Savor, mystque, amour, sorce||ere, X!!-Xve sc|e (Paris:
RobcrLIaonL,:oo6),p.6,.
.Ibid.
.H.dcMondcvillc,LaChrurge(Paris,8[o6:o]),p.6::.
. Scc D. 1acquarL and M. Nicoud, Ics rcgimcs dc sanLc au XIIIc sicclc, in
P. Cuichard and D. Alcxandrc Bidon, cds., Comprendre |e X!!!e sc|e. Ftudes oertes
M. T.Lorcn(Iyon:PUI,).
6. Aldcbrandin dc Sicnnc, Le Regme du corps (Lh ccnLury) (Ccncva: SlaLkinc,
,8),p..
,.B.dcCordon,Ccommence|apratquedePernardCordonqusappe||eeurde|ys
enmedecne(LhccnLury)(Paris,o),p.,.
8.C.dcChauliac,LaCrandeChrurge(Paris,8o[6]),p.::.
.SccIcLcmpsdcschavaux,inPh.ConLaminc,LaCuerreauMoyenge(Paris:
PUF,8o),p.:.Sccalso1.Barnic,warnMedeva|Fng|shSocety.Soca|va|ueand
theHundredYearswar,:,:,,(ILhaca:CorncllUnivcrsiLyPrcss,,).
:o.Pe||eFrembourc(:LhccnLury),inPotesetRomancersduMoyenge(Paris:Cal-
limard,:),p.8:8.
:.LaQuteduCraa|(:LhccnLury)(Paris:Scuil,6),p..
::. ChrcLicn dc Troycs, Yvan ou |e Cheva|er au |on (:Lh ccnLury), in Potes et
Romancers,p.:.
:.Ibid.,p.,.
:.A.Franklin,LaveprveeautempsdespremersCapetens(Paris,),::6,.
:.LeLad!gnaure(LhccnLury),inD.Rcgncr-Bohlcr,cd.,LeCoeurmange.Rects
erotquesetcourtos,X!!eetX!!!esc|es(Paris:SLock,8),p.:,.
:6.Franklin,Laveprvee,::,.
:,.AucassincLNicolcLLc(LhccnLury),inPotesetRomancers,p.6.
4. The Fifteenth Century and the
Contrasts of Slimming
. Scc Andrcw Bridgcord, :o. Te Hdden Hstory n the Payeux Tapestry (Ncw
York:Walkcr,:oo).
:. MiLrc dc Wavrin, Le Ro de Paby|one dstrbuant ses terres ses deux |s (Paris,
BNF),ms.Fr.:66,.v.SccalsoP.Charrun,LaMtredechampondesdames(Paris,
CTHS/INHA,:oo),inparLicular,IcMiLrcdcWavrin,p..
4. The Fifteenth Century and the Contrasts of Slimming 207
.N.FromcnL,LePussonardent,inLhccaLhcdralinAix-cn-Provcncc,Francc,,6.
. 1. FouqucL, Le Lvre dHeures dFtenne Cheva|er (Lh ccnLury) (Paris, Dracgcr,
,),miniaLurc:
.V.dcBcauvais,Mrorhstora|(Paris:BNF,6),ms.Fro,.:.
6. P. dc Commyncs, Memores (68), in A. PauphilcL and F. Pognon, cds.,
HstorensetChronqueursduMoyenge(Paris:Callimard,:oo[:]),p.:8.
,. C. Phocbus, Le Lvre de |a chasse (LcxL Lh ccnLury, illusLraLions Lh ccnLury)
(Paris,BNF),ms.Fr.,66.
8. Scc F. Pognon, Poccace, Le Lecameron, Manuscrt en|umne du Xve sc|e (Paris:
Scghcrs,,8),p..
.Ibid.,p.,o.
o..Barbazan,Fab|auxetContesdespotesFranosdesX!e,X!!e,X!!!e,X!veetXve
sc|es(Paris:B.Warcc,8o8[,6]),:68.
.Ibid.,p.:88.
:.I.Origo,LeMarchanddePrato.LavedunbanquertoscanauX!vesc|e(Paris:
AlbinMichcl,8[,]),p.:8.
.Ibid.,p.:88.
. Scc D. 1acquarL and M. Nicoud, Ics rcgimcs dc sanLc au XIIIc sicclc, in
P. Cuichard and D. Alcxandrc Bidon, cds., Comprendre |e X!!!e sc|e. Ftudes oertes
M. T.Lorcn(Iyon:PUI,),p.:,.
. 1. Ic Fcvrc dc SainL-Rcmy, Chronques (Lh ccnLury) (Paris, 8,688),
::8,:.
6.SccFcsLinscLbanqucLsmcdicvaux,inBirloucz,A|atab|edessegneurs,des
monesetdespaysansauMoyenge(Rcnncs:OucsLFrancc,:oo),p.,.
,.H.HcingarLcr,(Paris:BNF),ms.,6,LhccnLury.
8.1.VanFyck,MadonnaojChance||orRo|n(:),Iondon,NaLionalCallcry.
.B.Cozzoli,TeProcessonojtheMag(),Florcncc,CappcllaMcdici.
:o. P. di CrisLooro Vannucci, callcd Pcrugino, Se|j-Portrat (laLc Lh ccnLury),
Pcrugia,CollcgiodclCambio.
:.Ca|endrerdesbergers(Paris:PUF,:oo8[]).
::..dcFougcrcs,LeLvredesmanres(Ccncva:Droz,,[c.,]).
:. Scc M.-P. Phan, PraLiqucs cosmcLiqucs cL idcal cminin dans lILalic dcs XVc
cL XVIc sicclcs, Actes du Co||oque !nternatona|, Crassc 8 (Nicc: CcnLrc dLudcs
mcdicvalcsdcNicc,8,).
:.SccA.Cabancs,Remdesdautrejos(Paris,o),p.8.
:.AnncdcFrancc,LesFnsegnementsdAnnedeFrancesa||eSuzannedePourbon
(Marscillc:IaLLc,,8[o]),pp.o.
:6.Tratede|ajormeetdevsdunTournos(LhccnLury)(Paris:BNF),ms.r.::.
:,.Tcscidc,Vicnna,SLaaLsbiblioLhck,ms.:6,.SccalsoF.Piponnicr,Costumeet
vesoca|e.LacourdAnou,X!ve-Xvesc|e(Paris:MouLon,,o).
:8.Scc,inparLicular,MarehstorarumdcCiovanniColonna,wriLLcnandpainLcd
byCuillaumc1ouvcnclin8(Paris:BNF),ms.laL.,.
:.HstoredePretagne(laLcLhccnLury)(Paris:BNF),ms.r.8:66,pl.:b.
208 Part 2. The Modern Oaf
Part 2. The Modern Oaf
. 1. dc Ia FonLainc, Ia BclcLLc cnLrcc dans un grcnicr, Fab|es (,Lh ccnLury)
(Paris:CF-Flammarion,:oo,).SccTcWcasclinLhcCranary(book,ablc,),in
TeComp|eteFab|esoj1eandeLaFontane,Lrans.N.R.Shapiro(Urbana:UnivcrsiLyo
IllinoisPrcss,:oo,).
5. The Shores of Laziness
. M. dc Navarrc, LHeptameron (6Lh ccnLury), in Conteurs jranas du Xv!e sc|e
(Paris:Callimard,6),p..
:.LesCentNouve||esNouve||es(laLcLhccnLury),ibid.,p..
.S.IcPrcsLrc,chcvalilcrmarquisdcVauban,Moyensdame|orernostroupes,Les
OsvetesdeMonseurvauban(Scysscl:ChampVallon,:oo,[,o]),p.o:o.
.T.Carzoni,LeTetredesdverscerveauxdumonde(Paris,86[8]),p.o.
.CiLcdbyP.Frlangcr,Les!deeset|esMoeursautempsdesros(Paris:Flammarion,
6),p.6.
6.C.dcScysscl,LaCrantMonarchedeFrance(Paris,,[]),p.:.
,.A.Parc,LesOeuvresdvseesen.8|vres(Paris,8),p.o.
8.Ibid.,p.o.
. N. Cucrard, Ic parcsscux, in Les Mora|tes (,Lh ccnLury) (Paris: BNF): nc
jamaisscaLigucrnisccrcvcrlccocurauvcnLrc.
o.Scc,orcxamplc,1.Dclumcau,MobiliLcsocialc:RichcscLpauvrcslcpoquc
dclaRcnaissancc,inOrdresetC|asses,co||oquedhstoresoca|e,Sant-C|oud,..,ma
:,,(Paris:MouLon,,).
.1. A.dcTou,Memores(6LhccnLury),in1.-F.Michaudand1.-1.-F.PoujoulaL,
cds.,Nouve||eCo||ectondesMemorespourservr|hstoredeFrancedepus|eX!!!esc|e
usqunosours,sLscrics(Paris,868),:.
:.N.FarcL,LArtdep|are|acour(Paris,66[6o]),p..
. F. Carin, LFducaton de |homme moderne. :oo:oo (Paris: Fayard,
[,]),p..
.T.ArLus,LesHermaphrodtes(6LhccnLury)(Paris,,o),p.::.
.Scc,orcxamplc,1.Rcvcl,IcsusagcsdclaciviliLc,inPh.AricsandC.Duby,
cds.,Hstorede|aveprvee,vol.:Le|aRenassanceauxLumres(Paris:Scuil,86),
Hstory oj Prvate Lje, vol. : Passons oj the Renassance, Lrans. ArLhur Coldhammcr
(Cambridgc:Bclknap,).
6. F. Qucllcr, La Tab|e des Franas. 0ne hstore cu|ture||e (Xvedebut X!Xe sc|e)
(Rcnncs:PrcsscsunivcrsiLaircsdcRcnncs,:oo,),p..
,.Ibid.,p..
8. B. CasLiglionc, Le Lvre du courtsan (Paris: Flammarion, [:8]), pp. ,
,,,TePookojtheCourter.Pa|desarCastg|one,cd.Danicl1aviLch,Lrans.Charlcs
SinglcLon(NcwYork:NorLon,:oo:).
.FarcL,LArtdep|are|acour,p.6.
5. The Shores of Laziness 209
:o.CasLiglioni,LeLvreducourtsan,p.88.
:. P. dc Bourdcillc, diL BranLmc, Les Crands Captanes etrangers, Oeuvres com-
p|tes(Paris,8),::.
::.LesCentsNouve||esNouve||es,p.86.
:.Ibid.,p.,8.
:.Ibid.,p.,.
:.Ibid.,p.8.
:6.B.DcsPcricrs,LesNouve||esRecreatonset1oyeuxLevs(6LhccnLury),inCon-
teursjranasduXv!esc|e,p..
:,..Pasquicr,Lesrecherchesde|aFrance(Paris,6[6o]),p.,8,.
:8.hLLp://www.shakcspcarc-onlinc.com/plays/kh_:_.hLml.
:.A|zona|oe|charmant(6),in1. B.Wcrckclin,LAncenneChansonpopu|areen
France.Xv!eetXv!!esc|e(Paris,88,),p..
o.F.dcSagon,P|useursTractezparaucunsnouveau|xpotesduderentdeMarot
(Paris,).
.FptapheanagrammatquedeLane|Chamer,grosetgrasMnstredeMontauban
(MonLauban,6:).
:. Luther et sa jemme Pora (6Lh ccnLury), anonymous prinL, in 1. Crand-CarL-
crcL,LHstore,|ave,|esMoeurset|aCuroste(Paris,:,),:::.OnIuLhcrsccalso
O.ChrisLin,Iaoicommcchopcdcbicrc:IuLhcr,lcsmoincs,lcsjcncs,in1.Cscrgo,
cd.,Tropgros?Lobesteetsesrepresentatons(Paris:AuLrcmcnL,:oo),p..
.LaCenseet|aNassancede|Antechrst(:o),anonymousprinL,inCrand-
CarLcrcL,LHstore,|ave,|esMoeurset|aCuroste,p.:8.
.F.Rabclais,Cargantua(),OeuvresComp|tes(Paris:Callimard,),pp.,,o,
,,F.Rabclais,CargantuaandPantagrue|,Lrans.M. A.Scrccch(Iondon:Pcnguin,:oo6).
.Ibid.,p.,8.
6.Ibid.,p.86.
,.F.BcroaldcdcVcrvillc,LeMoyendeparvenr(Paris,8[6o]),p.66.
8.M.dcCcrvanLcs,LonQuchottede|aManche(Ccncva:RcnconLrc,6:[6o]),
:,,::8,:,::o,CcrvanLcs,LonQuxote,Lrans.1ohnRuLhcrord(Iondon:Pcn-
guin,:oo).
. Scc C. Fischlcr, Lhomnvore (Paris: Odilc 1acob, [o]), p. ,. Fischlcr
analyzcs Lhc Lhcmc vcry accuraLcly hcrcrccalling Lhc sympaLhy LhaL sccms oLcn
LobccvokcdbyLhcaLpcrsonandLhcquasi-phobicrcjccLionLhaLhccanprovokc,
cspcciallyLoday.
o.CcrvanLcs,LonQuchottede|aManche,::6.
.Ibid.,::,.
:.Ibid.
.Ibid.,:::.
.BranLmc,LesLamesga|antes(6LhccnLury)(Paris:Callimard,8),p.:o.
.LesCentNouve||esNouve||es,p.,.
6.P.BrucghclLhcFldcr,TeHarvesters(oilonwood,6),NcwYork,McLropoli-
LainMuscum.
210 5. The Shores of Laziness
,. AlbrcchL Durcr, Les Quatre Lvres de |a proporton des partes et pourtract des
corps humans (Paris, 6 []), A|brecht Lurer (:,::,.8). On Human Proporton,
inLroducLionbyPcLcrMoscr(Bambcrg:Babcnbcrg,:oo).
8.BranLmc,LesLamesga|antes,p.:.
.C.Cinzio,Nge||aet|edocteur(6LhccnLury),inConteursta|ensde|aRenas-
sance(Paris:Callimard,),p.o6.
o.C.SLraparola,LesFaceteusesNuts(o),ibid.,p.o,.
.Ibid.,p.o.
:.P.lArcLin,lcLLcro1unc,8,inLettres(Paris:Scola,88),p..
.P.dcILoilc,Memores,ournaux(6Lh,LhccnLury)(Paris,8,86),::o.
.1.IicbaulL,TrosLvresde|embe||ssementetornementducorpshuman,prsdu
|atndeM.1eanLebaut, . . .etjactjranas(Paris,8:),p.6.
.Ibid.,p.6.
6.SccLhclcLLcrromFrasmusLoTomasMorc,1ulyo,,,rasmc,Correspon-
dance,cd.A.NauwclacrLs(Brusscls:Prcsscsacadcmiqucscuropccnncs,,),:.
,.BranLmc,Recue|desdames(6LhccnLury)(Paris:Callimard,),p.o.
8. P. lArcLin, Les Sx 1ournees (6Lh ccnLury), in Conteurs jranas du Xv!e sc|e,
p.8o.
.Navarrc,LHeptameron,p.,.
6o.F.Bacon,Hstorede|aveetde|amort(Paris,6,),p.o.F.Bacon,TeHstory
ojLjeandLeath(WhiLcsh,MT:Kcssingcr,:oo[68]).HstoravtaeetMorts(Ion-
don:HavilandandIowncs,6:).
6.Re|atonsdesambassadeursta|enssur|esaaresdeFranceauXv!esc|e,recue|-
|esparM. N.Tommaseo(Paris,88),::6.
6:. 1. dc Indaginc, La Chromance et Phsonome par |e regard des membres de
|homme(Paris,8[]),p.,8.
6. A. Durcr, Me|ancho|y (cngraving, ), Paris, PcLiL Palais Muscum, scc also
InquicLudcs rcnaissanLcs, in Y. HcrsanL, cd., Me|anco|e. Le |Antqute au XXe sc|e
(Paris:RobcrLIaonL,:oo),p.6.
6. Scc Un mondc qui sc dcrcglc, in 1. Dclumcau and Y. Icquin, Les Ma|heurs
du temps. Hstore des eaux et des ca|amtes en France (Paris: HachcLLc, [6o]),
p.:.
6. Marsilc Ficin, quoLcd by C. Minois, Hstore du ma| vvre. Le |a me|anco|e |a
depresson(Paris:Fayard,:oo),p.,.
66.Ibid.,p.:,.
6,.T.BrighL,Tratede|ame|anco|e(Crcnoblc:1crmcMillon,6[6]),p.::.
68. 1. dc la Bruycrc, Les Caractres ou |es Moeurs de ce sc|e (Paris: Carnicr, n.d.
[688]),p.,.TeCharactersoj1eande|aPruyre,Lrans.HcnriVanIaun(WhiLcsh,
MT:Kcssingcr,:oo,).
6.Ibid.
,o.I.dcRouvroy,ducdcSainL-Simon,Memores(,Lh8LhccnLury)(Paris,8:8
[8]),:,:.
,.Ibid.,o:,,.
6. The Plural of Fat 211
6. The Plural of Fat
.A.Parc,LesOeuvresdvseesen.8|vres(Paris,8),p.xvi.
:.1.DuChcsnc,LePourtractde|asante,ouestauvjrepresentee|areg|eunverse||e
etpartcu|redebensanementet|onguementvvre(Paris,6:o[6o6]).Scc,inparLicu-
lar,LhccxamplcsosomcgluLLons,gourmcLs,anddrunkardswholookcdmorclikc
monsLcrsLhanmcn,p.:.
.I.Cuyon,LeCoursdemedecneenjranascontenantmrordebeauteetsantecor-
pore||e(Iyon,66[6:]),:::.
.Re|atonsdesambassadeursta|enssur|esaaresdeFranceauXv!esc|e,recue|-
|esparM. N.Tommaseo(Paris,88),::.
. I. 1oubcrL, Les erreurs popu|ares touchant |a medecne et |e regme de sante. Sec-
ondeparte(Paris,8,),pisLrcapologiLiquc.
6.SccTcProblcmoKnowlcdgc,inF. F.Harris,Nature,MndandModernKnow|-
edge(Iondon:AllcnandUnwin,68),p..
,.I.Fusch,MethodeouPrve!ntroductonpourparvenr|acognossancede|avraye
etso|demedecne(Iyon,:[:]),p.,.
8. 1. Fcrncl, Les Sept Lvres de |a therapeutque unverse||e (6Lh ccnLury) (Paris,
6),1.Fcrncl,LaPatho|ogeoudscoursdesma|ades(6LhccnLury)(Paris,6),scc
also1.Rogcr,1eanFerne|et|esprob|mesde|amedecnede|aRenassance(Paris:Palais
dclaDccouvcrLc,6o).
.Fcrncl,LesSeptLvres,p.,.
o. Scc la plcLhorc commc causc anLcccdanLc dc lapoplcxic, in B. dc Cordon,
C commence |a pratque de Pernard Cordon qu sappe||e eur de |ys en medecne (Lh
ccnLury)(Paris,o),p.,.
.1.FroissarL,Chronques(LhccnLury),inHstorensetChronqueursduMoyen
ge(Paris:Callimard,:),p.8:.
:. I. dc Rouvroy, du dc SainL-Simon, Memores (,Lh8Lh ccnLury) (Paris, 8:8
[8]),:.
.Ibid.,p.,.
.C.FlamanL,LArtdeseconserverensanteou|eMedecndeso-mme(Paris,6:),
p.8.
.Rouvroy,Memores,:.
6.1.Iommius,Tab|eaudesma|adesouLescrptonexactedetoutes|esma|adesqu
attaquent|ecorpshuman(6LhccnLury)(Paris,,6o),p.o8.
,.N. A.dclaFramboisicrc,Oeuvres(Iyon,66[66]),p.:6.
8.1.Riolan,Artsbenemedenmethodusgenera|s(Paris,68),pp.,,6.
.P.dcILoilc,Regstre-1ourna|duncureux(6Lh,LhccnLury),in1.-F.Michaud
and 1.-1.-F. PoujoulaL, cds., Nouve||e Co||ecton de Memores pour servr |hstore de
Francedepus|eX!!!esc|eusqunosours,sLscrics(Paris,868),::.
:o.C.PaLin,Lettres(,LhccnLury)(Paris,86),:::o8.
:. H. dc MonLcux, Conversatons de sante et Pro|ongaton de ve. Lvre jort ut|e et
necessare(Paris,,:[6]),p.o8.
212 6. The Plural of Fat
::. M. FLLmullcr, Ia corpulcncc, in Pratque speca|e de medecne sur |es ma|ades
propresdeshommes,desjemmesetdespettsenjants(Iyon,6[6]),p..
:. 1. Dcvaux, Le Medecn de so-mme, ou |art de se conserver |a sante par |nstnct
(Icidcn:Claudc1ordan,,68,),p.6.
:. 1. Riolan, Manue| anatomque et patho|ogque au Abrege de toute |anatome et
des usages que |on en peut trer pour . . . |a guerson des ma|ades (Paris, 66 [68]),
p..
:.I.DcDicmcrbrocck,LAnatomeducorpshuman(Paris,,:[688]).
:6. Fabricc dc Haldan, Opera observatonum et curatonum medco-chrurgcarum,
quaeexstantomna(FrankurL,68:),p.:.
:,.FLLmullcr,Pratquespeca|e,p.68.
:8.S.SancLorio,Methodvtandorumerrorumomnumqunartemedcacontngunt
(Vcnicc,6o[6o]),p..
:.W.CharlcLon,Fxerctatonesdeoeconomaanma|novsnmedcnahypothesbus
superstructa,Fdtonovssma(Iondon,68).
o.Cl.PcrraulL,FssasdephysqueouRecue|dep|useurstratestouchant|eschoses
nature||es(Paris,68o688),::.
.SccM.Malpighi,Lscoursanatomquesur|astructuredesvscres,savordujoye,
ducerveau,desrens,de|aratte,dupo|peducoeuretdespou|mons(Paris68[66]).
:.PcrraulL,Fssasdephysque,::.
.Parc,LesOeuvresdvseesen.8|vres,p.o,.
.Iommius,Tab|eaudesma|ades,p.:o.
.SccHydropsiccxLraordinaric,in1ourna|demedecne(6,)::,8.
6.Ibid.,p.:.
,.Dcvaux,LeMedecndeso-mme,p.8.
8.FLLmullcr,Pratquespeca|e,:66.
.1.IhcrmiLc,LePassetemps(6LhccnLury)(Ccncva:SlaLkinc,,),p..
o.Parc,LesOeuvresdvseesen.8|vres,p.o.
.Framboisicrc,Oeuvres,p.o,.
:.I.Rivicrc,Observatonsdemedecne(Iyon,,:[6]),p.o.
.T.Sydcnham,Lepodagraethydrope(Iondon,68).
.Rivicrc,Observatons,p.6:.
. F. S. W. dc BayrcuLh, Memores (:,o:,.) (Paris: Mcrcurc dc Francc, 6,),
p.6.
6.M. A.Scvcrini,Leabscessuumrecondtanatura(Iyon,,:[6:]),p.:o,.
,. T . Campanclla, La Cte du so|e| ou !dee dune Repub|que ph|osophque (6),
invoyagesauxpaysdenu||epart(Paris:RobcrLIaonL,o),p.:6.TcinhabiLanLs
o Lhc CiLy o Lhc Sun ncvcr havc gouL, rhcumaLism, inammaLion, sciaLica, colic,
hydropy,orgas.
8.A.FurcLicrc,CouLLc,inLctonnareunverse|contenantgenera|ementtous|es
motsjranas(Paris,,o).
.1.Fcrncl,Chrurge(Toulousc,66,[o]),p..
o.A.duIaurcns,Oeuvres(Iyon,,Roucn,6:),p.:.
7. Exploring Images, Dening Terms 213
.Framboisicrc,Oeuvres,p.6,,.
:.Ibid.,p.:.
.Ibid.,p..
.T.Sydcnham,Tratede|agoutte(68),inOeuvresdemedecnepratque(Paris,
86),::.
.Framboisicrc,Oeuvres,p.6,.
6.Sydcnham,Tratede|agoutte,p..
,.P.Dubc,Ma|adesdespauvres(Paris,68o[6o]),p.:o.
8. 1ourna| de sante de Lous X!v, ecrt par va||ot, Laqun et Fagon (Xv!!e et Xv!!!e
sc|e),cd.S.Pcrcz(Crcnoblc:1crmcMillon,:oo),p.:,.
.Framboisicrc,Oeuvres,p.6,.
6o.P.Pigray,Fptomedespreceptesdemedecneetdechrurge(Roucn,6[6o8]),
p.,.
6.Sydcnham,Tratede|agoutte,p..
7. Exploring Images, Dening Terms
.I.Cuyon,LesLversesLeons(Iyon,6o),p..
:.SccN.IayncricDagcn,L!nventonducorps(Paris:Flammarion,,)ancsscn-
LialLcxLorundcrsLandingLhccmcrgcnccoancwbodywiLhRcnaissanccpainLing.
. 1. Halc, La Cv|saton de |Furope |a Renassance (Paris: Pcrrin, 8), p. .
1ohnR.Halc,TeCv|zatonojFuropentheRenassance(NcwYork:Scribncr,,
).
.SccIcsvoicsdclamuLaLion,inP.FrancasLcl,LaFgureet|eLeu.Lordrevsue|
duQuattro-cento(Paris:Callimard,6,),p.,8.
.Scc1.Ccrard,LaNatureest|esProdges(Ccncva:Droz,6),p.,.
6.SccDicupcrmcLquclcscnanLsimparaiLscLmonsLrucuxdcccLLcsorLcsoi-
cnLcngcndrcsoupourchLicrlcscrimcsoucnsigncduncpuniLionprochainc,ibid.,
p.o.Sccalso1.-1.CourLinc,IcCorpsinhumain,in1.-1.CourLinc,A.Corbin,and
C.Virgarcllo,cds.,Hstoreducorps,vol.:Le|aRenassanceauxLumres(Paris:Scuil,
:oo).
,.H.Bosch,TeHaywagon(oilonpancl,oo),Madrid,PradoMuscum.
8.I.Cranach,Herzog1ahannsdesPestandgen(oil,:,Coburg),1ohannFredrchs
desCrosmutgen(oil,),Tokyo.
.U.Cra,TewtchesSabbath(),Vicnna,AlbcrLinaCallcry.
o.C.dcllaPorLa,LaPhysonomehumane(Roucn,6[86]),pp.:o.
. I. Cranach, Lem Ka|varenberg (cngraving, o), Nurnbcrg, Ccrmanischcs
NaLionalmuscum, scc 1. 1ahn, :,.:,,. Lucas Cranach L. A. Las gesamte graphshe
werk(Munich:RogncrandBcrnhard,,:),p.,.
:. A. Durcr, A Pg Man Pejore a Mrror, ink drawing (n.d.), Cdansk Municipal
Muscum.SccalsoinLasgesamtegraphschewerkHandzechnungen(Munich:Rogncr
andBcrnard,,),:,:.
.A.Durcr,womenPathng,inkdrawing(6),KunsLhallcMuscum,Brcmcn.
214 7. Exploring Images, Dening Terms
. C. Mcllin, A|essandro de| Porro (6o), Ccmaldcgalcric, Bcrlin. I Lhank Ccncv-
icvcandScrgcKosLcrorLcllingmcabouLLhisparLicularlysLrikingpainLing.
. Scc Lhc commcnLary insisLing on Lhc sLaging o Lhc picLorial spacc, in M. C.
Bcardslcy, Aesthetcs. Prob|ems n the Ph|osophy oj Crtcsm (Ncw York: HarcourL
Bracc,8),p.oo.
6. PcLcr Paul Rubcns, Te Fa|| oj the Lamned (686:o), Munich, AlLc Pina-
koLhck,StudesjorTeFa||ojtheLamned(6,),Iondon,BriLishMuscum.
,. R. dc Pilcs, Lssertaton sur |es ouvrages des p|us jameux pentres (Paris, 68),
p.8:.
8.Ibid.,p.o.
.Rubcns,TeLrunkenS|enus(66),Munich,AlLcPinakoLhck.
:o.Ibid.Rubcns,Pacchus(6),SL.PcLcrsburg,HcrmiLagc.
:.SccN.IayncricDagcn,Rubens(Paris:Hazan,:oo),p.:o.
::.SccS.Alpcrs,LaCreatondeRubens(Paris:Callimard,6),p.8.SvcLlanaAlp-
crs,TeMakngojRubens(NcwHavcn:YalcUnivcrsiLyPrcss,).
:.SccF.Baudoin,RubenssHouse.ASummaryCude(Anvcrs,6,).
:.C.NcrcL,PeterPau|Rubens.Homrede|apenture(Paris:IcMondc,:oo8),p..
:.P.Muray,LaC|oredeRubens(Paris:CrasscL,),p..
:6.Scc1.FoucarLand1.Tuillicr,Rubens.Laga|eredeMedcs(Paris:RobcrLIa-
onL,6).
:,. A. Fclibicn, Fntretens sur |es ves et sur |es ouvrages des p|us exce||ents pentres
ancensetmodernes(Paris,,:[,o]),::.
:8.Rubcns,TeCardenojLove(6o),Madrid,PradoMuscum.
:.Ibid.,Studyojawoman(6o),RoLLcrdam,BoymansvanBcuningcnMuscum.
o.Ibid.,TeHoneysuck|ePower(6o),Munich,AlLcPinakoLhck.
.SccDagcn,Rubens,p.:o,lcsymbolcdclcncrgicdclavic.
:.SccAbrahamPosse.Savantgraveur,caLalogucdcxposiLion(Paris,BNF,:oo).
. Scc Lhc cgy o aL William in Lhc cngraving Hote| de Pourgogne (66),
ibid.,p..
.Fe|xetTomasP|atterMontpe||er(MonLpcllicr,8:[:,]),
p.8,.
.P.Ronsard,Cayetes(8),Oeuvrescomp|tes(Paris:Callimard,),:.
6. F. Rabclais, Quart Lvre (:), in Oeuvres Comp|tes (Paris: Callimard, ),
p.,:.
,.1.IicbaulL,TrosLvresde|embe||ssementetornementducorpshuman,prsdu
|atndeM.1eanLebaut, . . .etjactjranas(Paris,8:),p.6.
8. C. TallcmanL dcs Rcaux, Hstorettes (,Lh ccnLury) (Paris: Callimard, 6o),
:::,.
. IcLLcr o AugusL :, ,, in Lettres nedtes de Madame de Mantenon et de
Madamedes0rsns(Paris,8:6),:8.
o.M.IisLcr,voyagedeLsterParsen:,8(Paris,8,),p..
.C.PaLin,Lettres(,LhccnLury)(Paris,86),p.:.
:.R.dcPilcs,Coursdepentureparprncpes(Paris,,o8),p.6.
.SccP.Rambourg,Mangcrgras,lard,saindoux,bcurrccLhuilcdanslcsLraiLcs
dc cuisinc, du Moycn gc au XXc sicclc, in 1. Cscrgo, cd., Trop gros? Lobeste et ses
representatons(Paris:AuLrcmcnL,:oo).
.M.Charas,Pharmacopeeroya|e(Paris,6,o),p..
.1.Dclumcau,MobiliLcsocialc:RichcscLpauvrcslcpoqucdclaRcnaissancc,
inOrdresetC|asses,co||oquedhstoresoca|e,Sant-C|oud,..,ma:,,(Paris:Mou-
Lon,,),p.:.
6. 1.-I. Flandrin and M.-Cl. Phan, Ics mcLamorphoscs dc la bcauLc cmininc,
Hstore,1unc8.
,.LesCentNouve||esNouve||es,inConteursjranasduXv!esc|e(Paris:Callimard,
6),p.o.
8.Ibid.,p.,.
.B.DcsPcricrs,LesNouve||esRecreatonset1oyeuxLevs(8),inConteursjran-
asduXv!esc|e,p.8.
o.1.RcgnaulLdcScgrais,Honorne(66),inNouve||esduXv!!esc|e(Paris:Cal-
limard,,),p.:,8.
.IcLLcro1anuary6,6,:,inM.dcRabuLin-ChanLal,marquiscdcScvignc,Cor-
respondance(Paris:Callimard,,:),:.
:.IcLLcro1unc,6,,,ibid.,::.
.IcLLcroAugusL6,6,,,ibid.,::,.
.IcLLcroOcLobcr8,688,ibid.,::,o.
.IcLLcroAugusL,6,,,ibid.,:::.
6.IcLLcro1uly,6,,,ibid.,::8:.
,.IcLLcro1uly::,6,6,ibid.,::.
8.IcLLcro1uly8,6,6,ibid.,::.
.IcLLcro1unc:,6,6,ibid.,::,.
6o.IcLLcroMarch::,6,6,ibid.,:::6.
6.IcLLcro1unc,6,,,ibid.,::6:.
6:.IicbaulL,Tros|vres,p..
6.S.dcCyranodcBcrgcrac,ConLrcungroshommc(c.66),Oeuvrescomques,
ga|anteset|tterares(Paris,88),p..
6.A.FurcLicrc,LeRomanbourgeos,ouvragecomque(666),inRomancersduXv!!e
sc|e(Paris:Callimard,8),p.o::.
6. 1.-B. Poquclin, diL Molicrc, L!mpromptu de versa||es (66), Tetre comp|et
(Paris:Carnicr,),p.::.
8. Constraining the Flesh
.1.Cardan.Mave(6LhccnLury)(Paris:Bclin,),pp.:.
:.Ibid.,p..
.B.CasLiglionc,LeLvreducourtsan(Paris:Flammarion,[:8]),p.:o.
. C. TallcmanL dcs Rcaux, Hstorettes (,Lh ccnLury) (Paris: Callimard, 6o),
:,.
216 8. Constraining the Flesh
.I.Paris,Negocatons,Lettresetpcesdversesre|atvesaurgnedeFranos!!(Paris,
8),p.,8.SccalsoS.douard,LeCorpsdunerene.Hstoresngu|redF|sabethde
va|os,:,:,8(Rcnncs:PrcsscsunivcrsiLaircsdcRcnncs,:oo),p.,.
6. IcLLcr o Novcmbcr ,, 6,, in M. dc RabuLin-ChanLal, marquisc dc Scvignc,
Correspondance(Paris:Callimard,,:),p.6.
,.C. .dOrlcans,princcsscPalaLinc,Correspondancecomp|te(Paris,8),::.
8.Ibid.,:::,.
.P.duMoulin,LaPh|osophedvseeentrospartes,savor,e|ementsde|a|ogque,
|aphysqueouscencenature||e,|ethqueouscencedemora|e(Roucn,66[68]),p.,o.
o.TeLaryojSamue|PepysM.A.F.R.S.(8:)(Iondon:CcorgcBcll,8),April
,66.
. In Lhc cnLry or ScpLcmbcr :, 66,, Pcpys is surpriscd by Lhc kings curiosiLy
abouLhiswcighLlossromplayingLcnnisandbyhisdcsircLobcwcighcd:BuLLhis
puLsmcinmindowhaLIobscrvcdinLhcmorning,LhaLLhcKingplayingaLLcnnis
hadasLcclc-yardcarricdLohim,andIwasLoldiLwasLowcighhimaLcrhchaddonc
playing, and aL noon Mr. Ashburnham Lold mc LhaL iL is only Lhc Kings curiosiLy,
whichhcusuallyhaLhowcighinghimsclbcorcandaLcrhisplay,Loscchowmuch
hcloscsinwcighLbyplaying,andLhisdayhclosL/:lbs.TrtNs.
:. P. BraunsLcin, cd., 0n banquer ms nu. Autobographe de Matthaus Schwarz,
banquerdAugsbourg(6LhccnLury)(Paris:Callimard,:),p..
.SccP.ManLcllicr,McmoircsurlavalcurdcsprincipalcsdcnrccscLmarchandiscs
quiscvcndcnLouscconsommcnLcnlavillcdOrlcans,aucoursdcsXIVc,XVc,XVIc,
XVIIc,cLXVIIIcsicclcs,Memorede|aSocetedarcheo|ogede|Or|eanas(86:)::o6,.
.D.ScnncrL,Medcnapractca,Tomusprmus(Iyon,6:),p.:.
.D.Panarolo,Po|ycarpopona,seuvarorumjructuum|abores . . .opusph|osophs,
atrs,a|squeph|oponsadmodumut|e(Romc,6,).
6.M.FLLmullcr,Pratquespeca|edemedecnesur|esma|adespropresdeshommes,
desjemmesetdespettsenjants(Iyon,6[6]),p.6.
,. A. Ic Fournicr, La Lecoraton dhumane nature et ornement des dames (Paris,
:).
8. 1. IicbaulL, Tros |vres de |embe||ssement et ornement du corps human, prs du
|atndeM.1eanLebaut, . . .etjactjranas(Paris,8:),p..
. I. Cuyon, Le Cours de medecne en jranas contenant mror de beaute et sante
corpore||e(Iyon,66[6:]),::.
:o.IicbauilL,Tros|vres,p..
:.M.dcRomicu,!nstructonspour|eseunes||espar|amreet||eda||ance(Paris:
NizcL,:[,] . . .),p.,.
::.C.dcllaPorLa,Lehumanaphysonoma(Naplcs,686),p..
:.C.dcllaPorLa,Le||asonomade||huomo(Vcnicc,6),pp.8.
:.ForancarlicrcxLcnsivcdcvclopmcnLoLhisLhcmc,sccC.Vigarcllo,Hstorede
|abeaute(Paris:Scuil,:oo).
:.O.dcScrrc,LeTetredagrcu|tureetmesnagedeschamps(Paris,6oo),scccspc-
ciallyCardcrlaaccduhaslcandBlanchirlcsmainsinchapLcr8.
:6.Scc,orcxamplc,C.Ccsncr,TresordeFvonmePh|atredesremdessecrets(Iyon,
[:]).
:,.M.dcMonLaignc,Fssas(Paris:Callimard,8[]),p.,.
:8.IcLLcro1unc:,,,inP.lArcLin,inLettres(Paris:Scola,88),p..
:.Ibid.
o.Ibid.
.I.Cornaro,Le|asobrete.Conse|spourvvre|ongtemps(Crcnoblc:1crmcMil-
lon,[8]),p..
:.I.Icssius,Conse|spourvvre|ongtemps(Crcnoblc:1crmcMillon,[6]),
p..
.B.DcsPcricrs,LesNouve||esRecreatonset1oyeuxLevs(8),inConteursjran-
asduXv!esc|e(Paris:Callimard,6),p.o.
.Ibid.,p.8.
.SccR.andM.WiLLkowcr,LesFnjantsdeSaturne.Psycho|ogeetcomportementdes
artstes,de|Antqute|aRevo|utonjranase(Paris:Macula,8),p.,MargoLand
RudolWiLLkowcr,Porn0nderSaturn.TeCharacterandConductojArtsts(NcwYork:
NYRBClassics,:oo6[6]).
6.Cornaro,Le|asobrete,p.:.
,.1.Hcroard,1ourna|(,LhccnLury)(Paris:Fayard,8),p.6:.
8.Cuyon,LeCoursdemedecne,:::.
.N. A.dclaFramboisicrc,Oeuvres(Iyon,66[66]),p.6.
o.N.dclaMarc,Tratede|apo|ceou|ontrouvera|hstoredesonetab|ssement|es
jonctons et |es prerogatves de ses magstrats, toutes |es |os et tous |es rg|ements qu |a
concernent(Paris,,::[,o]),::,:.
.Ibid.,::,o.
:.Ibid.,:,.
.SccH.dcMonLcux,ConversatonsdesanteetPro|ongatondeve.Lvrejortut|e
etnecessare(Paris,,:[6]),p..
.AnopinionsharcdbyallFuropcandocLors.SccDicL,inP.Farlc,TeMakngoj
theFng|shMdd|eC|ass.Pusness,SocetyandFam|yLjenLondon(:o:,o),(Bcrkc-
lcy:UnivcrsiLyoCaliorniaPrcss,8),p.:,:.
.Cuyon,LeCoursdemedecne,::o8.
6.P.Pigray,Fptomedespreceptesdemedecneetdechrurge(Roucn,6[6o8]),
p.,.
,.N.Icmcry,Pharmacopeeunverse||econtenanttoutes|escompostonsdepharma-
cequsontenusagedans|amedecne(AmsLcrdam,,8[6,]),pp.,:,,o,.
8.Framboisicrc,Oeuvres,p..
.Re|atonsdesambassadeursta|enssur|esaaresdeFranceauXv!esc|e,recue|-
|esparM. N.Tommaseo(Paris,88),::.
o.F.Rabclais,Cargantua(),OeuvresComp|tes(Paris:Callimard,),p.86.
.DOrlcans,Correspondancecomp|te,p..
:.A.dcBandolc,LesPara|||esdeCesaretdeHenr!v(Paris,6o),p.:.
.FLLmullcr,Pratquespeca|edemedecne,p.6,:.
218 8. Constraining the Flesh
.Framboisicrc,Oeuvres,p.o.
.M.-M.dcCaylus,SouvenrsdeMadamedeCay|us(8LhccnLury)(Paris:Mcrcurc
dcFrancc,86),p.:o.
6. P. Alpino, Hstore nature||e de |Fgypte. :,8::,8 (Cairo: InsLiLuL ranais
darchcologicoricnLalc,,),:6o.
,.IcLLcroOcLobcr:,6,,inRabuLin-ChanLal,Correspondance,:6o.
8.F.Rodocanachi,LaFemmeta|enne|epoquede|aRenassance.Saveprveeet
mondane,sonnuencesoca|e(Paris:HachcLLc,o,),p.o.
.mcry,NouveauRecue|decurostesraresetnouve||esdesp|usadmrab|eseetsde
|anatureetde|art(Paris,68),p.8.
6o.IicbaulL,Tros|vres,p.,.
6.Ibid.
6:. On lcmons, scc P. Iaszlo, Ctrus. A Hstory (Chicago: UnivcrsiLy o Chicago
Prcss,:oo8).
6.R.dcBussy-RabuLin,HstoreamoureusedesCau|es(Paris:Carnicr,6,[66]),
p..
6.C.dcTallcmanLdcsRcaux,Hstorettes(,LhccnLury)(Paris:Callimard,6o),
:::,.
6.Ibid.,::.
66.Ibid.,::6.
6,.M.Charas,Pharmacopeeroya|e(Paris,6,o),p.8.
68.B.CasLiglionc,LeLvreducourtsan(Paris:Flammarion,[:8]),p.:.
6. CiLcd by 1. Dclumcau, La Cv|saton de |a Renassance (Paris: ArLhaud, 6,),
p.,.
,o.BranLmc,Recue|desdames(6LhccnLury)(Paris:Callimard,),p.8.
,.IicbaulL,Tros|vres,p..
,:.SccalsoA.Croix,DcladicrcncclinLolcrancc,in1.-P.Riouxand1.-F.Siri-
nclli,cds.,Hstorecu|ture||ede|aFrance,vol.:,Le|aRenassance|aubedesLumres
(Paris:Scuil,,),p..
,.C.dcMinuL,Le|abeaute.Lscoursdvers.Avec|aPau|egrapheouLescrptondes
beautezduneLameTo|osane,nommee|abe||ePau|e(Toulousc:B.HonoraL,8,),p.:.
,.C.Vcrccllio,Costumesancensetmodernes(Paris,8o[o]),::,:::6.
,.Fournicr,LaLecoraton,p..
,6.1.IicbaulL,Tresordesremdessecretspour|esma|adesdesjemmes(Paris,68),
p.,:.
,,.ScccnLricsor:inP.dclLoilc,Regstre-1ourna|deHenr!vetdeLousX!!!
(,LhccnLury),inMichaudandPoujalcL,cds.,NouvcllcCollccLion,op.ciL.,:cscric,L,
I,dcuxicmcparLic,p.:.
,8.Scc1.-B.Poquclin,diLMolicrc,Tetrecomp|et(Paris:Carnicr,),p.,.
,.SccA.Blanc,cd.,TetreduXv!!esc|e(Paris:Callimard,86),::68.
8o.1.IicbaulL,Quatre|vresdesma|adesetnrmtezdesjemmes(Roucn,6Lhccn-
Lury),(Paris,6),p.,:6.
8.IicbaulL,Tresor,p.,:6.
9. Inventing Nuance 219
8:.TallcmanLdcsRcaux,Hstorettes,:6o.
8.Ibid.
8.Fe|xetTomasP|atterMontpe||er(MonLpcllicr,8:[:,]),
p. o8. Scc also F. Iibron and H. ClouzoL, Le Corset dans |art et |es moeurs du X!!!e
au XXe sc|e (Paris, ). In Lhis book, sLill Lhc mosL inormcd on Lhc subjccL, Lhc
auLhorsundcrlinccorrccLlyLhaLbcorcLhcsixLccnLhccnLurymosLallsLrappingpro-
ccdurcsmadcuscoonlyasimplcbclL.
8.Re|atonsdesambassadeurs,::.
86.MonLaignc,Fssas,p.8.
8,.Vcrcillio,Costumes,:::66.
88.SccLeLvrecommodecontenant|esadresses(Paris,6:),::6.
8.1aubcrL,Lctonnarerasonneetunverse|desartsetmeters(Paris,,,),:,6.
o.MadamcdcMainLcnon,quoLcdinIibronandClouzoL,LeCorset,p.:.
. IcLLcr o March , 66, Lo P. H. Coulangcs, in RabuLin-ChanLal, Correspon-
dance,:8.
9. Inventing Nuance
.1oscphAddison,Spectator,no.:,Tursday,March:,,.
:.SccI.Dacomc,IivingwiLhLhcChair:ProvaLcFxcrcLa,CollccLivcHcalLh,and
McdicalAuLhoriLyinLhcFighLccnLhCcnLury,ScenceHstoryPub|catons(),no.
:6(Dcccmbcr:oo):6,oo.ILhankRaaclMandrcssiorbringingLhisLcxLLomy
aLLcnLion.
.B.Robinson,ALssertatonontheFoodandLschargesojHumanPodes(Dublin,
,,).1.Iining,FxLracLoLhcIcLLcrsromDr.1ohnIining,Ph|osophca|Transac-
tonsojtheRoya|SocetyojLondon(,,):8.
.1.Floycr,ATreatseojtheAsthma(Iondon,68),p.:8.
.T.Scckcr,Lsputatomedcanaugura|sdemedcnastatca(Icydcn,,:).C.Ryc,
Medcna statca Hbernca, Or Statca| Fxperments to Fxamne and Lscover the !nsen-
sb|eTranspratonojTeHumanPody(Dublin,,).
6.1.Icupold,Teatrummachncorum(Icipzig,,:6).
,. P. Burguburu, Balanccs publiqucs, Revue de metro|oge pratque et |ega|e (1uly
):::.
8. F. M. AroucL dc VolLairc, Mcromegas (,:), in Romans et contes (Paris, ),
p.6.1.SwiL,Cu||versTrave|s(NcwYork:NorLon,:oo[,:6]).
.1ourna|demedecne,,,,,6o,,6:.
o. Scc cspccially his inLcrvcnLions in Lhc amous 1can Calas casc, 1.-B. lic dc
BcaumonL,Choxdep|adoyersetmemores(Paris,8:).
.D.Tcysscirc,cd.,Obseetmpussant.Ledossermedca|dF|edePeaumont,:,,
:,,(Crcnoblc:1crmcMillon,).
:.Tisgurcalonc,wiLhouLacorrcspondingmcasurcmcnLohcighL,hasbccomc
asignopaLhologyLoday,buLcigLccnLh-ccnLuryculLurcwassLillrclaLivclyindicrcnL
LoLhcrclaLionshipbcLwccnhcighLandgirLh.
220 9. Inventing Nuance
.Tcysscirc,Obseetmpussant,p.8.
.SccA.Cucrrini,ObestyandLepressonntheFn|ghtenment.TeLjeandTmes
ojCeorgeCheyne(OklahomaCiLy:UnivcrsiLyoOklahomaPrcss,:ooo),p.8.
.SccB.Kisch,Sca|esandweghts.AHstorca|Out|ne(NcwHavcn:YalcUnivcr-
siLyPrcss,6),p.,6.
6.M.Flcmyng,ALscourseontheNature,CausesandCureojCorpu|ency,||ustrated
by a Remarkab|e Case, Read bejore the Roya| Socety, November :,,,, and now rst Pub-
|shed(Iondon,,6o).
,. C. I. Buon, Le |homme, in Oeuvres comp|tes (Paris, 86 [,,6,, ,,,]),
:o:.
Oncpoundcquals.6ograms,andpoundisLhcLranslaLionoLhcFrcnch|vre,
howcvcrLhcFrcnch|vreisacLuallyoograms(i.c.,halakilo).TrtNs.
8.F.BoissicrdcSauvagcs,Noso|ogemethodquedans|aque||e|esma|adessontran-
geesparc|asses(Paris,,,o,,),::,,.
.IouisRcncVillcrmcposscsscdLhcunpublishcdmanuscripLoTcnon.Adolphc
QucLclcL,whowasgivcnLhcmanuscripLbyLhisParisiansavanL,publishcdLhcrcsulLs
in86inPhysquesoca|eouFssasur|edeve|oppementdesjacu|tesde|homme(Brus-
scls,86),::o.
:o.C. I.Buon,ProbabiliLc,inD.DidcroLand1.IcRonddAlcmbcrL,cds.,Fncy-
c|opede ou dctonnare rasonne des scences, des arts et des meters (Paris: ,,,:),
:,:6. For an onlinc vcrsion o Lhc Fncyc|opede, scc hLLp://cncyclopcdic.uchicago.
cdu/. Scc also C. Icclcrc, LObservaton de |homme. 0ne hstore des enqutes soca|es
(Paris:Scuil,,).
:. P. dc Marivaux, Le Paysan parvenu (,), in Romans (Paris: Callimard, ),
p.,.
::.P.dcMarivaux,Levoyageurdans|enouveaumonde(,),ibid.,pp.:.
:.Scc,DclajcuncssccLdclavicillcssc,inC.IavaLcr,Fssassur|aphysognome
destnejareconnotre|hommeet|ejareamer(Paris,,88o[,,:]),plaLcs,:.
:.Ibid.,::8o.
:. Scc D. Chodowiccki, SoldaLs and SuiLc dccclcsiasLiqucs bcrlinois, ibid.,
::.
:6.SccFrancisCrosc,Prncpesdecarcature,suvsdunFssasur|apenturecomque
(Icipzig, n.d.), Ru|es jor drawng carcaturas, wth an essay on comc pantng (Iondon:
SamuclHoopcr,,88).
:,.F. H.Combrich,LArtet|!||uson(Paris:Callimard,,),p..Artand!||uson.
A Study n the Psycho|ogy oj Pctura| Representaton (PrinccLon: PrinccLon UnivcsiLy
Prcss,:ooo[6o]).
:8.1. F.vonCocz,Fxerccesdmagnatondederentscaractresetjormeshumanes
(Paris,,8).
:.OnLhcLhcmcosingularLypcs,scc1.ScbasLicn,LeCorpsdesLumres.Fman-
cpatonde|ndvduounouve||esservtudes?(Paris:Bclin,:oo6).ILisaLLhissamcLimc
LhaLindividualcriLcriaobcauLybcginLobcasscrLcd.SccIabcauLcdclindividu,
inC.Vigarcllo,Hstorede|abeaute(Paris:Scuil,:oo),p..
o.Scc,inparLicular,Monumentducostume.Lesvnt-quatreestampesdessneespar
Moreau|e1euneen:,,:,8pourservr|hstoredesmodesetducostumedans|eXv!!!e
sc|e(Paris:I.ConqucL,88[,8]).
.Ca|eredesmodes(Paris,8,8888),pl.:.
:.A. 1.Duclos,LePa|pare(c.,,o)(Paris,BNF,dcparLcmcnLdcsFsLampcs).
.OnLhchisLoryoLhcwords|houette,sccLhccnLryinA.Rcy,cd.,Lctonnare
hstorquede|a|anguejranase(Paris:IcRobcrL,:).TcworddocsnoLappcarin
Lhcmid-cighLccnLh-ccnLurycncyclopcdiaoDidcroLandDAlcmbcrL.
.LesCostumesjranasrepresentant|esderentsetatsduroyaumeavec|eshab||e-
mentsproprechaqueetat(Paris,,,6),pl..
.B.CasLiglioni,LeLvreducourtsan(Paris:Flammarion,[:8]),p.:.
6.P.IaTouchc,LesvrasPrncpesde|epeeseu|e(Paris,6,o),p.6.
,. D. Chodowiccki, ALLiLudcs, in C. IavaLcr, Fssas sur |a physognome destne
jareconnotre|hommeet|ejareamer(Paris,,88o[,,:]),::.
8.SccAnglcLcrrc,sccncsdinLcrior,inA.RacincL,LeCostumehstorque(Paris,
888),vol..
.Ca|erede|ancennecourouMemoresetanecdotespourservr|hstoredesrgnes
deLousX!vetdeLousXv(Paris,,8[,86]),8::8.
o. Bcrny dc NogcnL, At|as de portrats et gures de trats et entre|as |a p|ume.
Ouvrageunqueencegenrededeauxamateurs(FrankurL,,6).
.Ibid.SccinLhcsamcscricsLhcporLraiLoRubcnsswic.
10. Stigmatizing Powerlessness
.SccR.Rcy,NassanceetLeve|oppementduvta|smeenFrance,de|adeuxmemote
duXv!!!esc|e|anduPremerFmpre(Oxord:VolLaircFoundaLion,:ooo),p.:6.
:.SccDcsanimauxmachincsauxanimauxscnsiblcs,inLhcappcndixprcparcdby
S.IusLcBoulbinaLhaLaccompanicsD.DidcroL,LeRvedA|embert(Paris:Callimard,
:oo8),p.o.
.S. A.TissoL,Tratedesnerjsetde|eursma|ades(Paris,,,o,,),p..
. Scc Qucllcs vibraLions pcuL-on aLLcndrc dcs brcs lachcs` in A. Ic Camus,
Medecnede|esprt,:vols.(Paris,,6[,]),:.
.Ibid.,::.
6.SccD.Macbridc,!ntroductonmethodque|apratqueet|atheorede|amedecne
(Paris,,8,[,,]),::IcrclchcmcnLcLlinscnsibiliLcsccombincnL.
,.A.dcNoblcvillc,Coursdemedecnepratque(Paris,,8[,6],:,.
8.C.dcPcyssonncl,LesNumeros(Paris,,8),:88.
. Scc D. Tcysscirc, Un mcdccin dans la phasc dc consLiLuLion dc lhygicnismc,
IouisIcpccqdclaClLurc(,68o),inP.Bourdclais,cd.,LesHygenstes.Fneux,
mod|esetpratques(Paris:Bclin,:oo).
o.I.IcPccqdclaClLurc,Co||ectonsdobservatonssur|esma|adesetconsttutons
epdemques(Roucn,,,8),::,:.
.Ibid.,p.8,.
222 10. Stigmatizing Powerlessness
:. 1. Raulin, Trate des aectons vaporeuses du sexe (Paris, ,8), p. :. Raulin
includcsncrvousLcnsion,convulsions,andspasmsascauscsoobsLrucLionand
cvcnLual wcighL gaina claim LhaL rcinLcrprcLs Lhc ncrvous Lcnsion and agiLaLion
aLLribuLcdLoccrLaincxccsscsocivilizaLioninLoapoorlyconLrollcdLcnsionsusccp-
Liblc,paradoxically,oprovokingaLncss(grosseurs).
. Scc Lhc cnLry or ObcsiLc in A. FurcLicrc, Lctonnare unverse| contenant
genera|ementtous|esmotsjranas(Paris,,o).
. 1. IicbaulL uscs Lhc Lcrm in Lhc sixLccnLh ccnLury. OLhcr auLhors such as
T.Vcnncr(varectaadvtam|ongam[Iondon,68])usciLinLhcscvcnLccnLhccnLury.
FormorconLhispoinL,sccS.I.Cilman,Fat.ACu|tura|HstoryojObesty(Cambrigc:
PoliLy,:oo8),p..
.SccLhccnLryorObcsiLcinD.DidcroLand1.IcRonddAlcmbcrL,cds.,Fncy-
c|opedeoudctonnarerasonnedesscences,desartsetdesmeters(Paris:,,,:).
6. ObscrvaLion sur unc cnanL dunc grosscur cxLraordinairc, 1ourna| de mede-
cne,chrurgeetpharmace(,)::.
,. W. Cullcn, F|ements de medecne pratque (Paris, ,8), :::6. W. Cullcn, Frst
LnesojthePractceojPhysc,vols.(Fdinburgh:BcllandBraduLcandWilliamCrccch,
,,,,,,8,,8,,8).
8.I.IcPccqdclaClLurc,Observatonssur|esma|adesepdemques,Annee:,,o
(Paris,,,6),p.,.
. I. dc Prcvillc, Methode asee pour conserver sa sante usqu |extrme ve||esse
(Paris,,:),p.88.
:o.C.vonIinnc(Iinnacus),Systemanaturae(Icydcn,,).SccalsoLhccnLryor
NosologicbyF.DagogncLinD.IccrouL,cd.,Lctonnarede|apenseemedca|e(Paris:
PUF,:oo).
:. F. Boissicr dc Sauvagcs dc la Croix, Noso|oge methodque, ou Lstrbuton des
ma|ades en c|asses, en genres et en espces, suvant |esprt de Sydenham et |a methode
desbotanstes,ovols.(Iyon:1.M.BruyscL,,,:),aFrcnchLranslaLionbyCouviono
LhcIaLinoriginal,Noso|ogamethodcasstensmorborumc|assesgeneraetspecesuxta
sydenhammentemetbotancorumordnem,vols.(AmsLcrdam,,6),::,.
::. 1.-B. Morgagni, Recherches anatomques sur |es |eux et |es causes des ma|ades
(Paris,8,88[,6]),::6.
:. A. Monroc, Hydropsic cxLraordinairc causcc par un cpiploon dcvcnu sLcaLo-
maLcux, in Fssas et Observatons de medecne de |a socete dFdmbourg (Paris, ,,
[,]),:.
:.C.Chcync,TeFng|shMa|ady,oraTreatseojNervousLseasesoja||Knds(Ion-
don,,),p.:6.
:.SccAsoulincrisis,inA.Cucrrini,ObestyandLepressonntheFn|ghtenment.
Te Lje and Tmes oj Ceorge Cheyne (Oklahoma CiLy: UnivcrsiLy o Oklahoma Prcss,
:ooo),pp..
:6.Chcync,TeFng|shMa|ady,p.:8.
:,.D.Tcysscirc,cd.,Obseetmpussant.Ledossermedca|dF|edePeaumont,:,,
:,,(Crcnoblc:1crmcMillon,),p.6.
:8.1.-B.Mohcau,Recherches et Consderatons sur |a popu|aton de |a France(Paris,
:[,,8]),p.:8.A.Burguicrc,IcprcLrc,lcprincccLlaamillc,inA.Burguicrc,
C.Klapisch-Zubcr,M.Scgalcn,andF.Zonabcnd,cds.,Hstorede|ajam||e(Paris:Ic
IivrcdcPochc,[86]),:8.
:.1.-1.Fxpilly,AvcrLisscmcnL,Lctonnarehstorque,geographqueetpo|tquede
|aCau|eetde|aFrance(Paris,,6,),:n.p.
o.Tcysscirc,Obseetmpussant,p.6:.
.D.DidcroL,LesPouxndscrets(Paris:Callimard,[,8]),p.,.Te!nds-
creet1ewe|s,Lrans.SophicHawkcs(Vcnicc:Marsilio,).
:..Raunic,ChansonnerhstorqueduXv!!!esc|e(Paris,8,),6::,.
.SccIasubordinaLionimpaLicnLc,inP.CoubcrLandD.Rochc,LesFranaset
|AncenRegme,vol.:,Cu|tureetSocete(Paris:ArmandColin,8),p.6.
.R.CharLicr,LesOrgnescu|ture||esde|aRevo|utonjranase(Paris:Scuil,),
p. 6:. 1. Nicolas, La Rebe||on jranase, :::,8, (Paris: Callimard, :oo8), p. 8.
T.WrighL,CarcatureHstoryojtheCeorges(Iondon,86,[88]),p.vi.
. W. HogarLh, Le Panc des magstrats (,8), cLching, BNF, dcparLcmcnL dcs
FsLampcs.W.HogarLh,TeComp|eteFngravngs(Fdison,N1:WcllccL,88).
6.Raunic,Chansonnerhstorque,6::,:,:.
,.LePressor,cLching(,o),Paris:BNF,dcparLcmcnLdcsFsLampcs.
8. Massard, Convo dun jermer genera| (,), Paris, BNF, dcparLcmcnL dcs
FsLampcs.
.C.Tomas,LaRenesce|erate.Mare-Antonettedans|espamph|ets(Paris:Scuil,
8),p.6.
o.1.dclaVigucric,LousXv!.Lerobenjasant(Monaco:Rochcr,:oo),p..
. Scc Lhc sccrcL corrcspondcncc bcLwccn Maric-Tcrcsc and Lhc CounL o
Mcrcy-ArgcnLcau,ciLcdin1.-C.PcLiLls,LousXv!(Paris:FranccIoisirs,:oo),p.::
Iouis XVI bcgan Lo bc sLucd. WiLhouL aLLaining Lhc Lhickncss o his prccociously
aL broLhcr Lhc CounL o ProvcnccLhc uLurc Iouis XVIII, Lhc gouLy king, |e ro
podagre.
:.Ibid.,p.:8.
.SccLhcwordsoIouisXVabouLgauchereinVigucric,LousXv!,p.:.
. F. dc Hczccqucs, Souvenr dun page (8Lh ccnLury), in A. dc Maurcpas and
F.Brayard,LesFranasvuspareux-mmes.LeXv!!!esc|e(Paris:RobcrLIaonL,8),
p.8.
.OnLhcpcrsonalilLyoIouisXVI,scc.Icvcr,LousXv!(Paris:Fayard,8).
Scc also 1.-D. BourzaL, Les Aprs-Mds de Lous Xv! (Paris: Ia Compagnic liLLcrairc,
:oo8).
6.Nouvcllcsdclacour(,,6),inRaunic,Chansonnerhstorque,:,.
,.SurMonsicurdcMaurcpas,ibid.,::.
8.Noclpourlanncc,,,,ibid.,:.
.SccA.DupraL,HstoredeFrancepar|acarcature(Paris:Iaroussc,),p.6.
o. CiLcd by A. dc Baccquc, Le Corps de |hstore. Metaphores et po|tque (:,,o
:8oo),(Paris:Calmann-Icvy,),p..
224 10. Stigmatizing Powerlessness
11. Toning Up
.D.Tcysscirc,cd.,Obseetmpussant.Ledossermedca|dF|edePeaumont,:,,
:,,(Crcnoblc:1crmcMillon,),pp..
:.Ibid,p..
.SccW.Cullcn,F|ementsdemedecnepratque(Paris,,8),:::.
.A.Baumc,F|ementsdepharmacetheorqueetpratque(Paris,,,o[,6:]),p.o.
.Tcysscirc,Obseetmpussant,p.:.
6.LAvant-Coureur,Fcbruary8,,6o.
,.C. F.Bachcr,Recherchessur|esma|adeschronques,partcu|rementsur|eshydrop-
ses(Paris,,,6),p.8osq.
8.SccA.Monroc(Lhcson),Fssasur|hydropseetsesderentesespces(Paris,,8
[,6]),p..
.SccBalsamiqucs,inD.DidcroLand1.IcRonddAlcmbcrL,cds.,Fncyc|opedeou
dctonnarerasonnedesscences,desartsetdesmeters(Paris:,,,:),::.Foran
onlincvcrsionoLhcFncyc|opede,scchLLp://cncyclopcdic.uchicago.cdu/.
o.Ibid.,sccLhccnLryorMcnLhc(BcaumonLindcx).
.Tcysscirc,Obseetmpussant,p.:.
:.A. P.1acquin,Le|asante.Ouvrageut|etout|emonde(Paris,,,[,6:]),p.:,o.
.A.-I.1ourdain,Preceptesdesanteou!ntroductonauLctonnaredesante(Paris,
,,:),p.:.
.C.dcMonLcsquicu,Mespensees(8LhccnLury),inOeuvrescomp|tes(Paris:Cal-
limard,6),p..
.SccTabourcLdcquiLaLion,inAches,AnnoncesetAvsdvers(,6),p.8.
6.SccquiLaLion,inDidcroLandDAlcmbcrL,Fncyc|opede.
,.Tcysscirc,Obseetmpussant,p.:8.
8.Cullcn,F|ements,::.
.Tcysscirc,Obseetmpussant,p.8.
:o.Ibid.,p.6.
:.Cullcn,F|ements,::.
::.SccIcsbainsTurquin,inC.Vigarcllo,LePropreet|eSa|e(Paris:Scuil,8),
p.8.
:.P. 1.MaricdcSainL-Ursins,LAmdesjemmes,ouLettresdunmedecnconcernant
|nuencede|habtdesjemmessur|eursmoeurset|eursante(Paris,8o),p.:.
:. I. dc Prcvillc, Methode asee pour conserver sa sante usqu |extrme ve||esse
(Paris,,:),p.,.
:.1. N.DuorLdcChcvcrny,Memores(8LhccnLury)(Paris:IcsAmisdclhisLoirc,
,o),::::.
:6.P.Pommc,Tratedesaectonsvaporeusesdesdeuxsexes(Paris,,6[,6]),p.:.
:,.C. 1. A.Schwilguc,Tratedematremedca|e(Paris,8o),:::,.
:8.P.BcrLholon,Le|e|ectrcteducorpshuman(Paris,,86[,8o]),::,.
:.Ibid.
o.Ibid.,::88:.
11. Toning Up 225
.Ibid.
:.N.RcLz,Fragmentssur|e|ectrctehumane(AmsLcrdam,,8),p.::.
. W. Buchan, Lomestc Medcne (Iondon, ,,o), vols. Tc rsL Frcnch cdiLion
waspublishcdin,,.ImporLanLcommcnLaricssupplcmcnLLhcLranslaLionby1. D.
Duplanil.
.Ibid.,::.
.Prcvillc,Methode,p.8.
6.Ibid.,p..
,.Ibid.,p.6.
8.Buchan,LomestcMedcne,:6.
.1acquin,Le|asante,p..
o.Buchan,LomestcMedcne,:.
.Prcvillc,Methode,p..
:.C.dcIignc,Memores,LettresetPensees(8LhccnLury)(Paris:FranoisBourin,
8),p.6o.
.1.Boswcll,1ourna|ntmedunme|anco|que,:,.:,8(Paris:HachcLLc,86),
pp.:,,8,.1.Boswcll,London1ourna|,:,.:,(Iondon:Pcnguin,:oo).
.ScclcLLcrorOcLobcro,,,:,inH.Walpolc,Lettres(Paris,8,:[88]),p.8.
.1.-F.MarmonLcl,Memores(8LhccnLury)(Paris,8),:::6.
6.C.Chcync,TeFng|shMa|ady,oraTreatseojNervousLseasesoja||Knds(Ion-
don,,),p.6:,TeFng|shMa|ady(AnnArbor:Scholars,FacsimilcsandRcprinLs),
,6. A scarchablc onlinc vcrsion is availablc Lhrough InLcrncL Archivc (book con-
LribuLor, York UnivcrsiLy Iibrarics): hLLp://www.archivc.org/dcLails/cnglishmalady-
orLoochcyuoL(acccsscdFcbruary,:o:).TcspcllingandpuncLuaLionhavcbccn
modicdLorcccLmodcrnusagc.
,. F. Qucllcr, La Tab|e des Franas. 0ne hstore cu|ture||e (Xvedebut X!Xe sc|e)
(Rcnncs:PrcsscsunivcrsiLaircsdcRcnncs,:oo,),p.6.
8.Ibid.,pp.888.SccS.Mcnncll,A||MannersojFood.FatngandTastenFng|and
and France jrom the Mdd|e Ages to the Present (Urbana: UnivcrsiLy o Illinois Prcss,
).
.P.Vcrri,Operevare,ciLcdinP.Camporcsi,LeCotduchoco|at,Lartdevvreau
Xv!!!esc|e(Paris:Tallandicr,:oo8),p.8.
o.A.IcCamus,Abdeker,ouLartdeconserver|abeaute(Crcnoblc:1crmcMillon,
:oo8[,]).
.Vcrri,Operevare.A.IcCamus,Medecnede|esprt,:vols.(Paris,,6[,]),
:,.
:.Scc,inparLicular,1. F.ChambcrlinandS.I.Cilman,cds.,Legeneraton.TeLark
Sde oj Progress (Ncw York: Columbia UnivcrsiLy Prcss, 8). Tis volumc conLains
Lhc ollowing cssays: HisLory and DcgcncraLion/M. FksLcins, AnLhropology and
DcgcncraLion/1. A. Boon, Sociology and DcgcncraLion/R. A. Nyc, Scxology, Psy-
choanalysis,andDcgcncraLion/S.I.Cilman,BiologyandDcgcncraLion/N.SLcpan,
McdicincandDcgcncraLion/F.T.Carlson,TcchnologyandDcgcncraLion/W.Iciss,
PoliLical Tcory and DcgcncraLion/S. C. Cilman, IiLcraLurc and DcgcncraLion/
226 11. Toning Up
S. Sicgcl, ArL and DcgcncraLion/P. Badc, TcaLcr and DcgcncraLion/S. Williams,
ImagcsandDcgcncraLion/1.F.Chambcrlin.
. 1. 1. Rousscau, Fm|e, ou Le |Fducaton (Paris: Carnicr, n.d. [,6:]), p. ,. 1.-1.
Rousscau,Fm|e,orOnFducaton,Lrans.C.KcllyandA.Bloom(Icbanon,NH:DarL-
mouLhCollcgcPrcss),:oo.
.1. N.Dcmcunicr,LFsprtet|0sagedescoutumesdesderentspeup|es(Iondon,
,,6), :,. Scc also C. Spcnccr, Te Heretcs Feast. A Hstory oj vegetaransm (Icba-
non, NH: UnivcrsiLy Prcss o Ncw Fngland, []), in parLicular To FaL McaL
orNoL`p.:.
. CiLcd by K. Tomas, Lans |e ardn de |a nature. La Mutaton des sensb|tes en
Ang|eterre |epoque moderne (Paris: Callimard, [8] 8), p. :. K. Tomas, Man
andtheNatura|wor|d.ChangngAtttudesnFng|and,:,oo:8oo(Oxord:OxordUni-
vcrsiLyPrcss,6).
6.SccLhccnLryorViandcinVolLairc,Lctonnareph|osophque(,6),Oeuvres
comp|tes(Paris,8:,),::o6.
,.1acquin,Le|asante,p.6.
8. C. I. Buon, Le |homme, in Oeuvres comp|tes (Paris, 86 [,,6,, ,,,]),
:o.
.SccA. I.IavoisicrandA.Scguin,PrcmicrmcmoircsurlarcspiraLiondcsani-
maux,Memoresde|AcademedesScences(,8):,o.
6o.SccF.Hoccr,LaChmeensegneepar|abographe(Paris,86),p.,.
12. The Weight of Figures
.Scc,orcxamplc,LesRecherchesstatstquessur|av||edeParset|esdepartements
de|aSene(Paris,8:).
:.A.Maccary,Tratesur|apo|ysarce(Paris,8),pp.:.
.C.DupuyLrcn,ObscrvaLionssuruncasdcpolysarcic,1ourna|demedecneetde
chrurge:(8o)::6:.
.Maccary,Tratesur|apo|ysarce,pp..
. 1. A. BrillaL-Savarin, Physo|oge du got ou Medtatons de gastronome transcen-
dante(Paris,8:6),vol..
6.A.QucLclcL,Rcchcrchcsurlcpoidsdclhommc,Pu||etnde|Academeroya|ede
Pruxe||es(8:)::o.
,.A.QucLclcL,IcpoidsdclhommcauxdicrcnLsgcs,Anna|esdhygnepub|que
etdemedecne|ega|e(8)::.
8.SccM.Halbwachs,LaTeorede|hommemoyen.FssasurQuete|etet|astatstque
mora|e(Paris:Alcan,).
.SccM.-N.BourgucL,Lechrer|aFrance.Lastatstquedepartementa|e|epoque
napo|eonenne(Paris:diLionsdcsArchivcsconLcmporaincs,8),sccalsoP.Abrams
andM.1anowiLz,cds.,TeOrgnsojPrtshSoco|ogy,:8:,:(Chicago:UnivcrsiLy
oChicagoPrcss,68).
o.QucLclcL,Icpoidsdclhommc,p.o.
.Scc1.-P.Aron,P.DumonL,andF.IcRoyIaduric,Anthropo|ogeduconscrtjran-
as(Paris:MouLon,,:),p.6.
:.Ibid.
. V. Cazcnavc, Recrutement de |armee, Contngent de |a c|asse de :8o, Leparte-
ment du Nord, Annee :8:, Rapport adresse M. |e prejet du Nord sur |es operatons du
Conse|derevsonpendant|annee:8:,rapportdans|eque|sontexamnees|escausesde
deteroratonsdeshommesdans|esv||esdejabrques,suvdeque|quesconsderatonssur
|esma|adesquentranent|arejorme(Iillc,8:),p.:.
.Physo|ogeduconscrt(Iillc,86),p..
.H.dcBalzac,FugeneCrandet(8),inLaComedehumane(Paris:Callimard,
,),:88.
6.H.dcBalzac,LeCuredeTours(8:),ibid.,:,8.
,..-A.dOsmond,comLcsscdcBoignc,Memores(Paris:McrcurcdcFrancc,,
[o]),::8.
8.F. A.Bardc,Trateencyc|opedquede|artduta||eur(Paris,8),p.o.
.A.Dumas,MesMemores(:8o.:8o)(Paris:RobcrLIaonL,8),p..
:o.1. A.BrillaL-Savarin,Physo|ogedugot(Paris,88),mcdiLaLion::,p.::.
:.SccLhclcLLcro1unco,8o,,inC. C.Byron,Correspondanceunam(Paris:
Calmann-Icvy, ), p. , scc also C. MaLznc, La Letetque de Pyron (Paris: Tablc
rondc,8),p.::.
::.C.dFnncry,CrasetMagres,Pouonereenacte(Paris,88).
:.H.Daumicr,Ticns!poupoulc . . .,LeCharvar,1uly:o,8.
13. Typology Fever
. Ch. Philipon, Physionomics, poscs, gcsLcs, grimaccs, in Musee ou Magasn
comquedePh|pon(Paris,8:8),p..
:. Anonymous, Les Ang|as pents par eux-mmes, Lrans. milc dc Iabcdollicrrc
(Paris: Iouis Curmcr, 8o [8]), H. dc Balzac, Les Franas pents par eux-mmes.
Fncyc|opedemora|edudx-neuvmesc|e(Paris:IouisCurmcr,88:),I.HuarL,
LeMuseumparsen,Hstorephyso|ogque,pttoresque,ph|osophque,grotesquedetoutes
|esbtescureusesdeParsetde|aban|eue(Paris:Bcaugcr,8).
.HonorcdcBalzacisguidcdLhroughouLbyLhczoologicalmcLaphorLhaLLhcwork
oBuonrcvivcdinLhccighLccnLhccnLury.DocsnoLsocicLyashionman,according
LoLhcconLcxLinwhichhclivcs,inLoasmanydicrcnLmcnasLhcrcarcvaricLicsin
zoology`(AvanLpropos,inLaComedehumane[Paris:Callimard,,]).McLaphors
asidc, Lhc projccL clcarly undcrLakcs a complcLc invcnLory o all classicaLions and
caLcgorics. Tc Lypc is a consLanL Lhcmc: Whcn you mccL somconc [un type] in
Paris,iLsnoLaman,iLsaspccLaclcSp|endeursetmsresdescourtsans(8,),ibid.,
:,.
.Scc,inparLicular,S.IcMcn,Icsimagcssocialcsducorps,inA.Courbin,1.-1.
CourLinc,andC.Virgarcllo,cds.,Hstoreducorps,vol.::Le|aRevo|uton|aCrande
Cuerre(Paris:Scuil,:oo).
228 13. Typology Fever
.SccP.Kacncl,Daumicr,aupoinLdcvucdclarLisLccLaupoinLdcvucmoral,
in Laumer, Lecrture du |thographe (Paris: BNF, :oo8). Hcrc, as wiLh Lhc Comede
humane,onchasacascocomedegraphque,p.6.
6.C.Dickcns,TePckwckPapers(Oxord:OxordUnivcrsiLyPrcss,:oo8[86]),
p..
,. Scc Ic bourgcois, in Pb|othque pour rre. Les physo|oges parsennes (Paris,
8o),p.,.
8.Iacmmclaplusmalhcurcuscaumondc,ibid.,p.6.
.MuseeouMagasncomque,p..
o.Ibid.
.Ibid,p.6:.
:. Scc 1.-P. BardcL, Ic lcnL rccul dc la morL, in 1.-P. BardcL and 1. Dupquicr,
cds.,Hstoredespopu|atonsde|Furope,vol.:Lesorgnesauxpremcesde|arevo|uton
demographque(Paris:Fayard,,),p.o.SccalsoS.I.Cilman,Fat.ACu|tura|Hs-
toryojObesty(Cambrigc:PoliLy,:oo8),p.66.
.1. A.BrillaL-Savarin,Physo|ogedugot(Paris,88),mcdiLaLion:,p.:o.
.TisliLcraLurcisbcsLrcprcscnLcdbyLiLlcsromLhc8osLhaLallcaLurcLhc
noLion o physiology: Physo|oge du bourgeos, Physo|oge du bon vvant, Physo|o-
ge de |a |orette, cLc. Scc A. IhcriLicr, cd., Les Physo|oges, Cata|ogue des co||ectons de
|a Pb|othque natona|e (Paris: BiblioLhcquc naLionalc, 8). Scc Lhc liLhographs o
H.DaumicrinLaCarcaturebcLwccn8oand8o.
.F. A.Bardc,Trateencyc|opedquede|artduta||eur(Paris,8),pl.:.
6.A.BcrLall,Icdimanchcparis,inC.Sand,P.Cavarni,1.-1.Champin,BcrLall
(C.-A.dArnould,diLBcrLall),T.Iavallcc,LeLab|ePars,Parset|esParsens(Paris,
8),:oo.
,. H. dc Balzac, !||usons perdues (8), in Oeuvres comp|tes (Paris: Alcxandrc
Houssiaux,:),,:,,wiLhcngravingsbyH.Monnicr.
8.Scc1.DargcnL,LeCorpsobse.Obeste,scenceetcu|ture(Scysscl:ChampVallon,
:oo),p..
.H.dcBalzac,LaMasonNucngen(8,),inLaComedehumane,:.
:o.Ibid.,p.6o:.
:.H.dcBalzac,LePreCorot(8),ibid.,::.
::.H.dcBalzac,Sp|endeursetMsresdescourtsanes,ibid.,:,,6.
:.F.Suc,LesMystresdePars(Paris,8:),:,.
:.H.dcBalzac,L!||ustreCaudssart(8:),inLaComedehumane,::.
:.Ibid.,p.:.
:6.Ibid.,pp..
:,.H.Daumicr,IcdcpuLcvcnLrigoulardachcvanLsaoncLionlcgislaLivcoudigcs-
Livc,LaCarcature,May::,8.
:8.Scc,orcxamplc,H.Daumicr,QuicnvcuL`LeCharvar,1anuary,8.
:.CcLLcadorablcboulccsLccllcdcBoulay,Revuecomque(88):88.
o.1.Mainzcr,Iamarchandcdcpoissons,inLesFranaspentspareux-mmes,
:o.
.H.dcBalzac,Lave||eF||e(86),inLaComedehumane,::.
:.A.-1.-B.ParcnL-DuchLclcL,Le|aprosttutondans|adePars(Paris,8,[86]),
:.
.Ibid.
.Ibid.
.LesFranaspentspareux-mmes,::::.
6.I.HuarL,IagriscLLc,inPb|othquepourrre,p.6.
,.LesFranaspentspareux-mmes,::o:.
8.F.PyaL,IcSolognoL,ibid.,,::.
.Ibid.
o.Ibid.,p.:.
. A. Hugo, France pttoresque ou Lescrpton pttoresque, topographque et stats-
tquedesdepartementsetco|onesde|aFrance(Paris,8),:::6.
:. Scc I. R. Villcrmc, Fxamcn dcs causcs qui dcLcrmincnL unc dicrcncc dc la
morLaliLcdanslcsdivcrsquarLicrsdcPariscLdanslcsgrandcsvillcs,Anna|esdhygne
pub|queetdemedecne|ega|e(8o)::,andTaillcdclhommccnFrancc,Anna|es
dhygnepub|queetdemedecne|ega|e(:):.
.H.dcBalzac,IcNoLairc,inLesFranaspentspareux-mmes,::o,.
. H. dc Balzac, La Femme de trente ans (8:88), in La Comede humane,
::,8.
.1.Cscrgo,QuandlobcsiLcdcsgourmandsdcvicnLuncmaladicdccivilisaLion:
Icdiscoursmcdical,8oo,in1.Cscrgo,cd.,Tropgros?Lobesteetsesrepresenta-
tons(Paris:AuLrcmcnL,:oo),p.6.
6.H.Monnicr,Icbourgcois,inPb|othquepourrre,p..
,.H.dcBalzac,LeContratdemarrage(8),inLaComedehumane,:.
8.H.dcBalzac,LeCabnetdesantques(8,),ibid.,:66.
.C.Charlc,Hstoresoca|ede|aFranceauX!Xesc|e(Paris:Scuil,),p.,.
o.IcsysLcmcancicn,LaCarcature,no.(8).
. Scc, or cxamplc, F. Dcmicr, La France du X!Xe sc|e, :8::,: (Paris: Scuil,
:ooo),p.:::Tcmid-sizcandsmallbourgcoisicndLhcmsclvcscxcludcdromLhc
poliLicalsysLcmbyLhcpollLaxrcgimc.
:.P.-1.SLahl,cd.,Scnesde|avepub|queetprveedesanmaux.Ftudesdemoeurs
contemporans(Paris,8:),:8,,o:.
. Scc, in parLicular, Lhc mcLamorphosis o King Iouis-Philippc inLo a pcar, Le
Charvar,1anuary,,8.
.S.PcyLcl,Physo|ogede|apore(Paris,8:),p.66.
.Balzac,L!||ustreCaudssart,::.
6. NoLc Lhc jackcLs whosc chcsL arcas arc convcx, closcd hcmisphcrcs (Ia Sil-
houcLLc,8o),p.:.Sccalso1.Harvcy,MennP|ack(Chicago:UnivcrsiLyoChicago
Prcss,),p..
,.T.CauLicr,Cavarni,inOeuvrescomp|tes(Paris,86),:n.p.
8.SccLhccnLryorCcinLurc,inA.Dubourg,Lctonnaredesmenages.Repertorede
toutesconnassancesusue||es,Fncyc|opededesv||esetdescampagnes(Paris,86),vol..
230 13. Typology Fever
I. Maigron, Le Romantsme et |a Mode (Paris: Champion, ), p. 6. A. Dumas,
T.CauLicr,andA.Houssayc,Parset|esParsensauX!Xesc|e(Paris,86),p..
.Balzac,LePreCorot,::8,andFugeneCrandet(8),inLaComedehumane,
:o.
6o.Suc,LesMystresdePars,:8o.
6.H.dcBalzac,LePa|deSceaux(8:),inLaComedehumane(Paris:Callimard,
,),::.
6:. CiLcd in 1. Iconard, Archves du corps. La sante au X!Xe sc|e (Rcnncs: OucsL
Francc,86),p.:o6.
6.A.dcVigny,Le1ourna|dunpote(8),inOeuvrescomp|tes(Paris:Callimard,
8),::,.
6.H.Monnicr,SccncsdclavicburcaucraLiquc,inScnespopu|ares(88)
(Paris:F.DcnLu,8,),:8.
6.1ourna|deseunespersonnes(8),::.
66.Balzac,LePreCorot,::8,.
6,.H.dcBalzac,Peatrx(888),inLaComedehumane,::.
68.Ibid.,p..
6.Balzac,LePreCorot,::8,.
,o.Balzac,Peatrx,::,,.
,.Balzac,Lave||eF||e,p.:.
,:. H. dc Balzac, Ia cmmc commc il auL, in Les Franas pents par eux-mmes,
::.
14. From Chemistry to Energy
.Scc,Hydropsic,inCazettemedca|edePars(86)::.
:. 1.-B. Bouillaud, Hydropsics parLicllcs cL obliLcraLions dcs vcincs, Archves
genera|esdemedecne:(8:):o.
.Ibid.,p.:oo.
.Ibid.,p.,.SccalsoA.Drouard,PcrspccLivcshisLoriqucssurlanoLiondcnuLri-
Lion,inF.AudouinandF.Sabban,cds.,0na|mentsandansuncorpssan(Paris:PUF,
:oo,), in parLicular, NuLriLion bccamc a scicncc aL Lhc samc Limc as chcmisLry,
p.,.
.Scc,orcxamplc,LhcchapLcronaLin1.-A.ChapLal,F|ementsdeChyme(Paris,
,6[,o]),:6.
6.SccLhccnLryorFngraisscmcnL,inI.Vivicn,cd.,Courscomp|etdargcu|ture,
ouNouveauLctonnaredagrcu|turetheorqueetpratque(Paris,8).
,.SccIcngraisscmcnLdcsbcsLiaux,inC.-F.Bailly,A.Bixio,andF.Malpcyrc,cds.,
La Nouve||e Mason rustque du X!Xe sc|e, Fncyc|opede dagrcu|ture pratque (Paris,
8),::,.
8.SccLhccnLryorComburanLandLhcrcmarkIavoisicrcallcdoxygcnLhcmosL
cxccllcnLcomburant,in.IiLLrc,Lctonnarede|a|anguejranase(Paris,866).:6,.
TccnLryinLhisdicLionarycanbcconsulLcdaLLhcInLcrncLarchivc,hLLp://archivc.
15. From Energy to Diets 231
org/dcLails/88dicLionnaircoliLLuoL. For oLhcr scarchcs, bcgin aL Lhc Wcb siLc o
Icxilogos:hLLp://www.lcxilogos.com/rancais_modcrnc.hLm.
.1.Iicbig,Chmeorganqueapp|quee|aphyso|geanma|eet|apatho|oge(Paris,
8:[8:,]),p.:.
o.M.Icvy,Tratedhygnepub|queetprvee(Paris,8,[8]),:,oo.
.Iicbig,Chmeorganque,p.o.
:.Ibid.,p.o.
. Scc, 1.-B. Dumas and 1.-B. BoussingaulL, Fssa de statque chmque des tres
organses(Paris,8),p..
.S.CarnoL,Reexonssur|apussancemotrcedujeuetsur|esmachnespropres
deve|oppercettepussance(Paris,8:).
.1.Cruvcilhicr,Tratedanatomepatho|ogquegenera|e(Paris,8),:.
6.Scc,1.-F.BraunsLcin,Proussaset|eMatera|sme,Medecneetph|osopheauXXe
sc|e(Paris:Klincksicck,86).
,. Scc X. BichaL, Trate des membranes (Paris, ,), an VIII. NoLc LhaL Lhc word
structureisuscdsLarLinginarLiclc,p..
8.SccRcmarqucssurlcsaccLionsdcsmcmbrancsmuqucuscs,ibid.,p.,6.
.Cruvcilhicr,Tratedanatome,pp.:.
:o.Icvy,Tratedhygne,::.
:.Ibid.,::.
::. AugusL-Franois Chomcl spcaks o prcdisposiLion (F|ements de patho|oge
genera|e [Paris, 8,]), whilc Michcl Icvy spcaks o immincncc morbidc (Trate
dhygne,p.:8.).
15. From Energy to Diets
. 1. A. BrillaL-Savarin, Physo|oge du got (Paris, 88), mcdiLaLion ::, p. ::.
IimcL, who had a bakcry in Lhc ruc Richclicu in Lhc 8:os, produccd dcluxc brcads
amousorbcinglighLandwhiLc.AchardwasapasLrychcbascdinIyonamousor
hiscookicsandcspcciallyhisvanilla-avorcdwacs.
:. Ibid., mcdiLaLion , p. 6. On Lhc carccr o 1can AnLhclmc BrillaL-Savarin, scc
P. Ory, Le dsours gastronomque jranas, Les orgnes nos ours (Paris: Callimard/
1ulliard,8),cspcciallyIgcdcsphysiologics,p.8.
.BrillaL-Savarin,Physo|ogedugot,mcdiLaLion6,p.,o.
.Ibid.,mcdiLaLion::,p.::6.
.B.ConsLanL,ciLcdbyA. 1.Tudcsq,IaFranccromanLiquccLbourgcoisc,8
88,inC.Duby,cd.,Hstorede|aFrance(Paris:Iaroussc,,),::6o.
6. A. dc Tocqucvillc, Le |a democrate en Amerque (Paris: CF-Flammarion, 8
[8,8o]),volumc:,parL,chapLcr.
,.BrillaL-Savarin,Physo|ogedugot,mcdiLaLion,pp.:,:8.
8.Ibid.
.Ibid.,p.o.
o.Ibid.,mcdiLaLion,p..
232 15. From Energy to Diets
.SccOry,LeLscoursgastronomque,p.,cspcciallyLhccvocaLionoLhcCaLc-
chismcdclarLdcbicnvivrc,byA.-B.-I.CrimoddclaRcynicrc.
:. 1.-P. Aron, Le Mangeur du X!Xe sc|e (Paris: RobcrL IaonL, ,), cspccially
pp.6:and,oonLhcLhcmcobodilyhappincsssubLlyclaimcdbyasocicLydccid-
cdlyulloiLscl.
.Ibid.,p.6.
.A.Dinaux,LesSocetesbadnes,bachques,chantanteset|tterares,Leurhstoreet
|eurstravaux(Paris,86,),:8,.
.I.Cozlan,Pa|zacntme(Paris,866),p..
6. F. and 1. dc ConcourL, 1ourna|. Memores de |a ve |tterare, vol. , :8,::8,
(Paris:RobcrLIaonL,8[88,86]),p.6.
,.Ibid.
8. I. Rcybaud, 1erome Paturot |a recherche dune poston soca|e (Paris, 8),
p.:,.
.F.BriaulL,Parstab|e(Paris,86),p..
:o.SccOry,LeLscoursgastronomque,p.6.
:. A.-B.-I. Crimod dc Rcynicrc, Ics mcdiLaLions dun gourmand, in A|manach
desgourmands(Paris,8o).
::.Scc,P.ParkhursLFcrguson,AccountngjorTaste.TeTrumphojFrenchCusne,
(Chicago:UnivcrsiLyoChicagoPrcss,:),cspcciallyBcLwccnLhcOldRcgimcand
LhcNcw,p.o.
:.M.-A.Carcmc,LArtde|acusnejranaseauX!Xsc|e.Tratee|ementareetpra-
tque,:vols.(Paris,8).
:.Physo|ogedubonvvant(Paris,8),p.6.
:. W. Wadd, LFmbonpont consdere comme ma|ade, avec un examen crtque des
opnons ancennes et modernes re|atves ce suet, ses causes, sa guerson (Paris, 88
[8:]),p.:.W.Wadd,CommentsonCorpu|ency.LneamentsojLeanness,MemsonLet
andLetetcs(Iondon:1.Fbbcrs,8:).
:6.A.Bossu,Anthropo|ogeouFtudedesorganes,jonctons,etma|adesde|hommeet
de|ajemme(Paris,8,[86]),::.
:,.M.Icvy,Tratedhygnepub|queetprvee,dcd.(Paris,8,[8]),:o:.
:8.SccLhccnLryorRcgimc,inM.CourLin,cd,Fncyc|opedemoderneouLcton-
nareabregedesscences,des|ettresetdesarts(Paris,8o).
:.BrillaL-Savarin,Physo|ogedugot,mcdiLaLion:,p.:o.
o.Unccmmclamodc,1ourna|descoeurs,OcLobcr,88,pp.:88.
.C.Sand,Oeuvresautobographques(Paris:Callimard,,o),::,.
:.OnLhchisLoryoLhccorscL,sccF.IibronandH.ClouzoL,LeCorsetdans|artet
|esmoeursduX!!!eauXXesc|e(Paris,).
.Monteursde|amode,AugusLo,8.
.F.BriaulL,IccolcdcnaLaLion,inParstab|e,p.8.
.1. A.BrillaL-Savarin,Physo|ogedugot,mcdiLaLion::,p.:o.
6. . DauranL-Forgucs and 1.-1. Cranvillc, Les Pettes Msres de |a ve humane
(Paris,8),p.:8.
,.Ibid.,scccspcciallyLhcLiLlcoLhcchapLcronLhcobcsc,Cros,grascLLrisLc,
p.:8.
8. Scc P. PachcL, Les Paromtres de |me. La nassance du ourna| ntme (Paris:
HaLicr,o),cspcciallyLhccvocaLionoLhcApLiLudcaudcdoublcmcnLcLlauLo-
obscrvaLion,p.8o.
16. The Dominance of Aesthetics
.CraLy,Parscheva|(Paris,88),p.:,.
:.SccOnLhcwcighLandpriccobikcs,Manujacturedarmesetdecyc|esdeSant-
Ftenne.Cata|ogue,Chasse,pche,ve|ocpede(8,n.p.).
.A.Millaud,Physo|ogesparsennes(Paris,88,[886]),p.:,.
. C. dc MaupassanL, Mcs vingL cinq ans (88), in Contes et nouve||es (Paris:
RobcrLIaonL,88),::6.
.Laveparsenne(86)::66.
6.LePrntemps.Monteurdesmodes||ustres,April,8o.
,.SccIcpoids,in.Duponchcl,Tratedemedecne|ega|em|tare.Conse|sderev-
son(Paris,8o),p.:.
8.1cmcpcsc,L!||ustrenatona|,Dcccmbcr:,o.
.UnLrucdcccssacrcsParisicns,L!||ustrenatona|,1anuary,o:.
o.SccLhcadorIFxupcrcinArchvesgenera|esdemedecne(o).
.SccLhccnLryorObcsiLcby1.-A.Sicard,inBrissaud,A.Pinard,andP.Rcc-
lus,cds.,Pratquemedco-chrurgca|e(Paris,o,).
:.1.Vcrnc,Karaban|ettu(Paris,88).ILhankSylvicRoqucsorLcllingmcabouL
LhisLcxL.
. Body mass indcx (!ndce de masse corpore||e), dcncd as wcighL in kilograms
dividcdbyLhcsquarcoLhchcighLinmcLcrs,ispuLorwardLodayasLhcuniLomca-
surcoallgradaLionsinsizc.
.SccLhccarlicrdiscussionoQucLclcLinchapLcr:.
. I. A. dc SainL-Ccrmain, LObeste et son tratement. Fxtrat des |eons c|nques
dorthopede,par|eLr.deSant-Cerman,recue||esetpub|eespar|eLr.Perre-1.Mercer
(Paris,8).
6.A.ProusLandA.MaLhicu,LHygnede|obse(Paris,8,),p..
,. F. Zola, Le ventre de Pars (8,), in Les Rougon-Marquart. Hstore nature||e et
soca|edunejam||esous|eSecondFmpre(Paris:Callimard,66),:6,.
8.Ibid.,:66,.
.Ibid.,:6.
:o.Ibid.,:86.
:.LeMessagerdesmodes,April,88o.
::.Zola,LeventredePars,:,.
:. C. FlaubcrL, LFducaton sentmenta|e (86), Oeuvres, Paris: Callimard, :),
::.
:.Zola,LeventredePars,:,.
234 16. The Dominance of Aesthetics
:.IobcsiLc,1ourna|debeaute,Novcmbcr:8,8,.
:6.LeCaprce,1anuary,oo.
:,.Zola,LeventredePars,:6,,.
:8.Ibid.,:,6.
:.SccH.BouLcL,Autourde||es,|e|ever,|ecoucher(Paris,8),p.oo.
o. Scc Lhc ad or p|u|es persanes in Le Prntemps. Monteur des modes ||ustrees,
Novcmbcr,8o,whcrccorpulcnccisdcscribcdasa|egerdejaut(asmalldcccL).
.LeCharvar,1uly:o,8,6.
:.Laveparsenne(88o):66.
.1.MichclcL,LaMer(Paris,8,),p.:.FormorconLhisncwscandal,scc1. D.
Urban,Sur|ap|age.Moeursetcoutumesba|neares(Paris:PayoL,),p.:8.MichclcL,
ibid.
.H.Rcbcl,LesNutschaudesducapjranas(Paris:UCF,8[o]),p.:o.
. Le Charvar, 1uly , 88, 1uly , 866, 1uly :, 88o, 1uly , 88, 1uly ,,
88.Cham,1cvousavaispriscpouruncbalcinc!(ImisLookyouorawhalc!),in
LouzeAnneescomques,:88:8,,(Paris,88o),p.,.LeCharvar,1uly:8,88.
6.1ourna|debeaute,ScpLcmbcr:,8.Laveparsenne(88):6o.
,.SccS.Mclchior-BonncL,Hstoredumror(Paris:Imago,),p.o.
8.SccLhccnLryorVcrrcric,inLctonnareunverse|theorqueetpratqueducom-
merceetde|anavgaton(Paris,86),vol.:.
. . Zola, Carnets denqutes. 0ne ethnographe nedte de |a France, cd. H. MiL-
Lcrand(Paris:Plon,86),p.:.
o.F.and1.dcConcourL,ManetteSa|omon(Paris:Callimard,6[86,]),p.o.
.SccLhcdrawingwiLhLhccapLionMcsparcnLsmonLrcussi,inLavepars-
enne,May:,86.
:.Laveparsenne,April:,86.
.Laveparsenne,1anuary,8.
.Laveparsenne(8,8):6:.
..Zola,Nana(Paris:Callimard,,,[88o]),p.88.
6.SccY.Icquin,IcschcminscroiscsdclamobiliLcsocialc,inY.Icquin,cd.,Hs-
toredesFranas,X!Xe-XXesc|e,vol.::LaSocete(Paris:ArmandColin,8),p..
,.ProusLandMaLhicu,LHygnede|obse,p.8.
8.LeCaprce(oo)::.
.C.dcMaupassanL,Pou|e-de-Suj(88o),inContesetNouve||es,:.
o. F. and 1. dc ConcourL, 1ourna|. Memores de |a ve |tterare, vol. , :8,::8,
(Paris:RobcrLIaonL,8[88,86]),:6.
.O.Mirbcau,Le1ourna|dunejemmedechambre(Paris:Callimard,8[oo]),
p.,:.
:.Ibid.,p.6.
.Zola,LAssommor(8,,),inLesRougon-Marquart,::,,,:.
.A.BcrLall,LaComededenotretemps.Lacv|te,|eshabtudes,|esmoeurs(Paris,
8,),:o.
.Ibid.,p.o6.
6.SccchapLcr.
,.BcrLall,LaComede,:o.
8.Ibid.
.SccK.Bcckcr,IcmbonponLdubourgcoisgourmanddanslaliLLcraLurcran-
aiscduXIXcsicclc,in1.Cscrgo,cd.,Tropgros?Lobesteetsesrepresentatons(Paris:
AuLrcmcnL,:oo),p.6.ILisonlyLowardLhccndoLhcccnLuryLhaLdocLorssuccccd
incommunicaLingLhcphysiologicaldangcrsorobcscpcoplc.
6o.LeCharvar,AugusL:,888.
6. Scc Bcckcr, IcmbonpoinL, also Lhc LcsLimony abouL Icon CambcLLa by
FugcncPazinalcLLcrcdiLcdbyLe1ockey,1anuary:,888.ILhankMaximcPazor
sharingLhisdocumcnLwiLhmc.
6:.FlaubcrL,LFducatonsentmenta|e,:::.
6.Cham,VouscLcsgras,inLouzeAnneescomques,p..
6.Cham,1cLcdcmandcunpcu,ibid.,p.,.
6.Cham,Ypcnscs-Lu`LeCharvar,April:,,88.
66.SccLhcLcsLimonyoFugcncPaz,Le1ockey,1anuary:,888.
6,. Scc P. AnLomaLLci, Cambetta, heraut de |a Repub|que (Paris: Machalon, ),
p.8.
68.C.dcMaupassanL,Tone(88),ContesetNouve||es,::o.
6.Ibid.
,o.Ibid.,p..
,.SccaLLhcsamccnLryorbcdonncmcnL,inA.Rcy,cd.,Lctonnarehstorque
de|a|anguejranase(Paris:IcRobcrL,:).
,:.BcrLall,LaComede,::o.
,.F.Iagrangc,Physo|ogedesexerccesducorps(Paris,888),p.::.
,.C.Dcmcn,LesPasesscentquesde|educatonphysque(Paris,o:),p.:.
,.Ibid.,p.6.
,6.OnLhchisLoryoanaLomyandLhcassociaLcdrcprcscnLaLionsoLhcbody,scc
R.Mandrcssi,LeRegardde|anatomste(Paris:Scuil,:oo).
,,.SccB.-A.Richcrand,Nouveauxe|ementsdephyso|oge(Paris,8o:).Richcrandis
LhcrsLphysiologisLLospcakoparLialmovcmcnLs.
,8.SccC.Vigarcllo,LeCorpsredresse.Hstoredunpouvorpedagogque(Paris:Dcl-
argc,,8),p.:.
,.NcmcLrouvcz-vouspaspassablc`LeCharvar,AugusL,888.
8o. 1.-I. Forain, La Comede parsenne, Leux cents cnquante dessns (Paris, 8:),
p.:.
8.Ibid.,p.:.
8:. Scc F. Dcmicr, La France du X!Xe sc|e, :8::,: (Paris: Scuil, :ooo), p. 6:
Lhcradicaux,guardiansoLhcrcpublicanidcnLiLy.
8.Ibid.
8.SccP.Birnbaum,LePeup|eet|esCros,Hstoredunmythe(Paris:CrasscL,,),
p..
8.A.RoLschild,lcroidcsgrinchcs,A|manachduprePenard(8,):6o.
236 16. The Dominance of Aesthetics
86.CapiLalcLLravail,A|manachduprePenard(8)::.
8,. Scc F. Ic Play, Les Ouvrers des deux mondes. Ftudes pub|ees par |a Socete
deconomesoca|epartrde:8,parFredercLeP|ay(Paris:lcnscigncdclarbrcvcr-
doyanL,88),pp.,:6,::.
88.SccA.CauLicr,Coursdechme(Paris,8:),:,.
8.SccDuponchcl,Tratedemedecne|ega|em|tare,p.::.
o. F. Wcbcr, Fn de sc|e. La France |a n du X!Xe sc|e (Paris: Fayard, 86),
p.,:.
.Zola,LeventredePars,:8.
:.Ibid.
.Ibid.,:8:
.Ibid.,:,.
.Dcmicr,LaFranceduX!Xesc|e,p.,.
6.Nosroisdaujourdhui,LeTrbou|et,no.:(88:).
,.Scc1.FlCammal,8oo:IapprcnLissagcdclapluraliLc,in1.-F.Sirinclli,
cd.,HstoredesdrotesenFrance(Paris:Callimard,:),:o.
8.lcngrais,LudcnaLuralisLc,La1euneCarde,Mayo,8,.
..DrumonL,LaFranceuve,Fssadhstorecontemporane(Paris,888[886]),
p.8oo.
oo.Ibid.,p.:6.
o.SccB.Tillicr,CochondeZo|a,ou|es!njotunescarcatura|esdunecrvanengage
(Paris:Scguicr,8),pp.,.
17. Clinical Obesity and Everyday Obesity
. Scc P. Ic Ccndrc, ObcsiLc, in C. Bouchard, BrissoL, and 1.-M. CharcoL, cds.
Tratedemedecne,6vols.(Paris,88),::TcmcdicalpoinLovicwiscom-
plcLclydicrcnL.
:. A. CauLicr, LA|mentaton et |es Regmes chez |homme san et chez |es ma|ades
(Paris,o),p.o.
. C. Bouchard, Ma|ades par ra|entssement de |a nutrton (Paris, 88 [88:]),
p.:8.
.IcCcndrc,ObcsiLc,p.,
. 1.-A. Sicard, ObcsiLc, in . Brissaud, A. Pinard, and P. Rcclus, cds., Pratque
medco-chrurgca|e(Paris,o,).
6.Bouchard,Ma|ades,p.:.
,. Scc . Dcmangc, ObcsiLc (88o), in A. Dcchambrc, cd., Lctonnare encyc|o-
pedquedesscencesmedca|es(Paris,8688o),p.6:LiologiccLpaLhogcnic.
8.Bouchard,Ma|ades,p.8.
.A.ProusLandA.MaLhicu,LHygnede|obse(Paris,8,),p..
o.IcCcndrc,ObcsiLc,p.68.Dcmangc,ObcsiLc,p..
.Bouchard,Ma|ades,p.o.
:.ProusLandMaLhicu,Hygnede|obse,p.:o.
17. Clinical Obesity and Everyday Obesity 237
.Bouchard,Ma|ades,pp.,6.
.SccM.V.PcLLcnkocrandC.VoiL,UbcrdicZcrscLzungsvorgangcimTicrkor-
pcr bci um FuLLcrung miL Flcisch und KohlhydraLcn und KohlhydraLcn allcin, in
I. Buhl, M. V. PcLLcnkocr, I. Radlkocr, and C. VoiL, Zetschrjt jur Po|oge (8,),
rcprinLavailablcromNabuPrcss(:oo).
.C.IcBon,Lave.Physo|ogehumaneapp|quee|hygneet|amedecne(Paris,
8,),p.,,.
6.ProusLandMaLhicu,Hygnede|obse,p.8o.
,.M.BcrLhcloL,Tratee|ementaredechmeorganque(Paris,8,:),p.::SynLhcsis
aloncgivcschcmisLryiLscharacLcrocomplcLcncss.
8.SccLhcLhcsisby1.-I.dcMonLcLy,DclaraLionalimcnLairccngcncral,applica-
LionausoldaL(Paris,88,),p..
.H.MilncFdwards,Leonssur|aphyso|ogeet|anatomecompareede|hommeet
desanmaux(Paris,8,,88[8,8]),8::,.
:o.Ibid.
:. 1.-B. Fonssagrivcs, AlimcnLaLion (86), in Dcchambrc, Lctonnare encyc|o-
pedquedesscencesmedca|es.
::.Bouchard,Ma|ades,p.o.
:. Ibid., p. ,. Tc cxprcssion is borrowcd rom Fricdrich Bcnckc, Physo|ogsche
vortrage,jurFreundederNaturwssenschajtennedergeschreben(Oldcnburg,86).
:.Bouchard,Ma|ades,p.8.
:.Sicard,ObcsiLc.
:6.ProusLandMaLhicu,Hygnede|obse,p.8:.
:,.Dcmangc,ObcsiLc,p.:.
:8.Ibid.
:.M.Iabbc,Regmesa|mentares(Paris,o),p.:8.
o.M.Icvcn,LaNevrose.Ftudec|nqueettherapeutque,dyspepsa,aneme,rhuma-
tsmeetgoutte,obeste,amagrssement(Paris,88,),p.:6.
.MorLsubiLcdanslobcsiLccLdanslcsamillcsncvropaLhiqucs,Revuedemede-
cneetdechrurge(8:):,6.
:.ProusLandMaLhicu,Hygnede|obse,p.8.
. Scc C. Bcrnhcimcr, Lecadent Subects. Te !dea oj Lecadence n Art, Lterature,
Ph|osophy,andCu|tureojtheFndeSc|enFurope(BalLimorc:1ohnsHopkinsUnivcr-
siLyPrcss,:oo:).
. 1. Rcngadc, Le Medecn de so-mme. Crands maux et grands remdes, vols.
(Paris,c.oo),:oo,::.
. V. Calippc, LHeredte des stgmates de degenerescence et |es jam||es souveranes
(Paris,o),pp.::8.
6. C. Iombroso and C. Fcrrcro, La Femme crmne||e et |a Prosttuee (Crcnoblc:
1crmcMillon,[8]),p.:.
,.SccLhcarLiclconObcsiLc,inC.CcrbcrrandM. V.Ramin,Lctonnarede|a
jemme(Paris,8,).
8.I. S.WorLhingLon,Le|obeste(Paris,8,,),p.o.
238 17. Clinical Obesity and Everyday Obesity
.IcCcndrc,ObcsiLc,p.,sq.
o.ProusLandMaLhicu,Hygnede|obse,p.osq.
. W. BanLing, Le |obeste (Paris, 86), p. . W. BanLing, Letter on Corpu|ence,
AddressedtothePub|c(NcwYork:Cosimo,:oo[86]).
:.ProusLandMaLhicu,Hygnede|obse,p.:sq.
.Sicard,ObcsiLc,p.6.
.CiLcdbyProusLandMaLhicu,Hygnede|obse,p.6.DicLrcgimcnscxLcndin
LhcsamcwayLoLhcassociaLcdmaladics.Scc,orcxamplc,Lhcrcgimcnorcardaque
obseinC.Ficssingcr,LeRegmeducardaque(Paris:Dclagravc,o,),p.o.Sicard,
ObcsiLc,p.6.CauLicr,LA|mentaton,p.o.
.IcCcndrc,ObcsiLc,p..
6.Ibid.
,.W.BanLing,Le|obeste,p..
8.K.Bcckcr,IcmbonponLdubourgcoisgourmanddanslaliLLcraLurcranaisc
duXIXcsicclc,in1.Cscrgo,cd.,Tropgros?Lobesteetsesrepresentatons(Paris:AuLrc-
mcnL,:oo),p.66.
.Sicard,ObcsiLc,p.6,.
o.Dcmangc,ObcsiLc,p.:8.
.ProusLandMaLhicu,Hygnede|obse,p.:,8.
:.IcBon,Lave,p.:6.
.Dcmangc,ObcsiLc,p.:8.
.ProusLandMaLhicu,Hygnede|obse,p.:,8.
.SccC. M.CouldandW. I.Pylc,Anoma|esandCurostesojMedcne.ACo||ec-
tonojFxtraordnaryCasesLervedjromandFxhaustveResearchojMedeva|Lterature,
Abstracted,Annotated,and!ndexed(NcwYork:Bcll,86),p.8o,.
6.SccIobcsiLc,1ourna|de|abeaute,1unc:o,8,.
,.SccIobcsiLc,1ourna|de|abeaute,March,o:.
8.Rcngadc,LeMedecndeso-mme,::8.
.C.-H.Rogcr,LgestonetNutrton(Paris:Masson,o),p.,.
6o.Ibid.,p.,,.
6.1.OcrLcl,Tratement de |obeste et des troub|es de |a crcu|aton (Aab|ssement
du coeur, compensaton nsusante dans |es |esons va|vu|ares, coeur gras, troub|es de |a
crcu|atonpu|monare,etc.)(Paris,886).
6:.SccF.Iagrangc,LaMedcatonpar|exercce(Paris,8),p.:6.
6.CauLicr,LA|mentaton,p.o6.
6. Scc v||es deaux, Hstore du therma|sme, Actes du ::,e congrs natona| des
socetes savantes, sectons Hstore moderne et contemporane, Archeo|oge et hs-
tore de |art, Hstore des scences (ClcrmonL-Fcrrand, OcLobcr :) (Paris: CTHS,
).
6.A.1oanncandA.IcPilcur,LesPansdFurope(Paris:HachcLLc,88o),p..
66.C.BardcLand1.-I.Macqucric,v||esdeauxde|aFrance(Paris:F.DcnLu,88),
p.::.
6,.Ibid.
68. Scc . PhilbcrL, Observaton dun cas de po|ysarce trate aux eaux de Prdes
(Savoe)(Paris,8,,).
6.SccC. S.Schindlcr-Barnay,Tratementcuratjetpreservatjde|obesteetdeses
sutesauxeauxdeMarenbad(Paris,86[86]).
,o.IcscauxdcSLilba,LeCharvar,1ulyo,88.
,.BardcLandMacquaric,v||esdeauxde|aFrance,p.6.
,:.SccT.Zcldin,Hstoredespassonsjranases(Paris:Fncrcs,,8[,]),::o,,
Orgucil cL InLclligcncc. T. Zcldin, A Hstory oj French Passons, :88:,,, vols.
(Oxord:OxordUnivcrsiLyPrcss,,8[,,,]).
,.Scc1.ArnulandR.Bcrcioux,Fvan|esPansetsaregon.Cude||ustreduPag-
neur,duToursteetduCyc|ste(vianlcsBains,n.d.),p..
,.A.Millaud,Physo|ogesparsennes(Paris,88,[886]),p.o.
,.Dr.Bricrc,LesPansdYverdon,Fautherma|e,su|juree,sodque(Iausannc,86),
p.o.
,6. Scc C. Appcldorcr, Magrr, cest jou| (Paris: Odilc 1acob, :ooo). Many advcr-
LiscmcnLsromaroundooarcciLcdinLhiswork.
,,. Pilulcs pcrsancs, Le Prntemps, Monteur des modes ||ustrees, Novcmbcr ,
8o.
,8.Pilulcspcrsancs,FchoduMonteurdesmodes,88,.Tcindou,LeMessager
desmodes,Novcmbcr,o.
,.PilulcsCigarLina,LeMessagerdesmodes,1anuary,o.FaudcBrahmcs,
LeTrbou|et,1anuary88:.CcinLurcIsmacl,LePrntemps,Monteurdesmodes||us-
trees,April6,8o.
8o.TcBcauLygcnc,LePrntemps,Monteurdesmodes||ustrees,1anuary,oo.
8.Chardon,L!||ustrenatona|,1anuary:6,o:.
8:.Chardon,FchoduMonteurdesmodes,888.PoudrcdudocLcurHomcland,
LePrntemps,Monteurdesmodes||ustrees,ScpLcmbcr,88,.
8.FaudcBrahmcs,LeTrbou|et,1anuary,88:.Chardon,L!||ustrenatona|,
1anuary :6, o:. Poudrc du docLcur Homcland, Le Prntemps, Monteur des modes
||ustrees,1anuary,oo.
8.SccOuvricrcordonnicrMalako,inF.IcPlay,LesOuvrersdesdeuxmondes.
Ftudespub|eespar|aSocetedeconomesoca|epartrde:8,parFredercLeP|ay(Paris:
lcnscigncdclarbrcvcrdoyanL,88),p.:8.
18. The Thin Revolution
.1.PrcvosL,P|asrsdessports.Fssassur|ecorpshuman(Paris:Callimard,:),
p.,.
:.SccC.Durvillc,IhommcnormalccsLlaLhlcLc,Natursme:Lagranderevuede
|acu|turehumane,1uly,6.
. C. Fischlcr, Lhomnvore (Paris: Odilc 1acob, [o]), p. 6. Tis LcxL is
cxLraordinarilyrichandsLandsasLhcpionccringsLudyinLhcconLcmporaryanalysis
oobcsiLy.
240 18. The Thin Revolution
. . Bayard, LArt de reconnatre |a beaute du corps human. Lhomme, |a jemme,
|enjant(Paris:FrncsLCrund,:6),pp.:o,:,:,.
.A.DubouL,IcporLdcMarscillc,LeRre,April,.
6.SccP.Sorcinclli,IalimcnLcLlasanLc,in1.-I.FlandrinandM.MonLanari,cds.,
Hstorede|a|mentaton(Paris:Fayard,6),p.8:o.
,.Ibid.
8.C.dAvcncl,LeNve||ementdesoussances(Paris,).
. F. Hcckcl, Magre, Pourquo? Comment? Concepton et methode nouve||es (Paris,
o),p.,.
o.Ibid.,p..
. 1. Rucr, IcmbonpoinL dcs auLomobilisLcs, Physs, Revue medca|e de
knestherape et deducaton physque (1anuary :8): ,:. NoLc Lhc rcmarks abouL
LhcaLalaLLcningupoauLomobilisLsandLhcyrcaL,wayLooaL.
:.I.PascaulL,IarLhriLismc,maladicdccivilizaLion,Revuedesdees,1anuary,
o6,p..
.SccA.BaubcroL,Hstoredunatursme.Lemytheduretour|anature(Rcnncs:
PrcsscsunivcrsiLaircsdcRcnncs,:oo).
.Rucr,IcmbonpoinLdcsauLomobilisLcs,p.,:.
.F. T.MarincLLi,ManicsLcuLurisLc,LeFgaro,Fcbruary:o,o.
6. Scc Lhc ad or Lhc Lhc WhiLc Company (,), in F. 1. Hcimann, A||-Amercan
Ads,:,oo:,:,(Colognc:Taschcn,:oo),p.,.
,.SccM.Braunschvig,LaveamercaneetsesLeons(Paris:ArmandColin,),
p.,.
8. H. Bcraud, Le Martyre de |obse (Monaco: Imprimcric naLionalc dc Monaco,
o[::]),p.:8.
.Braunschvig,Laveamercane,p..
:o. Scc Ic nouvcau culLc dc lhommc acLi, in C. McDowcll, Hstore de |a mode
mascu|ne(Paris:IaMarLinicrc,,),p..
:.Scc,orcxamplc,KuppcnhcimcrgoodcloLhcs(:),inHcimann,A||-Amercan
Ads,p.66.
::.Cata|oguede|aManujacturedeSant-Ftenne,Tarj-a|bum(SainL-Licnnc,:),
p.,o.
:.SccLhcadMichou,Revuenaturste,April,.
:.Ibid.
:.Bcraud,LeMartyrede|obse,p.6.
:6.ColcLLc,LeP|eenherbe(:),inRomans,rects,souvenrs(Paris:RobcrLIaonL,
:oo),::o,,,.
:,.vogue,Dcccmbcr,::.
:8. Scc M. PcrrcL, SorLir, in C. Duby and M. PcrroL, cds, Hstore des jemmes en
Occdent(Paris:Plon,o),:,IcXIXcsicclc.
:.C.BarL,LesCaronnes,Modesetjantasmesdesanneesjo||es(Paris:Flammarion,
8),p.,.
o.SccColcLLc,LeP|eenherbe,p.:adryanklc,alcgoaslcndcranimal.
.C.HcbcrL,LFducatonphysquejemnne,Musc|eetbeautep|astque(Paris:Vuib-
crL,),p.,.
:.ColcLLc,LeP|eenherbe,pp.8,o8,.
. H. dc MonLhcrlanL, Les O|ympques (:), in Romans et oeuvres de cton non
thetra|e(Paris:Callimard,),pp.:88:.
.M.Marclli,LesSonsscentquesdebeaute(Paris:Olivcn,6),p..
. Scc Lhc obscrvaLions abouL Lhc Amcrican pcriodical Lades Home 1ourna|, in
P. N.SLcarns,FatHstory.PodesandPeautyntheModernwest(NcwYork:NcwYork
UnivcrsiLyPrcss,,),p.o.
6.SccIasur-marchandisc,inF.Morin,LesStars(Paris:Scuil,,:),p.8.
,. Scc SLcarns, Fat Hstory, p. . Tc auLhor cvokcs a similar siLuaLion in Lhc
UniLcd SLaLcs, undcrlining how paLicnLs insisLcd on gcLLing mcdical LrcaLmcnL long
bcorcdocLors.Indccd,muchoLhccausaLionoLhcgrowingmcdicalconccrnabouL
wcighLcamcrompaLicnLprcssurc,raLhcrLhanLhcoLhcrwayaround.
8. I. Chauvois, Les Lessang|es du ventre, Ma|ades par re|chement des paros et
organesabdomnaux(Paris,:).
.Ibid.,p.:.
o. P. Richcr, Nouve||e Anatome artstque, Morpho|oge de |a jemme (Paris: Plon,
:o),p.,.
.HcbcrL,LFducatonphysquejemnne,pp.:,:,.
:.Ibid.,p.o.
.A.Tooris,Lavepar|estade(Paris,:),p.6.
. Scc, or cxamplc, SympLmcs, complicaLions cL ormcs, in C. Mouriquand,
Precsdedetetqueetdesma|adesde|anutrton(Paris,:6),p.:8.
.Scc,orcxamplc,F.Hcckcl,Crandesetpettesobestes.Cureradca|e(Paris,:o
[]),p.::6,pl.,ObcsiLcmonsLrucusc.
6.SccLhcinLroducLionLoparL.
,.1.Vallcs,La Rue(Paris,866),p.:.Sccalso1.CourLinc,Iccorpsanormal:
hisLoirc cL aLhropologic culLurcllc dc la diormiLc, in A. Corbin, 1.-1. CourLinc, and
C.Vigarcllo,cds.,HstoreduCorps(Paris:Scuil,:oo),::o:.
8.Vallcs,LaRue,p.::.
.SccC. M.CouldandW. I.Pylc,Anoma|esandCurostes,op.ct.,p..
o.SccCannon,LhchcavicsLmaninLhcworld,agco,posLcard(laLcLhccn-
Lury),SouvcnirdcMllcTcrcsina,posLcard(laLcLhccnLury).ILhank1can-1acqucs
CourLincorsharingLhcscdocumcnLswiLhmc.
.1.-1.CourLinc,Iccorpsanimal,inCorbin,CourLinc,andVigarcllo,Hstoredu
Corps,:::o.
:.SccLhccollccLionaLLhcCcLLyWcbsiLcoimagcsromLhccarlyLwcnLicLhccnLury.
.SccCasdobcsiLcmonsLrucusc,cmmcdc:,kgvucdcdos,inHcckcl,Ma-
grr,p..
.Ibid.,p.:.
242 19. Declaring The Martyr
19. Declaring the Martyr
. R. Dubois, Comment magrr? Moyens ecaces, conse| pratques (Paris, :).
F. Hcckcl, Magrr, Pourquo? Comment? Concepton et methode nouve||es (Paris, o).
P.MaLhicu,Pourquoonengrasse.Commentonmagrt(Paris,).A.AnLoinc,LArt
demagrr(Paris,).
:.Hcckcl,Magrr,p.:.
.Ibid.
.Ibid.,p..ILisnoLncccssaryLhaLiLshow.
.SccR.Chigi,IabcauLccnqucsLion:AuLourdunchisLoircdclacclluliLc,DFA
Lhcsis,colcdcsHauLcsLudcscnScicnccsSocialcs,:oo:,p..
6.F.WcLLcrwald,Quest-ceque|ace||u|te?(Paris,:),p..
,.SccchapLcr.
8.Hcckcl,Magrr,p..
. Scc ComplicaLions, in H. and M. Fcuilladc, Le Lvre de |obse, (Paris: VigoL
Maloinc,),p.:o.
o.Ibid.,LhcparasiLicoriginomalignanLLumors,p.:,.
.SccP.Darmon,LesCe||u|esjo||es,Lhommejaceaucancerde|Antqutenosours
(Paris:Plon,).
:.Hcckcl,Magrr,pp.,o.
.F.Bcrillon,IapsychologicdclaraccallcmandcdaprcsscscaracLcrcsobjccLis
cLspcciqucs,Assocatonjranasepour|avancementdesscences.Conjerences,Fcbru-
ary:,,,p.o.
.Ibid.,p.::.
.FcuilladcandFcuilladc,LeLvrede|obse,p..
6.Hcckcl,Magrr,p.,8,.
,.Ibid.,p.8o.
8.SccFaLasaTurn-o-Lhc-CcnLuryTargcL,WhyìnP. N.SLcarns,FatHstory.
Podes and Peauty n the Modern west (Ncw York: Ncw York UnivcrsiLy Prcss, ,),
p.8.
.SccAnnua|Statstca|Report.Metropo|tanLje!nsurance,Novcmbcr::.
:o.Hcckcl,Magrr,p.8,.
:. Scc Lhc ad or ConLincnLal Scalc Works, Lhc ncw HcalLh-O-McLcr dc Iuxc,
:, in S. Hcllcr, A|| Amercan Ads oj the .os (Md Seres) cd. 1. Hcimann (Colognc:
Taschcn, :oo), p. :,6. Tis ad can bc vicwcd aL hLLp://oldadvcrLising.blogspoL.
r/:oo/o/hcalLh-o-mcLcr-scalcs-:.hLml(acccsscd1unc,:o:).
::.Ibid.
:.Femna,1uly.
:.SccLhcadorConLincnLalScalcWorks.
:.SccH.SchwarLz,NeverSatsed.ACu|tura|HstoryojLets,Fantases,andFats
(NcwYork:FrccPrcss,86).
:6.Hcckcl,Magrr,p.8,.
:,.FcuilladcandFcuilladc,LeLvrede|obse,p..
19. Declaring The Martyr 243
:8.I.Caillon,Cudeduma|adevchy(Paris:Maloinc,:).
:. C. and A. Durvillc, IauLomassagc cL lc massagc du vcnLrc, Natursme, La
granderevuede|acu|turehumane,1uly,6.
o.F.DcsbonncL,Commentondeventath|te(Paris,o[o]),p..
. Scc MaLhicu, Pourquo on engrasse, p. . For a complcLc panorama o Lcch-
niqucsuscdinLhccld,scc1.MoncL,LaNassancede|aknestherape(Paris:Clyphc,
:oo).
:.S.Vorono,Quarante-TrosCreesdesnge|homme(Paris:Doin,:),p..
.P.Tissic,LaFatqueet|Fntranementphysque(Paris,8,),p..
.R. W.Fmcrson,Scl-Rcliancc(8),inFssaysandLectures(NcwYork:Iibrary
oAmcrica,8),pp.:,8:.
. 1. dc Icrnc, Comment devenr p|us jort (Paris, o:). S. Roudcs, Pour jare son
chemndans|ave(Paris,o:).
6. Scc 1. Dcrancc, LFxce||ence corpore||e. La jormaton des actvtes physques et
sportvesmodernes,:,,o:,:(Rcnncs:PrcsscsunivcrsiLaircsdcRcnncs,8,),p..
Scc1. P.Mullcr,MySystem.:,MnutesFxercseaLayjorHea|thsSake(Iondon:Iink
Housc,o).ToLalsalcsarccsLimaLcdaLLwomillion.AnonlincvcrsionavailablcaL
hLLp://www.archivc.org/dcLails/MySysLcmBy1.P.Mullcr had bccn downloadcd :,6o
LimcsasoFcbruary:o:.
,.SccchapLcr.ForasynLhcLicsLudyoalloLhcscncwcxpcrimcnLs,sccR.H.
ChiLLcndcn,Physo|ogca|FconomynNutrton(NcwYork:FrcdcrickA.SLokcso).
8.SccW. O.ALwaLcrandF. B.Rosa,AncwrcspiraLioncalorimcLcrandcxpcri-
mcnLsonLhcconscrvaLionocncrgyinLhchumanbody,Physca|Revew,ScpLcmbcr
8.
.SccW. O.ALwaLcrandF. C.BcncdicL,FxpermentsontheMetabo|smojMatter
andFnergyntheHumanPody(:,oo:,o.)(WashingLon:CovcrnmcnLPrinLingOcc,
o).
o.C. F.Ruppli,LeMetabo|smebasa|.Fssadetudegenera|e,technquesetresu|tats
(Bordcaux,:),p.68.
.SccchapLcr,.
:.M.IabbcandH.SLcvcnin,LeMetabo|smebasa|(Paris,:),p.:.Boucha-
rds Lhcory is ruincd. SubscqucnL prccisc sLudics will bc lcss armaLivc abouL Lhc
basalmcLabolismoobcscsubjccLs.SccC.Bcssc,Morpho|ogeetPhyso|ogeanma|es
(Paris:Iaroussc,),p.:.
.Ibid.,p.:8.SccalsoC.Iarochc,LeMetabo|smebasa|enc|nque(Paris,),
p.,.IncascsoobcsiLy,basalmcLabolismisgcncrallynormal,buLiLmaybclowcrcd
bylowLhyroiduncLionandbyLhcgcniLalglands.
.FcuilladcandFcuilladc,LeLvrede|obse,p.,.
.Hcckcl,Magrr,p..
6.IabbcandSLcvcnin,LeMetabo|smebasa|,p.::o.
,.Ibid.,p.:.
8.Pourmaigrir,LePrntemps,Monteurdesmodes||ustrees,no.,:.
.M.Riva,Mar|eneLetrchparsa||e(Paris:Flammarion,),p..
244 19. Declaring The Martyr
o.Hcckcl,Magrr,pp.,::.
.votrebeaute,April,.
:. H. Bcraud, Le Martyre de |obse (Monaco: Imprimcric naLionalc dc Monaco,
o [::]), pp. , 88, , :, . Bcrauds LcxL is Lo bc rcad wiLh a ccrLain dis-
Lancc. Tis :: narraLivc rcmains paLhbrcaking. Tc auLhors laLcr works slip inLo
poliLical cxLrcmism and indigniLicscspccially Lhosc wriLLcn during Lhc Ccrman
occupaLion,whichlcdLohiscondcmnaLion.
.Ibid.,p..
.Ibid.,sccchapLcr8.
.Bcraud,LeMartyrede|obse,p.:.
6.Ibid.,sccchapLcro.
,.Ibid.,p.:.
Part 6. Changes in the Contemporary Debate
. Scc B. M. Popkin and C. M. Doak, Tc ObcsiLy Fpidcmic Is a Worldwidc Phc-
nomcnon,Nutrtona|Revews,no.6(8).ForamorcanLhropologicalapproachLo
Lhcproblcm,sccFpidcmicObcsiLy,inS.I.Cilman,Fat.ACu|tura|HstoryojObesty
(Cambrigc:PoliLy,:oo8),p.:.
:. Scc A. M. PrcnLicc and S. A. 1cb, Bcyond Body Mass Indcx, Obesty Revews,
no.:(:oo).
.C.CollangcandC.Callois,LaCrosseet|aMagre(Paris:AlbinMichcl,).
. R. PcLo and C. WhiLlock, Body-Mass Indcx and Causc-Spccic MorLaliLy in
oo,oooAdulLs:CollaboraLivcAnalysiso,ProspccLivcSLudics,Lancet,March8,
:oo.
.SccLeMonde,Novcmbcr,:oo.
6.SccLhcObFpisLudics,undcrLakcninFrancccvcryLhrccycarssincc,,onlinc
aLwww.lanuLriLion.r/ObFpi.
,.SccLhcspccchbyBillClinLononTcWcighLoLhcNaLion,1uly:,,:oo,aLa
concrcnccsponsorcdbyLhcCcnLcrsorDiscascConLrolandPrcvcnLion.
8.SccLhcObFpisLudyor:oo6.
. M.-F. Rolland-Cachcra and F. Bcllislc, No CorrclaLion BcLwccn AdiposiLy and
Food InLakc: Why Arc Working Class Childrcn FaLLcr` Amercan 1ourna| oj C|nca|
Nutrton,no.(Dcccmbcr86):,,8,.
o.Scc1.Sobaland1.SLunkard,SociocconomicSLaLusandObcsiLy:ARcvicwo
LhcIiLcraLurc,Psycho|ogca|Pu||etn,no.o(8).
.Scc1.-I.IambcrL,LFvo|utondesmod|esa|mentaresenFrance(Paris:Iavoisicr,
8,).
:. P. Dclavcau and C. 1aol, Fxp|quez-mo |obeste, Comprendre, prevenr, trater
(Paris:PharmaLhcmcs,:oo),p.:.
.Ibid.,p.:,.SccalsoObcsiLccLmorLaliLc,LaLettrede|aNSFA,no.:(ScpLcm-
bcr:oo6).
Part 6. Changes in the Contemporary Debate 245
.C.Fmcry,valuaLionducoLassociclobcsiLccnFrancc,LaPressemedca|e
6(1unc:oo,).
. S. Czcrnichow and A. BasdcvanL, Conscqucnccs mcdico-cconomiqucs dc
lobcsiLc,inA.BasdcvanLandB.Cuy-Crand,cds.,Medecnede|obeste(Paris:Flam-
marion,:oo),p.:8.
6. Scc ProposiLion dc loi rclaLivc la prcvcnLion cL la luLLc conLc lobcsiLc
prcscnLccparMM. R.CourLand,C.Saunicr,M.Rainaud,ScnaL,May6,:oo8,Fxposc
dcsmoLis.
,.1.-M.IcCucn,Obeste,nouveauma|jranas,Pourunereponsepo|tqueuneau
soca|(Paris:ArmandColin,:oo).
8.Ibid.,sccalsoProposiLiondcloi.Fneudesocete.R.Mazzoli,IaIuLLcconLrc
lobcsiLc,MarketngMagazne,Dcccmbcr,:oo.
. Scc Lhc hcalLh cmcrgcncy announccmcnL, publishcd by Lhc associaLion
ObcsiLc,onlincaLwww.obcsipub.org.
:o.IcCucn,Obeste.
:. Scc Lhc rsL Frcnch sLudy, C. Fischlcr, Lhomnvore (Paris: Odilc 1acob,
[o]).ForarcccnLsynLhcsis,sccA.BasdcvanL,OrigincsdcsobcsiLcs,inBasdcvanL
andCuy-Crand,Medecne.
::.SccC.Simon,AlimcnLaLion,gaindcpoidscLobcsiLc,inBadcvanLandCuy-
Crand,Medecne,p..TcpalaLabiliLyoaoodandLhcsubjccLivcjudgmcnLoLhc
plcasanLcharacLcroLhaLood.
:.A. S.Ccrisolaand1.MisLral,IobcsiLcauxLaLs-Unis:FnjcuxcconomiqucscL
dcspoliLiqucs,WashingLon,DC,FrcnchFmbassy,workingdocumcnLoLhcagcncc-
nancicrc,March:oo.
:.SLudyINCA(LudcIndividucllcNaLionalcdcsConsommaLionsAlimcnLaircs),
AFFSSA (Agcncc Franaisc dc SccuriLc SaniLairc dcs AlimcnLs)/CRFDOC (CcnLrc dc
RcchcrchcpourlLudccLlObscrvaLiondcsCondiLionsdcVic)/DCCAI(DirccLiondc
lAlimcnLaLion),o.
:.Simon,AlimcnLaLion.
:6.Ibid.,p..
:,.SccIcCucn,Obeste,p..
:8.Nouvclobs.com,Fcbruary:,,:oo,.
:.LeMonde,ScpLcmbcr8,:oo,.
o.SccProposiLiondcloi.
.SccLhcinLcrvicwwiLhA.BadcvanL,LeMonde,Novcmbcr,:oo.
:.SccLhcinLcrvicwwiLhA.dcDannc,ibid.
.SccC.Duri-BruckcrL,LaNourrtureetnous,Corpsmagnareetnormessoca|es
(Paris:ArmandColin,:oo,),p.66.
.Ibid.
.Ibid.
6.Ibid.
,.1.-P.Poulain,Soco|ogede|obeste(Paris:PUF,:oo),p..
246 Part 6. Changes in the Contemporary Debate
8. M. Ic Barzic, DcLcrminanLs psychologiqucs dc lobcsiLc, in BasdcvanL and
Cuy-Crand,Medecne,p.6:.
.SccC.Duri-BruckcrL,LaNourrture,op.ct.,p.,o.
o.SccB.Wayscld,LePodset|eMo(Paris:ArmandColin,:oo),p.,:.
.Ibid.,p..
:.Poulain,Soco|ogede|obeste.
.IcBarzic,DcLcrminanLs,p.6:.
.ForapionccringsLudyoLhissyndromc,sccA.Kcys,1.Brozck,andA.Hcn-
schcl, Te Po|ogy oj Human Starvaton, : vols. (SainL Paul: UnivcrsiLy o MinncsoLa
Prcss,o).
.IcBarzic,DcLcrminanLs,p.6.
6.Ibid.SccalsoM.Corcos,LeCorpsnsoums,Psychopatho|ogedestroub|esetcon-
dutsa|mentares(Paris:Dunod,:oo).
,. Scc 1. Winand, Aspects qua|tatjs et quanttatjs du metabo|sme |pdque de |a
soursnorma|eetde|asourscongenta|ementobse(Paris:Maloinc,,o).
8.1.Nassicr,TasLc,FoodInLakc,andObcsiLy,ObestyRevews,no.:(:oo).
.K.ClcmcnL,DcLcrminanLsgcniqucsdclobcsiLchumainc,inBasdcvanLand
Cuy-Crand,Medecne.
o.BasdcvanL,OrigincdcsobcsiLcs,p.:.
.SccchapLcr,.
:.Ibid.
. BasdcvanL, Origincs dcs obcsiLcs, p. 8. Simon, AlimcnLaLion, p. . Bas-
dcvanL, ibid. ClcmcnL, DcLcrminanLs, p. 8. Tc lcpLin gcnc is dcscribcd as an
orchcsLraconducLor.
.SccS. C.WoodsandR. 1.Scclcy,AdiposiLySignalsandLhcConLroloFncrgy
HomcosLasis,Nutrton,no.6(:ooo).
.BasdcvanL,OrigincdcsobcsiLcs,p..
6.Ibid.,p..
,.IcBarzic,DcLcrminanLs,p.6o.
8. C. S. Barsh, I. S. Farroqi, and S. ORahilly, CcncLics o Body WcighL Rcgula-
Lion,NatureCenetcs,no.o(:ooo).
.ClcmcnL,DcLcrminanLs,p.8.A.BasdcvanL,Fxamcncliniquc,inBasdcvanL
andCuy-Crand,Medecne,p..
6o. Y. SchuLz, Dcpcnsc cncrgcLiquc cL obcsiLc, in BasdcvanL and Cuy-Crand,
Medecne,p.,.
6.ClcmcnL,DcLcrminanLs,p.8.
6:.BasdcvanL,OrigincdcsobcsiLcs,p..
6. For onc o Lhc rsL prophcLic LcxLs on Lhis subjccL, scc D. Rorvik, Quand
|homme devent machne. 0ne nouve||e etape de |evo|uton (Paris: Albin Michcl, ,).
A LranslaLion o Rorvik and I. B. ShcLLlcss bcsL scllcr, Your Pabys Sex. Now You Can
Choose(,).
6.Poulain,Soco|ogede|obeste,p.:.
Part 6. Changes in the Contemporary Debate 247
6.P.DupuyandC.Bcrbcrian,ClobalBoboland,Lberaton,ScpLcmbcr,:oo.
SccP.DupuyandC.Bcrbcrian,C|oba|Pobo|and(Paris:FluidcClacial-Audic,:oo).
66. Fischlcr, LHomnvore, p. . WiLh Lhc LriumphanL arrival o individualism,
whaL Lhc body is LcsLimony Lo now is noL so much (social) powcr, as (individual)
masLcry.
6,.F.DubcLandD.MarLucclli,Lansque||esocetevvons-nous?(Paris:Scuil,8),
p.,.IindividuscdcLachcdclagrandcsocicLc.
68. A. Fhrcnbcrg, Le Cu|te de |a perjormance (Paris: Calmann-Icvy, ), p. :8.
IindividucsLsonapparcncc.
6.A.1anov,Lecorpssesouvent.Cuerrenrevvantsasourance(Monaco:Rochcr,
,). A LranslaLion o A. 1anov, why You Cet Sck, How You Cet we||. How Fee|ngs
AectYourHea|th(WcsLHollywood,CA:Dovc,6).
,o.S.Marinopoulos,LeCorpsbavard(Paris:Fayard,:oo,).
,. T. BcrLhcraL, Le corps a ses rasons, Auto-guerson et ant-gymnastque (Paris:
Scuil,,6).
,:.1.Doazan,1.-C.Crossc,1.MaLhis,C.PcllcL,1.-I.Rcbora,F.ScncnL,1.Scrcna,
and1.Siccardi,Lecorpsqupar|e,Hutpecescourtes(Paris:IcsCahicrsdclgarc,:oo).
,. M. CauchcL, 1c suis mon corps, in Quavons-nous jat de |a |berte? Te|erama,
spccialissuc(:oo,):.
,.P.Pallardy,Ftsavenatduventre?Fatgue,prsedepods,ce||u|te,troub|essex-
ue|s,prob|mesesthetques,depresson,nsomne,ma|dedos(Paris:PockcL,:oo:).
,.IcBarzic,IcsDcLcrminanLs,p.6.
,6.MncrZen,no.:(:oo).
,,.SccWayscld,LePodset|eMo,p.,.
,8.Fischlcr,LHomnvore,p..
,.Poulain,Soco|ogede|obeste,p.:.
8o.F.Coupry,F|ogedugrosdansunmondesansconsstence(Paris:RobcrLIaonL,
8).
8.Ibid.,p..
8:.Scc,orcxamplc,LhcHighAuLhoriLyAgainsLDiscriminaLionandorFqualiLy
(HAIDF), an indcpcndcnL adminisLraLivc auLhoriLy crcaLcd by Lhc law o Dcccmbcr
o,:oo.
8.SccLhcgroupsWcbsiLcaLwww.allcgroorLissimo.com.
8. Scc Lhc inLcrvicw wiLh Vivianc Cacquicrc, prcsidcnL o Allcgro ForLissimo,
OcLobcr,,:oo8,onlincaLwww.ma-grand-Laillc.com.
8.Wayscld,LePodset|eMo,p.6.
86.Cccilc,blogposLaLwww.allcgroorLissimo.com,May,:oo.
8,.1.Bouchcr,LaCrosse(Paris:HachcLLcpraLiquc,:oo),p..
88.Ibid.,p..
8.Ibid.
INDEX
Abdomcn,assourccoinvcnLivcncss,30
Abdominalmusclcs,o
AbdominalLypc,o
Adiposc,ambiguiLyo,o
AdvcrLising,66,88
A||TatC|tters!sNotCo|d,p,
Alpino,Prospcr,,:
AmbiguiLy:conLcmporaryidcnLiLyand,
6,,FnlighLcnmcnL-crasizc,8,
inmiddlcagcs,,,o:,,:o,
:8,8,bcLwccnphlcgmandaL,6,
Rcnaissancc-cra,:,6,6:,6,,,,
inRcsLoraLionand1ulyMonarchy
pcriods,,:,:,skinnincss,:,
oLhrcsholds,,seea|soCrada-
Lions,oaLandaLncss
Ambivalcncc,Rcnaissanccpcriod,o
AnaLomy:carlynincLccnLh-ccnLury,:,
FnlighLcnmcnL-cra,88,::on,
:osgraduaLcd,,o,
AnaLomySocicLy,:
AncmicobcsiLy,6,8
Anglicus,BarLholomacus,,
Animals,o6,::,6,carohumidiLy
inccrLain,,,o,MiddlcAgcsand,
,physiqucsocarnivorous,o,
Rcnaissancc-crawcighingo,6,
AnncoFrancc,:
Apoplcxy,,,o
AppcLiLc,civilizcd,o
Aron,1can-Paul,
Asccndancyandpowcr,,:,,
AsciLcs,:,
ALavisLicobcsiLy,6o6
ALwaLcr,WilbcrOlin,,8o
Aurclianus,Caclius,o
Bachcr,Ccorgcs-Frcdcric,oo
Balanccscalc,8:8,p,
Balncology,digcsLivcmaluncLionand,
66
Balzac,Honorc,,6,,::,n,caL-
inghabiLso,,ironicrcvcrsalso,
:::,LhincharacLcrso,:,:
BanLing,William,
Barygraphiccurvcs,,8
BasalmcLabolicraLc(BMR),,,8o
BaLhs,o:,p,p:o,p::
BaycuxLapcsLrics,:
Bcars,6,:,:
Photos are indicated by p1, p2, etc.
250 Index
BcaumonL,1can-BapLisLclicdc,88:,
,oo,6,88
BcauLy:FnlighLcnmcnL-cra,::on:,in
MiddlcAgcs,,:8:,inRcnais-
sancccra,o,6,68,,,Lodays
idcalocmininc,,o,Lurn-o-Lhc-
ccnLury,
Bcggars,
Bclly:abdominalmusclcsormasculinc,
o,dicringsLandardsormcn
andwomcn,8,8,p,,FnlighLcn-
mcnL-cranuanccand,868,,as
masculincimagc,8,seea|so
Bourgcoisbclly
BclLs,:,,,6,p:o
BcncdicL,FrancisCano,,8o
Bcraud,Hcnri,686,8:8,8
Bcrbcrian,Dupuy,
BcrLall,A.,8,8,,o,::8n
BcrLhcloL,Marcclin,,
BcrLholon,Picrrc,o:
BcLrayal,
Bigncss:ambivalcnccabouL,o,
asccndancyandpowcrin,,:,,,
dcgrccso,8,,cvaluaLiono,,
66,,hcalLhassociaLcdwiLh,:6:,,
MiddlcAgcsambiguiLyoaLand,,
,o:,,:o,:8,sLupidiLylinkcd
wiLh,:6,LhrcsholdsoacccpLablc,
,8,,vcrybig,,,seea|so
Dcgrccs,FaLandFaLncss,Crada-
Lions,oaLandaLncss,Typologics,
specctmeperods
Blackbilc,:
blood:circulaLion,8,cxccss,6
BMR,seeBasalmcLabolicraLc
Body:carc,,8,,cxposurc,6,
Lypcs,o,seea|soFcmalcbody
Bodymassindcx,
Bossc,Abraham,,88
Boswcll,1amcs,o
Bouchard,Charlcs,,6,,
Bouchcr,1ocllc,6
Bouillaud,1can-BapLisLc,:6
Bourgcoisbclly,p,,ironicrcvcrsals
abouL,::,obcsiLyLypcand,
8,prcsLigc,o,rcspccLabiliLyor,
:o:,::,socialmorcsand,8
BouLcL,Hcnri,
BranLmc,o
Brcads,:,:n
BrcasLs,6o,,
BrighL,Richard,:6
BrighL,TimoLhy,
BrillaL-Savarin,,8,:o,chcmisLry
ooodsdcLailcdby,:,
Brucghcl,PicLcr,o
IaBruycrc,1candc,
Buchan,William,o
Buon,C. I.,8,8,86,8,,:,dicL
rccommcndcdby,o6
Burncr,,6,8o
BusLlc,,
Byron,CcorgcCordon(Iord),
Calorics,6,,combusLionLhcory
andspcciciLicso,,LrcaLmcnLas
rcducing,6o
Cambric,Cirauddc,
Campanclla,Tommaso,:
Cappadocc,ArcLccdc,:
CarbonaccumulaLion,:8
Cardan,Cirolamo,6
LaCarcature,::
CarcatureduroFdouardv!!dAng|eterre,
LeFoudredeguerre,p8
CaricaLurcs,o,p,,p8,p::,conLcmpo-
rary,,FnlighLcnmcnL-cra,86,
6,Rcnaissancc-cra,o,RcsLoraLion
and1ulyMonarchypcriod,,,::,
:
CarnoL,Sadi,:8
Carrachc,Annibal,x
CasLiglionc,Baldassar,6,,
Causcs,seeOriginsandcauscs,oaL
CclluliLc,,
Index 251
Cerc|age(spccialbclL),,
CcrvanLcs,M.dc,o
Chairscalc,,o,,8o
Charas,Moysc,6
Charvar,
CharlcsVI,
CharloLLc,FlizabcLh,ix,66
Chauliac,Cuydc,,:o
ChcmisLry:dicLand,,,
FnlighLcnmcnL-cra,o6,,cLhno-,
,6,aLorigincxpcrimcnLs,:,:8,
hydropicurinc,:6,ospalic,
6:6,osynLhcsis,,,seea|so
CombusLionLhcoryoood
Chcync,Ccorgc,8:,o,o
ChildbirLh,Rcnaissanccpcriod:prcscrip-
LionsoraLcr,6,68,prcvcnLiono
brcasLcnlargcmcnLduring,,
ChildowcalLh,gouLsucrcras,
Childrcn,:
Chodowiccki,Danicl,86,88
Circusshows,,:
Clcrics,,8,
CloLhcs:8,oswomcns,,,cvocaLion
ohiddcnand,,pcrsonaliLy
convcycdin,,prcssurccxcrLcdby,
6,LighLncsso,6,seea|soFashions
DclaClLurc,IouisIcPccq,,
ColcLLc,Sidonic-Cabricllc,6
CombusLionLhcoryoood,o,:,
:,:8,,,8,burncrdc-
cicncyand,,6,caloricspccici-
Licsarisingrom,,dicLand,o,,
o,,,ruiningo,8o
Commyncs,P.dc,:
ConLcmporarydcbaLc,8,,collccLivc
mobilizaLionagainsLobcsiLy,8,88,
criLicismoaLin,8,,
gcncLicsLudicsand,:,obc-
siLycpidcmic,8,868,,rhcLoric
ohopcin,:,scl-idcnLiLy
and,6,LhinncssandobcsiLy
dynamicsin,888,LhinncsscccLs
pcrccivcdin,8o,viciouscirclc
Lhcmc,
ConLours:lackodisLincLionsbcLwccn,
p.,moldingo,p8,p:.
CorpimcLcr,
Corpulcncc,obcsiLyrcplacing,:
CorscLs,88,6,6,p8,archaicand
modcrn,,opcnandcloscd,
,Rcnaissanccpcriodinvcn-
Liono,,,6
Coupry,Franois,
CourLculLurc,:::,6
CraLy,
Cranach,Iucas,6,
CriLicism,oaL:aucnccocuso,
,,conLcmporary,8,,
carlyoos,686,FnlighLcnmcnL-
craccnLraliLyo,6,inLccnLh-ccn-
Luryiconography,::,inscnsiLiviLy
and,,ironicrcvcrsalsas,:
:,mcdicval,,,:,::,inmodcrn
Limcs,xxi,moralnaLurcomcdi-
cval,6,,:,,psychologicalnaLurc
o,xixii,seea|soSLigmaLizaLion
Cruvcilhicr,1can,:
CSIR,seeInLcrnaLionalScicnLicCom-
missiononNourishmcnL
Cullcn,William,:,o
DairyconsumpLion,6,
Dangcrsocxccss,
Dccadcncc,
DcormaLions,morbidimmincnccand,
o
DcgcncraLionconccpL,8
Dcgrccs,8,,,,,6,scalcand,xi
xii,:on,seea|soCradaLions,oaL
andaLncss
DFnncry,Adolphc,
DcNogcnL,Barry,8
DcrcgulaLcdncrvoussysLcms,8
Dcsbordcs,Sicur,8
Dcvcaux,1can,
252 Index
Dickcns,Charlcs,8
DicLionarydcniLions,dicL,
Lctonnare,6o,:,:::n
Lctonnaredemedcne,xii
DidcroL,D.,
DicLanddicLing:chcmisLryand,,
,combusLionand,o,,o,,,
conLcmporary,8,dicLionarycnLry
ordicL,,carlynincLccnLh
ccnLury,,FnlighLcnmcnL-cra
idcason,o,,cxcrciscand,,,,
mcaL-planLdcbaLcs,o,,Rcnais-
sanccrcsLrainLsand,6,,slow
nuLriLionconccpL,,,socialclass
and,:,Lurn-o-Lhc-ccnLury,:,
6:,seea|soFoods
DicLrich,Marlcnc,8:
DigcsLion,balncologyand,66
DissccLion,hydropsydcaLhand,
DocLors:FnlighLcnmcnL-cra,8:,8,
:,oo,o:,MiddlcAgcs,
:,:8,modcrn,8:8,Rcnaissancc
pcriod,,6o,,o,RcsLoraLion
and1ulyMonarchy,:o,:6,o,
LurnoLhcccnLury,,8,
6:6,8:8,seea|soMcdical
LcxLs,mcdicval,speccdoctors
Doublc-brcasLcdsuiL,6
Dryncss,Rcnaissanccpcriodand,,o,
DuChcsnc,1oscph,6
Durcr,AlbrcchL,o,,,p
FarlynincLccnLhccnLury,seeRcsLora-
Lionand1ulyMonarchypcriods
Fdcma,seeHydropsy
FdwardVII,p8
FlccLriciLy,o:
Flixirs,6
Fmbonpont,6,
Fncrgymodcl,oo,68,seea|so
ChcmisLry,CombusLionLhcoryo
ood
TeFng|shLepctedPyTemse|ves,6
FnlighLcnmcnLcra,,,o,,aucncc
criLicismin,,,aLLcnLionLoorms
oobcsiLyin,p,,bcauLycriLcria,
::on:,chcmisLryrcvoluLion,o6,,
criLicismccnLraliLyduring,6,cxccp-
Lionalcascspublicizcdin,8,:,p,,
rsLormsspccicaLions,88,,p,,
gradaLionsand,88,,::on,,::on,
hcalLhocusin,,8,inscnsiLiviLy
carcdin,,mcansomcasur-
inginvcnLcdin,8:8,modcrniLy
conccrnso,o6,ncrvousLcnsion
conccrns,o,:,:::n:,obcsiLy
LcrminLroduccdin,,:::nn,
,ovcrvicw,,,,8,rcproducLivc
aculLicsconccrnin,,,,sizc
prccision,,,,88:,p,,socialand
poliLicaldimcnsionoaLncss,p,,soL
bcrsconccrnin,o,:,sLaLisLical
calculaLions,88,::on,,::on8,
sLigmaLizingpowcrlcssncssin,o8,
LrcaLmcnLs,o,,waisLmcasurc-
mcnLin,88:,:n:,waisLsomcn
andwomcn,8,8,wcighLmcasurc-
mcnLin,,8,seea|soWomcn,
FnlighLcnmcnL-cra
Fquilibrium,,8o,
FLhno-chcmisLry,,6
FLLmullcr,Michacl,6,
FvacuaLion,6,,:,
FvaluaLion,bcginningo,,66,,
numbcrsand,o
vianspas,6
FxccpLionalcascs:FnlighLcnmcnL-cra
publicizingo,8,:,p,,:ossLudy
omonsLrous,,,,poLcnLial
discovcricsrom,:
Fxccss:blood,6,criLicismo,,,
dangcrso,,gouLromwinc,,
skinnincss,6
FxciLanLs,o:,6o6
FxcrcLion,balanccbcLwccningcsLion
and,,8o
Index 253
Fxcrcisc,,,,66:
Fairsandcarnivals,,,:
TeFa||ojtheLamned,,,p
FarcL,Nicolas,
Fashions::osmalc,6,:os
womcns,6,o
FaLandaLncss:discounLinglocaliza-
Liono,o,doublcjudgmcnLo,,
carlyambiguiLyoadiposc,o,ghL
againsL,xiixiii,rcand,:,:8,,,
hcavincssandlackoinLclligcncc,
6,hisLoricalovcrvicw,ixxiii,as
malady,:,inmcdicvalLcxLs,o:,
opulcnccanddisabiliLydisLincLion,
8,paLhologyo,:,,6,,,
popularsongsdcnigraLing,8,as
publichcalLhLhrcaL,8,,Rcnais-
sanccrcjccLiono,8,RcsLoraLion
pcrioddcniLionso,:,:8,scalc
anddcgrccso,xixii,,,,6,
:on,vulgariLyand,,6,seea|so
AmbiguiLy,Ambivalcncc,Rcnais-
sanccpcriod,Bigncss,CriLicism,o
aL,CradaLions,oaLandaLncss,
Originsandcauscs,oaL,Sizc,
Trcsholds,WcighL,specctme
perods
FcasLs:inMiddlcAgcs,,8,,:,,in
Rcnaissancc,,8,inRcsLora-
Lionand1ulyMonarchypcriod,
Fcmalcbody:dominanLhumoro,,
mcdicvalvicwoidcal,::,publiccon-
dcmnaLiono,xi,LurnoLhcccnLury
Lhinncsso,6,o
FcminincobcsiLy::osand,,,Lurn-
o-Lhc-ccnLuryLypcs,,8
Fibcrs,soL,o,:
Firc:aL-burning,:,:8,,,insu-
cicnL,8,Iavoisicrsoxygcndiscov-
cryand,:,,:on8
Floycr,1ohn,8o
Foix,CounLo,6
Foods:BrillaL-SavarinschcmisLryand,
:,,CSIRonmcaLanddairy,
6,,drying,,,8,plasLic,:,,6,
rcspiraLory,:,:8,6,sLigmaLiz-
ingo,:,wcighing,,o,seea|so
CombusLionLhcoryoood,DicLand
dicLing
Fougcrcs,FLicnncdc,:8:
IcFournicr,Andrc,68
FrccLimc,
TeFrenchLepctedbyTemse|ves,6,
,:o
FricLion,pcrspiraLionand,o
FroissarL,1.,6,,8
FuLurisLManicsLo,68
Calippc,VicLor,8
CambcLLa,Icon,
CarganLua,RcnaissanccgianLsand,8
CasLronomy,:
CasLrophoricmcn,,:
CauLicr,Armand,:
CcncLicsLudics,:
CianLs,mcdicvalmyLhical,
ClisscnLi,Fabio,,
Clobcimagcry,6:6
CluLLon:bcarassymbolo,:,asgour-
mcL,,inMiddlcAgcs,6,,:,p:
ConcourLbroLhcrs,,8
ConLhicr,Nicolc,,
CouL:asmaladyorich,,mcdicval
vicwo,,RcnaissanccdocLors
on,
CradaLions,oaLandaLncss,xixii,
FnlighLcnmcnLscnsiLiviLyLo,88,,
::on,,::on,inMiddlcAgcs,
:o:,:,:8,modcrnpcriod,,o,,
,,ncwLcrmsLowardincrcasing,
,6,RcnaissanccpcrioddiculLy
wiLh,,6,,roundncssand,
6o,owcighLgain,,o,,seea|so
Dcgrccs
254 Index
Crandvillc,1. 1.,::,6
Legras,x,:on8
Crasse,6:
Legros,x,:on8
Crossc,Francis,86
Cucrard,Nicolas,
Cuyon,Iouis,6,
HeadandFaceojaHydropcMan,p.
HcalLh:FnlighLcnmcnLocuson,,8,
aLaspublichcalLhLhrcaL,8,,mcdi-
cvalbigncssand,:6:,,mcdicval
principlcsandpracLiccs,:8,mcdicval
rcgimcsor,:o
Hea|thLaryojLousX!v,
HcalLhpracLiLioncrs,8
HcbcrL,Ccorgc,,
HcighL:mcasuringwcighLand,88,
:,,waisLmcasurcmcnLs
ignoring,88:,:n:
HcingarLcr,Conrad,:,:8
HcnryIV,6,,:
HcrcdiLaryacLors,
HcrrioL,douard,,6
HildcgardcoBingcn,
HippocraLcs,o
Hips,Lurn-oLhcccnLuryaLLcnLionon,
68
HisLory,oaLpcoplc,ovcrvicw,ixxiii
HogarLh,William,86,6
Horscbackriding,o
Houscholdincomc,868,
TeHouseho|dojtheFng|shMerchant,p,
TeHumanComedy(Balzac),6,
Humors,bodily:cvacuaLing,,:,gouL
and,,,hydropsyand,:,mcdi-
cvalvicwso,:,,Rcnaissancc
ocuson,,o,
HuLchinson,1ohn,o
Hydropsy,:,p.,curcor,,diagno-
sischangcs,:6,FnlighLcnmcnL-cra,
,Rcnaissanccpcriodand,:,
Lonicsor,oo
Hygnede|obse(MaLhicu/ProusL),
HypcrboliccxaggcraLion,:
HypoLhyroidism,6
IdcnLiLy:bodyand,6,conLcmporary
scl-,,,paradox,6,
!magnatveFxercsesojLerentHuman
CharacterstcsandForms(vonCocz),
86
ImpoLcncc,skinnincssand,:
!mpromptuojversa||e(Molicrc),6
InacLiviLy,,:o
Te!ndscreet1ewe|s(DidcroL),
IncrLias,xiii
IngcsLion-cxcrcLioncquilibrium,,8o
InscnsiLiviLy,
InsulLs,Rcnaissancccxprcssionsand,
68
InLcriormilicu,6
InLcrnaLionalScicnLicCommissionon
NourishmcnL(CSIR),6,
InLuiLivcconLours,scvcnLccnLhccnLury,
66
InLumcsccnccs,,o
InvasionLhcmc,8,
1oubcrL,IaurcnL,,
1ourna|demedcne,8,:,:n:
1ulyMonarchypcriod,seeRcsLoraLion
and1ulyMonarchypcriods
KnighLs,,:
IaughingaLpcrson,o
IavaLar,Caspar,8
Iavoisicr,A. I.,o6,,:,:,,,,,
:on8
IcgislaLion,88
Icmons,,,
IcpLinsignals,:
DcILoilc,Picrrc,,,
Icucophlcgmasia,:
Index 255
Icvcn,Manucl,xi
Icvy,Michcl,:
IicbaulL,1can,,68,,,,,,,:::n
Iicbig,1.,:,,:8,6
Iicinsurancc,,,
IinguisLicchangcs,duringRcnaissancc
pcriod,6
Iining,1ohn,8o
Iion,:
Lvre,::on,
IouisVI(IouisLhcFaL),8,
IouisXIII,,o
IouisXIV,
IouisXV,8,,8
IouisXVIII,
Iouis-Philippc,p,
Lourd(hcavy),6
IymphaLicobcsiLy,6:
IymphaLicsysLcmdiscovcry,o
Maccary,Angc,
MargarcLoNavarrc(quccn),,6
MargucriLLc,VicLor,,o
Marivaux,P.dc,886
Marrageojthevrgn,p.
TeMarve|ousFectojLacng. . .avew
ojthePrettyM||erswje,p,
Massagc,,8
MaLhicu,AlbcrL,,8,6o
MaupassanL,C.dc,:,,8,o
McasurcmcnL:FnlighLcnmcnL-cra
invcnLiono,8:8,oxygcn,,8o,
waisL,88:,:n:,waisLmca-
surcmcnLsignoringwcighL,88:,
:n:,wcighL,,8,wcighLand
hcighL,88,:,
McaLconsumpLion,o,,:,6,,
MiddlcAgcs,6
McchanicalcxplanaLions,:
DcMcdici,CaLhcrinc,,,,:
McdicalLcxLs,mcdicval,o:,:,
seea|soDocLors
Mclancholy,:,
Mcmbrancs,disLincLionsbcLwccn
mucousandbrous,:
Mcn:bcllyasmasculincimagc,8,
gasLrophoric,,:o,MiddlcAgcs
dcscripLionsoclcrics,,:os
ashionsor,6,obcsiLyincarly
nincLccnLh-ccnLury,,waisLso
womcnand,8,8
Mcnncll,SLcphcn,o
MiddlcAgcs,ixx,:,ambiguiLyin,,
,o:,,:o,:8,asccndancyand
powcrobigncss,,:,,,bcauLi-
ulwomcndcscribcdin,,bcauLy
in,:8:,bchaviorsandimmoral-
iLycriLicismsin,6,,:,,bigncss
andprcsLigcin,,bigncssLypcs
cocxisLingin,,,rombigLovcrybig,
,,clcricalmodcl,8,conicLing
imagcso,,courLlymodclo,:::,
criLicismoaLin,,,:,::,docLor
rccommcndaLionsorvcrybig,:,:8,
cvacuaLionascurcin,6,cxccss
criLicizcdin,,,casLso,,8,
,:,,gluLLonyin,6,,:,p:,gouL
vicwcdin,,hcalLhyrcgimcidca,
:o,hungcrconLcxL,,mcdicalLcxLs,
:,mcdicalLcxLso,o:,myLhi-
calgianLso,,slimmingcorLsin,
:8:,socialclassdisLincLions,::6,
swcllingsvicwcdin,:,seea|so
Womcn,inMiddlcAgcs
Milaud,AlbcrL,:
MiliLaryrccruiLmcnL,8oos,
Mirrors,6
Modcrnpcriod(LwcnLicLhccnLury),
x,6,8,criLicismoaLpcrson
in,xxi,ashion,6,o,cmininc
obcsiLyand,,,CradaLionsand,
,o,,,,graduaLcdanaLomyo,
,o,,monsLrosiLyLhcmc,,,,
:osnarraLivcsosucring,,,,
paLhologicaldivcrsiLyo:os,
,6,,,sLigmaLizaLionin,,,,
256 Index
Modcrnpcriod(contnued)
8,LrcaLmcnLnarraLivcso,88,
seea|soConLcmporarydcbaLc
Molicrc(1can-BapLisLcPoquclin),6
Mondcvillc,Hcnridc,,
Monks,8
Monnicr,Hcnri,8,:
MonsLrosiLics,6,,,,swimwcar
allowingvicwo,
MoraliLy,mcdicvalcriLicismbascdon,
6,,:,
Morbidimmincncc,:o
MorcauLhcYoungcr,88
Mundy,Franis,o6
Musclcs:abdominal,o,Lonc,66
MyLhicalgianLs,
Myxcdcma,6
Nana(Zola),6
NaLionalHcalLhyNuLriLionProgram
(PNNS),88
Natura|Hstory(Buon),8
Ncck,8,squashcd,,
NcphriLis,:6
NcrvousLcnsion:dcrcgulaLcdncrvous
sysLcms,8,FnlighLcnmcnL-cra
ocuson,o,:,:::n:,rcgimcn,
o
TeNewCame,p::
:os,seeModcrnpcriod
NincLccnLhccnLury,seeRcsLoraLionand
1ulyMonarchypcriods
NollcL,Abbc,o:
Numbcrs:Buons,8,carlynincLccnLh-
ccnLuryprcscncco,:,8oos
cvaluaLionsusing,o,FnlighLcnmcnL
conccrnwiLh,,8,hisLoryand,8,
RcsLoraLionpcriodand,,Turno
LhcccnLuryprccisionand,66:
NumcricalcuriosiLy,,8
NuLriLion,BouchardsrcLarding,,
Ob(mousc)rcscarch,:
ObcsiLy:ancmic,6,8,anLi-obcsiLy
advcrLisinginoos,p:o,aLavisLic,
6o6,aLLcnLionLoormso,88,,
p,,changcsinuscoword,,,
dcgrccso,,,,6,dynamicso
conLcmporaryLhinncssand,888,
FnlighLcnmcnL-crainLroducLiono
Lcrm,,,:::nn,cpidcmico,
8,868,,cmininc,,,ashcalLh
LhrcaL,8,,houscholdincomcand,
868,,masculinc,,nuLriLion-
rcLardingacLorin,,,phcnomcnal
cascso,p,,scicnLicpcriodo,,
sucringdimcnsiono,,,Lurn-
o-Lhc-ccnLurycmalcLypcs,,8,
seea|soCradaLions,oaLandaLncss,
TrcaLmcnL,Typologics
OilyaspccLoskin,6:
OnesOwnLoctor(Dcvcaux),
Opulcncc:disabiliLydisLinguishcdrom,
8,sLigmao,
Orangc,princcso,8
Originsandcauscs,oaL:chcmisLry
cxpcrimcnLs,:,:8,Rcnaissancc
pcriodvicws,,o,,RcsLoraLion-
pcriodvicwso,:,:8,Lurn-o-Lhc-
ccnLuryvicwso,,8
Ovcrallroundncss,6
Oxygcn,,,discovcryo,o,,:,:,,
:on8,mcasuring,,8o
Pallardy,Picrrc,
Parc,Ambroisc,
PaLhology,oaLncss:classicaLion,,
FnlighLcnmcnL-cra,:,Lurn-o-
Lhc-ccnLurydivcrsiyingo,,6,,
TePatrotcweght-LossMachne,p
Pcarimagc,:
Pcpys,Samucl,x,66,:6n
PcrsonalLcsLimonics:conLcmporary,
886,LrcaLmcnLsand,
PcrspiraLion:Floycrscomparison,8o,
ricLionand,o,impcrccpLiblc,,o,8o
Index 257
PcLiL,AnLoinc,oo,o
DcPcysonncl,Charlcs,
Philipon,Charlcs,::
PhilippcIV(IcBcl),
Ph|osophca|Lctonary(,6),o6
Phlcgm,,,6,lcucophlcgmasia,:
PhlcgmaLicpcrson,6
PhysicalLhickncss,,
Physo|ogyojTaste(BrillaL-Savarin),,
:
PckwckPapers(Dickcns),8
Pig,8
pinchcdwaisL,:
Pngus(big),,,:,:8
Pisan,ChrisLincdc,,
PlasLicoods,:,,6
PNNS,seeNaLionalHcalLhyNuLriLion
Program
polysarcia,6o
Poquclin,1can-BapLisLc,seeMolicrc
PortratojaYoungwoman,p
PorLraiLs,p,rcalismin,8
PorLraiLs(Carrachc),x
Powcrlcssncss,xiii,,,,8,o8
Praepngus(vcrybig),,,:,:8
PreparatoryStudes(Rubcns),,8
PrcsLigc,,,8,o
PrcvosL,1can,66
ProusL,Adricn,,8,6o
PublichcalLhLhrcaL,narraLivco,8,
QuestojtheHo|yCra|,:
QucLclcL,Adolphc,:,,86
Rabclais,F.,,6o,,:,gianLso,8
RcacLiviLy,bcrand,
Rcalism,:,:,
RcgulaLorysysLcm,:
RclaLionalsucring,8
Rcnaissanccpcriod,,6,acLiviLyand
passiviLy,6,ambivalcncc,o,
apoplcxyin,,,bcauLymanuals
in,6,68,corscLsinvcnLcdin,,,6,
courLmodclo,6,dicLsand
rcsLrainLso,6,,dramaLicrcprc-
scnLaLionsoaLncssin,,,cvalu-
aLionbcginningin,66,,aLrcjccLcd
in,8,casLsin,,8,csh
ovcrowcxplorcdin,,,gianLs
and,8,gouLvicwcdin,,
hydropsyvicwcdin,:,imagcsand
rcalismocaLurcsin,,insulLs
andncwcxprcssionsduring,68,
linguisLicchangcsin,6,obscuriLy
oaLncssduring,o,origino
aLvicwcdin,,o,,ovcrvicw,:,
popularsongsdcnigraLingaLncss,8,
rcsisLanccsandascinaLions,8,
roundncssand,6,8,,6o,6:6,
skinnincssrcuscdin,,wcigh-
ingrariLyin,66,:6n,womcns
drcssin,,,6,womcnsslimming
cmphasizcdin,,,,seea|soWomcn,
inRcnaissanccpcriod
Rcngadc,1ulcs,8
RcproducLivcaculLics,FnlighLcnmcnL-
craconccrnwiLh,,,
RcspiraLoryoods,:,:8,6
RcspiraLoryLypc,o
RcsLingmcLabolicraLc(RMR),8o
RcsLoraLionand1ulyMonarchypcri-
ods,o,,bourgcoismcn,:o:,
::,criLicismandironicrcvcrsals
o,::,dicLsin,,aLdcni-
Lionsin,:,:8,casLingin,,
rcandaLin,:,:8,:on8,morbid
immincnccin,:o,numbcrs
and,:,scl-wcighingin,,
slimmingLcchniqucs,,,
sucringdimcnsionoobcsiLy,,,
Lhinncssin,::,LhinwaisLsand,
::,Lypologyosizcsormcnand
womcn,,:o,::8n,waisL-wcighL
rclaLionduring,:,waLcrandaL
vicwcdin,::6,seea|soWomcn,
RcsLoraLionand1ulyMonarchypcriod
258 Index
RcLardingnuLriLion,BouchardsconccpL
oslowor,,
RcLz,Nocl,o
Reverendssmovvov. H.Huntngton,p
Riolan,1can,8,
RMR,seeRcsLingmcLabolicraLc
Robinson,Bryan,8o
RomandeRenart,
Ronsard,P.,
Rosa,FdwardBcnncLL,,8o
Roundncss:dcgrccso,86,globcimag-
cryor,6:6,naLural,,Rcnais-
sanccdcscripLions,6,8,,6o,
6:6
Rousscau,o6
Rowlandson,Tomas,p
Roya|Pharmacopa(Charas),6
RoyalLy,bcarascmblcmo,6
Rubcns,PicrrcPaul,,,p
SainL-Simon,IouisdcRouvroyducdc,
x,
SancLorius,,o,,8o,p,
Sand,Ccorgc,
SaLirc,6,
Sauvagcs,Boissicrdc,8,
Scalc(physical),xii,p:o,aparLmcnL,:,
chair,,o,,8o,dailyusco,,,,8,
DcsbordcsrcqucsLLoinsLallpublic,
8,aLairs,,publicpcrsonal,
,8,rariLyo,,SancLoriuss,p,,
WyaLLsinvcnLionobalancc,8:8
Schwilguc,C. 1. A.,o:
sciaLica,mcdicvalLcrmor,
ScicnccomonsLcrs,6
ScicnLicpcriod,
ScoL,Michacl,:
ScalcdchambcrcxpcrimcnLs,o,
ScdcnLarincss,68,,
Scl-csLccm,6
Scl-idcnLiLy,,
Scl-wcighing,RcsLoraLionpcriodand,
Scysscl,Claudc,
Shakcspcarc,William,6,
ShorLncck,8
Sicard,1can,
Sicnna,Aldcbrandin,
SilhoucLLcs,8,8,,,8,p::,coin-
agcoLcrm,88,FnlighLcnmcnL-agc
imporLancco,8,8,,88,passivc
sculpLingo,p:.,inRcsLoraLionand
1ulyMonarchypcriod,6,Lurn-o-
Lhc-ccnLurysLhinncr,66
SingularLypcs,FnlighLcnmcnLagcidcn-
LicaLiono,86,::on:
Sizc:ambiguiLy,8,,:,:,caL-
cgorics,6,charLs,,rsL
aLLcnLionLodcgrccso,p,,prcci-
sionabouL,,,,88:,Lypologicso,
,:o,::8n
Skinnincss:ambiguiLyo,:,cxccsscs
o,6,nuancing,6:,rcusalo,
,Rcnaissanccworricsovcr,
66:
SlackLissuc,:,,,oo,:6
Slimming:baLhsor,o:,bclLsand
corscLsor,,,6,dryingouLor,
,,,FnlighLcnmcnL-crarcgimcns
or,o,,MiddlcAgcscorLs
Loward,:8:,Rcnaissanccslow
culLural,:,RcnaissanccLcchniqucs
or,6,,Rcnaissanccwomcnand,
,,,RcsLoraLionpcriod,,
,Lurn-o-Lhc-ccnLury,,vincgar
andlcmonor,,,
SlimmingBaLhSalLs,Clarks,p::
SlownuLriLion,,
SmallobcsiLy,
Soappills,oo
Socialclass,::6,,6,68,p,,con-
LcmporaryobcsiLyand,868,,mcaL
consumpLionand,:
Socialsucring,
Spas,:,6:6,p:o
Spectator,,8o
Index 259
Spromtre,o
LeStatcamedcna,p,
SLaLisLics:avcragcs,:,conLcm-
porary,868,,FnlighLcnmcnL-agc
cmcrgcncco,88,::on,,::on,
obcsiLycpidcmic,86,Lurn-o-Lhc-
ccnLuryocuson,,,,waisL-wcighL
rclaLionand,:,wcighLgain
sLudyand,,
SLigmaLizaLion:changcsovcrLimc,
,,odcgcncraLion,8,
FnlighLcnmcnL-cra,o8,ooods,
:,lackowillasconLcmporary,,
olazincssandwcakncss,,modcrn
pcriod,,,,8,:os,,,,
opulcncc,,powcrlcssncssand,xiii,
,,,8,RcsLoraLionpcriod,:o,o
uglincss,,vicLimizaLionrcplac-
ing,8,seea|soCriLicism,oaL
SLranglcdwaisL,8,8,:,p,
SLraparola,Cianranco,o
SLupidiLy,bigncsslinkcdwiLh,:6
Suc,Fugcnc,8
Sucring:changcsovcrLimcpcriodsin,
88,:osnarraLivcso,,,,
privaLionand,,,social,,
LrcaLmcnLailurcsand,,8,LrcaL-
mcnLnarraLivcso,8
Sugar,6o6,,:,8
Sugcr,IAbbc,8,
Swcllings:dryingouLLocurc,,:,,
FnlighLcnmcnL-crawriLingson,
:,hydropsy,:,inmcdicval
LcxLs,:,scvcnLccnLh-ccnLury
pcrccpLionso,66,seea|soHydropsy
SwiL,1onaLhan,8
Swimwcar,
Sydcnham,Tomas,:
TablcsogcnLlcmcn,:,
Tcas,6
Tcnon,1acqucs(ParisiandocLor),8,8,
::on
Tcrmalspas,6:6
Tcrmalwcighingmachinc,p:o
Tinncss:conLcmporary,88o,in
courLculLurcoMiddlcAgcs,:::,
dynamicsoconLcmporaryobcsiLy
and,888,carlyoosmalc,
686,:osconccrnwiLh,,,
Rcnaissanccmodclo,,RcsLora-
Lionand1ulyMonarchy,::,,
LhinrcvoluLiono:os,66,,
Lurn-o-Lhc-ccnLurycmalc,6,o,
Lurn-o-Lhc-ccnLurywillLo,,
wcighLgainromobscssionwiLh,
o,womcnsobligaLory,::,:,,,
p,,seea|soSkinnincss
TeTrtyYearO|dwoman(Balzac),:
Trcsholds,8,,ambiguiLyo,
TissoL,Samicl,o,oo,o
Tonics,oo
TrcaLmcnL:caloricrcducLionas,6o,
clccLriciLyas,o:,FnlighLcnmcnL-
cra,o,,cxciLanLs,o:,
ailurcs,,8,gradcdobcsiLyand,
6o,modcrnnarraLivcso,88,
ncrvcrcgimcn,o,pcrsonal
LcsLimonics,,prcoccupaLionwiLh,
8,scvcrcormso,6o,LhcrapcuLic
mulLipliciLy,,,,,Lonics,oo,
Lurn-o-Lhc-ccnLurycauscsand,
6:
TreatmentojSecretRemedesjorFema|e
Ma|ades(IicbaulL),,
TurnoLhcccnLury,6,,advcrLis-
ingcampaignso,66,acsLhcL-
ics,,,bodycxposurc
and,6,causcsandLrcaLmcnLs
discusscdin,6:,dcccLocivi-
lizaLionvicwocarlyoos,6,68,
dcgcncraLionand,8,dicLso,
:,6:,malcLhinncssandaL
dcnunciaLionin,686,masculinc
waisL,8,monsLrosiLyLhcmc,
,,,ovcrvicw,:,sizccharL
260 Index
TurnoLhcccnLury(contnued)
conicLs,,LhinrcvoluLion,
66,,uglincssandridiculcin,
,widcsprcadwcighingin,
:,womcnscloLhcsin8,os,
,,womcnshipsand,68,see
a|soWomcn,Lurn-o-Lhc-ccnLurycra
TwcnLicLhccnLury,seeModcrnpcriod
Two-Pennywhst,p,
TympaniLcs,windsand,
Typologics:AbdominalLypc,o,body,
o,bourgcoisobcsiLy,8,FnlighL-
cnmcnLcrassingular,86,::on:,
MiddlcAgcsbigncss,,,RcsLora-
Lionand1ulyMonarchypcriodsizc,
,:o,::8n,Lurn-o-Lhc-ccnLury
cmalcobcsiLy,,8
Uglincss,LurnoLhcccnLuryridiculc
and,
Urinc,hydropic,:6
ValcLudinarians,,8o
Valois,lisabcLhdc,6
VanFyck,1.,:8
VcgcLablcPanLagruclism,
VcgcLarianism,o6
Vcrccllio,Ccsarc,,6
Vcrvillc,Bcroaldcdc,
VichywaLcrs,,,6,,8,p:o
VicLimizaLion,8
Villcncuvc,Arnauddc,
VinccnL-Casscy,Mircillc,8
Vincgar,,,,
vo||et,p:.
vsons(Pisan),
vogue,,o
VolLairc,8,8:
VonCocz,Franz,86
VulgariLy,,6
WaisL:FnlighLcnmcnL-agcmcasurc-
mcnLo,88:,:n:,rccdomo
mcns,8,8,mcasuringonly,88:,
:n:,rclaLionowcighLand,:
,RcsLoraLionand1ulyMonarchy
Lhinncsso,::,sLrangulaLiono
womcns,8,8,:,p,,Lurn-o-Lhc-
ccnLurymasculinc,8,womcns
obligaLoryLighL,p,
Walpolc,Horacc,o
WaLcr:mcdicvalvicwoaLand,:,
,RcsLoraLionand1ulyMonarchy
pcriodsvicwoaLand,::6,Vichy
Lownspas,,,6,,8,p:o
WcakconsLiLuLion,
Wcighing,p:o,ood,,o,oodsLusand
wasLc,8o,public,,Rcnaissancc
kingsbcLasrarccasco,66,:6n,
scl-,,LrcaLmcnLand,,8,
widcsprcad,:
WcighL:calculaLionoanimal,6,,curvc,
:,FnlighLcnmcnLconccrnwiLh
avcragcbody,8,mcasuringhcighL
and,88,:,,numcrical
mcasuringo,,8,progrcssiono,
,,o,rclaLionowaisLand,:,
Rcnaissancc-crawcighLwaLching,,,
waisLmcasurcmcnLrcplacing,88:,
:n:
WcighLgain:sLudyogradaLionso,,o
,,Lhinncssobscssioncausing,o
WilliamLhcConqucror,8,,,:on:
Wind,
Winc:gouLcauscdbycxccss,,misusc
o,8
Womcn:bcauLyidcalorconLcmporary,
,o,changcdsLaLuso,,8,carly
nincLccnLh-ccnLury,,:o,obliga-
LoryLhinncss,::,:,,,p,,seea|so
Fcmalcbody
Womcn,FnlighLcnmcnL-cra:Marivauxs
nuanccdlanguagcabouLaL,8,waisL
sLrangulaLionin,8,8,p,
Womcn,inMiddlcAgcs:bcauLiul,,
bclLswornbynoblc,:
Index 261
Womcn,inRcnaissanccpcriod:baLhso,
,,p,bcggars,,bclLsandcorscLs
or,,,6,counLry,68,dccoraLivc
bcauLyo,,,drawingso,,,manu-
alsondrcsso,,,scducLivcncsso
big,o,slimmingcmphasisin,,,,
volupLuous,
Womcn,RcsLoraLionand1ulyMonarchy
pcriod:causcoaLin,:,:8,Lhin-
ncssimporLancc,,LhinncssLypcs
in,:,Lypologicso,,:o,::8n
Womcn,Lurn-o-Lhc-ccnLurycra:bcauLy,
,cloLhcssLylcin,,,ocuson
hips,68,obcsiLyLypcsspccicd
in,,8,Lhinncssocarlyoos,
6,o
womenPathng,p
WyaLL,1ohn,8:8
Zanzibar,
Zola,:,8,:,acsLhcLicsandvaria-
LionsincharacLcrso,,ricnds
onrccovcryo,6o,mirrorsccncin
Nana,6,saLircon,
EUROPEAN PERSPECTI VES
A Series in Social Thought and Cultural Criticism
Lawrence D. Kritzman, Editor
Gilles Deleuze, Te Logic of Sense
Julia Kristeva, Strangers to Ourselves
Teodor W. Adorno, Notes to Literature, vols. and
Richard Wolin, ed., Te Heidegger Controversy
Antonio Gramsci, Prison Notebooks, vols. , , and
Jacques Le Go, History and Memory
Alain Finkielkraut, Remembering in Vain: Te Klaus Barbie Trial and
Crimes Against Humanity
Julia Kristeva, Nations Without Nationalism
Pierre Bourdieu, Te Field of Cultural Production
Pierre Vidal-Naquet, Assassins of Memory: Essays on the Denial of the
Holocaust
Hugo Ball, Critique of the German Intelligentsia
Gilles Deleuze, Logic and Sense
Gilles Deleuze and Flix Guattari, What Is Philosophy?
Karl Heinz Bohrer, Suddenness: On the Moment of Aesthetic Appearance
Julia Kristeva, Time and Sense: Proust and the Experience of Literature
Alain Finkielkraut, Te Defeat of the Mind
Julia Kristeva, New Maladies of the Soul
Elisabeth Badinter, XY: On Masculine Identity
Karl Lwith, Martin Heidegger and European Nihilism
Gilles Deleuze, Negotiations,
Pierre Vidal-Naquet, Te Jews: History, Memory, and the Present
Norbert Elias, Te Germans
Louis Althusser, Writings on Psychoanalysis: Freud and Lacan
Elisabeth Roudinesco, Jacques Lacan: His Life and Work
Ross Guberman, Julia Kristeva Interviews
Kelly Oliver, Te Portable Kristeva
Pierre Nora, Realms of Memory: Te Construction of the French Past
Vol. : Conicts and Divisions
Vol. : Traditions
Vol. : Symbols
Claudine Fabre-Vassas, Te Singular Beast: Jews, Christians, and the Pig
Paul Ricoeur, Critique and Conviction: Conversations with Franois Azouvi and
Marc de Launay
Teodor W. Adorno, Critical Models: Interventions and Catchwords
Alain Corbin, Village Bells: Sound and Meaning in the Nineteenth-Century
French Countryside
Zygmunt Bauman, Globalization: Te Human Consequences
Emmanuel Levinas, Entre Nous: Essays on Tinking-of-the-Other
Jean-Louis Flandrin and Massimo Montanari, Food: A Culinary History
Tahar Ben Jelloun, French Hospitality: Racism and North African Immigrants
Emmanuel Levinas, Alterity and Transcendence
Sylviane Agacinski, Parity of the Sexes
Alain Finkielkraut, In the Name of Humanity: Reections on the Twentieth Century
Julia Kristeva, Te Sense and Non-Sense of Revolt: Te Powers and Limits of
Psychoanalysis
Rgis Debray, Transmitting Culture
Catherine Clment and Julia Kristeva, Te Feminine and the Sacred
Alain Corbin, Te Life of an Unknown: Te Rediscovered World of a Clog Maker
in Nineteenth-Century France
Michel Pastoureau, Te Devils Cloth: A History of Stripes and Striped Fabric
Julia Kristeva, Hannah Arendt
Carlo Ginzburg, Wooden Eyes: Nine Reections on Distance
Elisabeth Roudinesco, Why Psychoanalysis?
Alain Cabantous, Blasphemy: Impious Speech in the West from the Seventeenth
to the Nineteenth Century
Luce Irigaray, Between East and West: From Singularity to Community
Julia Kristeva, Melanie Klein
Gilles Deleuze, Dialogues II
Julia Kristeva, Intimate Revolt: Te Powers and Limits of Psychoanalysis, vol.
Claudia Benthien, Skin: On the Cultural Border Between Self and the World
Sylviane Agacinski, Time Passing: Modernity and Nostalgia
Emmanuel Todd, After the Empire: Te Breakdown of the American Order
Hlne Cixous, Portrait of Jacques Derrida as a Young Jewish Saint
Gilles Deleuze, Dierence and Repetition
Gianni Vattimo, Nihilism and Emancipation: Ethics, Politics, and Law
Julia Kristeva, Colette
Steve Redhead, ed., Te Paul Virilio Reader
Roland Barthes, Te Neutral: Lecture Course at the Collge de France ()
Gianni Vattimo, Dialogue with Nietzsche
Gilles Deleuze, Nietzsche and Philosophy
Hlne Cixous, Dream I Tell You
Jacques Derrida, Geneses, Genealogies, Genres, and Genius: Te Secrets of the
Archive
Jean Starobinski, Enchantment: Te Seductress in Opera
Julia Kristeva, Tis Incredible Need to Believe
Marta Segarra, ed., Te Portable Cixous
Franois Dosse, Gilles Deleuze and Flix Guattari: Intersecting Lives
Julia Kristeva, Hatred and Forgiveness
Antoine de Baecque, History/Cinema
Franois Noudelmann, Te Philosophers Touch: Sartre, Nietzsche, and Barthes
at the Piano
Roland Barthes, How to Live Together: Novelistic Simulations of Some Everyday
Spaces

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GE OR GE S V I GA R E L L O

Tis LcsLimony is prccious bccausc physical scl-dcscrip-

and aL and lusLy and ruddy courLicrs,

Tc aw o Lhc aL pcrson in modcrn Limcs

hcld againsL Lhc aL pcrson

Tc criLicism o Lhc aL pcrson Lhus parLicipaLcs in Lhc immcnsc

Tc incrcasing varicLy o Lcrms LcsLics Lo Lhc incrcasing discrimi-

A hisLory o Lhc body musL

anasarca, a dcormaLion callcd a univcrsal Lumor,

so LhaL shcll bc morc casily dirccLcd and shapcd by hcr husband.

Tis inniLy o oral dcsirc sLands as a accLious counLcrpoinL aL a Limc

OvcrcaLing is considcrcd ccnLral, iL would sccm, Lo Lhc mcchanism LhaL

Rcnc dc Pilcs, Lhc biographcr and conLcmporary o Rubcns, sccs only

QucsLions o Lhickncss and gradaLions rcmain in Lhc shadows, cxccpL

Tc rcsulL is a rclaLivc abscncc o prccision abouL Lhc bcginnings o

Tis dicL is cnLircly cmpirical, morcovcr, as Iuigi Cornaro scarchcs ouL

An unprcccdcnLcd conccrn is prcscnL Lhough, namcly, Lhis will Lo mca-

Tcsc criLicisms havc iconographic LranslaLions, as iL wcrc, in visual

Tis is in cvidcncc in BcrLalls bourgcois couplc. His A Sunday in Paris,

TcoldmaidinTe Human ComedyhashadaLranquil,ordcrlylicLhaL

Tc CounL o Vicl-CasLcl spcaks o making cvcrish bcLs such as daring

Hugucs Rcbcll rccalls Lhc disdain LhaL is somcLimcs lcvclcd againsL

The Dominance of Aesthetics 151

ConrmaLion camc rom Lhc invcrsc proccdurc. Tc muLilaLing condi-

ChcmisLry dcvclopcd Lhc analysis o waLcrs, spa Lowns invcsLcd cxLcn-

AnoLhcr cxamplc is MonLhcrlanLs characLcr Madcmoiscllc dc Plcmcur,

Tc caLcgorics o possiblc disordcrs arc also cxLcndcd and dcLailcd: a

whcn iLs considcrcd an invisiblc prcscncc, a sccrcL mass, hiddcn wiLhin

Tc obsLaclcs changc. A asLing syndromc can gcL going wiLh chaoLic

194 CHANGES I N THE CONTEMPORARY DEBATE

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