To appears in Pragmatics 6(2), June 1996 PRAGMATIC MARKERS Bruce Fraser Boston University March 1996 I. INTRODUCTION imp!

y state", # ta$e pragmatics to %e an account o& the process %y 'hich the !anguage user ta$es a sentence representation provi"e" %y the grammar an", given the conte(t in 'hich the sentence is uttere", "etermines 'hat messages an" 'hat e&&ects the spea$er has conveye") My
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concern in this paper is 'ith a part o& that process, name!y, the 'ays in 'hich the !inguistica!!y enco"e" in&ormation o& sentence meaning provi"es an in"ication o& the "irect, !itera! messages inten"e" %y the spea$er) *et me set the &rame'or$ 'ithin 'hich # 'i!! %e 'or$ing) First, # assume that every sentence has a +irect Message Potentia!) +erive" &rom sentence meaning, this is a speci&ication o& those messages that can %e potentia!!y communicate" %y the utterance o& the sentence) ,& course, the message potentia! o& a sentence is se!"om rea!i-e" comp!ete!y) Per&ormance &eatures an" conte(t typica!!y mo"i&y 'hat is actua!!y conveye" %y the utterance, e(c!u"ing some messages, mo"i&ying others, an" a""ing sti!! others) The sentence . it "o'n,/ &or e(amp!e, has the potentia! o& conveying a re0uest, among other messages, %y virtue o& its meaning) #mposing the appropriate rising intonation 'hen uttering this sentence can mo"i&y the message &rom a re0uest to a 0uestion, an" an angry tone o& voice can a"" the message, not present in the !inguistic enco"ing, that the spea$er is upset) But 'hat # 'i!! !oo$ at in this paper is the starting point o& the process o&
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There are many versions of what constitutes pragmatics. The reader is referred to Blakemore (1992), reen (19!"), #evinson (19!$), %ey (199$), and &erschueren (19!$) for differing and at times conflicting treatments of the su'(ect. This version of the paper has some corrections and amendation not found in the pu'lished te)t.

2 pragmatic interpretation1 the message potentia! that "erives &rom the meaning o& the sentence itse!&, %e&ore any consi"eration o& per&ormance or conte(t occurs) econ", # assume that sentence meaning, the in&ormation enco"e" %y !inguistic e(pressions, can %e "ivi"e" up into t'o separate an" "istinct parts) ,n the one han", a sentence typica!!y enco"es a proposition, perhaps comp!e(, 'hich represents a state o& the 'or!" 'hich the spea$er 'ishes to %ring to the a""ressee2s attention) This aspect o& sentence meaning is genera!!y re&erre" to as the propositiona! content (or content meaning) o& the sentence) ,n the other han", there is everything e!se1 moo" mar$ers such as the "ec!arative structure o& the sentence, an" !e(ica! e(pressions o& varying !ength an" comp!e(ity) #t is on this .everything e!se/ that # 'i!! &ocus) peci&ica!!y, # propose that this non3propositiona! part o& sentence meaning can %e ana!y-e" into "i&&erent types o& signa!s, 'hat # have ca!!e" Pragmatic Mar$ers (c&) Fraser 1994), 'hich correspon" to the "i&&erent types o& potentia! "irect messages a sentence may convey) These pragmatic mar$ers, ta$en to %e separate an" "istinct &rom the propositiona! content o& the sentence, are the !inguistica!!y enco"e" c!ues 'hich signa! the spea$er2s potentia! communicative intentions) Messages, an" hence their associate" pragmatic mar$ers, &a!! into &our types) First, there is a sing!e, %asic message, 'hich uses the sentence proposition as its message content) Basic mar$ers, 'hich signa! more or !ess speci&ica!!y the &orce (the $in" o& message in contrast to its content) o& the %asic message, inc!u"e sentence moo" an" !e(ica! e(pressions) These mar$ers are i!!ustrate" %y the e(amp!es in (1), 'ith the pragmatic mar$er in %o!"&ace type) (1) a) I regret that he is sti!! here) %) Admittedly, # 'as ta$en in) c) The cat is very sic$) entence (1a) is an e(pression o& regret, an" sentence (1%) an a"mission) entence (1c) has no !e(ica! %asic mar$er, as "o the &irst t'o, %ut its "ec!arative moo" signa!s that it is the e(pression
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* use the terms +force, and +content, in roughly the same way as they are used in discussions of illocutionary acts. -owever, * avoid use of the latter term since my focus is on the messages people communicate rather than the illocutionary acts they perform.

$ o& %e!ie& (a c!aim, a report) that the state o& the 'or!" e(presse" %y the propositiona! content is true) econ", there are commentary messages, 'hich provi"e a comment on the %asic message) 5ommentary messages, an" hence the presence o& commentary mar$ers, are optiona!33a sentence nee" not contain any) 6hen they "o occur, their message is typica!!y very genera!, 'ith a sing!e 'or" o&ten signa!ing %oth the message &orce an" content) ,%vious!y, they constitute pragmatic i"ioms) The sentences in (2) i!!ustrate this type o& mar$er) (2) a) Stupidly, ara "i"n7t &a( the correct &orm in on time) %) Fran ly, 'e shou!" %e there %y no') #n (2a), &or e(amp!e, the %asic message is (argua%!y) a report 'hi!e the commentary message, signa!e" %y stupidly, is that the spea$er %e!ieves ara2s &ai!ure to act to have %een stupi") #n (2%), the frankly signa!s that the %asic message 'hich &o!!o's is, in the spea$er2s opinion, not going to %e 'e!! receive" %y the a""ressee) Thir", there are para!!e! messages, a!so optiona!, 'hich signa! an entire message separate &rom the %asic an" any commentary messages) The sentences in (8) are i!!ustrative o& para!!e! mar$ers) (8) a) !"#n, you are very noisy) %) In G"d$% name& 'hat are you "oing no'9 #n (8a), &or e(amp!e, the spea$er, in a""ition to the %asic message o& a c!aim that John is %eing very noisy, is conveying a message, signa!e" %y John, that it is John 'ho is %eing a""resse", 'hi!e in (8%), the in Gods name signa!s e(asperation on the part o& the spea$er) Fina!!y, there are "iscourse messages, again optiona!, 'hich signa! a message speci&ying ho' the %asic message is re!ate" to the &oregoing "iscourse) The sentences in (:) i!!ustrate these mar$ers) (:) a) Jaco% 'as very tire") S"& he !e&t ear!y) %) Martha7s party is tomorro') In'identally, 'hen is your party9

. ;ere, in (:a), the so signa!s that the report that he !e&t ear!y is a conc!usion %ase" on the message conveye" %y the prece"ing sentence, 'hi!e in (:%), the incidentally signa!s that the &o!!o'ing %asic message is going to re&!ect a shi&t in topic) To summari-e to this point, a %asic mar$er signa!s the &orce "( the %asic message, a commentary mar$er signa!s a message 'hich comments "n the %asic message, a para!!e! mar$er signa!s a message in additi"n t" the %asic message, an" a "iscourse mar$er signa!s the relati"n%#ip o& the %asic message to the &oregoing "iscourse) <!though it is rare to &in" a!! &our types o& pragmatic mar$ers in a sing!e sentence, it "oes occur, as in (=))
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(=) # appreciate that you are a mem%er o& the Po!ice Benevo!ent <ssociation an" a supporter o& the %ase%a!! !eague) )"*e+er& ,uite (ran ly Sir& I e%timate that you 'ere going a %it more than >6 mi!es per hour) Be&ore !oo$ing at these &our types o& mar$ers in "etai!, # 'ant to ma$e a &e' genera! remar$s) First, to reiterate a point ma"e a%ove, pragmatic mar$ers are not part o& the propositiona! content o& the sentence) They are separate an" "istinct) #t &o!!o's &rom this that &or a given !e(ica! e(pression (e)g), truthfully, amazingly) in a particu!ar sentence, there is no over!apping o& &unctions) 6hen an e(pression &unctions as one type o& pragmatic mar$er, it "oes not &unction as a part o& the propositiona! content? an" vice versa) #n a""ition, 'hen an e(pression is &unctioning as one type o& pragmatic mar$er, it cannot at the same time &unction as a secon" type) #n some cases 'hen there are homophonous e(pressions, &or e(amp!e, truthfully, the e(pression cannot occur in the same &rame, so there is no 0uestion o& am%iguity) For e(amp!e, in (6a), (6) a) Trut#(ully, you shou!" have ans'ere") %) @ou shou!" have ans'ere" truth&u!!y) c) Trut#(ully, you shou!" have ans'ere" truth&u!!y) the spea$er signa!s that the manner o& spea$ing is truth&u!, not "isingenuous, 'hereas in (6%), the truthfully is part o& the proposition an" mo"i&ies the manner o& ans'ering) The interpretation o& the e(pressions cannot %e interchange") #n &act, (6c) sho's that the t'o meanings can co3e(ist
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&arious phonological phenomena such as intonation and stress can, at times, take the place of these le)ical pragmatic markers, particularly commentary markers. -owever, * will not consider them in this paper.

/ 'ith no pro%!em) ;o'ever, there are a &e' cases !i$e .Ao' 'here are 'e9/ 'here there is an am%iguity) #s it the a"ver%ia! now, 'ith a time interpretation? or is it the "iscourse mar$er now, 'ith a &ocusing &unction9 6hen there is a comma intonation present, it is a!'ays the !atter) econ", pragmatic mar$ers carry meaning) But 'hereas %asic, commentary, an" para!!e! mar$ers, !i$e the sentence proposition, have representationa! meaning, in virtue o& 'hich they "enote concepts, the "iscourse mar$ers have proce"ura! meaning an" speci&y ho' the sentence o& 'hich they are a part is re!ate" to the prece"ing "iscourse) # 'i!! a""ress these points as 'e go a!ong)
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Thir", pragmatic mar$ers signa! messages that app!y on!y to the "irect %asic message) They "o not app!y to any in"irect messages 'hich may %e imp!icate" %y the "irect %asic message) For e(3 amp!e, the in"irect interpretation o& (Ba) (B) a) Un("rtunately, # am co!") %) C"n(identially, 'ou!" you !i$e a "rin$9 c) Candidly& he is marrie" to his 'or$) (C;e is "e"icate" to his 'or$)) ") I %u%pe't his min" ruste" on vacation) (C# suspect he got a !itt!e out o& practice)) as a re0uest to turn up the heat is una&&ecte" %y the commentary mar$er unfortunately) imi!ar!y, the in"irect message in (B%), that the spea$er is as$ing i& the a""ressee 'i!! stay an" ta!$ 'ith him a&ter %eing %rought the "rin$, is una&&ecte" %y the mar$er confidentially) #n (Bc3") 'here the "i3 rect message is ta$en to %e &igurative not !itera!, the pragmatic mar$ers app!y to the &igurative, "irect interpretations, %ut not to any in"irect interpretations)
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Fourth, near!y a!! pragmatic mar$ers may occur in sentence3initia! position ( though is one e(ception) an" usua!!y occur there) There are occasions 'hen they 'i!! occur me"ia!!y or &ina!!y, as in (>), %ut in these cases the mar$er is set o&& %y a comma intonation to "istinguish it &rom a homophonous &orm use" as part o& the proposition) (>) a) John is, I admit, the %est person %y &ar &or the Do%) %) he 'as, '"n(identially, a %right scho!ar an" a &antastic ath!ete)
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*n 0raser (19!/) * wrote of pragmatic formatives signaling rather than having a content meaning. Blakemore (19!") introduces the contrasting terms representational versus procedural meaning , and * have adopted this terminology. / 0igurative use doesn1t change the force of the 'asic message 'ut only its content.

2 c) ;arry is going to go, #"*e+er) Fina!!y, pragmatic mar$ers are "ra'n &rom a!! segments o& the grammar) Eer%s, nouns, an" a"ver%s as 'e!! as i"ioms such as ok are a!! presse" into service as pragmatic mar$ers) But &or the most part, the meaning o& the e(pression, 'hen use" as a pragmatic mar$er, is the same as 'hen it is use" as a propositiona! &ormative an" it is on!y its &unction 'hich "i&&ers) #n those cases 'here there is a "i&&erence, the !e(ica! e(pression must %e mar$e" &or the "i&&erent meaning) 6ith these pre!iminary comments out o& the 'ay, !et us turn no' to a "etai!e" e(amination o& the types o& pragmatic mar$ers) II. -ASIC MARKERS Basic mar$ers have representationa! meaning 'hich means they contri%ute conceptua! in&ormation over an" a%ove that o& the propositiona! meaning) peci&ica!!y, they represent

in&ormation 'hich signa!s more or !ess speci&ica!!y the &orce o& the "irect %asic message o& the sentence) This meaning "istinction %et'een propositiona! content an" %asic pragmatic mar$ers 'as propose" %y ear!e (1969184), 'ho 'rote1 6e can "istinguish t'o (not necessari!y separate) e!ements in the syntactica! structure o& the sentence, 'hich 'e might ca!! the propositiona! in"icator an" the i!!ocutionary &orce in"icator) The i!!ocutionary &orce in"icator sho's ho' the proposition is to %e ta$en, or to put it another 'ay, 'hat i!!ocutionary &orce the utterance is to have? that is, 'hat i!!ocutionary act the spea$er is per&orming in the utterance o& the sentence) #!!ocutionary &orce in"icators in Fng!ish inc!u"e at !east1 'or" or"er, stress, intonation contour, punctuation, the moo" o& the ver% an" the so ca!!e" per&ormative ver%s) (page 84) 6hi!e not agreeing 'ith ear!e comp!ete!y, # 'i!! 'or$ 'ithin the spirit o& his suggestion an" 'i!! consi"er structura!, !e(ica!, an" hy%ri" %asic mar$ers) #n the &o!!o'ing section # 'i!! consi"er the &o!!o'ing %asic mar$ers1 <) tructura! %asic mar$ers B) *e(ica! %asic mar$ers Per&ormative e(pressions Pragmatic i"ioms 5) ;y%ri" %asic mar$ers +ec!arative3%ase" hy%ri"s #nterrogative3%ase" hy%ri"s #mperative3%ase" hy%ri"s

" A. Stru'tural -a%i' Mar er% The &irst an" most genera! o& the %asic mar$ers is the syntactic structure o& the sentence itse!&, its moo") F(cept &or some i"iomatic structures, every Fng!ish sentence &a!!s into one o& three syntactic types ("ec!arative, imperative, or interrogative) an" each type signa!s a genera! &orce &or the %asic message) The "ec!arative structure signa!s the e(pression o& %e!ie& %y the spea$er that the sentence propositiona! content represents (or "i", or 'i!! represent) a true state o& the 'or!") The spea$er o& .John s!i" "o'n the s!ope,/ &or e(amp!e, is committe" to e(pressing the %e!ie& that John s!i" "o'n the s!ope, a!though 'hat type o& %e!ie&33a c!aim, an assertion, an a"mission, a con&ession, or an ac$no'!e"gment33is !e&t open) ty!istic variations o& the canonica! "ec!arative &orm 'hich

retain the sentence propositiona! content "o not a!ter the spea$er7s commitment o& %e!ie&) #n contrast, the imperative structure signa!s the spea$er7s e(pression o& "esire that the a""ressee %ring a%out the state o& the 'or!" "escri%e" in the propositiona! content) The action "esire" may %e ver%a!, as in (9a), or non3ver%a!, as in (9%)) (9) a) Te!! me the ans'er) %) Bring that %oo$ over here) Un!i$e the "ec!arative structure, the imperative moo" has no sty!istic variations) The thir" maDor structure o& Fng!ish is the interrogative moo") imi!ar to the imperative, it signa!s spea$er e(pression o& "esire, in this case &or a""ressee ver%a! response) ;ere 'e &in" syntactic variations "istinguishing %et'een @F GA,30uestions, (14a3%), an" 6;30uestions, (14c3 &), 'ith the !atter type having a num%er o& sty!istic variations, some invo!ving more than one 6; 'or"1 (14) a) +i" you see him9 %) 5an you "o that9 c) 6ho are you9 ")6ho "i" you see9 e) @ou sa' 'hom9 &) 6ho "i" you see 'here9

! <s 'ith "ec!arative sentence variations, i& the propositiona! content remains constant, the spea$er attitu"e associate" 'ith the interrogative &orm, the e(pression o& "esire that the a""ressee ma$e a ver%a! response, "oes not change) #t is interesting that the three maDor syntactic constructions o& Fng!ish signa! on!y t'o (%e!ie& an" "esire) o& the many propositiona! attitu"es a spea$er might ho!" to'ar" the message (propositiona!) content) F(cept &or a &e' specia! cases, 'hich 'i!! %e "iscusse" %e!o', spea$er attitu"es o& commitment, intention, praise, %!ame, or anger are not signa!e" %y speci&ic syntactic structures) There is no syntactic structure 'hich signa!s the spea$er2s intention to convey a promise, an apo!ogy, or a criticism as there is &or a c!aim an" a re0uest) -. .e/i'al -a%i' Mar er% #n contrast to on!y three structura! %asic pragmatic mar$ers, there are many !e(ica! %asic pragmatic mar$ers) They can %e ana!y-e" into t'o maDor groups1 per&ormative e(pressions, 'hich essentia!!y re&ine the &orce signa!e" %y the sentence moo", an" pragmatic i"ioms) # 'i!! consi"er these in turn) Per("rmati+e E/pre%%i"n% ure!y the most 'e!!3$no'n !e(ica! "evice &or signa!ing the %asic message &orce speci&ica!!y is the per&ormative e(pression, i!!ustrate" in the &o!!o'ing e(amp!es) (11) a) I pr"mi%e that # 'i!! %e there on time) %) I 0#ere1y2 ap"l"gi3e &or running over your cat) c) I 0#ere1y2 re,ue%t that you stay Dust a %it !onger) These canonica! per&ormative e(pressions contain a &irst person singu!ar su%Dect, in some cases an o%Dect you, an" a ver% in the non3negative present tense 'hich "enotes a propositiona! attitu"e speci&ying the spea$er7s vie' to'ar"s the &o!!o'ing proposition) There are !itera!!y hun"re"s o& per&ormative ver%s 'hich serve as %asic mar$ers an" speci&y, more precise!y than the sentence structure, the %asic message &orce)
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There are ordinary performative e)pressions such as I claim, I promise, and I request which deal with everyday messages, and institutional e)pressions such as I baptize you..., You are fired!, Youre out! which depend on an institution and the appropriate speaker for their success. 3e will not consider these latter types in this paper.

9 The per&ormative e(pression is the &irst o& 'hat 'i!! %e severa! instances o& stan"ar"i-e" &orms throughout the paper) For e(amp!e, sentence (11a) "oes not !itera!!y mean that the spea$er is conveying a promise) Hather, it constitutes a "irect report %y the spea$er o& 'hat the spea$er is present!y "oing (# ignore the ha%itua! rea"ing o& the sentence)) <s Bach I ;arnish (19B9) argue, this sentence on!y in"irect!y conveys a promise) Aeverthe!ess, the per&ormative e(pression I promise (you) has %ecome stan"ar"i-e", 'ith the resu!t that it is routine!y hear" not in its reporting sense %ut in its promising sense) The "irect meaning has, in the 'or"s o& Morgan (19B>) %ecome .short circuite")/ Thus, sentence (11a) is e&&ective!y am%iguous) 6e have t'o separate meanings1 i) an e(pression o& %e!ie& (a report) that # promise that # 'i!! %e there on time? an" ii) a promise that # 'i!! %e there on time)
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*et us no' turn to some o& the numerous variations) (12) a) Aon3&irst3person, singu!ar su%Dect 1 4e in+ite y"u to app!y again, Mr) Jones) %) Aegative ver%1 I d"n5t agree that she is the %est) (Cdi%agree) c) +isp!ace" per&ormative e(pression1 John is, I admit, not 0uite a!! there) ") Passive voice1 6"u are 'auti"ned to avoi" a!! !i0ui" a&ter 9 p)m) e) Progressive1 I am 0#ere1y2 a% ing you to %e there on time) &) <"ver%ia!s1 Admittedly, 'e 'ere e(pecting a much younger person) g) Aomina!s1 My re,ue%t is that you go at once) <nother &orm o& per&ormative e(pression is the so3ca!!e" he"ge" per&ormative, i!!ustrate" %y (18)) (18) a) I mu%t a% y"u to !eave no') %) I 'an pr"mi%e y"u that it 'i!! not happen again) c) I *ill a''ept it in the name o& the +irector) ") I *ant t" t#an y"u &or the a"vice) e) I *"uld pr"p"%e that 'e ma$e a try at it) &) I mig#t ad+i%e y"u to 'ait a %it) #n each case, the per&ormative e(pression has a mo"a! au(i!iary in pre3ver% position) *i$e the
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canonica! per&ormatives Dust "iscusse", these &orms are a!so stan"ar"i-e", not i"iomatic
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4ll e)pressions with the same meaning do not 5ualify as a standardi6ed form. The semantic e5uivalent of I promise, which is +3ith this utterance * intend to e)press the 'elief that * am committing myself to undertake to 'ring a'out the following state of affairs,, is not standardi6ed. *ndeed, it is hardly intelligi'le. ! 4lthough not shown, the periphrastic versions such as have to for must, be able to for can, and be going to for will can typically 'e used with the same effect.

17 e(pressions, a!though they are 'ea$er in re0uiring the a""ressee to se!ect the per&ormative interpretation (c&) Fraser, 19>1)) Pragmati' Idi"m% #n a""ition to the stan"ar"i-e" &orms, there are pragmatic i"ioms, e(pressions &or 'hich there is no p!ausi%!e in&erentia! path !ea"ing &rom !itera!, "irect meaning to the accepte" %asic pragmatic signa!) There are %oth &orce i"ioms, 'hich signa! the inten"e" %asic message &orce, an" message i"ioms, 'hich signa! the entire %asic message) # 'i!! no' survey some o& them) F(amp!es o& &orce i"ioms are the e(pressions please (kindly) an" perhaps (maybe). 6hen please occurs %e&ore an imperative structure, it signa!s that the spea$er inten"s the utterance to %e ta$en as a re0uest, an" on!y as a re0uest) #n each o& the &o!!o'ing sentences, (1:) a) 5an you plea%e he!p me9 %) #7" !i$e you to plea%e sit "o'n) c) # (here%y) as$ you to plea%e !eave) ") May # plea%e !oo$ at that vase9 the sentence, %ecause o& the presence o& please (kindly), has the "irect %asic &orce o& a re0uest rather than any other &orce &or 'hich it might %e e!igi%!e) imi!ar!y, 'hen perhaps(maybe) occurs %e&ore an imperative, it narro's the &orce o& the utterance to a suggestion, as the sentences in (1=) re&!ect)
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(1=) a) Per#ap% you shou!" sit "o'n an" rest a %it) %) Per#ap%, ta$e an aspirin) c) 6hy "on2t you per#ap% see a "octor9 ,ne group o& &orce i"ioms signa!s a spea$er suggestion) This is i!!ustrate" in (16), 'ith the "egree o& urgency "i&&erent 'ith the in"ivi"ua! phrases) (16) a) )"* a1"ut going9 %) 4#at d" y"u %ay 0t#at2 'e !eave9 c) -y all mean%& try it) ") .et u% 0.et$%2 try it again) e) 6"u$d 1etter sit "o'n)
9

*nterestingly, if please or perhaps (maybe are placed in a sentence which does not have the potential of a re5uest or suggestion, the sentence 'ecomes unaccepta'le. 8ote that these forms go only awkwardly with an e)plicit re5uest or suggestion (+* re5uest that..., or +* suggest that...,) presuma'ly 'ecause their presence would 'e redundant.

11 <nother su%group o& &orce i"ioms are those signa!ing the spea$er7s intention to e(press a 'ish1 (1B) a) I( "nly John 'ere here no') %) ."ng li+e the Jueen) c) 4"uld t#at 'e 'ere home no') ;istorica!!y, many o& these &orms 'ere $no'n as the optative moo" %ut this nomenc!ature has no' %ecome archaic) There is a re!ative!y !arge resi"ue o& &orce i"ioms signa!ing a %asic message &orce 'hich "on7t &it neat!y into any category) ome o& them "on7t have a &u!! proposition %ut mere!y a noun phrase, an" near!y a!! re0uire a speci&ic &orm o& the proposition) # simp!y !ist some o& them here) (1>) a) He&using1 I$ll 1e damned i( #7!! he!p him) %) 5!aim note 'orthiness1 )"* a1"ut those Bu!!s) c) F(pressing Pri"e1 I( I may %ay %" my%el(, no one e!se can "o it so 'e!!) ") F(pressing +isp!easure1 4#ere d"e% #e get "(( saying something !i$e that9 e) Heporting1 In 'a%e y"u didn$t #ear, the He" o( !ost) &) <nnouncing1 I( it i%n$t Finstein) g) 6arning1 Mar my *"rd%, he 'i!! never &inish on time) h) 5ha!!enging1 Me ta$e out the gar%age9 i) F(pressing ama-ement1 T" t#in 'e e!ecte" Heagan t'ice) *et us turn no' to message i"ioms 'hich signa! the entire %asic message) These are simp!e e(pressions, (19a3"), prover%s, (19e3g), an" rhetorica! 0uestions, (19h3i)) (19) a) Get a #"r%e. K+irective to hurry upL %) 4#ere$% t#e (ire) K5ha!!enge &or necessity o& spee"L c) I %mell a rat) K5!aim that a!! is not 'e!!L ") Get l"%t7 S're* "((7 -eat it7 K+irective to !eaveL e) A r"lling %t"ne gat#er% n" m"%%) &) A %tit'# in time %a+e% nine) g) 4a%te n"t& *ant n"t. h) I% t#e P"pe a Cat#"li'8 i) D"e% a %na e d" pu%#9up%8 For some o& these i"ioms, such as those in (19a3c), the origina! source is re!ative!y transparent? &or others, the history is more o%scure)

12 <nother group o& message i"ioms consists o& 'hat are $no'n as interDections, emotive 'or"s or phrases 'hich stan" a!one an" &unction as separate sentences) They group into severa! c!asses, none o& 'hich has a !arge popu!ation, as seen in (24))
14

(24) a) F(press receipt o& ne' in&ormation (<hM ,hM <haM # see)) %) F(press "esire &or attention (<hemM PsstM ;eyM) c) F(press p!easure (;oorayM 6o'M ,ohM #s that right9) ") F(press "isp!easure (+amnitM PhooeyM PoohM UghM @u$M ,'G,uchM BooM) e) F(press agreement (Uh3huh) @esM @eahM @upM ,NM) &) F(press "isagreement (Uh3uh) AoM AopeM Ao 'ayM) g) F(press "esire &or c!ari&ication (Fh9 ;uh9 6hat9) h) F(press apo!ogy (,opsM K<!so to e(press "ismayL) i) F(press "esire &or noise re"uction ( hhhhM) D) F(press re!ie& (6he'M) He!evant &or these interDections is the &act that they are o&ten assigne" a meaning 'hich is in &act carrie" %y the intonation impose" on them an" not %y the &orm itse!&) 5onsi"er the &o!!o'ing interchange1 (21) <1 The 5e!tics &ina!!y 'on !ast night) B1 O#7 The hM in this e(amp!e, %y virtue o& its meaning, conveys the in&ormation that the spea$er has h! response 'ou!" not %e appropriate i&

Dust receive" ne' in&ormation an" un"erstoo" it) The

the &irst spea$er7s utterance 'ere O@our name is John,O e(cept, perhaps, in assigning names &or the c!ass p!ay) ;o'ever, the spea$er might choose to utter h! 'ith an intonation to signa!

surprise, "isp!easure, "isinterest, or concern) 6hatever the intonation33some must %e impose"33it genera!!y contri%utes to the interpretation o& the utterance remains invariant throughout) C. )y1rid -a%i' Mar er% To this point, the %asic pragmatic mar$ers "iscusse" have %een either structura! (e)g), the "ec!arative structure) or !e(ica! (e)g), per&ormative e(pressions)) There are, ho'ever, a num%er o& mar$ers 'hich invo!ve a speci&ic structure in com%ination 'ith certain !e(ica! con"itions, 'hat #
17

h!, %ut the semantic meaning o&

h!

9imilar to many of the cases already discussed, inter(ections can occur with other meanings. !oo! , for e)ample, is used as the form to surprise someone: ; uch is used to signal pain: "# is used as a discourse marker to signal speaker intention to reorient the ongoing conversation.

1$ 'i!! ca!! a Ohy%ri" %asic mar$er)O There are three genera! types1 "ec!arative3%ase", interrogative3 %ase", an" imperative3%ase")
11

De'larati+e9-a%ed )y1rid% #n this group are t'o re!ative!y simi!ar structures, %oth o& 'hich consist o& a "ec!arative sentence &o!!o'e" %y a %rie& tag) The &irst, sho'n in (22), is the so3ca!!e" Tag Juestion, a "ec!arative &o!!o'e" %y a sentence3&ina! interrogative tag 'hich consists o& the "ec!arative tense3 carrying e!ement 'ith a change o& po!arity &o!!o'e" %y the sentence su%Dect in pronomina! &orm) (22) a) John sa' Mary, didn$t #e8 %) John "i"n7t see Mary, did #e8 6hi!e the initia! "ec!arative sentence a!one signa!s a %asic message o& spea$er %e!ie& (e)g), in (22a), that the spea$er inten"s to convey the c!aim that John sa' Mary), the presence o& the tag ren"ers (22a) an entire!y "i&&erent %asic message, name!y, a re0uest that the a""ressee con&irm that John sa' Mary)
12

The secon" structure, the so3ca!!e" Positive Tag Juestion, consists o& a "ec!arative sentence &o!!o'e" %y a tag 'ith the same po!arity) (28) a) John "ate" Mary, did #e8 %) @ou %ro$e it, did y"u8 c) o you e(pect a raise, d" y"u8 ") ;e 'on7t go, *"n$t #e8 6hi!e these structures are &oun" usua!!y 'ith the positive "ec!arative &orm as in (28a3c), negative cases such as (28") "o e(ist) <!though not o%!igatory, these tag 0uestions are o&ten pre&ace" 'ith an initia! so as in (28c)) <s 'ith the Tag Juestion, the %asic message &orce in these cases is that o& a re0uest &or con&irmation) ;o'ever, there is a "i&&erence here, since the spea$er o& sentences

11

9ee -arnish (19!$) for a discussion of some of these cases under the la'el <minor moods.< 12 The tag 5uestion, which is an idiom in these cases, permits at least two distinct marked intonation patterns which, themselves, serve as phonological parallel markers. The first, with a final=tag rising intonation, signals the speaker is interested in the answer, and indicates that he>she is willing to 'e found wrong. The second, with a final=tag falling intonation, signals speaker confidence in the content for which confirmation is 'eing re5uested.

1. such as those in (28) is re!ative!y con&i"ent in the accuracy o& the propositiona! content an" on!y 'ishes the tentative conc!usion con&irme") Interr"gati+e9-a%ed )y1rid% The &irst group o& interrogative3%ase" &orms is 'e!! $no'n, an" is i!!ustrate" %y the &o!!o'ing sentences1 (2:) a) Can 0'"uld:'an$t:'"uldn$t2 y"u "o that9 %) 4ill 0*"uld:*"n$t:*"uldn$t2 y"u "o that9 c) +o that, 'an 0'"uld:'an$t:'"uldn$t2 y"u8 ") +o that, *ill 0*"uld:*"n$t:*"uldn$t2 y"u8 Aomina!!y these are simp!y interrogative sentences in 'hich the spea$er is e(pressing a "esire &or a yesGno response) ;o'ever, these &orms have %ecome stan"ar"i-e" an" such sentences are characteristica!!y hear" "irect!y as a spea$er re0uest &or action either in their interrogative &orm or their inverte" &orm (2:c3"))
18

F(amp!es o& the secon" interrogative3%ase" &orm are sho'n in (2=)) (2=) a) May I see that vase9 %) May I %e seate"9 c) May I have the secon" one &rom the !e&t9 <!though these cases appear to %e simp!e re0uests &or permission, the "ay I has %ecome stan"ar"i-e" to signa! a po!ite re0uest, 'hen use" 'ith ver%s such as see, ha#e, look at, hold, an" touch 'hich "enote a &uture state o& the spea$er un"er the a""ressee7s "irect contro!) < thir" interrogative3%ase" &orm invo!ves re"uce" why30uestions, 'hich have the stan"ar"i-e" &orce o& a suggestion to "o the opposite o& the action "enote") The sentence in (26a) has the interpretation o& (26%), (26) a) 4#y ta$e an aspirin no'9 %) I %ugge%t t#at you "o not ta$e an aspirin no') c) 4#y n"t ta$e an aspirin no'9 ") I %ugge%t you ta$e an aspirin no')
1$

There are strict constraints on this standardi6ed form? only the simple modal forms (e.g. can) and not the periphrastic version (e.g., are you able ) occur in the standardi6ed form: the modal cannot 'e stressed: the modals are restricted to can and will and their variations: the ver' must 'e one of voluntary action: and the su'(ect noun phrase must 'e accepta'le as the (implied) imperative su'(ect.

1/ an" converse!y, (26c) has the interpretation o& (26")) Imperati+e9-a%ed )y1rid% There are t'o imperative3%ase" hy%ri"s) ;o'ever, in contrast to the stan"ar"i-e" e(pression in the cases Dust "iscusse", these &orms must %e ta$en to %e i"iomatic) The e(amp!es in (2B) are i!!ustrative o& the &irst case) (2B) a) Ta!$, or #7!! shoot) (#& you "on2t ta!$, #2!! shoot)) %) +on7t smi!e, or #7!! c!o%%er you) (#& you smi!e, #2!! c!o%%er you)) c) Fat up, or you7!! %e hungry) (#& you "on2t eat up, you2!! %e hungry)) This structure signa!s an initia! spea$er "irective, usua!!y an or"er a!though in (2Bc) it cou!" %e hear" as a suggestion, &o!!o'e" %y a "ec!arative stating the conse0uences &or not comp!ying 'ith the "irective) 6hen the spea$er is the su%Dect o& the statement, the "ec!arative is usua!!y hear" as a threat) #n each case, there is an imp!ie" initia! either 'ith an else &o!!o'ing the or, as in OFither ta!$ or e!se #7!! shoot)O Ao', a!though an Oeither))) or e!seO sentence nee" not %e interprete" as a con"itiona! (the sentence OFither %e 0uiet or e!se !eave the roomO is not), 'hen the secon" conDunct is a "ec!arative sentence, this is the interpretation) The secon" imperative3%ase" %asic pragmatic mar$er is i!!ustrate" in (2>)) (2>) a) 6ash, an" #7!! "ry) (#& you 'ash, #2!! "ry)) %) mi!e, an" the 'or!" 'i!! !ove you) (#& you smi!e, the 'or!" 'i!! !ove you)) #n contrast to the or case Dust "iscusse", the imperative here "oes not signa! spea$er "esire %ut signa!s that a con"itiona! interpretation is re0uire") #n (2>a), &or e(amp!e, the interpretation is O#& you 'ash, then #7!! "ry)O <n" in contrast to the negative &orce o& the previous cases, the "e3 c!arative here ta$es on the &orce o& a strong c!aim, 'hich may or may not %e a"verse!y interprete")
1= 1:

III COMMENTAR6 PRAGMATIC MARKERS The &ocus in the !ast section 'as on %asic pragmatic mar$ers, those structura!, !e(ica!, an" hy%ri" &orms 'hich signa! in&ormation a%out the spea$er7s %asic communicative intentions) #n this
1.

There is even a more limited reduced why=5uestion form for <3hy don1t you,< usually rendered as whydoncha , which is used only as a suggestion signal. 1/ * am ignoring sentence like +(@rink) one more 'eer, and * will drive you home,, and + (%ake) another remark like that, and you are dead meat,, which re5uire another analysis.

12 section # 'ant to !oo$ at commentary mar$ers, !e(ica! e(pressions 'hich have %oth a representationa! meaning speci&ying an entire message, an" a proce"ura! meaning signa!ing that this message is to &unction as a comment on some aspect o& the %asic message) F(amp!es o& com3 mentary mar$ers are presente" in (29))
16

(29) a) Fran ly, 'e are !ost) %) Stupidly, 'e got !ost) c) Rep"rtedly, you are in "eep trou%!e) ") I in%i%t that 'e are not !ost) <s # mentione" a%ove, the message conveye" %y commentary mar$ers is typica!!y genera! rather than speci&ic) # 'i!! no' e(amine the &o!!o'ing commentary pragmatic mar$ers1 <) <ssessment mar$ers B) Manner3o&3spea$ing mar$ers 5) Fvi"entia! mar$ers +) ;earsay mar$ers F) Mitigation mar$ers F) Fmphasis mar$ers A. A%%e%%ment Mar er% <ssessment mar$ers signa! the spea$er2s eva!uation o& the state o& the 'or!" represente" in the proposition) #n (81a), &or e(amp!e, (81) a) Ama3ingly, +erric$ passe" the e(am) %) F"rtunately, he is covere" %y me"ica! insurance) c) Sadly, Mary arrive" = minutes too !ate to meet the "ea"!ine) the spea$er is sen"ing t'o messages1 the %asic message that +erric$ passe" the e(am, an" the comment that the spea$er &in"s it ama-ing that +erric$ passe" the e(am) These assessment mar$ers, primari!y a"ver%s, inc!u"e those in (82), (82) ama-ing!y, amusing!y, annoying!y, appropriate!y, art&u!!y, astonishing!y, c!ever!y, con3 venient!y, cunning!y, curious!y, "e!ight&u!!y, "isappointing!y, "istur%ing!y, &oo!ish!y, hope&u!!y, i"ea!!y, important!y, incre"i%!y, inevita%!y, ironica!!y, (in)correct!y, Dusti&ia%!y, Dust!y, !uc$i!y, merci&u!!y, natura!!y, o""!y, pre"icta%!y, pru"ent!y, re&reshing!y, regretta%!y, right!y, sa"!y, sensi%!y, shre'"!y, signi&icant!y, stupi"!y, suspicious!y, than$&u!!y, tragica!!y, (un)!uc$i!y,
12

A)cluded as commentary markers are hedges such as technically, ideally literally, officially, theoretically , which are actually preposed adver'ials and are part of the propositional content. -ence, they are not pragmatic markers. 4 different approach to some of these formatives can 'e found in Aspinal, 1991, and in 3ilson B 9per'er, 199$.

1" (un)e(pecte"!y, (un)&ortunate!y, (un)happi!y, (un)reasona%!y, (un)remar$a%!y, un"erstan"a%!y, 'ise!y, 'rong!y an" their variations, &or e(amp!e, It was remarkable that..., $hat is more remarkable is that... an" %hat & was remarkable. -. Manner9"(9Spea ing Mar er% These are mar$ers 'ith 'hich the spea$er can signa! a comment on the manner in 'hich the %asic message is %eing conveye") #n (88a), &or e(amp!e, (88) a) Fran ly, you nee" to stop no') %) -luntly, ho' are you going to get him o&& the hoo$9 the spea$er, in a""ition to the %asic message that you nee" to stop no', is in&orming the a""ressee that the message is %eing conveye" in a &ran$ 'ay) imi!ar!y, in (88%), in a""ition to the %asic message, the spea$er is in&orming the a""ressee that, in the spea$er2s vie', the message is %eing conveye" in a %!unt manner) <"ver%ia!s &a!!ing into this group inc!u"e the &o!!o'ing, (8:) %!unt!y, %rie&!y, can"i"!y, con&i"entia!!y, cru"e!y, &air!y, &ran$!y, genera!!y, honest!y, ironica!!y, metaphorica!!y, o%Dective!y, persona!!y, precise!y, rough!y, serious!y, simp!y, strict!y, truth&u!!y an" their variations, &or e(amp!e, to speak candidly, roughly speaking, to be honest, an" in all seriousness. #n a""ition to these variations, there are other e!a%orations an" i"iomatic phrases such as rephrased, worded plainly, stated 'uite simply, off the record, 'uite frankly, speaking frankly though not as frankly as I(d like to, in the strictest confidence, to be 'uite blunt about it, an" )(know.
1B

,ne &igurative use o& !anguage is inc!u"e" among these mar$ers1 metaphor) 6e &in" sentences !i$e (8=) Metap#"ri'ally 0%pea ing2, he is a came!) This is the on!y instance o& OannouncingO &igurative usage) 6e "o not &in" O;yper%o!ica!!y spea$ing, he)))O or O ynec"ochica!!y spea$ing, she)))O 6e "o &in" O#ronica!!y, he pai" his %i!! on!y

1"

Contrary to 9chiffrin (19!") who treats Y$now as a discourse marker, * am including it as a mem'er of this group of markers, since in sentences such as <D1know, * think you1re wrong,< it has an interpretation analogous with confidentially.

1! yester"ay,O %ut this is a comment on the signi&icance o& the %asic message content (i)e), an assessment mar$er), not a comment on the manner o& the spea$er7s per&ormance) C. E+idential Mar er% <nother c!ass o& commentary mar$ers inc!u"es the evi"entia! a"ver%s (c&) 5ha&e, 19>6) 'hich signa! the "egree o& con&i"ence, positive or negative, 'ea$!y or strong!y, he!" %y the spea$er a%out the truth o& the %asic message) They are i!!ustrate" %y the e(amp!es in (86)) (86) a) Certainly, ;arry 'i!! go) %) C"n'ei+a1ly, Tim is right) c) Indeed, # promise to %e on time) ") Undenia1ly # %!ame you &or a!! my trou%!es) #nteresting!y, those evi"entia! mar$ers, such as certainly, indeed, undoubtedly, undeniably, no way, an" clearly, 'hich "o occur 'ith some %ut not a!! per&ormatives, are those re&!ecting a strong "egree o& con&i"ence, positive or negative, 'hi!e mar$ers 'ith a !ess strong "egree o& con&i"ence such as possibly, concei#ably, e#idently, an" supposedly never occur 'ith a per&ormative) Fvi"entia! mar$ers inc!u"e the &o!!o'ing, (8B) assure"!y, certain!y, c!ear!y, conceiva%!y, "eci"e"!y, "e&inite!y, "ou%t!ess, evi"ent!y, incontesta%!y, incontroverti%!y, in"ee", in"isputa%!y, in"u%ita%!y, (mostG 0uiteG very) !i$e!y, o%vious!y, patent!y, perhaps, possi%!y, presuma%!y, seeming!y, suppose"!y, sure!y, (un)argua%!y, un"enia%!y, un"ou%te"!y, un0uestiona%!y an" their variations, &or e(amp!e, It is certain that, It is perhaps the case that, an" $ithout 'uestion. D. )ear%ay Mar er% #n contrast to evi"entia!s, 'hich signa! the spea$er2s con&i"ence in the truth o& the %asic message content, hearsay mar$ers are comments a%out the type o& source o& the spea$er7s in&ormation) F(amp!es o& hearsay mar$ers are seen in (8>))
1>

(8>) a) Rep"rtedly, the game 'as postpone" %ecause o& rain) %) It i% 'laimed that usan "i" not $i!! the t'o %oys) c) One #ear% t#at the Dury &or the ,)J) tria! ha" many interna! pro%!ems) ") Allegedly, the Dustice system in the U) ) has improve" over the years)
1!

In contrast to Ifantidou-Trouki (1993), I find these markers to be separate from the propositional content. Also, see Katriel !ascal (19"#) for another $ie% of such markers.

19 #n (8>"), &or e(amp!e, the spea$er is sen"ing t'o messages1 &irst, a %asic message, a c!aim a%out the U) ) system o& Dustice, an" secon", a comment on this c!aim that reports that the source o& the in&ormation 'as a!!egation) The c!ass inc!u"es (89) a!!ege"!y, # have hear", it appears, it has %een c!aime", it is c!aime", it is reporte", it is rumore", it is sai", one hears, purporte"!y, reporte"!y, they a!!ege, they say, they te!! me) E. Mitigati"n Mar er% < &i&th type o& commentary pragmatic mar$ers are mar$ers o& mitigation, 'hich signa! the spea$er2s "esire to re"uce the &ace !oss associate" 'ith the %asic message (c&) Bro'n I *evinson, 19>>? Fraser, 1991)) There are many varieties, %ut # sha!! consi"er on!y t'o) The &irst are the
19

pseu"o3con"itiona!s, i!!ustrate" in the &o!!o'ing sentences1 (:4) a) I( I may interrupt, 'hen is the ne(t train9 %) I( it$% n"t t"" mu'# tr"u1le, cou!" you he!p me9 c) I( y"u d"n$t mind& %ring it to me a%out B this evening) ") Unle%% I mi%under%t""d y"u:Unle%% I$m #earing it in'"rre'tly, he has gone) +espite their appearance, these are not con"itiona! sentences) Hather, they constitute a %asic message 'ith a mitigating comment on it)
24

The secon" variety o& mitigating mar$ers inc!u"es the &o!!o'ing e(pressions, a!! en"ing 'ith but, (:1) # "on7t mean to pressure you %ut, # see your point %ut, #7m no e(pert %ut, #7m sorry to have to as$ you this %ut, That may %e true %ut, @ou have a point %ut, @ou7re entit!e" to your opinion %ut, 'hich occur in sentences !i$e1 (:2) a) T#at may 1e true& 1ut you sti!! have to c!ean up your room %e&ore you go out) %) I$m n" e/pert& 1ut it "oesn2t !oo$ !i$e you %ought the right gas tan$) c) 6"u are& "( '"ur%e& entitled t" y"ur "*n "pini"n& 1ut are you sure that7s a sa&e thing to "o9

19

8ot all mitigation takes the form of markers, for e)ample, the must of the hedged performative <* must ask you to leave that here< or the mitigated re5uest form, +3ould you 'e willing to help me todayE, 27 There are e)pressions of the same form such as + If you're so smart/If/Since youre so clever, where is the can of fruit punchE, 'ut where the introductory e)pression is a part of the propositional content.

27 ;ere, as a%ove, the %asic message that &o!!o's these mitigation mar$ers, is typica!!y "isa"vantageous to the a""ressee an" thus suscepti%!e to mitigation) F. Emp#a%i% Mar er% The &ina! group o& commentary mar$ers has the &unction o& emphasi-ing the &orce o& the %asic message) This group is i!!ustrate" %y e(pressions such as, (:8) %y no means, %y no stretch o& the imagination, "e&inite!y, +, EP, # cannot too o&ten point out that, # emphasi-e (strong!y) that, # insist that, i& # ever hear" one , in"ee", mar$ my 'or"s, on earth, rea!!y, that7s a P, to say the !east, 'ithout e(aggeration, 'hich occur in sentences !i$e1 (::) a) I in%i%t that you stop it this instant) %) I 'ann"t t"" "(ten p"int "ut that "ressing 'e!! is the $ey to success) c) Mar my *"rd%1 am 'i!! en" up in Dai!) ") DO stopM e) 6here "n eart# are my s!ippers9 ome o& these mar$ers are per&ormative3!i$e e(pressions (I insist), %ut they are not true (i!!ocutionary) per&ormatives since they are not use" here to signa! the spea$er7s %asic communicative intention, such as 'ou!" %e "one 'ith I promise, %ut rather to signa! an emphasis on the %asic message) #t is interesting that some o& these mar$ers impose !imits on the structure an" content o& the &o!!o'ing sentence, as the &o!!o'ing e(amp!es i!!ustrate) (:=) a) QBy no means, "on7t ta$e the < train) (by no means re0uires a positive "irective) %) QHea!!y, # or"er you to try to "o it) ( really re0uires suggestions not or"ers) I;. PARA..E. MARKERS The thir" type o& pragmatic mar$er is the para!!e! mar$er, 'hose &unction is to signa! an entire message in a""ition to the %asic message) There are a num%er o& sma!! c!asses, %ut # present on!y three1 <) Eocative mar$ers B) pea$er "isp!easure mar$ers 5) o!i"arity mar$ers +) Focusing mar$ers A. ;"'ati+e Mar er%

21 The &irst group contains the vocatives, 'hich inc!u"e (:6) a) Standard Title%1 John, Mr) Presi"ent, 5o!one!, Mom, @our ;onor, Father Bro'n %) O''upati"n Name1 'aiter, "octor, nurse, "river, Du"ge c) General N"un%1 %rother, %oys, guys, !a"ies an" gent!emen, man, young !a"y ") Pr"n"minal F"rm%1 you, some%o"y, everyone, anyone, an" are i!!ustrate" %y the &o!!o'ing e(amp!es1 (:B) a) Mr. Pre%ident& 'hat position are you ta$ing to"ay9 %) 4aiter, p!ease %ring me another &or$) c) Roo" evening ladie% and gentlemen, 'e!come to the home o& the B!ac$ Bears) By using one o& these vocative &orms, &or e(amp!e, waiter, the spea$er is e(p!icit!y sen"ing the message that the a""ressee o& this message is the 'aiter) -. Spea er Di%plea%ure Mar er% < secon" group o& para!!e! mar$ers signa!s the spea$er2s "isp!easure) This is i!!ustrate" in (:>), (:>) a) Ret your damned shoes o&& o& the ta%!eM %) 6here in 1lue 1la3e% is that young son o& mine? it7s a!rea"y 8 am) c) John) 5ome over here rig#t n"*M 'here the para!!e! mar$er signa!s a message o& the spea$er e(pressing annoyance, %ut it is not usua!!y c!ear 'hether the a""ressee or the situation is the target o& the anger) This group o& mar$ers inc!u"es (:9) "amne", "amn 'e!!, &or the !ove o& Ro"GMi$e, &or the !ast time, ho' many times have # to!" you, in %!ue %!a-es, in Ro"7s name, in heaven7s name, on me, right no', the he!!, the "evi!, the hec$) C. S"lidarity Mar er% < thir" group o& para!!e! mar$ers signa!s so!i"arity (=8a3%) or !ac$ thereo& (=8c3"), as i!!ustrate" %y the &o!!o'ing e(amp!es1 (=4) a) My (riend, 'e simp!y have to get our act together an" &ace this pro%!em) %) A% "ne guy t" an"t#er, 'e7re in "eep trou%!e) c) ."" & 1ird1rain& this has %een sitting in the Oin %o(O &or over a 'ee$) 6hat7s the story9 ") A% y"ur %uperi"r, # am authori-e" to te!! you that you have %een se!ecte" to go) #n these cases, the spea$er is sen"ing a message e(pressing (un)so!i"arity 'ith the a""ressee)

22 D. F"'u%ing Mar er% < &ina! group o& para!!e! mar$ers signa!s &ocusing or re&ocusing on the topic at han") #nc!u"e" in this group are (=1) a!right, here, !isten, !oo$ (here), no', so, 'e!!, y2see 'hich are &oun" in case !i$e (=2) a) (on entering the room an" seeing a mess) Alrig#t, 'hat "o 'e have here9 %) # thin$ you shou!" %e concerne") N"*, ta$e a !oo$ over here &or a minute) c) ;e can2t go) 65%ee, he isn2t &ee!ing 'e!!) ;. DISCOURSE MARKERS The &ourth an" &ina! type o& pragmatic mar$er is the "iscourse mar$er, an e(pression 'hich signa!s the re!ationship o& the %asic message to the &oregoing "iscourse) #n contrast to the other pragmatic mar$ers, "iscourse mar$ers "o not contri%ute to the representative sentence meaning, %ut on!y to the proce"ura! meaning1 they provi"e instructions to the a""ressee on ho' the utterance to 'hich the "iscourse mar$er is attache" is to %e interprete" (c&) B!a$emore, 19>B, 1992? Fraser, 1994, 1996a)) 5onsi"er the &o!!o'ing e(amp!e) (=8) <1 Mary has gone home) B1 a) he 'as sic$) %) A(ter all& she 'as sic$) c) T#u%, she 'as sic$) ") M"re"+er, she 'as sic$) e) )"*e+er, she 'as sic$) pea$er B7s response to <7s assertion that Mary has gone home may ta$e many &orms) B may simp!y utter (=8a), an" !eave the a""ressee 'ith no e(p!icit !e(ica! c!ues as to 'hat re!ationship the utterance %ears to the &ormer, a!though there may %e intonationa! an"Gor conte(tua! c!ues) ;o'ever, %y using a "iscourse mar$er, the re!ationship is ma"e e(p!icit) *fter all in (=8%) signa!s that the utterance counts as an e(p!anation? thus in (=8c) signa!s that it counts as a conc!usion using the ear!ier utterance as the %asis? moreo#er in (=8") signa!s that there is something more re!evant a%out Mary, in a""ition to her going home? an" howe#er in (=8e) signa!s that contrary to 'hat the a""ressee might thin$ a%out 'hen Mary 'ou!" go home, this time Mary 'as sic$) +iscourse mar$ers group into &our main categories1 chi&&rin, 19>B?

2$ <) Topic 5hange Mar$ers B) 5ontrastive Mar$ers 5) F!a%orative Mar$ers +) #n&erentia! Mar$ers A. T"pi' C#ange Mar er%
<=

These mar$ers, i!!ustrate" in (=:), (=:) a) # "on2t thin$ 'e can go tomorro') #t2s +avi"2s %irth"ay) In'identally, 'hen is your %irth"ay9 %) Spea ing "( Mar%#a, 'here is she these "ays9 signa! that the utterance &o!!o'ing constitutes, in the spea$er2s opinion, a "eparture &rom the current topic) Topic change mar$ers inc!u"e1 (==) %ac$ to my origina! point, %e&ore # &orget, %y the 'ay, inci"enta!!y, Dust to up"ate you, on a "i&&erent note, parenthetica!!y, put another 'ay, returning to my point, spea$ing o& P, that remin"s me) -. C"ntra%ti+e Mar er% The secon" group o& "iscourse mar$ers are the contrastive mar$ers, signa!ing that the utterance &o!!o'ing is either a "enia! or a contrast o& some proposition associate" 'ith the prece"ing "iscourse (5&) Fraser, 1996%)) These are i!!ustrate" %y (=6) a) <1 6e can go no', chi!"ren) B) -ut 'e haven2t &inishe" our game yet) %) John 'on2t go to Pough$peepsie) In%tead, he 'i!! stay in Ae' @or$) c) Jane is here) )"*e+er, she isn2t going to stay) The c!ass o& contrastive mar$ers inc!u"es1 (=B) a!! the same, any'ay, %ut, contrari'ise, converse!y, "espite (thisGthat), even so, ho'ever, in any caseGrateGevent, in spite o& (thisG that), in comparison ('ith thisGthat), in contrast (to thisGthat), instea" (o& "oing thisGthat), neverthe!ess, nonethe!ess, (thisGthat point) not'ithstan"ing, on the other han", on the contrary, rather (than "o thisGthat), regar"!ess (o& thisGthat), sti!!, that sai", though, yet) C. Ela1"rati+e Mar er%

21

*n su'se5uent work, this category has 'een e)panded to include topic change markers, discourse activity markers (e.g., to e%plain, to clarify, to illustrate ), and discourse structures (e.g. first, to continue, last ).

2. F!a%orative mar$ers constitute the thir" c!ass o& "iscourse mar$ers an" signa! that the utterance &o!!o'ing constitutes a re&inement o& some sort on the prece"ing "iscourse) F(amp!es o& e!a%orative mar$ers are i!!ustrate" in (=>)) (=>) a) Ta$e your raincoat 'ith you) But a1"+e all, ta$e g!oves) %) # thin$ you shou!" coo! o&& a !itt!e) In "t#er *"rd%, sit "o'n an" 'ait a !itt!e %it) c) ;e "i" it) 4#at i% m"re, he enDoye" "oing it) F(pression o& e!a%orate mar$ers inc!u"e1 (=9) a%ove a!!, a!so, a!ternative!y, ana!ogous!y, an", %esi"es, %etter, %y the same to$en, correspon"ing!y, e0ua!!y, &or e(amp!eGinstance, &urther(more), in a""ition, in any caseGevent, in &act, in other 'or"s, in particu!ar, in"ee", !i$e'ise, more accurate!y, more important!y, more pre3 cise!y, more speci&ica!!y, more to the point, moreover, on that %asis, on top o& it a!!, or, other'ise, simi!ar!y, that is, to cap it a!! o&&, too, 'hat is more) D. In(erential Mar er% Fina!!y, there is a c!ass o& in&erentia! "iscourse mar$ers $no'n as in&erentia! mar$ers, e(pressions 'hich signa! that the &orce o& the utterance is a conc!usion 'hich &o!!o's &rom the prece"ing "iscourse) These are i!!ustrate" %y the e(amp!es in (64), (64) a) Mary 'ent home) A(ter all, she 'as sic$) %) <1 Marsha is a'ay &or the 'ee$en") B1 S", she 'on2t %e avai!a%!e atur"ay) an" inc!u"e" in this c!ass are, (61) accor"ing!y, a&ter a!!, a!! thing consi"ere", as a conse0uence, as a !ogica! conc!usion, as a resu!t, %ecause o& thisGthat, conse0uent!y, &or thisGthat reason, hence, in thisGthat case, it can %e conc!u"e" that, it stan"s to reason that, o& course, on thisGthat con"ition, so, then, there&ore, thus an" their variations, &or e(amp!e, as a conse'uence an" in accordance with. ;I. CONC.USION 6hat # have presente" a%ove shou!" %e vie'e" as support &or three c!aims) The &irst c!aim is that the sentence (rea" .semantic/) meaning is comprise" o& t'o parts1 a propositiona! content? an" a set o& pragmatic mar$ers) The secon" c!aim is that the &our types o& messages e(haust the messages enco"a%!e %y aspects o& sentence meaning1 a sing!e %asic message (the message 'hich uses the propositiona! content o& the sentence as its message content)? commentary messages

2/ (messages commenting on the %asic message)? para!!e! messages (messages 'hich are in a""ition to the %asic message)? an" "iscourse messages (messages signa!ing the re!ationship %et'een the %asic message o& the current sentence an" the prece"ing "iscourse)) The thir" c!aim is that correspon"ing to these message types are pragmatic mar$ers 'hich signa! the particu!ar message) These c!aims may %e correct, in 'hich case 'e 'i!! have ma"e progress, or they may %e &a!se) There may %e aspects o& sentence meaning other than the propositiona! content an" pragmatic mar$ers) For e(amp!e, are pause mar$ers such as well or ahhh to %e consi"ere" a part o& sentence meaning not, as # 'ou!" propose, re!egate" to the "omain o& utterances9 ,r, are there more than &our types o& messages, say &ive or si(? or 'orse yet, is there no c!ear 'ay o& "istinguishing one type o& message &rom the other9 ,r, are there messages 'hich are signa!e" other than %y !e(ica! or structura! means an" &or 'hich there are no pragmatic mar$ers9 *ess critica! %ut neverthe!ess interesting is the 0uestion o& 'hether a pragmatic mar$er, e)g) frankly, please, now, on the other hand, or incidentally, tru!y has on!y one &unction in a given sentence, as # have c!aime", or are some o& them po!ysemous9 Then there are 0uestions a%out the "etai!s o& the pragmatic mar$ers1 6hat is the or"er o& pragmatic mar$ers9 #s there an or"er &or the c!asses, &or e(amp!e, +iscourse Mar$er3Para!!e! Mar$er35ommentary Mar$er3Basic Mar$er, or "oes it "epen" on the particu!ar mar$ers invo!ve"9 <n" 'ithin a speci&ic c!ass, &or e(amp!e, the Manner 5ommentary Mar$ers, can more than one mar$er %e present an" i& so, is it systematic or i"iosyncratic9 These are some o& the issues a'aiting &urther research) REFERENCES Bach, N I H) ;arnish) 19B9) *inguistic communication an" speech acts) M#T Press) B!a$emore, +) 19>B) emantic constraints on re!evance) B!ac$'e!!) B!ac$more, +) 1992) Un"erstan"ing utterances) B!ac$'e!!) Bro'n, P I ) *evinson) 19>B) Po!iteness) 5am%ri"ge University Press

22 5ha&e, 6) 19>6) Fvi"entia!ity in Fng!ish conversation an" aca"emic 'riting) #n 6) 5ha&e I J) Aicho!s (e"s)), Fvi"entia!ity1 the !inguistic co"ing o& epistemo!ogy) <%!e() Fspina!, T) 1991) +isDunct constituents) *anguage 6B(:)1B263B62 Fraser B) 19>1) 5onversationa! mitigation) Journa! o& Pragmatics :) Fraser, B) 19>=) Pragmatic &ormatives) #n J) Eerschueren an" M) Bertucce!!i3Papi (e"s)), Procee"ing o& the #nternationa! Pragmatics 5on&erence, Eiagreggio, #ta!y) Fraser, B) 1994) <n approach to "iscourse mar$ers) Journa! o& Pragmatics, 1:) Fraser, B) 1991) Perspectives on po!iteness) Journa! o& Pragmatics 1:) Fraser, B) 1996a) ,n "iscourse mar$ers) u%mitte") Fraser, B) 1996%) 5ontrastive "iscourse mar$ers in Fng!ish) u%mitte") Rreen, R) 19>B) Pragmatics an" natura! !anguage un"erstan"ing) *a'rence Fr!%aum <ssociates ;arnish, H) 19>8) Pragmatic "erivations) ynthese =:182=38B8 #&anti"ou3Trou$i, F) 1998) ententia! a"ver%s an" re!evance) *ingua 94169394) *evinson, ) 19>8) Pragmatics) 5am%ri"ge University Press Natrie!, T) I M) +asca!) 19>:) 6hat "o in"icating "evices in"icate9 Phi!osophy an" Hhetoric, 1B(1)) Mey, J) 1998) Pragmatics) B!ac$'e!! Morgan, J) 19B>) T'o types o& convention in in"irect speech acts) #n P) 5o!e (e")), ynta( an" semantics, vo!ume 91 Pragmatics) <ca"emic Press) chi&&rin, +) 19>B) +iscourse Mar$ers) 5am%ri"ge University Press) ear!e, J) 1969) peech <cts) 5am%ri"ge University Press) Eerschueren, J) 19>B) Pragmatics as a theory o& !inguistic a"aptation) #HP<, 6or$ing +ocument Ao) 1 6i!son, +) I per%er, +) 1998) *inguistic &orm an" re!evance) *ingua 941=32=)