The Century of Genius Chapter 5 Astronomy Aristotelian mechanics, Ptolemaic astronomy, and Christian theology o Earth stood at the

e center and all heavy bodies were propelled around it. Earth, divinely appointed to mortal mans use, was in effect the cesspool of the universe, with the hell at its core. Such teachings were harmonious with Ptolemy. According to him, everything wheeled around the Earth once every 24 hours (moon, sun, planets, and stars). Beyond them was heaven. Everything was composed of earth, fire, water, and air. God created nonliving, then vegetative, then dumb animals then man. o In human physiology there were 4 humors which had to be balanced. o Why this lasted up to late times was that people did not question early Greek experimentation. The New View of the Universe Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543)- conservative and a quiet Polish cleric in East Prussia. He published a revision of Ptolemys geocentric theory hoping to bring astronomy up to date. o Heliocentric theory- It did not add up to him that the planets could rotate around the Earth because there needed to be 80 intricate networks of circles and epicycles. He thought that God may have designed a simpler pattern. The theory though made the earth seem as one of the planets, not as it is at the time situated at a really high level. The stars did not wheel every 24 hours also, some took longer. o For half a century nobody cared. Johannes Kepler- demonstrated Copernicus heliocentric theory. He noticed that Mars traveled faster when it approached the sun. He discovered that Mars like all planets orbit the sun elliptically and that the sun is not at the center, but at one focus of the ellipse; all planetary motion can be calculated with a formula. Each planet takes a different amount of time to go around. He abandoned Copernicus belief in the crystalline spheres. Planets moved through empty spaces. Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)-constructed a telescope of his own o He saw the moon had crests o Planets and stars had very different shapes, with stars being an undefined shape o Rings around Saturn o Professors denied the evidence of his telescope because it conflicted with Aristotelian teaching, which said that for a body to be put into motion, a move either external or internal was necessary. o He developed a whole new approach to dynamics- study of bodies in motion. He showed that equations can be made for any motion. He said that all bodies fall at the same acceleration. Worked with pendulum and cannon ball o This violated Aristotles ideas of natural and violent motion. Natural- internal self-direction, violent-the result of artificial repulsion o He got into trouble with the church- the new science conflicted with the accepted ways of the scripture. He argued scripture and nature should be separated. o Galileo was told not to accept Copernicanism. He published a book where he talked about both, pretending to be neutral. Pope Urban III brought him to Rome and he was tried. He accepted punishment like a good Christian. The Scientific Climate of Opinion Francis Bacon (1561-1626) and Rene Descartes (1596-1650) wanted to go away from old science completely. o Descarte- I think therefore I am Metaphysics and physics Perfected Galileos law of inertia Discourse on Method- laid down rules for the abstract, deductive reasoning suitable to mathematics. Condemned Galileo for being too experimental and insufficiently abstract Reduced nature to 2 distinct elements, mind and matter Allowed him to explain every aspect of physical nature, in which he excluded the soul. o Bacon- science is the key to understanding human progress Urged scientists to experiment, to pool their knowledge and to keep open-minded

True scientists worked by inductive method, moving from the particular to the general, from specific experiments to axioms. Wanted Galileo to investigate and explain internal tensions within moving bodies Philosophers of science Did not appreciate the creativity of abstract thinkers who worked by intuitive leaps of mind. Created the opinion of scientists as distinct figures Bacon urged scientists to form their own scientific societies, in which they were able to exchange ideas with each other Scientists were affiliated with bodies such as Academie des Sciences.

Newton o Better mathematician than Galileo o Student at Cambridge and when the plague hit, he spent 2 years on his moms isolated farm. There he did all kinds of experiments in math and physics Differential and integral calculus Apple- what pulls moons to center is what pulls apple to fall This pull causes ocean tides Universal gravitation and motion laws Combined Galileo, Kepler, Descartes, into a mathematical-physical system. o Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (Principia)- book with his ideas Difficult to read Three mathematical laws of motion Universal law of gravitation Disagreed with Descartes on gravity and disagreed with him about how experimentation and observation is needed; scientists should describe how earth operates, not why. o He was made the master of English royal mint and the president of the Royal Society Biology and Chemistry Biology was a medical science and chemistry not really studied with the exception of mining for ores o For the first time 1,500-yo teaching of Galen about anatomy. o Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564)- A Flemish Professor at Padua, published a pioneering treatise on human anatomy. Dissected many more human cadavers than Galen and corrected many mistakes. His book was a work of art as well as science, drawing superb drawings of muscles and bones. o William Harvey (1578-1657)- an Englishman who studies at Padua, demonstrated the circulation of blood. Rejected the view of Galen that venous blood comes from the liver, and arterial blood distributed nutrition from the liver. Proved that blood is pumped into the arteries by the heart at a massive rate, travels to veins, and returns to heart. Believed in Copernicus and his views were not immediately accepted. Botany o 18 thousand species discovered by the 1680s, compared to the 500 in the 1540s. o Dutchman Anton von Leeuwenhok (1632-1723)- made a microscope which magnifies objects 300 times. One celled organisms- did not realize microbes could be disease carriers Chemistry o Hard to see much purposeful development during this period. Mining engineers assayed ores Pharmacists Alchemists who tried to transmute metals Atoms and matter Chemical drugs- not good o Robert Boyle- leading experimentalist and theorist of his day Discarded Aristotles beliefs of earth, water, fire, and air but had no better theory. Man could now observe how all inanimate objects were governed by the same timeless laws. In educated circles there was no more belief in myth, magic, and demons

RELIGIOUS ART IN THE BAROQUE AGE In late 17 century the Baroque style was established. It challenged the paintings and sculptures of Renaissance. o Human beauty The Protestant movement attacked the religious art of High Renaissance. Luther thought the art to be more pagan than Christian and found it blasphemous to worsip God in lavishly decorated churches. Painting in the Sixteenth Century Painters always supported themselves by filling commissions for religious works for the Church. Protestants criticized this, especially Lutheran and Calvinist churches, which were kept undecorated. o Albrecht Durer- earned living by painting portraits and illustrating books so he was not affected by this o Hans Holbein the Younger- had to abandon painting Madonna. Moved from Germany to Switzerland in search for work. Painted Henry VIII. o Pieter Brueghel the Elder (1525-1569)- painted for private people, concentrating on everyday life. His religious paintings though were different. He takes a religious story and portrays it in a completely different way in Massacre of the Innocents Mannerists o Worked in the manner of Michelangelo. They manipulated classical components to achieve anticlassical effects. They decorated walls and ceilings with complex allegorical scenes of muscle-bound athletes in contorted attitudes. (Naked people) The Baroque o Magnificence, theatricality, energy, and direct emotional appeal o No clear line dividing Mannerism and Baroque o Baroque became art, music, literature, politics Development of the opera Choral and organ music o Architecture o Appealed to kings and rich people o Appealed more to Catholics than Protestants. Churches were made with Baroque interior. Expressed the power and exuberance of reformed Catholicism. Gianlorenzo Bernini (1598-1680)- built and decorated for the popes. Great theatrical effects. Carved St. Teresas vision of being pierced through her heart by a flaming arrow of love. Her face was ecstatic with blissful pain. o Peter Paul Ruben (1577-1640)- trained in Italy, he developed an assembly line to paint pictures. He trained other to paint faces, bodies, and they created a pic. He just put finishing touches on them, if even. Few were original paintings. He was really good though. Kings commissioned him to paint for them. o Anthony Van Dyck (1599-1641)- painter who worked in Rubins studio and then became independent. Painted many aristocratic sitters with pride and poise to match fine clothes. o Deigo Rodriguez Velazquez (1599-1660)- painted many portraits, especially of Philip IV. His famous work is the great portrait of Pope Innocent X. o Buildings o Fischer on Erlack (1657-1723) Clients were princes and nobles Baroque style was a grand staircase supported by conventional pillars, but on the shoulders of muscular, straining Atlas figures. Designed churches French, English, and Dutch Art Rejected Baroque. They wanted clarity, simplicity, and harmony of design. o Bernini was not wanted in France, Louis XIV rejected his plans. Louis imposed rules of composition, proportion, and perspective. o Sir Christopher Wen (1632-1723)- built churches for England in elegant and classical style. His churches were tall, and simple with fanciful steeples (pointy top).

Dutch Prized common sense and discipline. Everyone had to have their picture painted if they were anybody. o Significance in the humdrum details of everyday life. Art was anti-classical and anti-Baroque. o Rembrant van Rijn (1606-1669)- he was very good. Had his own studio in Amsterdam and painted a lot of paintings, over 600 survived. He was though increasingly unwilling to carry public favor and lost popularity. His tragic decline went from a prosperous youth to bankrupt old age. He was a realist and explored the sorrow of ordinary people. He did draw religious pictures despite Protestants. He did draw many in Protestant fashion. As his life went on he preferred to depict mens inward sufferings. FIVE PHILOSOPHICAL WRITERS: MONTAIGNE, PASCAL, HOBBES, SPINOZA, AND LOCKE Men asked fundamental questions about human nature and social organizations Approaches to moral and intellectual issues Michael de Montaigne (1533-1592) Classical educated- spoke nothing but Latin until he was six. Spent some years as a lawyer but then the French religious wars broke out and he withdrew from public life and began to write Essays, a series of informat musings about himself and his personal experiences o Preached moderation and toleration o Against cruelty to children, servants, and animals show how revolted he must have been by the hysterical butchery of the St. Bartholomew massacre o He was not trying to bran, nor confess his sins o Self-knowledge is the starting point for purposeful human experience, and he encourages the reader to attempt his own searching self-examination o He treats most topics with ironic skepticism, not only questioning the moral absolutes brandished by Protestant and Catholic crusaders but wondering whether civilized Europeans are really morally superior to savages o He is an utterly secular thinker o Became a speaker for the politique party which brought French religion to a halt. Blaise Pascal (1623-162) Started with math and science and was a brilliant man in the scientific revolution. Then one night in 1654 he had an experience or religious ecstasy and dedicated the rest of his life to it. Drawn to Jansenism, within the French-Catholic church that preached a semi-Calvinist doctrine of human depravity and divine predestination of the elect. He retired a lot to Port-Royal, where Jesuits were against the movement. Jesuits wanted to close Port Royale. Pascal wanted counterattacked with the Provinical Letters, which accused Jesuits of employing immoral tactics to gain power. To expose Jesuit casuity, that is the Jesuit method of handling cases of conscience, he quotes from various Jesuit confessional manuals which wink at evil conduct. After his death though the port closed anyway. He also targeted rationalist freethinkers in the tradition of Montaigne. He learned from Essays how to examine himself, he was repelled by Montaignes urbane skepticism toward new ideas and high ideals. Pascal planned a monumental apology for the Christian religion which would convert rationalists by appealing simultaneously to their minds and emotions. He did not live to write the book but a collection of notes were put together into the Pensees. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Shared Pascals view of human condition but not his faith in a religious solution to a mans problem. Boldly materialistic. Became friendly with Galileo, Bacon, Descartes, and Harvey and was inspired to apply the scientific method to the study of human conduct by translating Thucydides History of the Peloponnesian war into the deepest analysis of political behavior by any classical writer. He wrote the Leviathan, his monumental treatise on how to prevent revolutionary turmoil. o It is the greatest treatise on political philosophy in English, but few readers like the argument. o His analysis of political conduct rests on his mechanistic concept of human psychology. He sees men as animals, stimulated by appetites and aversions rather than by rational calculation or moral ideas. Several points of his theory are accepted

His effort to apply scientific method to social analysis produced a train of thought much more corrosive than Montaignes tolerant humanism or Pascals appeal for the divine grace. Went really far with the idea of national sovereignty. Benedict Spinoza (1632-1677) Sought to combine metaphysical precision of medieval scholasticism with the mathematical precision of 17 century science His Ethics is a long series of geometrical definitions, axioms, propositions, and corollaries. Book was a manuscript until his death. He was independent of religion, although he was born a Jew His Tractatus Theologico-Politicus championed freedom of thought and speech in the teeth of the Dutch Calvinist clergy. Deeply religious, but his concept of God made him seem atheist. He conceived of nature as unified and uniform, incorporation all thought and all things, embracing mind and body, and he defined philosophy as the knowledge of the minds union with the whole of nature. Everything is attributed to God, nothing in nature is independent of God, and God cannot be conceived of as distinct from His creation. Mans highest goal is the intellectual love of God, which gives us a vision of the infinite beauty of the universe. o Spinozas god cannot be imagined anthropomorphically. John Locke (1632-1704) Son of a Puritan country lawyer Shared opinion with Hobbes that English schools were old-fashioned and retrospective Had an experience with Whig party that molded him into a pragmatic champion of political liberalism, religious latitudinarianism, and intellectual toleration. He was made a celebrity by the Glorious revolution Two Treatises on Civil Government- ridiculed the notion that kings possess a divine right to paternal power, argues that the subjects of a state are endowed with inalienable natural right to life, liberty, and property When he imagines a man in the state of nature, he stresses the perfect freedom and equality of precivilized life rather than the Hobbesian natural state of war. He wants minimal degree of governmental regulation, in contrast to Hobbe. Government should reflect the opinion of the majority, which meant, in England, a majority of the property owners represented in Parliament. Recognized that unequal division of property undermines a mans natural equality and incites crime so government should protect his life, liberty and property. In his Letters Concerning Toleration, he attacks the idea that Christianity can be promoted or defended by force. He sees no harm in widespread of religious practices, as long as the worshipers profess faith in God. He was sometimes a rationalist and sometimes an empiricist. His political philosophy was rationalist while his central tenet, the existence of natural rights is an empirical proof. o The human mind is born with a blank slate, not with innate ideas. THE GOLDEN AGE OF ENGLISH, SPANISH, AND FRENCH DRAMA England Plays evolved from Christmas mysteries, Robin Hood, to richly romantic plays far more exciting and entertaining than the didactic medieval religious plays or the humanist school plays You have comedies which are funny, tragedies like Hamlet which are passionate and gory. The Revenge theme occurred commonly. Plays were rarely set in contemporary England because the stories were borrowed from Italians and because Elizabethans believed anything can happen in Italy. Very few plays touched Protestantism or Catholicism because every play had to be licensed by a royal censor. Over 300 playwrights wrote for hundred companies. At any given day it is estimated that 10% of the total population of London would be found in theater. The audience consisted of everyone from different classes. Only Puritans did not come. The city fathers considered plays public nuisance and so theaters were built outside the city walls. The queen was very stingy.

Spain

Shakespeare (1564-1616) was one of the great playwrights. He was a son of a glove maker and only had grammar-school education. His plays were popular so they were printed, and thus preserved. He did not publish them though. Players and playwright could earn a good living, even though they ranked socially above beggars and whores. Theatrical life can be brutal. Many died and were stabbed. Shakespeare worked really hard, making plays really fast. o There are never many female roles in his plays because females were represented by young boys who werent good at acting. As Puritan criticism of London theater grew louder, the acting companies allied themselves with the Stuart Court. He accused Charles I queen of being a whore because she acted in court masques. o Puritan William Prynne wrote a thousand-page diatribe against a stage. He saw only 4 plays but he damned the theatrical profession wholesale. He had his ears cropped for publishing the polemic, and the play-poets continued their pollution undisturbed. In 1642 Puritans gained control of London and closed the theaters for 18 years as they remained in power. After the return of Charles II in 1660, theaters reopened but this time for the upper-class. Plays were more sophisticated, more libertine, and more limited. Females played female roles, with elaborate props. Golden age of it from 1580 -1640 Consisted of mainly religious plays, since Spain was unitedly Catholic Comedia o Divided into 3 acts, interspersed with vaudeville skits, ballads, dances, making much more of a variety show than in England o Women were allowed to act in comedias and dance the voluptuous zarabanda o Was something like a modern television script, punctuated by commercials o It showed off the actors and was seldom repeated more than a few times. Thus, like a TV show, the actors were paid more than the playwright. Madrid was the center of theatrical activity, but could only support two playhouses. Mexico city, distant in America had the comedias. Customers were harder to please. At the end they may throw apples at you if they did not like the show. Lope de Vega (1562-1635) o Was the Spanish Shakespeare o Middle class o Conducted a series of long passionate affairs with married women and took up the last of these mistresses after he had become a priest. o Turned out 1500 comedias. o He wrote them for money, not for fame. By 1630 the Spanish stage was declining o No playwright could replace Lope de Vega o Collapsing Spanish economy shrank box-office receipts o The clergy criticized the immorality of actors and actresses and wanted to close theaters o Philip IV turned the Spanish drama from popular art into a royal hobby

France Began about 1630 2 things sparked the beginning of French plays: an accomplished troupe of actors established fixed residence in a Paris theater and Pierre Corneille produced his first play This was entertainment for the elite and audience was limited There was never more than 3 theaters in Paris. Playwrights and actors could not make ends meet without royal patronage. Pure and dignified classical style- court patronage steered them away from romanticism of Elizabethan and Spanish stage o People worried about the place, the action, and avoided complicated plots unlike Shakespeare. o Themes and plots derived from Greek and Roman sources.

Pierre Corneille (1606-1648)- the first great French dramatist, who wrote a number of effective comedies o In one he displeased the clergy so in the next few he tried to please them. Jean Baptiste Racine (1639-1699)- poet of surer taste and control than Corneille, and he perfected the French neoclassical tragic style. Moliere or Jean Baptiste Poquelin (1622-1673). o Was initially sent to Jesuit school. o He wrote and produced a brilliant constellation of farces, parodies, and satires. o Took the lead role of the comic himself, for he was a great comic actor. o His humor is realistic and hard-hitting. The clergy even banned some of his plays. Why decline o Molieres death- there was no one better o Racines retirement o Louis XIV growing preoccupation of war (he liked plays)