ROADMAP FOR NGOsTO REDUCECHILD LABOUR: WHAT LESSONS FROM INDIAN INTERVENTIONS?

PravinDixit Child labour is today adverselyafficting 24.6 crore children in the developingcountries.Out of them, India has the largest child labour in world in absolute numbers. Several Northern and SouthernNGO interventionsare doing demonstrablework to reduce child labour. It is imperative to makestrategic rather than only Iogical choices for effectivecontribution. In terms of priority, they shouldworkwith conceptual clarity, strivefor accuratedata in association with stakeholders, target female child labour for rehabilitation and decide whether to work in urban slums or rural areas. Implementation of modern management techniques in organisational structures would reduce Recommendations overheads. would include demandfor liberalised for the policy and management school administration under stricter governmentsupervision,advocacyfor modified institutional designfor monitoring at national and statelevels,reminderto private corporationsabout their social responsibility and pressingfor flexibility in school curriculum, timings and holidays. To overcome criticism, the NGOs should enhancetheir credibility and responsibilitythrough self-regulation.They need to target championsin the systemand createa synergy. Child labouris one of the biggestchallenges work in the field of rehabilitating and preventing facing India in its aspirationto be a developed child labourin India.In thethird section, I analyse country.Its eradicationis not only the meansto the achievements and limitations of these case development but alsoan end in itself studies sustainable andbring out the lessons learnedfrom the from the point of view of human development. casestudies. In sectionIV, I identify a roadmap The oneroustask requiresimmenseresources of for the NGOs for successful work in this resard. time, money, creativity,and missionaryzeal.It SectionV concludes the paper. requiresflexibility of approach, intimateknowlI. BACKGROUND edgeof theeconomics of child labourin a specific in which it prevails,and the areaand households Many developing countries are experiencing prevailing beliefs and customs. The agency child labour.Underscoring the ill impactsof the attempting the arduous effort shouldenjoythe full same, UnitedNations(UN) HumanDevelopment trustof the populationand haveexcellentrapport Report, 1996 states, 'Child labour frequently with all the stakeholders. Obviouslygovernment leads to chronic illnesses, destroys eyesight, cannotaccomplishthis task all by itself nor can physical and intellectualstunting, and in many the (Non-Governmental Organisations) NGOs. cases, even prematuredeath.The worst conseBut a partnership encompassing the stakeholders quenceis that child labourkeepsthe childrenout could help achievethe goal soonerand with less of schoolthuspreventing thedevelopment of their expenditureof the scarceresources. In order to capabilitiesa priority for a long run solution to do so, the NGOs have to adopt some tried and poverty and exploitation' [Cited in Government testedmanagerial strategies and practices. In the of India, 2002, Chapter 9, Paragraph229, p. first section,I discuss the theoretical background 1,0161. The UnitedNationsspecial rapporteur on aboutthe problemof child labourand arguewhy the right to educationelabourated this further in the task needsto be executedby NGOs. In the herannual report,'The right to education operates secondsection,I describefour case studiesof asmultiplier,andit unlocksall otherhumanrights NGOs, which have done remarkable when guaranteed and foreclosesthem all when successful

PravinDixit is IPS, Dy. Director General,YASHADA, Pune. Master's Project for GRADUATE (M.A.) Programmein Intemational Development Policy (2002-04), Terry Sanford Instituteof Public Policy, Duke University,Durham,North Carolina,United States. pravindixit@hotmail.com

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denied '[U N ,2 0 0 4 ]. Experts from all disciplines, therefore, thatchild labourneeds to be abolished. emphasise it is imperativethat policy makers Consequently, on what constitutes attemptto reacha consensus child labour, or definition of child labour, magnitudeof theproblem,i.e.,how manychildrenare of child labour,and economicallyactive,causes policy optionsandmeasures to reduceit. Can the statealone achievethis task in an efficient and showsthat the state effectivemanner?Research can do it in collaborationwith the civil societv. Definition interpretthe ageof child in Different scholars a varietyof ways.Accordingto some,any person is a child,while in view belowtheageof eighteen of othersa personbelow fifteen or fourteenis to be treatedas a child. The InternationalLabour (ILO) attemptedto createa workOrganisation abledefinition of child labour,but has preferred flexibility about the issue to have considerable level of developmentof the dependingon the country.The Minimum Age Convention,1973, that the minimum No 138,specifies Convention age for employmentshould not be less than 15 years, for most of the member states,but less developed countries may initially specify a minimum age of 14 years.If the work is risk to health,safety or morale of a young person,the minimumageshould be 18.But it may belowered to 16, provided the health,safetyand morale of and they theseyoung workersare fully protected receivepropervocationaltraining. This definition suggeststhat work that is as detrimentalto children should be considered difchild labour. But expertshave considerable ferences on what is beneficialandnot detrimental to children.The humanrights activistsarguethat like tending work by childrenevenin a household, youngerchildren,deprivesthem from study,and Economists contend that all self-development.

economic activity (work done by children for irrespective remuneration), of whetherit is good or bad. is child labour. Some others assertthat earning while learning benefits children and, more importantly, their poor parents. These scholars believe that only exploitativeand most harmful work should be considered as child labour.Socialactivistspoint out that all children, who do not complete formal schooling up to level and are engaged in employment secondary for wages,are potential victims and, hence,be treatedas child labour. Reachinguniversal definition,which would be to all thinkers,is an illusive task, as acceptable differences in the level of thereare considerable social beliefs and attitudes,and a development, In the Indiancontext, varietyof countrycontexts. it is necessary to appreciate that there is inadequateinfrastructure even to cover all childrenin schoolstill they attain the age of fourteen.I do not foreseethat in the coming days there would to ensurethat all children from be an arrangement the ageof 14 till 18 would be in schools, evenif If there is no arrangement they desire so. for and if the Statedoesnot permit them to schools, work aswell, thereis every possibilitythat these childrenwould be removedfrom their houseand may indulge in anti-social activities. Keeping theserealitiesin view, I proposefollowing definition. A child should be considered as doing labourwhen (a) s/heis lessthan fourteenyearsin age, and works in an exploitativecondition for and (b) doesnot go to the school remuneration; or attendsit occasionally. The 1999 ILO Convention bans 'worst' forms of child labour and 'work which, by its nature, condemns or the in which it is carriedout, is likely circumstances to harm the health,safetyor morale of children' [LO, 1999].Inthe followingpages,Ifollow this actions to targetthis group. definitionandpropose the definitionresultsin In my opinion,expanding and making theproblemof child labournebulous any effortsto haveany impact in the near defeats future.

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Magnitude

Causesof Child Labour

sociologists The economists, and policy anaThe estimated number of child labourers for the existence needingimmediaterehabilitationdependsupon lysts identify different reasons the definition adopted by individual scholar. of child labour. Child labourmight have existed redefined the there are24.6 for a long time, but industrialisation According to the ILO assessment, child labour and transformed it from concept of in the developing countries. crorechild labourers 'good' into a social and economic 'proIn other words, forcing children to continue a social working affectsone out of every six youngsters.r blem'. Child labourcameto the forefrontwith the economyfrom production As per this study,61 per centof child workersare shift in the household production for markets. for consumption to in Asia, 32 per cent in Africa, and 7 per cent in 'A perfectlyfree and 'India is of the opinion, Hindman has the largestnumber of Latin America. individual workers, children engagedin child labour in the world in openlabourmarketassumes groups, vying for the availfamilies or other not putsthe While the 1991census numbers. absolute opportunities' able [Hindman, 2002, p. 22\ The number at 1.128 crore, the 50th round of the 'povertyis hold, themain explanatory economists National Sample Survey (NSS) conducted in variable'. Empirical evidence does not corroboestimated the child labourpopulationat 1993-94, proposition. Hindman opines, Further, rate this Research Group in a 'while l 35 crore.The Operations poverty undoubtedly motivates child 4.4 crorechildrenbelow studyin 1980estimated labour, the role of custom, habit, and tradition the age of 15 years to be working in economic, probably plays as decisive a role' [Hindman, and householdactivities' [Govnon-economic 2002,p.32a\ The anthropologists areof the view For the year ernmentof India, 2002,p. 1,0181. that multiple factors are responsiblefor child 2000, LO projects 13,157,000economically 'child labourcan be partly labour.Kabeerstates, active children in India. A word of caution is due to sheer poverty, partly due to unresponnecessary aboutthesenumbersasthe ILO counts siveness of the schoolingsystemon offer, partly childrenonly from ten to fourteenand relies,for due to socialdiscrimination(on casteand gender the most part, on official estimatesfrom the grounds) and partly due to cultural exclusion orga- (tribalandreligious membercountries.The non-governmental status)' 2003, p. l7]. IKabeer, (NGOs) arguethat the real numbersfar nisations exceed the official estimates.The India-based On the other hand, while analysingcauses of Campaign Against Child Labour (an NGO child labour in India, policy analyst Myron 'low per capita income and of child workersashigh Weiner emphasises, coalition)putsestimates as 7.7 crore. The Mamidipudi Venkatarangaiya economicsituationis less relevantas an expla(MV) Foundation,an NGO dedicated for eradi- nation than the belief system of the state India; number child labour in the of bureaucracy, cation of a setof beliefsthatarewidely shared children working is likely to be in the range of by educators,social activists, trade unionists, 4.4-10 crore lY azir, 2002,p. 21.This discussion academic researchers, and, more broadly, by shows the necessityto have a definition that members of theIndianmiddleclass'[1995,p. 5]. adheringto internationalstandardsand is also Weiner explains, the Indian position rests on meaningful.It is next to impossibleto verify the deeplyheldbeliefsthatthere is a divisionbetween mentioned by the NGOs,andit becomes peoplewho work with their minds and rule and numbers purelyan exercise in futility to targetthatnumber. peoplewho work with their handsand are ruled, Moreover, it also inflates the requirementof and the educationshould reinforce rather than that needto be mobilisedto counterit. breakdownthisdivision.Thesebeliefsareclosely resources

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tied to religiousnotionsand to the premises that India's hierarchical caste underlie system. He emphasises, in most partsof the world, religious institutionsand beliefs(including secular beliefs derivedfrom religion) played a role in the diffusion of masseducationand in stateintervention. On the contrary,in India, Hinduism (andIslam as well) has not beena force for masseducation.

schools,teachers,learning material, etc., contributesto the continuation of this practice. Thus, the first choice is to improve delivery of educationalservice by the government,while otherscontendthat it is the monopolyof the state in the delivery of socialservices, suchas education, which is the causeof this presentfailure.

The second option prescribes pluralistic privatebusinesses, suchasthe state, and Thesedifferent perspectives demonstrate that agencies 'poverty does have a role to play in working in the NGOs synergy to deliver this shapingthe Healthy service. competition and collaboration demandand supply of child labour, but its role g differentcontexts, variesamon socio-economic among thesemultiple agencieswould bring in qualitativeimprovementand access to groups and over time' [Kabeer, 2003, p. 27]. necessary 'The education in remote areas. Esman states, Many schemestarget poor parents,presuming that monetary grants/loansand enhancing of formula [for service provision] is one of pragand would be sufficient matic pluralismin which the stateestablishes alternativeincome schemes the rules, but at the level of operations enforces to send and retain children in encouragement it performsas one of many actorsparticipating in schoolsratherthan to labour.Theseschemes are the production and provision of economic and useful,but not enough,unlessthe targetedchilgoodsandservi ces' p. 93]. soci al 1991, [E sman, from economicactivities. dren are rehabilitated While recommendingthe second option, this paperattemptsto searcha roadmapfor the NGOs Agentsfor Change in achievingthis task. Many scholars believe that it is the sole Stakeholders responsibilityof the state authoritiesto devise legal, economic,political and adminnecessary The stakeholders in removal of child labour istrativemeasures to counterthe phenomenon of are industrialisedas well as of the developing child labour. They attributechild labour to the countries, multinational organisations and in deliveringthepublicservices donors,private industrialhouses,teachers, failureof the state parAccording to them, absence effectively. of suit- ents,children,socialactivists,academicians and able macro-economic policies results in the the NGOs. povertyof the masses. Absence of legalmeasures to prohibit child labour, non-enactmentfor It is a shortsighted view, when a section of compulsoryeducation,and porousenforcement formal and informal employerstake the plea that of existingenactments banningchild labour in by providing employmentto children; they are prevalence exploitative conditions, encourages of helping poor families. In fact, if these children this practice. Jean Dreze and Amartya Sen undergoformal education,they would not only advocate gradual introduction of compulsory contributesubstantiallyto the improvement of schooling,beginning with the more prosperous industrial production but would also acquire in India lDrezeand Sen,1995,p.132;also necessary states purchasingpower to buy thesegoods cited in Perkinsand others,2001, Pp. 286-871. and services. Child labour is a reminder of the Non-provision of suitable resources to provide problemscreatedby the lopsidedindustrialrevadequatefacilities in the form of proximate olution.Further,it is a challenge to the ability of

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teachers to involve children in learning,making in attendingschoolregularlyand them interested Parents have out successfully. themto pass enable the greatestresponsibilityin empoweringchilatmosphere to dren by providing them necessary get educated and improve life. Promotion of human rights and democracyare essentialfor healthydevelopmentof the mankind.Can these goals be attained, when a sizeable section of children continue to languish in harmful and exploitative conditions in several parts of the academicians and actiworld? Social scientists, vists have to come forward with pragmatic solutionsto this seriousproblem, as it has the potentialto turn a stateinto a failure andeventual disintegration. The economistsmaintain that the industrialised countriestoday are facing the problem of overproduction in the manufacturing sector. Unless these countriespromote markets in the developing countries, the prosperity in the countriesis likely to wane away.The developed revolution in communicationsis making poor peoplein the developingcountriesaware about world. And if they theprosperityin the developed do not havea shareof the same,they are likely to be driven to frustrationcreatingserioussecurity risks, not only for the countriesthey live in, but also for the developedcountries.This has been suchas by the failed states, amply demonstrated which becamethe incubatorfor the Afghanistan, terroristactivitiesculminatingin the destruction of the World Trade Centre at New York on prosperityof 11, 2001. Sustainable September securitvare. thus. at the world and international stake. Scheme of the Paper and Statement of the Problem Research Until a few decades 4go, the State had monopoly in implementing developmentmearealisation thatthe State Thereis increasing sures. alone cannot perform this task effectively. The

facilStateis emergingas a partner,supervisor, itator,and regulatorratherthan as a singleactor. and the civil societyare Privateentrepreneurship being acknowledgedas important agents for in delivery of They are the new partners change. The numberof NGOs socialgoodsand services. as well as the resourcesat their disposal are growingexponentially and arelikely to dominate for thenextfew decades. theradarof development This contribution attempts a roadmap for the casestudies of intervention by the NGOs anduses NGOs in reducing child labour in India. This paperwould be relevantto the NGOs as well as internationaldonors and mulfor governments, interestedin reducing organisations, tinational labour. child The NGOs in thesecasestudiesare engaged of child labour.In addition,they in rehabilitation attemptto retain children in schoolsand prevent them from turning into potential child labour. India These NGOs are:SavetheChildrenCanada, Field Office (SCCIFO), a member of the InternationalSavethe ChildrenAlliance;Mamidipudi (MV) Foundation,a southern Venkatarangaiva NGO funded by an internationaldonor agency; Children in Needs Institutes (CINI-ASHA) funded by the Save the Children, UK; and PraNGO, sponsored by the United tham, a southern Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural (UNESCO). Organisation I select these four NGOs, mainly because donorshavefundedthem;and these international NGOs have documentedhow interventionsby them have resultedin visible impact in the targetedareas.The activitiesare spreadin rural as well as urban areas and they cover different areasin India, such as the eastern geographical (CINI-ASHA), southern(MV Foundation),and western (SCCIFO and Pratham). Analysis of their achievementsand limitations would be certainly a sourceof strengthfor all the stakeholders interestedin eliminating child labour from India and other developingcountries.The

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cost-benefit analysiswould enableinternational CWOP include donorsto decideon the quantumof funds to be provided and the areas in which they should * Opportunities for participation in quality The invest, so that the returns are guaranteed. educati on programmes(non-formal/ formal/ biggesthandicapin this effort is non-availability life skill orientededucation): of detailsof the amountsspentby theseNGOs. It * Opportunities for adopting sustainable would be a rewarding exerciseif they publish livelihoodsthroughvocationaltraining and itemised details, so that the researcherscan incomegeneration; examine whether these exercisesare cost effi* Provisionof alternate supportsuch as short c ient . stayhomes,healthservices and recreational facilities; The lessonslearnedfrom theseinterventions * Raisingawareness for changingtheattitudes roadmap form thebasisof the proposed for NGOs and practices amongst policy makers, in India. These guidelinesare equally valid for employers,parentsand children regarding otherdevelopingcountriesas well. socialacceptance of child-work. II. CASE STUDIES * Advocacy at both, the local and national Savethe Children Canada India Field Office levels,for the Rightsof the Child, asdefined in the UN Convention;and Savethe ChildrenCanada(SCC) is a member * Capacity building of the partner organisaof Save the Children Alliance (an international andimplementchildfocused tionsto manage working for promotion of Rights of organisation development programmes with rights with Children). The SCC has been associated approach. children of India since 1967. The India Field Office of SCC (SCCIFO) works in partnership of CWOP with l1 partnernon-government organisations,Achievements that operate in three states of India, namely, The cumulativeeffect of this five year interMaharashtra, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu for providing developmentopportunitiesto around ventionon childrenin the agegroupof 6-14 has beenas following: 12.000childrenin difficult circumstances. In 1999, SCC launched a five-year project, known as Child Workers OpportunitiesProject (CWOP)with financialassistance from Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA). This Project aimed to work towards reducing the incidences of damagingandexploitative formsof child-work by providing developmental opportunitiesfor 9,900child workers(5,100girls and in threestates 4,800boys),and was implemented of India. The CWOP adopteda multi-pronged strategy with multiple interventions, which complementand reinforceeachother. that the action areasof The SCCIFO asserts 1,528 boys) have stoppedworking. 2,827 children (1,349 girls, 1,478 boys) [have] enrolledin formal school and 2,299 chi l dren (1,087 gi rl s, 1,212 boys) have continuedtheir formal education. 1,002 children (462 girls, 540 boys) have completed vocational training.121children (86 girls, 35 boys) have appeared for stanexaminations, dard 8th and 1Oth 3,504 families of child workers have received livelihood support under income generation. '2,930 Children (1,402 girls,

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ROADMAP FOR NGOs TO REDUCE CHILD IABOUR

groups(435 self help 905 community-based groups of women, 196 village education s groups, committee s, 162children' 75 youth groups and 40 village councils) are operationalon children'sissues'ISCCIFO,2003].

is causingpoverty'.3 She feels any child out of as a child labourer. schoolshouldbe considered She canvasses all work/labour is hazardous and harmsthe overallgrowth and development of the child. The Foundationstrivesfor total abolition of child labour.

The SCCIFO madesignificantcontributionin remote. rural. backward communities or tribal belt, which were culturally and sociallydeprived children were first generof education.Selected parentshad no history of learners and their ation It hasachieved its success child to school. sending through cooperationof children and committed grassrootsactivists. There are no charismatic in thesegrassroots NGOs. leaders

The MV Foundationstrives to achievethese objectives through inter-linked strategies. The programme starts by creating awarenessand demand for education among the poor. This demandis not restrictedto parentsof poor chilsuch as dren alone but includesall stakeholders employersof children, youth groups, teachers, women's groups,electedlocal representatives, and district and stategovernmentofficials. MV MV Foundation.Andhra Pradesh Foundation does not believe in setting up a parallel school systemand in keeping with this Mamidipudi Venkat arangaiy a Foundation or philosophy it works towards strengthening the schoolsystem. MV Foundationstartedfunctioningfrom Ranga existinggovernment Reddy district of the state of Andhra Pradesh ( 1,662,000) number whichhasthehighest of child At the core of MV Foundation'sstrategyfor labour in India.2 The Foundation is partially transforming childrenfrom labourers to students Theseareresidential financed by Danish InternationalDevelopment arethe bridgecamps. camps Agency.Functioningfrom 1991,the programme wherechildrenwho haveneverbeento schoolare hasexpanded over 500 villagesin eight districts preparedto enter the formal school system in appropriate to their age. At theend of this of Andhra Pradesh,and in 400 of these,every classes It has process, child in the agegroupof 5-11 is in school. the working children are given a space the support of 8,000 youth volunteers; 1,600 of their own with no demandson their time and educationactivists; 1,500 governmentschool ample opportunityto learn and play. This conteachers;50 women's groups, and countless tinuestill the working childrenarereadyto access electedrepresentatives and membersof school theschoolsystem in a meaningfulandsustainable committeeswho are actively involved manner.A specialattemptis made to recruit girl education in its activities. Nearly 100,000children have children and retain them in the formal school more than systemand to involve the community in develbeenenrolledand retainedin schools, and oping solutionsfor the difficult-to-reach group. 8000 bondedlabourershave been released, 168villagesare now child labour free. To retain these children in schools and to Denying poverty to be the main determinant prevent them from dropping out, additional - trainedin pedagogy, mobilisationand of child labour, it believesthat all children must teachers formal full time day schools. techniques are assigned Shantha motivation to enablethe attend prime mover in MV Foundation cope with the influx and school to of studentswho Sinha,the winner of Magyasasayaward for community enroll as a result of the Foundation's efforts. for 2003 argues,'Povertydoesn'tlead Considerable attention is paid to creating afeeling leadership to child labour.It is demandfor child labourthat of ownershipof the school in the entire village

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quite significant. While many agencies are effective in mounting mobilisation campaigns and in uncoveringthe latent demandfor education, few succeedin converting this advantage into a programmethat has the potentialto make a dent in child labour and educationstatistics as In a short period of time, the programmehas well as influencepolicy fYazir,2002, Executive firmly takenroot in 500 villagesand continues to Summary, Pp. v-viiil. The response expand. of the communityhasbeen overwhelming as one village after another 'There is nothing Sinha argues, inevitable itself to be 'child-labourfree' andboasts declares about the existenceof child labour'. With adea hundred per cent school enrollmentrate. The quate supportfrom the school, most parentsof Foundationhas been able to build a consensus working children are willing to make the that children must be in amongststakeholders sacrificesnecessaryto enrol their children in schooland not work. school and, thereafter, to retain them there. Enrolling childrenin formalschools andretaining in achieving Much of theFoundation's success probably is the way best of withis a consequence of the active them there this consensus involvementof the community in the manage- drawing children from the work force. to collectively community.They are encouraged of the school,andraisethe funds definethe needs required to pay thesalaryof an additional teacher, materials andundertake buy furnitureor teaching building repairs. ment of the programme.In every village, local volunteers have internalised and adopted the local ownershipof the basicphilosophyasserting programme.The strong conviction among the volunteershas led to intensivelobbying efforts, as a consequence of which MV Foundationhas in conveyingits message beensuccessful to the bureaucracyin education and to politicians, resulting in tangible changes in government policies and programmes. These changesare visible both at the local level, where the educational bureaucratinterveneswith the working child and its familv. and at the level of state-wide policies. The programmehas also sparkedoff a ripple effect going beyond its project base in Ranga Reddy district. MV Foundationis very activein andtrainingNGOs across the countryto assisting replicateits programmestrategies. It also providessupportto individualsaimingto bring about in their own areas. changes The potential impact of these local efforts linking togetherin a movement againstchild canbe labourandin favor ofuniversaleducation Sinhamaintainsthat the long-termsolutionto theproblemof child labourlies in the government passingan act, Act on Compulsory Education, guaranteeing education as a fundamental right to everychild. It would bind the Stateto ensurethat an adequateinvestmentin education is made. increasing Further, shecautions thesupplies, such quality teaching,bettercurricas more teachers, ulum and textbooks,aloneis not a guarantee for of education.Unless the link the universalising between the issueof abolitionof child labourand strengthening of schoolsystemis recognised, no matterwhat the commitmentsare,it is not going to yield the desired results. It is therefore, imperative,first of all, to work towardscreating a socialnorrnthatno child mustwork, andprepare the schoolsto be more sensitiveto the specific needs of poor children[Sinha,2003,Pp.3213a]. Theseneedswould include convincing them of theneedto get educated, ensuring thatthe courses enoughto retain them in the schools areattractive and importantly the teachersdo not humiliate these children on account of being socially deprivedand being older than other children.

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Children in Need Institutes: CINI-ASHA The CINI operatingfrom Kolkata works with the mission to improve, through educationand the qualityof life of socially socialmobilisation, childrenliving in the urbanareas. disadvantaged The CINI-ASHA believes that all children betweenthe ages of 6-14 years should be in any child out of schoolin school. So it considers the age group 6-14 years as child labour or potentialchild labour.Theseout of school children in the slums were either engagedas child labour or were spendingtime playing, watching movies, and gambling. The CINI has adopted following strategyto combatchild labour: 'Sensitising the immediate community, largerpublic, policy makers,and media to for children createan enablingenvironment to study; x Preparingchildren out of school in community based Preparatory Centresfor one year, so as to place them in local formal schoolsnext year as per their age; * Coachingsupportto childrenplacedin formal school for retention;and * Weaning other children away from work to ResidentialEducationCamps for about six months for intensivecoachingbefore placing them in local formal schools. * Presently,CINI-ASHA has 23 preparatory Centres, spread Centres,4S Coaching overslums of East& CentralKolkata.Its effortshaveenabled to place32,170childrenin formalschools. In the year 1998-99, more than 1,200child labourers thesecentres'[Ramchandran, 2003]. attended

providing basic requirements of the streetchildren,child labourers, andchildrenof sexworkers, formainstreaming them into formal schools. This was a six-yearproject.Target communitieshad 84 per cent children out of school. Children in workedor did not go to school these communities including family need,lack for variousreasons, poorquality of local schools, of faith in education, and parentalbelief that work is more practical. The CINI-ASHA's study indicatedthat most an average childrencontributed of 16 per cent of thefamily's income.The majority of children(65 per cent) reportedearninglessthan Rs 200 (approximately US $4-5)amonth,orearning in kind, most of their moneyon themselves. andspending These children used their wages for movies, candies,etc., and contributedsmall amount to their parents, usuallytheir mother.A minority of childrenworking for wages(lessthan25 percent) reported that they contributed all the money they earnedto their mother.The mothersstatedthey usuallyusedthis moneyto pay for food and other household maintenance expenditures. The CINI-ASHA staff tried to determinethe cost of educationfor the family. The annualcost a child to primary school(class1-4) of sending was Rs 600, not including maintenanceand expenses for supplies. The costof schoolingfrom class5-8 was estimated at nearly Rs 1,000per year.Theseexpenses fell into five areas:school fees,notebooks, textbooks, lunch-boxand uniforms. The families also neededto changetheir schedules, to accommodate a school-going child. Especially,the motherswere requiredto change cooking schedules to accommodate the child's schoolschedule.

The experiment by the CINI-ASHA addresses A majority of families increasedtheir wage questions: how familiesmake up for work hours by seventyper cent, after their chiltwo specific income and how they pay for dren had begun going to school. While a few the lossof a child's costs ICINI-ASHA, 2003, Pp. families cited the loss of a child's wages,the education-related theCINI-ASHA focused Since1989, on primary reasonstatedwas to cover educational 335-481.

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expenses. Most families decreased their expenitems,orreligiousfunctions, ditureson expensive and used the difference for present or future To cover educational schoolexpenses. costsand maintain their life style, many families sought outside sources of funding. Excluding CINIASHA funding, many families receivedsupport from families, particularly maternal brothers, underlyingthe importanceof social capital. In 1992, before CINI-ASHA's intervention, an assessment survey in these areasrevealedthat only eightper centof theparents surveyed thought that educationwas valuablefor their child. After the CINI-ASHA worked in this areasfor seven years,hundredper cent of the motherssurveyed believethat education is importantfor their child. Mothers cited a variety of reasonswhy they thought educationwas valuable.Many mothers hoped that their children could get betterjobs. Others hoped that educationwould allow their children to obtain a better marriage match. In somecases, motherssimply wantedtheir children they thoughtliteracy was a to be literatebecause crucial survival skill. The CINI-ASHA programme underlines that even extremely poor families adjust in a number of ways to support their children's education.Encouragement and access to educationare the limiting factors. Pratham, Mumbai Subsequent to the initiatives by the government, the number of enrollment in primary schools hasincreased manifold.But the retention gonedown. Empirical sturate hasconsiderably dies indicatethat in urban as well as rural areas. thesedrop-outsadd to the army of child labour. As per a UNESCO pressrelease fdatedFebruary ll, 20041,'although more childrenare attending schoolthan ever beforein the countriesof South and East Asia, vast numbersdrop out beforethe end of the primary cycle, and the region still for the world's largestshareof out-ofaccounts schoolyouth' [SeeAppendix 1]. To counterthis

trend and prevent dropping out by children, Pratham, an NGO from Mumbai, launched a novel programme,which was sponsored by the UNESCO. The children of slum-dwellersand migrants find privateschoolsbeyondtheir reach.There is a perception that municipal schools are unattractive. Pratham, based in Mumbai, is doing work in municipal schools.Pratham remarkable has chosento be a supporterrather than a critic of the government. Intervention ought to be directed at reform and improvement through consultationand participation of all involved parties rather than on designing alternativeor parallelsystems. Sincerevitalisationof the government system requires both financial and humanresources, Prathamhas soughtto forge a triangular relationship between community, government and corporate donors. Municipal school teachers, corporate sector personnel, NGOs, social workersand academics have been partnership together in a brought to rejuvenate the schooland help the child. Startingwith community basedbalwadis (nurseries) which function both, as play-schoolsand creches,to createan environmentpermeated with the intent to learn, Pratham has gone on to introduce a cadre of balsakhis (friends of the children), work on teachertraining, and initiate bridge coursesto preparechildren to join regular schools.Both enrolledand non-enrolled children are helpedto improve their capabilities, and their progressis regularlytrackedall through,involving both the municipalteacherand the community,to ensure that the child doesnot drop out. Over the last sevenyears,Pratham,Mumbai, has managedto involve over 5,000 people,run 2,800 balwadisand 350 study centres,and conduct over 500 bridge courses affecting over 100,000children in all municipal wards. The programme hasnow spawned an India-Education

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Initiative that has spreadto many cities in dif- (child's friend or teacher'shelper). Under this ferent states.In brief, it has become 'a social programme1) a helper is placedin each school mission'[Ramchandran, 2003,Pp. 959-68]. to work under the guidanceof a regularteacher weak students,and 2) teato help academically Pratham wasformedaspublic trustin Mumbai ching/ learning materialsare provided to such rn 7994, and is working as a partner with the children in every school. Both these inputs are municipal primary school system, to improve provided, only if a school requests for help. access,increaseattendanceand raise achieve- Through thesesteps,PrathamfacilitatedEducament [Banerji,2003,Pp. 267-91].The contribu- tion Advisory Committeesto encourage willing tion by Pratham becomes significant, as the citizens to come forward and act as a bridge drop-out-children constitutethe potentialfor the betweenthe parentsand teachers, to improve the army of child labour. To help the government performance of the children [Chavan,2000]. bring every child to school,andensure that every child learns well, Pratham believes that it is The teachers'union resistedthe influenceof essential to mobilisecitizensfrom all walksof life externalresources. The initiative by young local to actively work towards realising this vision. women in helping young childrenenjoy learning Structurally, the key members of Pratham's But, it alsothreatens board is successful. thepositionof of trusteesare senior governmentofficers - the 'experts'(highly trainedand qualifiedmunicipal municipal commissionerof Mumbai and the schoolteachers) in the educationsystem. secretaryof education,Government of Maharashtra.Both were active participantswhen the The interventioncreatedcertain bottlenecks, trust was initiated. wherethe numbers of out of schoolchildrenwere large and the existingschoolsovercrowded. The Pratham foundthatat least18per centstudents corporationauthoritiesare unable to find large in class III and IV do not have numeracy or sumsof money neededfor construction activity. literacy levels expectedof classII students. To While there is high-levelpolicy acceptance that rectify thesituation, Pratham devised seven-week outside the government- citizens, community, intensivecrashprogramme. Teachingand learn- and corporate support- are valuable,the mechaing was to be accomplishedprimarily through nismsto channelthe supportare not in place,nor mathematicalgames and interactive activities, the ability to target the resources exactly at the ratherthanvia textbooks. wererequired point of needis not available. Teachers to concentrate on the progress of every child and III. LESSONS LEARNED FROM CASE STUDIES pay special attention to academically weaker students. Suchlarge-scale systematic routine,and The intervention by SCCIFO is unique in frequentmonitoring of children's progresshad manyways.Notonly withdrawalof childrenfrom never been attempted before in Mumbai's labour,but alsosupport to parents of suchchildren municipalschools. Pratham collaborated with the with incomegenerating schemes andencouraging education department of the corporation at every them to sendchildren to schoolsis the focus of stage. SCCIFO's activities.The project helps children to adopttheir own ways in decidingwhat is best The programmewas potentiallybeneficialfor suitedfor their future.SCCIFO realised early the weak students, the academically but it still would need to focus not only on the beneficiaries, not have brought them up to catchup with other namelychildrenandparents, but alsoon theNGO children, who were performing at grade level. staff and leaders.It has wisely investedconsidPratham also launched Balsakhi programme erableefforts in educatinsthem about different

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managementtools particularly about financial and institutional sustainability.It has ensured thattheassociated NGOs right from thebeginning and even at the end would becomeself-financed donors,the project of funding from international would continue its momentum.It has been successfulin ensuringrotation of investedfunds by providing sound counseling to children in the selection of professions. Most significantly,SCCIFO has made strategic decision and focused on tribal, rural and female children in the society. These are particularly hardto reachgroupsandif theCWOP volunteers had not targetedthem, at least a few children would have probablyturned into insurgents.Activities by such elementsare causing incalculableharm to the common public good. Thus,the projectrun by SCCIFOis making slow but steadyimpact in the rural and remote areas. in creSCCIFO leadershiphas been successful among ating skills in social entrepreneurship grass-root activists. charThe MV Foundationhas demonstrated the problem of ismatic leadershipin addressing in sharingthe child labour.It hasbeensuccessful vision of the leadership not only among the activists, but also amongst other stakeholders, such as parents, youths, school teachers, women's employers, elected representatives, groups,andthe childrenengaged in labour.It has conceptual clarity and firm belief that halfwould not be adequate. It has heartedmeasures successfully motivated its volunteers, and pursued its effortstill the childrenarecompletely strongtechnical It hasdemonstrated rehabilitated. capabilitythroughinnovativeideassuchasbridge campstill children are matureto undergoformal and involvinglocal communityelders education, It has trained its local body representatives. activiststo counterqueriessuchas: a job? a) Will educationguarantee

b) How is the family to cope with the loss of incomewhen the child stopsworking? c) Who will do the work, which the child has beenperformingwithin the household? and oncethe child is educated d) What will happen, to work in the field or evenin andhe refuses the village,and endsup becominga 'goodfor-nothing'? Rather than providing any monetary incento encourage childrento withdraw tivesto parents on educating from labour,it hasconcentrated the parents,and creatingsocial pressureon parents and children as well as on employers,to ensure that they do not work. Thesefollowing lessons from MV Foundation are noteworthy : experience (1) 'Abolition of child labourand universalisation of school education are practically synonymous. (2) Parentsof working children are willing to maketheadjustments to enable theirchildren to go to school. (3) The income of a working child is not the motivatingfactor in most casesfor the parentsto sendtheir childrento work. (4) Thereis no alternative to using government institutionsin order to bring about universalisation of education, as NGOs cannot provide the infrastructure on the necessary scale. (5) Thereis considerable scope for involving the village community in universalising elementaryeducation'[De and Dreze, 1999,p. 1111. Basing its advocacy measureson the strong lessonsdrawn from the field, MV Foundation has been very successful in influencing policy measures to a considerableextentat the stateas well as at national levels.

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The CINI-ASHA case study shows that the 'Can poor families live reply to the question, depends withouttheirchild's income?', uponthe adjustment made up for the lost income by spending less and earning more, as needed. 'Can poor Similarly, the reply to the question, familiesafford to sendtheir childrento school?', is that they can if they adjust their lifestylesto The meet educationexpenditurerequirements. case study confirms the contribution of social their capitalin enablingpoorchildrento complete education. In addition to moving children to non-formalschoolsand giving out stipendsthat makeeducatinga child profitable,the casestudy that the policy needs to empower emphasises provide for children,who schoolsto adequately do not havefamily contributions. that families The CINI-ASHA effort suggests should be given an opportunity to send their and then the children childrento quality schools, whether would be able to decidefor themselves they should work or study. In many ways, the primaryissuein educating these childrenis giving and to parents knowledge to schools, themaccess about education. Providing in targeted areas in the form of schools, infrastructure educational who understand the specific appointingteachers of childrenemployedaslabour,and requirements parents their childrento to encourage counselling work can certainly attend schools rather than period in a fixed of time. change bring substantial

that perforrnanceof these children, however, improves when tracked and targetedin a systematicmanner. Limitations Therearealsocertainlimitationsevidentfrom thesecases. The SCCIFO in its project of the CWOP selected distant areas for operation. Consequently, there is little visible impact on the problemof child labourat thestate level.The head office has to dependupon local initiative. If the contact local leadershipis strong,it establishes with the government officersandensures smooth But in many cases, there supportfrom thesystem. has beeneither a friction with the local officers, or the NGO functionarieshave been unable to convincethe district level governmentofficials of the NGO programmes aboutthe dependability in reducingchild labour. In certain other areas, leadershipof the local NGOs has been considerably weak, and has remainedsatisfiedby targetingofficersin the department of labourrather than constructively engaging government relateddepartments. In a few officersfrom several instances, the district officers have preferredto ignore these NGO functionaries. As a result, and colcommitted workers felt disheartened, laborative effortscould not makemuch headway, as seen from the small number of children rehabilitatedfrom child labour. Many children coveredunderCWOP arestill not comfortablein readingand numericalskills.

that it Interventionby Prathamdemonstrates to createsynergyby bringing together is possible agencies, communityrepreNGOs, government sentatives,socially responsiblecorporations, In the field of advocacy,SCCIFO does not from international organisations, and international appearto be drawing upon its experiences its donors. Pratham has been a catalyst in taking the field level. It is weak in demonstrating capabilityto government officerseither in improving technical advantage of citizens' enthusiasm performanceof children in the urban slums. It at the local, or at the stateor nationallevel, and bringsout limitationsin the existingschoolsys- thus its impact on policy formulation has to be tem, when it revealsthat after attendingschool considerablyimproved. The SCCIFO is advoto the Child LabourAct, 1986, to be weak catingamendment manychildrencontinue for threeyears, in readingand arithmetic.The casestudyreveals National Child Labour Proiect,and the creation

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of a National Commission for Children (See Appendix 2). Thesegoals needto be connected pertainto SCCIFO's ground level experiences, ing to the flexibility in using mother tonguefor instructions to indigenous children, and importanceof vocationaltraining and life skill educationimpartedto girl children.

The MV Foundationlays stresson creating educational infrastructure by the government. In termsof resources, the government alonemay not be able to achieveit. The MV Foundationdoes not provideany scopefor privatecorporations to contribute to this exercise. The Foundation createsa false senseof complacencythat since they are away from child childrenare in schools, labour. It neglects issue of the quality of the While attentionhas been paid to making the education. It does not appreciatethat unless Project self-sustainablein terms of finance, teachersin governmentschools are motivated, organisationaland technical capability, extra andprovidedtrainingto reduce drop-outrates, the efforts areimperativeto train governmentofficers apparentincreasein enrollment is likely to be from the relateddepartments to achievecollabmisleadingin terms of outcome.From a longoration. Converting child labour into students term perspective,these measuresmay not be should be the primary goal, and ensuring adequateto create a senseof self-dependence sustainabilityof the Project through adequate among educatedchildren, unless linkages are returns on the funds invested in micro-credit established with local industriesfor creationof schemes should be the subsidiary obiective. jobs and opportunities for self-employment.a Motivated leadership, as in the MV FoundaThe CINI-ASHA project was limited to famtion, is not commonly found in other districtsor ilies that were willing to participate in the with otherNGOs. This intervention is successful experiment. Hence,the conclusions are basedon In few its experience. a instances relatives of in RangaReddy district, as it has the benefit of paying the cost of educharismatic leadership of Shantha Sinha. children have helped in Absenceof such committed leadership in other cation. But that may not happenin many other Women in low-incomegroupswould have hasresulted in thefact cases. districtsof Andhra Pradesh that Andhra Pradesh continues to house the financialsecuritywhen they are providedaccess maximum number of child labour in India. The to micro-credit and are empoweredwith skills. programmebelievesthat the motivation level of Realistic appraisal of the schemesand group pressure for repaymentwould ensurereturn of other personsin the community and activistsin theseloans.CINI-ASHA intervention does not the MV Foundation would be identical. It focus on quality of education in the schools necessitates idealistic activists to ensuremoniattended by rehabilitated children. toring of the programme.The Foundationrelies on efforts by certainindividualsin rectifying the Prathamintervention doesnot institutionalise situation. Followingstrong advocacy ofmeasures its effortsfor long-termimpact.No mechanism is by ShanthaSinhaand others,the Indian govern- suggested for bringing togetherresources from ment has now decided to approve an Act for corporations to impacttheshortage of fundsfaced compulsoryeducationfor all children in the age by government agencies. Teachers are very group of 5-14. The Bill has a provisionfor fine importantstakeholders in the business of retainfor parents, if they do not sendthechild to school. ing children in schools. Instead of involvingthem Implementationof the proposed Act depends andmotivatingthemto work in the same direction largely on collaborativeefforts betweengovern- in a consensual manner, theintervention hasmade ment officers and committedNGO activists. them resentful and also, perhaps,to resent its

2&3 voL. 16NOS.

ROADMAP FOR NGOs TO REDUCE CHILD LABOUR

This is likely to createadverse implementation. impact, as the teachersmay feel completely demoralised and would prefer to sit back rather They would haveno incentiveto thancontribute. improve the performance.Thus, the resources are likely to be wasted. being spenton teachers crashprogrammeis a Moreover,the seven-week one-timeeffort. It is doubtful, how far children would be able to absorbthe sameover a period. the system, the project Ratherthan strengthening perhaps weakened it. has AND IV. STRATEGIC CHOICES THE ROADMAP FORNGOs In the wake of these positive lessons and choicesareimperative limitations,what strategic The to ensureeffective and efficient outcomes? suggestedoptions in the order of priority for are as under: implementation

children suffering from the exploitrehabilitate ativeandharmful conditionsor targetall children who are out of school.Edwardspoints out, 'One of the strongestlessons to emerge from the researchis that successis more likely when identify a clear long-term goal at organisations the outsetand stick to it over time. Conversely, which changetheir goalstoo often, or agencies, try to follow too many goals at the same time, p.368]. 1999, oftenl osethei rw ay' [E dw ards, Data Collection

requiresaccurate Advocatingpolicy measures data result in data.Projectsbasedon inaccurate that call for mobilisation the creationof estimates and run the risk of being of enormousresources According to Indian Labour Minisnon-starters. ter, there were two crore child labourersin the year 2000.t On the other hand, as per Campaign Clarity of Concept Against Child Labour, (CACL) an alliance of for envi- several NGOs, there were eight crore child Conceptualclarity is a prerequisite The MV Founnecessary to achieve tangible laboursin 1999 ICACL, 19991. sioningtheexercise results. A strategic rather than only logical dation estimatesthat there are l0 crore child regarding definitionof child labourers. Unless the estimate is reasonably is necessary decision The should take into account accurate, labour. exercise the objectivescannot be realisedin a resources at fixed time period. Hence, after selecting the financial,human,and organisational of it, the specific area for intervention,the NGOs would the NGO's disposal.In the absence problemof child labour would appeartoo big to be well advisedto prepareestimates of the chilsolve.The way in which child labour is defined, dren to be rehabilitated. This exercisemay be would have serious implications for strategies, in the beginningand, preferably,by undertaken policiesand resources. The MV Foundation, for associating the local stakeholders, such as example,considersall children out of school as parents, and even some of the children teachers, child labouror potentialchild labour.On the other in labour.Failure to make this estimate engaged hand, for children engaged in child labour, 'harmful work' is definedasany work that would resultsin unendingdisputesover the estimates. need to work in consensuswith 'physicaldamage-accidents, cuts,burns, The NGOs leadto rather than antagonising different stakeholders bites, police sunstroke,body ache, diseases, important sections, such asteachers asseenin the beingpaid less, harassment, no formal education, Pratham. During and after executing of the case long hours of work and irregular food timings, precise docuphysical abuse, addiction, lack project, it is imperative to have verbal, andsexual b) the outof play and entertainment' lchild Rights mentationabout a) the beneficiaries, Thus, the NGOs haveto come or the number and the condition of the Resource Centre,20021. children,c) the staffdeployed, d) the make a stratesicdecision whether they should rehabilitated

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is highly recommended to overand e) administra- femaleteachers amount spent on operations, of sexual harassment by tion, separately.These details are essentialto come apprehension international donorsfor gettingfurther teachers. approach assistance. Urban/rural Focus Focus on Female Children Selectingurban slums or rural areasfor the project is anotherstrategicdecision.The Report 'Child labouris keeping children out of school of the SecondNational Commissionon Labour, growth of illiteracy, and contributing to the points out that more than 90.87 per cent of the especially among girls. Employers prefer to working children are in the rural areas,and are employ young girls since they are paid lower employedin agriculture and allied activities,and wages than boys' fGovernmentof India, 2002, in household chores. Cultivation, agricultural Accordingto devel- labour,livestock,forestry,and fisheriesaccount Paragraph 9,226,p. 1,0151. opment experts,if femalesare provided micro- for 85 per cent of the rural child labour. In the credit opportunities,they take keen interestin urban informal sector,child labour is found in cottageindustries,in tea stalls,ressending their children to school and, thus, small-scale workshops, factories, and domestic taurants, improving the economic and social capital. To and on the streets. Children working in service enablethe femalesto be financiallyindependent, and repairsaccountfor manufacturing, servicing in schooling. it is necessary that they participate 8.7 per cent of the urbanchild labour force. Out animportant A working womanis alsoconsidered of this 0.8 per cent work in factories.The develHowcontributorto family planning measures. includingIndia, are witnessing oping countries, monitoring progever, accordingto researchers massive migrationof the poor rural peopleto the resstowardsthe EducationFor All (EFA), 57 per urbanslums. cent of children not in school in the world were female in 2000 IUNESCO, 2003]. As per the Lack of opportunityto acquirerequisiteskills report of the Second National Commission on is one of the significant factors contributing to Labour (India), the distribution of child labour child labour.Launchingschemes for non-formal showsthat 54.82per cent were male and 45.18 education,life educationskills, and vocational per cent female. The concentrationof female skills createsconfidenceamong parentsas well of the project.The sectoris quitehigh (83 as children aboutthe success workersin the agricultural to empowerthese childrenin urban per cent). More female children are engaged in skillsrequired are considerably different from thosein the areas paidjobs to males low compared of [Government places, In the urban prorural areas. training India, 2002; p. 1,0211.In patriarchalsocieties, grammes,developedin consultationwith capfactorspulling femalechildren out of schoolare tains of industries, can make the children rampant. Girl childrenaremostvulnerable mainly proficientin vocationalskills. Children,who had of cultural factors and social attitudes. because workedin suchapprenticeships alongwith formal access education, Girl childrenremaindeprivedof adequate have been successful in startingtheir nutrition,and education. The own business, to basichealthcare, employment. or in acquiring Sevproblemis furthercompounded by earlymarriage eral of them are functioning as role models,and early motherhood. were successful of the girl, and subsequent in convincingchildren working the NGOs may targetfemale in hazardous Hence,asa strategy, industries to come out of them. On many children child labour for rehabilitation.Appointment of the other hand,in the rural areas,

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work in agriculture relatedactivities. Agricultural abruptly.Donationsfrom diasporas is a valuable and arenot sourceand can be easily accessed, if the NGOs activitiesarelimited to a shortseason, profitable.If these childrenareto be productively take advantageof information revolution, and engaged,they need to be provided techniques, developtheir own interactivewebsite.Developincluding improving bullock cart repairs,tractor ing communicationand disseminationstrategy to the targetgroup of donorsis crucial repairs,pump-motorrewinding,and agricultural addressed repairs.6 the support.Training their staff in Absenceof suchspecialised in broadening equipment practicesand internationaldevelchildrendoing management trainingruns the risk of educated children and, opments would improve their efficiency. The the same work as the uneducated weaknesses, opportunities SWOT (strengths, and thus,defeatingthe purposeof the project. can help the NGO functionaries threats) analysis which is in drafting collectivevision statement, M odern M anagementTools point for later success. Encouraging starting the of the personsthat have worked earlier in similar cirThe CEOs as well as the functionaries to give narrativeof successful stoNGOs have to develop acumenin running their cumstances, They have to ries, helps in boosting the morale of fresh activitiesas social entrepreneurs. 'Appreciative resortto such methodsas would ensurethat the inductees. This is known as funds as well as the staff availableto them are enquiries technique', and many NGOs have can run benefitedfrom resortingto it. usedefficiently. No charity organisation in a sustainable mannerexclusivelyon donations. in the NGOs arguethatprofit Policy and Management: Recommendations Many functionaries making would leavethem with very little time to achieve their mission. A strategic decision is Lib eralised Schoo I Administ rat ion Importanceneedsto be given to the necessary. purposefor which NGOs are using theseprofits. Advocacy by the NGOs is a very important NGOs.Many NGOs are of third generation In private enterprise,profits are governed by aspect But advocating for substantial increase in government greed and distributed among shareholders. the NGOs make profits for a selflessmission to resourcesfor the primary education, and for in the running theseschoolsby the government.Govuplift the weak and downtroddensections the resources society.ProfitsenableNGOs to attaintheir cause ernmentshoulddefinitely increase but management of these effectively. The NGOs should diversify their for primary education, funding arrangementsthrough direct revenue schools by government has resulted in their Absence of cash-flow for operafrom selling goods and services,cause-related deterioration. purposes partnerships with diverse businesses,grants, tions andmaintenance hasforcedmany schoolsto closedown. The remedy membershipdues,and individual and corporate government givingsin many forms. is stricter regulation and supervision of these But day-to-dayadminschoolsby government. tools can istration of these schools should be by elected Adoption of modern management enhancethe output and outcome of the NGO representatives of the parents/community, and the NGO functionUsing softwarefor fund raising,system charitableorganisations, activities. consultancy,donor research,training of staff, aries. The NGOs need to advocate increased financial and documenting progress of beneficiaries, and government support in terms in running theseendeavors reduce the NGOs' overadministrative Internet servicescan partnering with civil The United the society. heads. This would also decreasetheir losses, by when select individuals leave the organisation Nations' Human Development Report, 2003

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'Governments need to encourage emphasises, NGOs and the private sector to expand supply while maintaining control over standardsand centralisingdata on the number and quality of privateschools' [UN, 2003, p. 1]. A panel of in this of Indian government expertsat the behest as is known and proposal regardmade a detailed 3]'7 Appendix proposal the Ambani-Birla [See

outsourcingof the parts encourage corporations When theseprodto reducetheir responsibility. in houseand manufactured ucts are outsourced that indicate to holds,thereis empiricalevidence they were donewith the help of child labour.It is to remind private corporationsabout necessary responsibility. Through sustained social their the NGOs have succampaignin severalcases, cessfully tamed many powerful transnational and Plans Bodyfor Monitoring Various Schemes corporations,such as Reebok, which makes publicity asthey aremost afraidof adverse body to shoes, It is importantto have an appropriate It is imperativeto impress their products. monitor various schemesand plans at the gov- against first, they do not employ that corporations on the this ernmentlevel.Institutionaldesignto achieve form, and second,they conany in labour child is criticalfor creating objectivein the government efforts being made by to the enabling environment for the NGOs' Present tribute substantially joint secretaryin the the NGOs to reducechild labour.Encouragement of having a arrangement couldbe in kind, suchassupply Ministry of Labour at the nationallevel is found from corporations as there are severalministries of learning material, constructionmaterial for to be inadequate having various schemes to address different schoolsor in cash. They need to be reminded To rectify this situation, about long-term benefits,as better educationto of the problem.s aspects on thePrincipal insisting theNGOs may consider workerswould improvequality of their products, Secretaryto the Prime Minister at the national purchasing capacityof the public to and increase level and secretaryto the chief ministersat the products. buy their state level to monitor the progressof various and action plans.Location of the monschemes Ensuring Flexibility itoring authority is very crucial for coordinated efforts amongstofficers from all ministriesand The four casestudiesunderlinethe need for at the national The cabinetsecretary departments. timing of the at the statelevel should flexibility in curriculum,textbooks, level and chief secretary upon the generalof this monitoring body. formal schoolsand holidaysdepending be the secretary prove of children.They successfully of the all importantdepartments requirement The secretaries should be ex-officio members of this group. that textbooks that relate the children to their of the NGO alliance, private day-to-day experiences are able to prevent Representatives and teacherbodiesshould drop-outpercentage. academicians, sector, To cater to the vast differin this monirepresentation given adequate be in differentparts in thelevel of development ences toring body. This body should co-opt repre- even within India. the NGOs need to advocate from the children rehabilitatedfrom sentatives flexibility ratherthan standardisation increasing labour,to reflect the voice of children. in government measures.Empirical evidence shows that instead of launching countrywide Involving P rivate CorPorations programme, it is appropriate to target hard to Efforts on the abovelineswould There are very few instancesof organised reachsegments.e visible impact in seven to ten create definitely are sectoremploying child labour.But instances replete, when many of the even transnational years.

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Self Regulation Thro ugh Credib ility

Target Championsin the System

Successof the NGOs depends upon their Finally, the NGOs alonecannotmobilise the credibility, accountability, and transparency. necessary resources for achievingthis task.They There are certain malpracticesnoticed among cannotwork in isolation.They need to identify someof the NGOs. As a result,the Government government servants,who can champion the by the NGOs. The focus of India is activelyconsidering to introducea bill causebeing advocated should be to enhance the numberof advocates to regulate the activitiesof the NGOs. It is further for from within. The success of theNGOs learnt that there is a provision to appoint a thepurpose on how they useexistingresources governmentrepresentative on the board of an would depend and make the best use of the presentsystemto NGO, if its annualturnoverexceeds Rs five lakh. achieve the goals. As pointed out by desired Representatives of the NGOs argue that imple'importance Keane of Global Civil [2003], mentation of any such provision would be would Society dependon its ability to become counter-productive. At today's rates,almost all the NGOs are exceedinglimitation of Rs five more democratic,better integratedinto goverlakh" They apprehend that this would introduce nance institutions,and invested with universal .l o bureaucratisation of theNGOs alongwith redtape val ues' and, consequently, defeat the mission of such NGOs. This subject has been attracting the internationalscholarsto examineit thoroughly. To avoid chargesof high-handedness from the government, as well as to ensuretransparency in the functioning of the NGOs, [2003] Clark suggestsa via media.In his opinion,it is advisable that the NGOs apply self- regulatory methods throughfollowing sevenintegrity tests: x * * * * * x
V. CONCLUSION

'Representation test: membership, constituency,participatorydecisionmaking; Merit test: track-record,demonstratedpositive impact, stronglocal knowledge; Credibility test: whether acknowledged authority,links with crediblepartners; Valuestest: proven commitment to ethical values, ethicalin its internalpractices; Governance test: clearaccountability, open, democratic decision-makin g; Responsibility test: accurate, honest,recog1281. nisethe needfor issues-balance; and Partnership test: work openly with other Povertyis an importantcauseof child labour, civil society organisations, empower Southern capacity/voice' [Clerk, 2003, p. but not the only one. Focusof governmentmea17 8 1 . sures, and the NGOs activities is mostly on

The governments of the developingcountries alonecannotaccomplish the challenge of eliminating child labour. If they enter into active cooperation with the NGOs that would certainly expedite thepaceof change. Similarly,the NGOs alsoneedto engage government agencies through constructive criticism.An increasing numberof governmentservantsare showing sensitivityto the socialproblems, andshowinginnovativeness in therehabilitation of childrenengaged in labour. 'Fourth-generation strategies [of the NGOs] may the gov[therefore]not be limited to pressuring ernmentfrom the outsideand may increasingly includeindividualgovernment employees, if not portionsof governments' . Fisheris of theopinion, 'individual government employeescan behave 'out of character', given innovativenetworking models, which could be further promoted by international NGOs anddonors'[Fisher,1998, p.

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providing supportto poor parents.This is done parentswould with the belief that consequently Empiricalevidence does sendchildrento schools. not supportthis. It is, therefore,imperativethat the NGOs should also focus on modification of 'attitudesof the peopleat all fronts among trade unions,the media, human rights activists,trade employers'organisations and even associations, amongchildren,to build public pressure against of India, 2002, hiring children' [Government p . 1 ,0 1 7 1 . P ar agra p9 h.2 3 4 ,

Appendix l. More Asian Children than ever Attend School but Vast Numbers Drop Out - UN PressReleuse,dated February I l, 2004. Although more children are attending school than ever before in the countries of South and East Asia, vast numbers drop out before the end of the primary cycle, and the region still accountsfor the world's largestshareof out-of-school youth, accordingto a new United Nationsreport. The South and Eust Asia Regional Report, published by the UN Educational, Scientihc and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), Institutefor Statistics, shows that an estimated 4.6 crorechildrenare out ofschool in the region,3.2 croreof

Impositionof sanctions throughWorld Trade them in South and West Asia. The agency calls for recruiting is likely to be counter-productive.rr Organisation more teachersto cut thesenumbers. Continuedfinancial,technicaland materialsupThe study presentsthe latest education data for a region port to developing country governmentsand ranging from the Philippines in the East to Afghanistan and NGOs would graduallyusherthedesired Iran in the West, and including five of the world's most southern The process can be effectivelyevaluated populatednations. change. and technically supportedby various UN orgaIt notesthat enrollmentsfor boys and girls rose substannisationsincluding the ILO. The ILO release, tially in most countriesover the decadefrom 1990 to 2000. Investing in Every Child: An Economic Study of In Laos and Bangladesh net primary enrollmentratiosfor boys the Costs and Benefits of Eliminating Child and girls rosebetweenl5 and 20 percentage points. 'Forcing children Labour, estimates, to continue But enrollments are only part of the picture. The Report working - a practicethat affectsone out of every also reveals that only half the children who enter prinmn six youngsters, or 24.6 crorechildren- will cost school in India, Laos and Myanmar will reuch grade .five. $51,000crore from now until 2020.But if they [emphasisadded] Nepal, Cambodia and Bangladeshfollow receivean educationinstead, that figure dropsto closelybehindwith between35 and 38 per centdroppingout the end of the primary cycle. just $76 crore- an amountthat is more than offset before by other social gains' [ILO, 2004; also see This trend is confirmed by data showing that even though many children are enrolled in primary education, very few 4 1 .r2 A ppend i x The NGOs making strategic choicesof having clarity, preparingestimateof the tarconceptual get group in consultation with the stakeholders, working in favour of girl children,and focusing on urban slums or rural areasfor their operation are likely to be far more effective.Adoption of modern management tools and imbibing information technology will enhancetheir capacity. accountability,legitimacy, and Self-regulation, in dischargeof their activitieswill transparency increase their credibility as the development partners.
will havea chanceto enrol in lower secondary education. An estimated 23.3 crore pupils of all ages are enrolled in both lower and upper secondaryeducation with girls making up some43 per cent of the total. The report estimatesthere are about 1.3 crore primary teachers throughoutthe region, including 0.9 crore in East thereis aboutoneteacher Asia. This meansthat,on an average, forevery 2l pupilsin primary schoolsin EastAsia, compared to one for every 40 in South and West Asia. EastAsia includesBrunei,Cambodia, China,Democratic Republicof Korea,Indonesia, Laos,Macao(China), People's Thailand,Timor-Lesteand Malaysia,Myanmar,Philippines, Viet Nam. South and West Asia includesAfghanistan,Bangladesh,Bhutan,India, Iran, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistanand Sri Lanka.

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Appendix 2. The then Human ResourceDevelopmentMinister, Dr. Murli Manohar Joshi, made following announcementat a Consultative CommitteeMeeting, held on August 28,2001

2. Teaching Bring about regulations for continuous teacher training and quality upgradation.

3. Technology a. A NationalCommissionfor Childrenwill be constituted on the pattern of the National Human Rights CommisLeverage our vast and growing resourcesin information sion.The Commissionwill be headedby a Chairperson technology,to bring about smart schools that integratecomwho hasbeenajudge of the SupremeCourt and will have puters,networks,and content. six membersdrawn from education,child health, child care,child welfare and child rights,juvenile justice and 4. SensoryLearning a child psychologist or sociologist. child labourbesides 'sensory learning'in pre-schools Migratefrom teachingto * The Commissionwould be a statutorybody and would and in primary education, in order to provoke curiosity.The joy and healthy psymonitor and evaluate all constitutional and lesal safe- accentmust be on fostering creative chologicaldevelopment. guards for children. x Learning to Learn It would overseeproper implementation of the existing 5. laws for children and review and recommendnecessary Emphasise learning through practices and experiences. revision. Transform teacher'srole to one of a facilitator. It is empoweredto inquire into complainsof violation of laws pertaining to children or child rights and negligence in the preventionof such violation by a public servant. * It will have all the powersof a civil court. 6. Vocational Education Introducecompulsoryvocationaltraining in an intensive manner from the secondarylevel onwards. 7. Distance Education

It would undeftake measuresfor generatingawareness Promote distance education as an alternative system of in children's issuesespeciallyof those in difficult cir- educationon par with the formal system of education. cumstances, streetchildren,child labour,promotion of child rights and a child-friendlyjurisprudence. 8. Value Systems for It is also proposedto constituteStateCommissions Children. Emphasise value education at pre-primary level, and reinforce it in the primary, secondary,and higher education.

is also under 9. Common Nationul Content Settingup of children'scourtsin the States for providing speedytnal of offencesagainst consideration Introduce a common national system for educational childrenand for violation of children'sriehts content at the school level, after providing for regional and especially with respect local variations, to languages, history Appendix 3 and culture. Policy Frame for Reforms in Education nt I 0. D ecentralisat ion of M unag,eme Summary of Recommendations L Primory und SeconduryEducation Decentralise education management. Devolve to the Panchayatlevel financing and managementof education at the primary and secondary level as well as literacy programmes.

Make the primary education compulsory and free. The primary education must be on top of the education agenda. educationmust be compulsoryas well. There I l. CommonAdmission Tests The secondary is no getting away from enforcing the Constitutional commitment to compulsory education for children up to the age Institute a commonsystemfor admissions to professional tests on the lines of courses,basedon national standardised of fourteen years.

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ScholasticAptitude Test (SAT), GraduateRecord Examina- 19.Foreign Direct Investment tion (GRE) and the Graduate Management Aptitude Test (GMAT). Concunently, abolish the system of migration Allow foreign direct investment in education. To begin and allow students to move from one institution with, limit this to science certificates and technologyareas. to another, based on a system of transfer of professional credits. 20. Finuncing Establishan educationdevelopmentfund for the primary and literacy education.Exempt donations to this fund from Encourage schools of leaming to constantly upgrade income tax. Concurrently, develop a credit market for higher content and facilities to make them more market oriented. to financethe cost ofeducation. education I3. Educatktn InJiastructure - Hardware 21. Marketing Indian Education Abroad 12. Market Oriented Education

Fund infrastructure for govemment schools - buildings, EncourageIndian institutionsand universitiesto attract telecom networks, and computers - on a priority basis. overseas Initially, establish international students. schoolsin Progressively,reduce the funding for universities and make all our existingcentresof excellence, which haveintemational them adopt the route of self-sufficiency, to achievethis. reputation. 11. Education Infrastructure - Content Development 22. Politicisation

in contentdevelopContinuouslyreflect latestadvances Enable all political partiescome to an understanding that ment. Utilise evolving tools and techniquesfor developing and educational they will keep away from universities insticontent that is contemporary. tutions. Ban any form of political activity on campuses of institutions. universities and educational Rlle I5. Government 23. Educuion and Economic Freedont of the govemmentto: funding Confinethe responsibility and ensuring that primary education is compulsory and free; Keep the economy free from controls to foster new is compulsory; fundingandensuring that secondary education opportunitiesthat createsa market for education. funding and bringing about 100 per cent literacy;supporting disciplinesthat have no market orientation;selectivelysup24. Reseurchin Educution porting and part-funding centresofhigher learning;providing for studentloans;ensuringuniformity in financial guarantees Encourageresearchright from undergraduate level in all content and quality, and education, development and planhelds. ning. I 6. GovernmentControls 25. Physical Education/ Extra-curricular Activities

Encourage sports activities by providing the necessary Give institutions not depending on govemment for funding or having low levels of funding to have operational infrastructure from the primary school level. Encourage extra-curricularactivities at the primary and secondarylevels freedomand flexibility to innovate. by setting asideone day per week (preferably Saturdays)for this activity. I 7. Privute Universities Legislate a Private University Bill to encourage estab- 26. Upgrade RECs/ ITIs lishment of new private universitiesin the fields of science Upgrade the curriculum, infrastructure, and facilities in areas. and technology, management,and f,rnance the RECs and industrialtraining institutes(lTIs) to meet the envisaged higher demand for skilled technical manpower. 18.Ruting System Providehigherautonomyand freedomto theseinstitutes. Institutionalise a systemfor periodicalrating of all educationalinstitutionsin India - schools,colleges,institutions, 27. Trained Teuchers and universities- by independentagenciesanalogousto a Make trained teachersserve for a specified period in the Standardand Poor's or Credit Rating Information Service of rural areasas part of their development. India,Limited (CRISIL) in the financialsector.

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illiterate,and thus,in a year about$400.00.If the life spanof working personis presumedto be about 30 years,the net Introduce a variety of programmesto provide alternative earning, ignoring discounting of future earnings, would be educationopportunities for the working and underprivileged $ 12,000.00. Even if the amountwere discounted for inflation, children,such as flexible schedules. it would be still around$10,000.[C] Ifthe child had continuedas child labour,the probability of catching addictions by her/him is very high. That would requireexpenditure on health.Often,the child is alsoa victim because of the labour in the exploitative of variousdiseases, For a spanof thirty years,at the rateof minimum conditions. The marn strategy adopted by the NGOs to rehabilitate $20.00peryear,theexpenses would be around$600.00, again in labourinvolves 1) sending childrenengaged them to bridge ignoring discounting of future earnings. [D] campsfor one or two years and making them subscribe,with the idea of attending the schools at appropriate standard A child engagedin labour is likely to indulge more in thereafter,or 2) providing them non-formal schooling,while disruptionon accountof juvenile delinquency- crimes such they continue to be engagedin labour. The interventiontakes as thefts, and robberies, as well as insurgency. Thus, law place in case of boys as well as girls, from the age group of enforcement agencies, child protectionagencies, courts,and 6-t4. prison management, would incur around $300.00per child. The areastargetedby some of the NGOs in the case studies COSTS are militancy infested. Not every child is likely to be a Most of thesechildren are working. But the work is not criminal. Therefore,discountingfor this, the cost may be to be about$50.00per child. [E] regular.Most of them are working on daily wages.The wage assumed upon the location - urban or rural, genderand the age depends of the child.Thereis alsoapracticeof bondedlabour,in which In addition,therewould be certainsocietalbenefitssince the amount is given to the parents of the child once in the the child is educated,s/hecannot be easily cheated.The child it may be lifetime-bonded beginning.In someplaces, labour, may be able to participate in political rights effectively. An or it may be renewedfrom yearto year.Thereis greatvariation educatedchild is likely to adopt family planning exercises in the amount earnedby the child. My interaction with some more willingly, as the dependence on child gets reduced children employed as labour in Amravati city in Maharashtra during old age. in 2003 revealedthat a child of l0-1 I yearsearnsabout Rs 50 per day (about $ I .00). If in a year, the child works for roughly Thus, the net benefit per child may be calculatedas under: 300 days, the earningsof a child would be approximately $300.00per year.Thus, for a child up to the ageof 14, if it is assumedthat the averagework was available for four years, B e n e f i t = C + D + E - [ A + B ] = 10,000 + 6 0 0 + 5 0 - ( 1 , 2 0 0+ 1 8 0 ) from the age of 10, the loss would be about $1,200.00. [A] = 9,270 Using a very crude method, I attempt a purely illustrative Cost Benefit analysis of intervention by the four NGOs, refened to above. Ifa child attends to school,the costofschooling per year is roughlyestimated to be about$20.00.The child is expected Thus, the benefit to society would be not less than to attendthe school for nine years.The cost, therefore,would $9,000.00 per child spread over the next thirty years. In b e $ 1 8 0 . 0 0[.B ] powerof the child goesup,it would addition, asthepurchasing benefitcreationof jobs, as well. Even if an NGO provideseconomicsupportto the parent for the lossesand also pays for the of a child to compensate Presuming theadvantage of $9,000per child,we canapply schoolfees,the cost per child works out to be not more than this figure to the figure of children rehabilitatedand retained $ I,400.00,spreadover 9 years.[A+B] in schoolby eachNGO. BENEFITS Once the child completesthe schooling, not every child may work, nor everyone may get a job, as well. Still, the earnings of a child who has completed schooling up to the standard of 10, there is very good chance that s/he would acquire some skills that would enable her/him to ea-rnan amount of about $40.00 per month, slightly better than as Savethe Children hasrehabilitated 10,000children. The MV Foundation has rehabilitated 100,000children The CINI-ASHA has rehabilitated 32,000children Prathamhas retained 100,000children in schools. Appendix 4.

28. Alternative Education Opportunities

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Thus, the total number of children helpedby theseefforts is 200,42,000. Therefore, the societal advantage would amountto$180,378,000,000, ornearly$ l80Abia spread over the next thirty years. On the other hand, the present investment would be 28,058,800,000, or nearly $ 28 Abja.* Thus, every one-dollarinvestedtoday would fetch at least six dollars in return. This clearly showsthat investmentmade the proposition. in theseNGOs would richly deserve The ILO at the global level attemptedthe sameexercise. The findings by the ILO are more dramatic [LO, 2004]. According to Investing in Every Child: An Economic Studyof the Costsand Benefitsof Eliminating Child Labour, released 'Forcing by the ILO, children to continueworking - a practice that affects one out of every six youngsters,or 24.6 crore children- will cost $51.000crore from now until 2020. But if they receivean educationinstead,that hgure drops to just $76 crore - an amount that is more than offset bv other social gains'.

5. Indian Express, datedMay 2,2000. 6. In this connectionpleaserefer to work done by Dr Kalbag; details are in footnote No. 4 above. (on April 24.2000) submitted 7. Ambani-Birlacommittee a proposal to the Prime Minister of India, entitled, A policy .f'ramework for re.formsin education There are several recpertainingto education, ommendations from primary to university education.A gist of them is in Appendix 3 [See Appendix 31. 8. Several ministries and departmentsof both, the states and the centre, handle schemes and budgets dealing with children. These include Ministries of Labour. Human Resources Development, Agriculture, Health and Family Welfare, and Social Justice and Empowerment, Textiles, Mines, and Food; and at the state level, departments of education,Labour, Agriculture, Backward Castesand minorities, economics and statistics, employment and training, factoriesand boilers, finance,healthand family welfare, rural developmentand panchayatiraj, social welfare, women and and welfareof the disabled. child development

The SecondNational Commissionon Labour felt, 'The fragmentedapproachto child care and child developmentis NOTES illustratedby this illustrative list. Unless we achieve convergencein the operationalterms, laws and schemesrelated I . http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewslD=965 to child labour and child developmentmay prove ineffective 0&Cr=child&Cr I =labour and inadequate' [Govemmentof India, 2000]. 2. PressTrust of India, datedSeptember 12,2000. 9. Digttntar, an NGO from Jaipur, Rajasthan,has made 3" Indiun Express, dated January 8, 2003. in the last two decades in the philos4. In this regard, successfulefforts made by Dr. Shrinath significantintervention education. Inspiredby David Horsburgh's Kalbag at Pabal, 70 kms north of Pune, India, need special ophy of elementary mention. Concerned with the increasing number of students teaching methods, Digantar has been working with failing in Class X and thus resulting in wastageof human neighborhoodchildren from the economically deprivedstrata. Kalbag shiftedhis residence resources, to the semi-aridvillage It believesthat real learning does not arise from compulsion; Vignyan Ashram,a training since children are free to come and go as they please,it is the of Pabalin 1983.He established of the teacher to motivatethe child;teacher and with the Indian Institute responsibility schoolfor dropoutsin collaboration of Education, an institute established by Dr. J.P. Naik, a child are simultaneous learners; cooperation rather than visionary in the field of educationin India. Kalbag's inno- mutual competition has to be the primal value. The stress,all vative one year Introduction to Basic Rural Technology along, is on the growth of the child, who proceedsat his/her (IBRT) course had benefited 800 village school dropouts, own pace. Since many of these children were themselves many of them becoming successful entrepreneurs.These working, a significant emphasiswas on practical activities, successful entrepreneurs are contributing more thantwo abja not to teach a skill, but to help them get a grip on different rupees to Indian GDP per annum.The IBRT coursehas now dimensions of life. There was no attendance record, no been approvedby the MaharashtraGovernment and is being uniform, and no syllabus. A decadelater, while continuing Digantor expanded its activitiesinto the taught in 25 schools of the state. The course caters for with its own schools, technical skills includingInternet, computer skills,improving domains of research and training, with the intention of bullock cart repairs,tractor repairs,pump-motorrewinding, influencing other efforts and larger scale educational proand agncultural equipment repairs. Efforts being made to grammes. Over the yearc, Dignntur has developed new incorporatethis sort of training in formal education need to curricula and pedagogic tools in the area of language, be followed up and replicated. mathematics,environmental studies, arts, and handicrafts,

x Editor's Note: Discountingthe illustrativecostsand benefits, yields the shownabove,at 3 per cent real rate of interest, following presentvalues:A = $l I 15, B = $156, C = $ 6966 (for 30 yearsafter four yearsofeducation,and not discounting for inflation), D = $392 and E = $46.5 (for four years);and the presentvalue of net benefits per rehabilitatedchild works out value of net benefitsto the societywould to be $6133.5, or say $6000.For the childrenhelpedby the four NGOs, the present amount to $ I 20 Abja and the presentvalue of the investmentwould be $25.5 Abja.

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with a view to shaping general abilities and attitudes.All its schools are run with the help of the community,which values the alternativeefforts. 10.Global Civil Society?by Keane,[2003]:BookReview 'Recent Books on Intemational Relations', in Foreign from NovemberiDecember 2003, Vol. 82, Issue6, p. 153. A.ffbirs, (WTO) I l. In the meetingof World Trade Organisation at Seattle in Nov-Dec 1999, United States,forced by its powerful domestic trade union and environmental lobbies, demandedputting labour andenvironmenton the agenda.The US threatened trade sanctions against countries violating The tradeunionsin the developed minimum labourstandards. 'social clause' countriesand the NGOs were demandinga standards to embodyingminimum labour and environmental The minimum labour be a part of the WTO trade agreements. demandedmainly by US trade unions (e.g., the standards, AFL-CIO) and the InternationalConfederationof Free Trade Labour OrgaUnions (ICFIU), consistof the International nisation(lLO) Core Conventions. 12. Using a very crude method, I anempt a cost-benefit analysisof the four interventionsby the four NGOs, mentionedabove [SeeAppendix 4].

REFERENCES Government Provision: Banerji, R., 2003; Partnership between Pratham and Municipal Primary Schoolsin Mumbai', in Child Labour and the Right to Education in South Asiu, Needs versusRights'/ edited by New Delhi. KabeerN., SagePublications, Campaign Against Child Labour (CACL), 1999; An Alternotive Report on the Statusof Child Labour in India, The CACL's Reporl to the UN CRC [Convention on Rights of the Child?1. Chaudhari, S., 1996; Need Assessment for Mainstreaming ChiLdreninto Forntal School, supportedby India-Canada Corporation Office, Delhi; India - a project of the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) www.cini-usa.org Chavan, M., 2000; Building Societul Missionsfttr Universal Pre-school ond Primary Educution: The Pratfutm Experience,UNESCO nesco.org/images/0O I 2/00I 202lI 20282e http://unesdoc.u b.pdf Child Labour and India, http://www.indianembassy.org/policy/ChildLabour/chi ldlabour2000.htm Child Rights ResourceCentre, 2002: Report of the Consulttttion with Wurking Children on Save the Children AIIiunce Position on Child-Work, Media Matters Initiative,Mumbai, www.mmindia.org Clark, J., 2003: WorldsApurt, Civil Societyand the Baulefitr Ethical Globalisation, Kumarian Press,Connecticut. De, Anuradha and JeanDreze,1999; Public Report on Basic Education (PROBE) In India, 1999; Oxford University Press, New Delhi. 'Revitalising

Dreze, Jan and Amartya Sen India, 1995; India: Economic Developmentttnd Sociul Opportunin, Oxford University Press,Delhi. 'NGO Performance- What Edwards, M., 1999; Breeds Success? New Evidence from South Asia'. in World Developmenr, Vol. 27, No. 2. Dimensionsof DevelEsman,J. Milton, I99l Manugement opment: Perspectivesand Strutegles, Kumanan Press, Connecticut. Fisher,J., 1998;Non-governments: NGOs and the Political Developmentofthe Third World, Kumarian Press,Connecticut. Government of India, 2002; Report oJ' Second National (PDF), on Lobour, Commission http:/flareport.html bour.nic.in/lcomm2/nlc Hindman,Hugh D., 2002;Child LabourAn AmericunHistory, M.E. SharpeArmonk, New York. ILO. 1999; Conventionon the Worst Fonns ol Child Labour, ish/standards/ipec/publ http://ilo.org/public/engl ilipec99 l5.html LLO,2004; Investing in Every Child: An Economic Study of' the Costsund Benelitso.fEliminating Child Labour,2004, http://ilo.org/public/english/standards/ipec/publildownlo I 2 investingchild.pdf ad/2003 Iyer, A., 1996; Calcutta's Invisible Children, Who are they? Child in Need Institute,Savethe Children,(UK) 'Needs Kabeer, N., 2003; versus Rights?, Child Labour, Social Exclusion and the Challenge of Universalising Primary Education', in Child Lubour and the Right to Educution in SouthAsiu, Needsversus Rights'/,edited by Kabeer N., Sage Publications,New Delhi, Thousand Oaks,London. Keane,J., 2003; Global Civil Society, Cambridge University Press. New York. Korten, D., 1990; Getting to the 2l.st Century: Voluntury Actktn and the Globul Agenda, Kumarian Press. Connecticut,West Harford. Perkins, H. Dwight and others, 2001; Economics of Development,W.W. Norton & Company, New York. 'Backward Ramchandran,Vimla, 2003; and Forward Linkagesthat StrengthenPrimary Education', Economic und Political Weekly, Vol. 38, No. 10, March 8- 14. Save the Children, Canada,India Field Office (SCCIFO), Baseline Data fttr Child Worker.s - Child Workers OpportunitiesProject (CWOP), 1999-2003,Pune, India. SCCIFO, (unpublished); Performance Report on Child Workers OpprtrtunitiesProject (lndiu), April 1999-September 2002, prepared by Save the Children, Canada, India Field Office, Pune,India. SCCIFO, 2003; Baseline Datu for Child Workers Opportunities Project, 1999-2003,Save the Children, Canada, India Field Office, Pune,India. 'Schools as Institutionsfor the ElimiSinha, Shanta,2003; nation of Child Labour: The Experience of the MV Foundation in the RangaReddyDistrict', in Child Labour ond the Right to Education in South Asiu, Needs versL.s Rights?,edited by Kabeer N., Sage Publications,New Delhi.

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'Overview: Millennium DevelopmentGoals: A UN, 2003; compact among nations to End Human Poverty', in H uman Development Report,

UNESCO, 2003: Gender und Eductttionfor AII, The Leup to Equality Report Summury(PDF), http://portal.unesco.ore/en/ev.pho@URL ID= I 5006&U RL DO=DO TOPIC&URL SECTION=2OI.html. http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2003/ http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2003/ UN. 2004: United Nations Commission on Human Rishts, Vazir, R., 2002: MV Foundation, Monograph /, MV FounPressRelease,dated 0313012004, India. dation,Secunderabad, I 067.doc Weiner, Myron, 1995; Child und the Stute in India und http://www.un.ore/News/Press/docs/2004/hrcn Pakistan, Oxford University Press,Karachi, Pakistan. .htm