Knowledge-Based Systems 13 (2000) 7179 www.elsevier.com locate !

nosys

"reating !nowledge ma#s $y e%#loiting de#endent relations&i#s

'.(. )ordon*
NWAIAG, Blackburn College, Feilden Street, Blackburn, Lancashire, UK

Abstract Knowledge is an interesting conce#t t&at &as attracted t&e attention o+ #&iloso#&ers +or t&o,sands o+ years. -n more recent times. researc&ers &ave investigated !nowledge in a more a##lied way wit& t&e c&ie+ aim o+ $ringing !nowledge to li+e in mac&ines. /rti+icial -ntelligence &as #rovided some degree o+ rigo,r to t&e st,dy o+ !nowledge and 0%#ert Systems are a$le to ,se !nowledge to solve #ro$lems and answer 1,estions. ",rrent $,siness. social. #olitical and tec&nological #ress,res &ave +orced organisations to ta!e greater control o+ t&e !nowledge asset. So+tware s,##liers and ot&ers o++ering val,a$le sol,tions in t&is area &ave ,n+ort,nately clo,ded t&e iss,e o+ !nowledge. -n+ormation and data control are seen as im#licit !nowledge management tools and many &ave a$andoned t&e searc& +or e%#licit !nowledge management met&ods. Knowledge re#resentation sc&emes &el# to identi+y !nowledge. 2&ey allow +or &,man ,nderstanding and mac&ine a##lication and t&ey can s,##ort t&e a,tomated ,se o+ !nowledge in #ro$lem solving. Some o+ t&ese re#resentation met&ods also em#loy s#atial tec&ni1,es t&at add an e%tra dimension to &,man ,nderstanding. Knowledge ma##ing de+ined in t&is wor! ,ses learning de#endency to organise t&e ma# and draws on t&e ideas o+ w&at !nowledge is and on s#atial re#resentation str,ct,res. Knowledge ma#s can s,##ort metrics t&at #rovide in+ormation a$o,t t&e !nowledge asset. Knowledge ma#s create a visi$le !nowledge +ramewor! t&at s,##orts t&e e%#licit management o+ !nowledge $y organisation managers and directors. Knowledge ma#s also o++er ot&er advantages to t&e organisation. t&e individ,al and to ed,cational instit,tions. 1 2000 0lsevier Science B.3. /ll rig&ts reserved.
Key ords4 Knowledge-ma##ing5 Knowledge-management5 (earning-de#endency

1. Introduction 2&ere is little do,$t t&at !nowledge is a com#le% conce#t t&at &as occ,#ied t&e t&o,g&ts o+ #&iloso#&ers and ot&ers +or &,ndreds (t&o,sands) o+ years. -t is not s,r#rising t&en t&at t&e c,rrent t&o,g&ts on !nowledge management and e++orts to esta$lis& s,c& ideas in $,siness and ind,stry. can $e di++ic,lt or can $e ina##ro#riate. 6nce #eo#le start serio,sly disc,ssing t&e !nowledge asset o+ a com#any. t&e iss,e o+ w&at !nowledge is and i+ in+ormation or data is !nowledge soon emerges. (oo!ing at articles +rom some o+ t&e new $,siness maga7ines concerning !nowledge management can lead t&e reader to imagine t&at !nowledge management is a term t&at &as little to do wit& !nowledge. 6ne article (o+ many) even stated t&at !nowledge is im#ossi$le to manage $,t managing in+ormation (wit& t&e a,t&or8s com#any8s so+tware) &as t&e side e++ect o+ managing !nowledge. S,c& statements con+,se
* 2el.4 199-12-:9;7-79335 +a%4 199-12-:9;7-7:33. !"#ail address$ <.gordon=nwaiag.com ('.(. )ordon).

t&e w&ole area o+ !nowledge management and generally &ave a commercial motive. 2&ere is a growing e++ort to develo# ontology8s t&at will &el# to clari+y t&e area o+ a##lied !nowledge >1?. %&%& A brie' history o' kno ledge 2a$le 1 #rovides a very $rie+ and somew&at incom#lete loo! at t&e emergence o+ ideas a$o,t &,man !nowledge. 2&e ta$le s&ows t&at !nowledge &as interested &,man !ind +or cent,ries. 0arly t&o,g&ts considered &ow o,r !nowledge is derived +rom o,r senses. -t was later realised t&at w&at we sense is not necessarily w&at act,ally &a##ens. 2wo o##os- ing views emerged. t&e view t&at !nowledge is mainly derived +rom t&e world we live in. t&ro,g& e%#eriences. and t&e view t&at tr,e !nowledge can only $e derived +rom a$stract t&o,g&t >2?. 2&ese o##osing views grad,ally grew toget&er $eca,se #&iloso#&ers a##reciated t&e contri$,tions made +rom e%#eri- ence and +rom a$stract t&o,g&t. (ater. ot&er com#onents o+ !nowledge were identi+ied. incl,ding tacit !nowledge.

09:0-70:1 00 @ - see +ront matter 1 2000 0lsevier Science B.3. /ll rig&ts reserved. A--4 S 09:0- 7 0: 1 (0 0 )0 00 9B - 9

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2a$le 1 / loo! at t&e emergence o+ ideas a$o,t &,man !nowledge A&iloso#&er )eorgias Arotagoras Socrates Aeriod 9B:3B0 $c 9B0911 $c 970399 $c "lassi+ication So#&ist So#&ist Dationalist S,mmary Cot&ing e%ists. -+ anyt&ing does e%ist it cannot $e !nown. -+ anyt&ing e%ists and can $e !nown it cannot $e comm,nicated. Cot&ing is a$sol,tely good or $ad. tr,e or +alse. so eac& individ,al is t&ere+ore &is own +inal a,t&ority. 0very #erson &as innate !nowledge o+ ,ltimate tr,t& and need only $e s#,rred into conscio,s re+lection to $ecome aware o+ it. 2&e #&iloso#&ers tas! is to #rovo!e t&o,g&t not to teac&. Knowledge originates in sensory #erce#tion. Deality lies in a$stract t&o,g&t. /$stract !nowledge is s,#erior to im#er+ect concrete o$servation. Knowledge is ac1,ired t&ro,g& em#irical evidence o$tained t&ro,g& e%#erience and o$servation. -nd,ction o+ #rinci#les +rom o$servation. 2&e science o+ logic re#resented $y t&e syllogism. Aerce#tion is t&e starting #oint +or !nowledge and logic and is t&e intellect,al #roced,re +or arriving at relia$le !nowledge (also $elieved in +ait&) Eirst to +orm,late r,les o+ ind,ctive in+erence. "alled +or new scienti+ic met&od $ased on ind,ctive generalisation. Based on mat&ematical #roo+. /##lication o+ ded,ctive and analytical met&ods. /rg,ed t&at !nowledge is derived +rom e%#erience eit&er o+ t&e e%ternal world t&ro,g& sensation or t&e mind t&ro,g& re+lection. 6ne cannot &ave a$sol,te certain !nowledge o+ t&e #&ysical world. 2&e only t&ings t&at one can o$serve are one8s own sensations and t&ese are in t&e mind. Knowledge comes +rom ideas $,t t&ere is no distinction $etween ideas and o$<ects. Knowledge is o+ two !inds. (1) Knowledge o+ mat&ematics and logic w&ic& is certain $,t #rovides no in+ormation a$o,t t&e o,tside world. (2) Knowledge derived +rom t&e senses w&ic& is largely a !nowledge o+ ca,se and e++ect. w&ic& means t&at one cannot &o#e to #redict scienti+ic develo#ment or +or scienti+ic !nowledge to remain tr,e. 6ne can &ave certain !nowledge $,t s,c& !nowledge is more in+ormative a$o,t t&e str,ct,re o+ t&o,g&t t&an a$o,t t&e o,tside world. 2&ree ty#es o+ !nowledge4 (1) /nalytical $ase tr,t&s (,nin+ormative). (2) Synt&etic H learned +rom e%#erience H#rone to error. 3) Synt&etic $ase tr,t&sH#,re int,ition (mat&ematics and #&iloso#&y). Devival. 2&o,g&t and Gistory. 2o disting,is& t&e way t&ings a##ear +rom t&e way one t&in!s t&at t&ey really are. Inderstanding t&e conce#t,al +o,ndations o+ !nowledge. Ise o+ lang,age. 2acit !nowledge

Alato /ristotle

92B397 $c 3B9322 $c

Dationalist 0m#iricist

/1,inas Bacon Fescartes (oc!e

122:1279 1:;11;20 1:9;1;:0 1;321709 0m#iricist Dationalist 0m#iricist

Ber!eley

1;B:17:3

0m#iricist

G,me

1711177;

0m#iricist

Kant

17291B09

Gegel G,sserl Jittgenstein

17701B31 1B:9193B 1BB919:1

Dationalist A&enomenology (ogic em#iricism and #ositivism

"om#,ter-$ased 0%#ert Systems and /rti+icial -ntelligence &ave also made an im#ortant contri$,tion to o,r ,nderstanding o+ !nowledge. Eor t&is activity to s,cceed. researc&ers &ad to $e very clear a$o,t w&at t&ey meant $y !nowledge and &ad to develo# rigoro,s re#resentations +or !nowledge so t&at t&e !nowledge co,ld $e $ro,g&t to li+e in a com#,ter #rogram >3?. 2&e contri$,tion o+ /rti+icial -ntelligence to t&e ,nderstanding o+ !nowledge &as $een signi+icant. Section 2 loo!s a little more closely at some o+ t&ese more rigoro,s !nowledge re#resentation met&ods. %&,& 2u#an and #achine kno ledge Knowledge is a s,$<ect +or de$ate and analysis in a $road range o+ disci#lines +rom t&e #&iloso#&ical $asis o+ e#istemology to t&e a##lication-$ased !nowledge engineering ,sed in /rti+icial -ntelligence. Jit&in all o+ t&is wor!.

#recise de+initions are still el,sive and t&e meaning o+ !nowledge is largely relative. 2&ere are &owever some clear distinctions $etween mac&ine !nowledge and &,man !nowledge. J&et&er t&ese distinctions will remain tr,e is more do,$t+,l. /lt&o,g& dictionaries may &ave di++ic,lty se#arating t&e words K!now8 and K,nderstand8. i+ a com#,ter-$ased 0%#ert System can $e said to !now t&ings or &ave !nowledge. it is not #ossi$le to e%tend t&is to say t&at t&e com#,ter ,nderstands. Eor a com#,ter to +,nction in an e%#ert domain. it is given t&e necessary !nowledge and is a$le to ,se t&is !nowl- edge to solve #ro$lems or give advice. J&en a &,man e%#ert #ossesses t&e same !nowledge. we may wit&draw t&e stat,s o+ e%#ert i+ t&at &,man is +o,nd not to ,nderstand t&e !nowledge. $,t sim#ly to $elieve it to $e tr,e. 2&is is a signi+icant di++erence $etween !nowledge w&ic& we say may $e #ossessed $y mac&ines and !nowledge w&ic& is #ossessed $y &,man e%#erts.

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-t may $e an oversim#li+ication to say t&at K-ntelligent mac&ines8 K!now8 and KG,mans8 ,nderstand. $,t t&is is a ,se+,l generalisation. J&y is t&ere ,nderstanding w&en &,mans ac1,ire !nowledgeL Most ,nderstanding comes +rom a dee# and ric& !nowledge. +rom an a$ility to wor! o,t w&y. Knowledge is learned incrementally. some t&ings need to $e learned $e+ore it is #ossi$le to learn ot&er t&ings. 2&at is not to say t&at &,mans co,ld not +,nction <,st li!e com#,ter-$ased e%#ert systems and ,se !nowledge wit&o,t ,nderstanding it. Cormally &owever. &,man e%#erts do ,nderstand and &ave ac1,ired !nowledge t&ro,g& an incremental #rocess w&ic& leads to t&e ac1,isition o+ t&e e%#ert !nowledge in 1,estion. %&*& 3he increasing role o' kno ledge Je are now in. or at least on t&e edge o+. an in+ormation age. -n+ormation is $eing ,sed as a commodity and many com#anies e%ist in t&e in+ormation sector. Fata is now more widely availa$le d,e to great im#rovements in ca#t,re and storage o+ data. More data is now $eing derived a,tomati- cally t&ro,g& new sensing tec&ni1,es. 2&is means t&at any $ottlenec! ca,sed $y relatively slow data entry +rom &,mans &as $een overcome (in many sit,ations). -n +act. many a,t&ors &ave written a$o,t t&e e%#losion o+ data and in+ormation t&at society is now e%#eriencing >9?. /rti+icial -ntelligence &as res#onded to t&e #erceived c&allenge $y develo#ing new tools to #rod,ce !nowledge +rom data >:.;?. S,c& tools e%ist along wit& t&e ass,m#tion t&at t&e trans+ormation +rom data (or in+ormation) to !nowledge can $e clearly stated and well ,nderstood. -ndeed. +or t&ese systems and wit&in t&eir domain. t&e trans+ormation (or derivation) is well ,nderstood. 2&is also im#lies t&at t&e distinction $etween !nowledge and in+ormation or data is clear. Eor /rti+icial -ntelligence. t&is clear distinction does e%ist. Gowever. t&e distinction is not always relevant to all areas o+ !nowledge and in+ormation. #artic,larly t&e area o+ tacit !nowledge. Jit&in t&e domain o+ !nowledge management. t&e clarity &as almost disa##eared. %&4& 5anaging the in6isible Knowledge is a com#le% conce#t and is itsel+. invisi$le. 2&ese two +actors lead to di++ic,lties +or t&ose attem#ting to manage !nowledge. 6ne o+ t&e more serio,s #ro$lems is t&at in+ormed o#inion $etween managers $ased on common e%#erience and re#resentation is di++ic,lt. Aeo#le &ave t&eir own views concerning !nowledge. 2&ese views may $e di++ic,lt to comm,nicate meaning+,lly to ot&ers. Fisc,ssion on t&is $asis may involve one #erson trying to descri$e an a$stract conce#t to ot&ers $e+ore ,sing t&is conce#t to develo# an arg,ment. 2&is is ,nli!ely to res,lt in a common view o+ iss,es a$o,t t&e !nowledge asset and may even res,lt in mis,nderstanding a$o,t s#eci+ic actions to $e ta!en. 2&ere is a need +or a way o+ &el#ing #eo#le to vis,alise

!nowledge and maintain and develo# a common vis,alisation and re#resentation. S,ccess+,l re#resentations &ave already $een develo#ed $,t t&ese are more s,ited to com#,ter-$ased #rocessing. 0ven so. t&ese re#resentations do $ring clarity to t&e sit,ation and can $e val,a$le in t&e &,man as well as t&e mac&ine domain. 2. Knowledge representation 2&ere are several acce#ted met&ods o+ !nowledge re#resentation t&at &ave $een devised +or /--ty#e a##lications. Some o+ t&ese are also s,ita$le +or ,se and inter#retation $y &,mans and can +orm a $ridge $etween &,man !nowledge and mac&ine !nowledge. 2&is is im#ortant i+ organisational !nowledge is to $e arc&ived in s,c& a way t&at it can $e e++ectively ,sed in a,tomated systems and also ,nderstood and ,#dated $y &,mans. Some o+ t&ese re#resentational met&ods will $e disc,ssed in order to allow t&e reader to consider t&eir merit as !nowledge management tools. ,&%& 7ules D,les are reasona$ly easy to ,nderstand $y &,mans and are also a #ower+,l mac&ine-$ased !nowledge re#resentation sc&eme. D,le-$ased systems t&at co,ld a##ly &,man !nowledge and +,nction at t&e level o+ a &,man e%#ert were +amo,sly #ioneered $y 0.G. S&ortli++e in t&e system KMycin8 >3?. D,les re1,ire !nowledge to $e identi+ied as attri$,te val,e #airs. 2&ey ta!e t&e general +orm4 i+ attri$,te /1 &as val,e 31 and attri$,te /2 &as val,e 32 t&en attri$,te /3 &as val,e 33 /ttri$,tes can re#resent internal data items. t&ey can re#resent in#,t or o,t#,t systems or t&ey can initiate a res#onse +rom t&e ,ser. 6nce !nowledge is re#resented as a r,le set. it is relatively easy to constr,ct an engine t&at can ma!e ,se o+ t&e r,les in an a,tomated reasoning system. -n addition. t&e r,les t&emselves can $e arc&ived and ,#dated as necessary. 2&is wo,ld $e a !nowledge arc&ive rat&er t&an an in+ormation arc&ive since t&e r,les can $e directly ,sed in a,tomated reasoning. 0%ce#tion systems are similar to r,les in t&at t&ey can also $e arc&ived. ,nderstood $y &,mans and ,sed directly in a,tomated reasoning systems. 0%ce#tions may ta!e t&e +orm4 attri$,te /1 &as val,e 31 ,nless attri$,te /2 &as val,e 32 and attri$,te /3 &as val,e 33. ,&,& Fra#es Erames are also a #ower+,l !nowledge re#resentation system t&at are accessi$le to $ot& &,mans and mac&ine. / +rame is a collection o+ in+ormation and associated actions

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t&at re#resents a sim#le conce#t. -t wo,ld $e #ossi$le to re#resent a #erson (in a sim#le way) $y t&e ,se o+ a +rame Erame4 0lery Stone S#ecialisation o+4 Fate o+ Birt&4 Se%4 Cationality4 Gome town4 6cc,#ation4 Gealt&4

N Gow does #ower get to t&e &eating elementL N J&at is t&e #,r#ose o+ t&e lam#L -t wo,ld also $e #ossi$le to a com#,ter to constr,ct a te%t,al statement a$o,t t&e !nowledge contained in t&e networ!. ,&4& Conce8t diagra#s "once#t diagrams are closely related to semantic networ!s. 2&ey are also com#osed o+ nodes and arcs and t&e nodes and arcs &ave similar +,nctions. 2&ese diagrams can $e ,sed to descri$e +airly com#le% conce#ts and are s,ita$le +or $ot& mac&ine and &,man inter#retation. 2&ey are seen as a !nowledge re#resentational met&od t&at em#loys gra#&ical str,ct,res >7?. 2&ere is a $ody o+ wor! relating to conce#t diagrams and t&eir ,se as a gra#&ical logic >B?. 2&is o++ers interesting o##ort,nities +or wor! on !nowledge ma##ing $y creating t&e +ramewor! t&at co,ld allow !nowledge ma#s to $e trans+ormed into ot&er mac&ine ,nderstanda$le re#resentations s,c& as t&e knowledge inter- c&ange 'ormat (K-E) >9?.

Erame Aerson 304094;2 Male Britis& St. Gelens 2ailor "ons,lt medical system)

-n t&e sim#le +rame s&own a$ove. most o+ t&e slots &ave val,es $,t one slot re1,ires an inde#endent system to $e called to +ind a val,e. Erames are a mi%t,re o+ in+ormation. calls to in+ormation derivation +,nctions and o,t#,t assignment. Erames can $e ,sed to re#resent com#le% #ieces o+ !nowledge and can also $e arc&ived and edited as re1,ired. ,&*& Se#antic net orks Semantic networ!s are a #ower+,l !nowledge re#resentation system. 2&ey are easy to ,nderstand $y &,mans and can $e ,sed in a,tomated #rocessing systems. 2&is means t&at t&ey can also $ecome a ve&icle to arc&ive com#any !nowl- edge. / ty#ical semantic networ! t&at re#resents !nowledge concerning an electric s#ace &eater co,ld $e as t&ose given in Eig. 1. -n t&is sim#le networ!. nodes are s#eci+ic items and lin!s s&ow relations&i#s $etween items. -t wo,ld $e #ossi$le +or an a,tomated system to answer 1,estions a$o,t items contained wit&in t&e networ! $y +ollowing lin!s (#rovided t&at it co,ld ,nderstand t&e 1,estions)4

3. Structural representation 2&e diagrammatic !nowledge re#resentation met&ods descri$ed in Section 2.3 and Section 2.9 are not only s,ita$le mac&ine re#resentations $,t #rovide a more a##ro#riate re#resentation +or &,man ,nderstanding $eca,se t&ey incl,de s#atial as well as te%t,al in+ormation. 2&is sort o+ diagram allows gro,#s o+ #eo#le to s&are a common ,nderstanding o+ a com#le% to#ic. 2&is is t&e sort o+ re#resentation t&at is a##ro#riate +or !nowledge str,ct,re re#resentation.

Eig. 1. Semantic networ! to descri$e an electric &eater.

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7:

Eig. 2. / !nowledge networ!.

*&%& Kno ledge structure Jit&in t&e conte%t o+ t&is wor!. t&e act,al !nowledge is not directly #art o+ t&e str,ct,re o+ !nowledge $,t is inde%ed +rom it. -n order to create a str,ct,re +or !nowledge. it is necessary to identi+y s#eci+ic #ieces or islands o+ !nowledge and give t&em a ,ni1,e name or identi+ier. 2&ese identi+iers can t&en +orm #art o+ a str,ct,ral diagram +or !nowledge and can also $e ,sed to inde% to t&e act,al !nowledge im#lied $y t&e identi+ier. 2&e amo,nt o+ !nowledge t&at an identi+ier re#resents. or gran,larity. is an im#ortant consideration $,t s&o,ld matc& t&e conte%t wit&in w&ic& t&e diagram will $e ,sed. -+ t&e !nowledge concerned wit& $oiling an egg is considered. t&en t&e associated iden- ti+iers may $e. N N N N Boiling an egg Boiling water 6$taining an egg "&emical c&anges

edge is learned and t&e learning #rocess is de#endent on #rior !nowledge. 2&at is. t&e learning #rocess is &ierarc&ical $eca,se t&e ,nderstanding o+ new !nowledge o+ten relies on t&e #rior ,nderstanding o+ some e%isting !nowledge. *&,& Learning de8endency / distinction &as $een drawn $etween t&e way &,mans and mac&ines ac1,ire !nowledge. Inderstanding is $ased on an a$ility to $e a$le to #rovide <,sti+ication +or a $elie+. 2&is #rocess o+ s&owing w&y. relies on loo!ing at t&e se#arate +actors or #rere1,isite !nowledge items t&at toget&er #rovide s,##orting evidence +or t&e new item. 2&is new item o+ !nowledge may introd,ce a new em#irical +actor $,t it is only necessary to s&ow t&at t&is new +actor is correct and &as $een rigoro,sly derived. to $e a$le to <,sti+y $elie+ in t&e entire !nowledge item. 2&is is $eca,se it can $e s&own +rom #revio,s learning t&at t&e ot&er s,##orting #ieces o+ !nowledge can $e <,sti+ied. 2&is s,##orting !nowledge may itsel+ rely on t&e <,sti+ied $elie+ in ot&er items o+ !nowledge and t&e w&ole str,ct,re may rely on some very sim#le +acts w&ic& +orm a +o,ndation +or a w&ole area o+ !nowledge. "learly. t&e new !nowledge item com$ines #revio,s !nowledge in some novel way. #ossi$ly ,sing logic or mat&ematics to model t&e new sit,ation. / !nowledge networ!. as learned $y #eo#le. can $e s&own to $e &ierarc&ical in nat,re. to $e $ased on some sim#le <,sti+ied $elie+s and may &ave new em#irical !nowledge added at certain #oints. Inderstanding is more t&an !nowing an item o+ !nowledge. it is !nowing !nowledge +rom t&e w&ole s,##ortive str,ct,re and !nowing &ow t&e s,##orting !nowledge relates to or s,##orts eac& &ig&er item. Knowing w&y eac& s,##orting item o+ !nowledge is relevant. is lin!ed very closely wit& t&e way t&is s,##orting !nowledge and data is com$ined to +orm t&e new !nowledge.

0ac& o+ t&ese identi+iers can re#resent a #iece o+ !nowledge $,t are not t&at !nowledge. Similarly. t&e !nowledge concerning t&e calc,lation o+ t&e gravitational attraction $etween two masses may incl,de4 N N N N N )ravitational attraction Mat&ematics Mass Eorce Fistance

6nce !nowledge identi+iers can $e derived. it is t&en necessary to consider a relations&i# $etween t&ese identi+iers t&at is $ot& valid and ,se+,l wit&in t&e conte%t o+ !nowledge ma##ing. /t t&e #resent time. t&e ac1,isition o+ mac&ine !nowledge em#loys little de#endent str,ct,re $,t &,man !nowledge. #artic,larly e%#ert &,man !nowledge. is ac1,ired in a more rigoro,s way. G,man !nowl-

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Eig. 3. Boiling an egg.

Eig. 2 s&ows w&at a !nowledge networ! may loo! li!e. Inderstanding im#lies t&at t&e &,man e%#ert !nows w&y t&e s,##orting !nowledge or em#irical data is act,ally s,##ortive o+ t&e &ig&er !nowledge item. /lso contained wit&in eac& lin! wo,ld $e a meas,re o+ im#ortance w&ic& s&ows &ow im#ortant eac& s,##ortive #iece o+ !nowledge or em#irical data is to t&e &ig&er !nowledge item. /n incom#lete e%am#le is s&own in Eig. 3 H t&at o+ $oil- ing an egg. 2&e !nowledge concerning $oiling an egg involves !nowing a$o,t &ard and so+t $oiled eggs and &ow long it ta!es to #rod,ce eac&. -t also involves !nowing t&e #roced,re and #roced,ral r,les +or com#leting t&e o#eration. 2&is. in t,rn. im#lies t&at t&e e%#ert egg $oiler already !nows &ow to $oil water. w&ic& is clearly an im#or- tant #art in egg $oiling $eca,se it is water t&at is ,sed to $oil eggs in. Knowing &ow t&e inside o+ an egg c&anges wit& $oiling is also very im#ortant i+ t&e e%#ert is to ,nderstand w&at ma!es a coo!ed. rat&er t&an a raw egg and w&at ca,ses t&e c&ange to ta!e #lace. /lmost as im#ortant is o$taining t&e egg in t&e +irst #lace and w&ic& eggs are normally eaten. "learly egg si7e wo,ld also a++ect t&e #roced,ral r,les. 2&is e%am#le ill,strates t&e #oint t&at an e%#ert egg $oiler

can do more and !nows more t&an sim#ly &ow to $oil an egg. / ro$ot egg $oiler &owever. may $e a$le to $oil ade1,ate eggs $,t may a$stain +rom engaging in a conversation a$o,t egg $oiling. /not&er e%am#le +rom a di++erent class o+ !nowledge co,ld $e !nowledge concerning gravitational attraction in Eig. 9. /gain. no attem#t &as $een made &ere to e%#and t&e networ! to incl,de t&e !nowledge necessary to !now Kmass8 +or instance. (oo!ing at e%#ert !nowledge in t&e case o+ Kgravitational attraction8 leads to a similar concl,sion to t&at derived +or Kegg $oiling8. 2&at is. a com#,ter w&ic& e%&i$its !nowledge relating to gravitational attraction co,ld $e e%#ected to $e a$le to calc,late +orce. to !now w&at i+ any #arameters are re1,ired in order to calc,late +orce and to #rovide sim#le e%#lanations o+ w&at gravitational attraction is. / &,man co,ld also do t&is given t&e +orm,lae and instr,ction on &ow to ,se it and some answers to s#eci+ic 1,estions. Gowever a &,man w&o can $e said to ,nderstand gravita- tional attraction will &ave a clear ,nderstanding o+ conce#ts s,c& as +orce and mass. 2&at &,man wo,ld also ,nderstand ot&er conce#ts t&at are t&e #rere1,isites o+ mass and +orce. 2&ere+ore. t&e &,man e%#ert is m,c& more li!ely to $e a$le

Eig. 9. )ravitational attraction.

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77

to answer novel 1,estions a$o,t gravitational attraction and also see gravitational attraction in new and interesting sit,ations. *&*& Kno ledge #a8s 2&e +ramewor! derived in Section 3.2 +orms t&e $asic +ramewor! +or t&e !nowledge ma# as identi+ied in t&is wor!. In+ort,nately. t&e term K!nowledge ma#8 is +ar too general +or t&is to $e t&e only derivation. -t is certain t&at ot&ers will &ave $een and will $e derived. KKnowledge ma#8. as ,sed in t&is wor! relies on t&e ,nderlying #rinci#le o+ learning de#endency or #rere1,isite !nowledge. 2&e idea &as $een e%#lored in ot&er !nowledge management tools and vario,s met&ods o+ vis,alising t&e ma# &ave $een $rie+ly disc,ssed >10?. -n terms o+ a##lication. t&is derivation o+ t&e !nowledge ma# is &ig&ly relevant to a range o+ &,man endeavo,rs. 2&is will $e e%#lored +,rt&er in Section 9. -t is t&e relevance to c,rrent wor! s,rro,nding !nowledge management and !nowledge-$ased systems t&at #rovides some <,sti+ication +or t&e ,se o+ t&e term !nowledge ma#. 2&ere is some 1,estion as to an a##ro#riate gran,larity +or a !nowledge ma#. -n #rinci#le. a !nowledge ma# wo,ld contain very elementary #ieces o+ !nowledge and t&ere+ore. even a sim#le !nowledge ma# wo,ld $e very large ($eca,se o+ &ig& gran,larity. many nodes). /ny #ractical ,se o+ !nowledge ma#s wo,ld contain +le%i$le gran,larity. Some #ieces o+ !nowledge may t&emselves consist o+ !nowledge ma#s t&at s&ow a greater gran,larity. -t wo,ld t&ere+ore $e #ossi$le to e%#lode a !nowledge ma# containing say 10 items. into a &ig&er gran,larity o+ say 100 items. -n t&e latter case. t&e connectivity wo,ld also $ecome more com#le%. 2&ere+ore. t&e gran,larity o+ a !nowledge ma# s&o,ld $e as low (+ew nodes) as #ossi$le w&ilst still #roviding all o+ t&e +,nctionality +or w&ic& it was intended. 4. Applications and case studies 2&e disc,ssion in t&is section is aimed at $ot& #otential and act,al a##lications o+ t&e conce#t o+ !nowledge ma#s $ased on learning de#endency. 2&e +irst a##lication to $e disc,ssed in general terms involves some wor! carried o,t wit& Britis& /eros#ace at Samles$,ry. concerning t&e ma##ing o+ !nowledge in a #artic,larly sensitive area o+ t&e $,siness. ,sing t&e +ramewor! derived in t&is #a#er. 4&%& Kno ledge #a88ing at British Aeros8ace 2&is #artic,lar #ro<ect was initiated $y Britis& /eros#ace +or two reasons. 2&e +irst was t&at t&ey &ad identi+ied a s#eci+ic #ro$lem concerning e%#ert level !nowledge t&at was $eing s&ared wit& ot&er organisations. 2&e #ro$lem was t&at alt&o,g& t&e com#any &ad develo#ed and #ioneered t&is !nowledge. t&ey did not !now e%actly w&at was $eing s&ared and t&ere+ore &ad no way o+ !nowing t&e

val,e o+ w&at t&ey were essentially giving away. 2&e second reason is t&at Britis& /eros#ace was aware o+ and involved in t&e researc& $eing carried o,t at t&e CJ/-/) concern- ing !nowledge ma##ing. 2&e act,al #ro<ect was o+ a #ilot. investigative nat,re. 2wo #eo#le s#ent one wee! at t&e +actory. +ollowing a #rescri$ed met&odology. tal!ing to and interviewing sta++ as well as to,ring t&e site. 2&e site was already +amiliar to t&e #ro<ect sta++. 2&e o$<ective was to create a large (/0). #rinted ma# o+ t&e !nowledge contained wit&in t&e s#eci+ic area in 1,estion (as +ar as time wo,ld allow) and to add some 1,alitative meas,res to t&e elements contained on t&e ma#. 2&e 1,alitative meas,res were estimates o+ t&e im#ortance and di++ic,lty (to learn) o+ eac& !nowledge element and i+ t&e !nowledge was more #roced,ral or declarative in nat,re. -n t&is instance. t&e metrics were attac&ed to t&e nodes and not to t&e arcs. 2&e investigation also involved a re#ort +rom a s&ort to,r o+ t&e +acility. t&e sort o+ to,r a visitor may $e ta!en on. 2&e investigation concentrated on areas o+ !nowledge. -nevita$ly. t&e sta++ $eing interviewed were &a##ier tal!ing a$o,t #rocesses rat&er t&an !nowledge. Gowever it was #ossi$le to get t&em to tal! a$o,t t&e !nowledge re1,ired to s,ccess+,lly carry o,t certain #rocess activities. -t was also #ossi$le to get t&e sta++ to tal! a$o,t #rere1,isite !nowledge (w&at do yo, need to !now $e+ore yo, can learn and ,nderstand t&atL). Knowledge nodes were added to a com#,ter screen as t&e interview #roceeded. in +,ll view o+ $ot& interviewer and interviewee. Arere1,isite !nowl- edge was s&own as directional arcs $etween nodes. -nter- views involved $ot& veri+ication and elicitation to ens,re t&e constr,ction o+ a ma# t&at was generally acce#ta$le. 2&e res,lting ma# s&owed t&e items o+ !nowledge t&at were re1,ired in t&e #artic,lar section $eing investigated. 2&e connectivity s&owed &ierarc&ical learning de#endency and im#ortance and di++ic,lty to learn were colo,r coded onto eac& node. 2&is gave a ma# t&at co,ld +orm t&e $asis o+ management disc,ssion concerning t&e !nowledge ,sed in and re1,ired $y t&e section. -t s&owed cl,sters o+ !nowledge. it identi+ied &ig&-ris! !nowledge and it allowed managers to disc,ss w&at #art o+ t&e !nowledge was essential to t&e com#any and w&at #art was not. -t also allowed training sc&emes to $e disc,ssed $y virt,e o+ t&e !nowledge &ierarc&y. 2&e com#any estimated t&e val,e o+ t&e !nowledge contained wit&in t&e wor! to $e at least a si%-+ig,re s,m. 4&,& Kno ledge #a88ing in business 2&e #ro<ect identi+ied in Section 9.1 is not an isolated e%am#le. -n general. t&is sort o+ !nowledge ma##ing is aimed at creating a visi$le +ramewor! +or !nowledge t&at will +acilitate its managea$ility. 2&e met&od is not intended to re#lace ot&er e++orts a com#any may ,se to manage its !nowledge or in+ormation reso,rces. -t is &owever. aimed at s,##orting managers in t&eir e++orts to e%#licitly manage

7B

(&L& Gordon ) Kno ledge"Based Syste#s %* +,---. /%0/1

!nowledge rat&er t&an create a,tomated sol,tions t&at will manage !nowledge im#licitly. -+ !nowledge ma#s. o+ t&e ty#e descri$ed. were readily availa$le to com#anies. managers wo,ld $e a$le to retain a common view o+ t&e !nowledge asset and $egin to #lan sc&emes to target critical !nowledge areas. 2&ese may $e areas t&at are essential +or t&e com#anies s,rvival or t&ey may $e areas t&at &ave $een s&own to $e &ig& ris! (o+ loss). -t wo,ld $e ,# to t&e managers o+ t&e com#anies to develo# strategies t&at matc&ed t&eir $,dget and t&at +it in wit& ot&er medi,m and long term com#any #lans. -t wo,ld also allow managers to consider t&e !nowledge asset w&en #lanning ot&er strategic $,siness c&anges. 6t&er areas t&at &ave $een investigated as #art o+ t&is wor! incl,de #rototy#e design and man,+act,re and one section in a now #rivate ,tility. -n eac& case. similar met&ods were ,sed and similar $ene+its identi+ied. 2&e wor! at Britis& /eros#ace is t&e most advanced o+ t&ese #ro<ects. 4&*& Kno ledge #a88ing 'or curriculu# de6elo8#ent Many ed,cational esta$lis&ments already #lan and identi+y co,rse str,ct,re ,sing some sort o+ #rogress ma#. S,c& ma#s can s&ow w&ic& co,rses lead to ot&er co,rses and w&ic& co,rses toget&er re#resent a s#eci+ic area o+ e%#ertise. 2&e ma#s. alt&o,g& &el#+,l. are very cr,de (t&ey lac! detail) and $eca,se o+ t&is &ave ma<or s&ortcomings. Eor instance. i+ a st,dent can #ass a co,rse $y ac&ieving 9:O in an end o+ term e%amination and t&at e%amination tests a$o,t :0 ;0O o+ t&e !nowledge delivered in t&e co,rse. it is #ossi$le +or a st,dent to #ass on to t&e ne%t stage wit& considera$le ga#s in &is or &er !nowledge. 2&is may not $e im#ortant +rom t&e view o+ gaining a 1,ali+ication $,t it may $e a very im#or- tant +actor in #reventing t&at st,dent +rom ac1,iring new !nowledge at t&e ne%t level. 2&ere are ass,m#tions made at eac& level o+ st,dy regarding #rior !nowledge. -+ t&is #rior !nowledge is not t&ere. t&en it may not $e t&e st,dents or t&e teac&ers +a,lt. $,t t&e st,dent can easily +ail at t&is stage. -t may $e t&e system o+ st,dy t&at is at +a,lt in not ma!ing s,re t&at new !nowledge is #resented only w&en #rere1,isite !nowledge &as $een ac1,ired. By investigating t&e !nowledge needed in a #artic,lar area o+ st,dy (in a +iner way) and t&en ma##ing o,t t&is !nowledge ,sing learning de#endency. #rior !nowledge ass,m#tions will $e clear to $ot& st,dent and teac&er. St,dents will $e a$le to see clearly w&y t&ey m,st !now a #iece o+ !nowledge and not sim#ly #ass an e%amination in it. 2&ey will also see t&at !nowledge is acc,m,lative and is not sim#ly to $e +orgotten a+ter testing. "reating s,c& ma#s wo,ld $e a ma<or ,nderta!ing $,t t&e #otential $ene+its +or greater mod,larisation o+ learning and s,##ort +or individ,al distance learning wo,ld $e signi+icant. 4&4& Kno ledge #a88ing 'or 8ersonal de6elo8#ent Section 9.3 disc,ssed t&e #otential +or t&is ty#e o+ !nowl-

edge ma##ing in c,rric,l,m design and also s,ggested $ene+its +or t&e individ,al learner. 2&e individ,al learner co,ld $ene+it +rom t&e availa$ility o+ a clearer #ict,re o+ a st,dy #rogramme. 2&e ma# wo,ld s&ow t&e learner t&at it is $etter to master eac& #rere1,isite !nowledge node $e+ore attem#ting t&e ne%t level. 2&e learner wo,ld also $e a$le to identi+y and #lot a co,rse to a learning goal. "om#anies co,ld em#loy t&e ma##ing met&od wit& individ,al sta++ mem$ers as #art o+ a sta++ develo#ment #rogramme. 2&is wo,ld $e #artic,larly val,a$le i+ t&e #ersonal ma# &ad t&e same s#atial str,ct,re as t&e section !nowledge ma#. Managers wo,ld $e a$le to identi+y !ey individ,als and wo,ld also $e a$le to #lan a##ro#riate and e++icient training #rogrammes. -ne++iciency is o+ten seen in com#any training sc&emes $eca,se t&ere is not eno,g& care ta!en to ens,re t&at all trainees (st,dents) &ave t&e necessary #rere1,isite !nowledge to $ene+it +,lly +rom a co,rse.

5. Conclusion 2&is #a#er &as tried to s&ow t&at alt&o,g& !nowledge can $e a com#le% conce#t and &as a ric& and e%tensive $ac!gro,nd o+ #&iloso#&ical analysis. it is $ot& im#ortant to organisations and managea$le $y t&em. 2&e $l,r $etween !nowledge and in+ormation need not e%ist. 2&e st,dy o+ /rti+icial -ntelligence. !nowledge-$ased systems and !nowledge engineering &as #rovided a great deal o+ o$<ectivity in t&e realms o+ !nowledge elicitation. analysis and re#resentation and &as also #rovided de+inition. 2&is $ac!gro,nd can s,##ort !nowledge management in organisations. 2&ere is no attem#t in t&is #a#er to s,ggest t&at in+ormation management systems &ave little val,e or t&at in+ormation mo$ilisation t&ro,g& data ware&o,sing and access systems is not $ene+icial. 2&ey &ave $een s&own to $e &ig&ly $ene+icial to organisations. Gowever. t&ese t&ings alone do not w&olly manage !nowledge. -t is s,ggested t&at t&ey manage !nowledge im#licitly and t&is may $e tr,e. Gowever. t&is does not mean t&at t&ere are not ways to manage !nowledge e%#licitly. 6ne o+ t&e ways t&at can s,##ort e%#licit !nowledge management is to ma!e t&e !nowledge visi$le in some real way. 2&is #a#er &as disc,ssed t&e idea o+ !nowledge ma##ing ,sing identi+iers +or distinct #ieces o+ !nowledge and ,sing learning de#endency as t&e connective str,ct,re +or t&e ma#. (earning de#endency can $e s&own to $e a very ,se+,l way o+ organising &,man e%#ert level !nowledge. 2&e ,ses a##ly to organisations and to individ,als. -t is also #ossi$le to elicit in+ormation a$o,t eac& #iece o+ !nowledge t&at relates to its im#ortance. di++ic,lty to learn and its learning ty#e. 2&e de#endent str,ct,re #rovides organisation +or t&e !nowledge ma# and &el#s to identi+y cl,sters o+ !nowledge. 2&e nodes along wit& t&eir metrics &el# ma# ,sers to identi+y and target areas t&at re1,ire management attention. Several #ilot trials o+ t&e !nowledge ma##ing met&od.

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,sing an im#lementation +orm,la #re#ared in advance. &ave #rod,ced o,t#,t o+ real and in some cases. 1,anti+ia$le $ene+it to organisations. 2&e met&od s,##orts t&e organisa- tion in several ways4 N -t ma!es !nowledge visi$le to all managers. N -t &el#s managers identi+y areas o+ !nowledge re1,iring attention. N -t allows !nowledge to +eat,re in strategic #lanning and c&ange. N -t can im#rove t&e e++iciency o+ sta++ develo#ment. N -t allows managers to ma!e decisions a$o,t t&e !nowledge asset. 2&e met&od also &as $ene+its +or t&e individ,al and +or organisations s#ecialising in ed,cation4 N -t allows an individ,al to see and ,nderstand a develo#ment #rogramme. N -t &el#s to concentrate e++ort on ,nderstanding rat&er t&an on #assing e%aminations. N -t can &el# individ,als #lan t&eir own learning w&en wor!ing alone. N -t can s,##ort t&e com#arison o+ organisational needs and individ,al attainment. N -t can &el# ed,cational instit,tions to #lan more e++icient mod,larisation o+ ed,cation to s,##ort greater access. 2&ese claims may seem a little am$itio,s. 2&ey also rely on some investment in t&e !nowledge ma##ing #rocess. Gowever /rti+icial -ntelligence &as #rovided a rigoro,s +o,ndation +or t&e wor! and it is li!ely t&at elicitation and re#resentation tools co,ld easily $e modi+ied and a##lied to t&is wor!. F,ring t&e initial st,dies. we (t&e CJ/-/)) &ave develo#ed an elicitation tool called s!at (str,ct,ral !nowledge a,diting tool) t&at s,##orts t&e interview #rocess. Je intend to add greater +,nctionality to t&is #rogram so t&at it can #er+orm some analysis and s,##ort re#resentational str,ct,res. Some e%#eriments &ave $een ,nderta!en w&ere #ieces o+ !nowledge were elicited and

em$edded and inde%ed +rom t&e ma##ing (a,diting) tool. 2&ese were #resented at a $,siness seminar in Marc& 1999 and received +avo,ra$le comment. De#resentational met&ods incl,ded video. animation. te%t. diagrams. #ict,res. and r,les t&at were made active $y a sim#le $ac!ward c&aining e%#ert system s&ell written in a m,ltimedia tool develo#ment lang,age.

Acknowledgements 2o sta++ +rom Britis& /eros#ace. Samles$,ry. +or val,a$le contri$,tions. 2o Brian J&ite&ead +rom Blac!$,rn "ollege +or &el# in #rod,cing t&e +inal dra+t. 2&is wor! &as $een #artly +,nded $y an 0SE /F/A2 #ro<ect.

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