Socrates and Psychotherapy Author(s): August G. Lageman Source: Journal of Religion and Health, Vol. 28, No.

3 (Fall, 1989), pp. 219-223 Published by: Springer Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27506024 . Accessed: 10/12/2013 19:58
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Journal of Religion and Health Volume 28, No. 3, Fall 1989

Socrates Psychotherapy

and

AUGUST G. LAGEMAN
ABSTRACT: form a basic the basic philosophical ideas article examines of the philosophical foundation of psychotherapy. view his contribution. how Kierkegaard and Nietzsche observing recent book, The Trial is used to re-examine Stone's of Socrates, This part of Socrates and how these ideas His influence is analyzed by The controversial of I.F. thesis the man and his philosophy.

Socrates

as the hinge of Western Phi (470-399 B.C.) is regarded philosophy. turned the focus Socrates prior to his time are called pre-Socrates. losophers to the human, of philosophy from the physical world the moral. particularly is both the most Socrates in Greek philos and controversial influential figure ophy. There thought. are The four first to Socrates' to philosophical contribution aspects oneself. Socrates the concept of knowing recognized na of own of one's self-knowledge, importance understanding a moral had primarily this knowledge dimension. The least basic is his

and difficulty ture. To him,

with Socrates idea originating is his equating of knowl generally accepted man no with to Socrates believed that wills do and that edge wrong goodness. evil is a result of ignorance. next asserted that an unexamined Socrates life is not worth He a that the role of to is assist person argued living. philosophy on his or her own life. This capacity in reflecting for rational has reflection become one of the primary of the task of philosophy. definitions on moral Socrates and axiological focused philosophy to issues. He searched understand and his basic question "Can virtue be "virtue," became, mode of as Socrates' became known taught?" Finally, philosophical thinking "the Socratic method." He probed and searched for definitions and presuppo a cross-examination sitions. His method involved This method is (elenchus). as a as sometimes called the maieutic Socrates midwife method, connoting saw himself in the birth process. as a catalyst Socrates in the search sisting arete, for truth. citizens There
The vice Rev. in Bel

Others from are,

saw him as a "gadfly," and awakening stinging their ignorance and complacency. in effect, two distinct that yet inseparable pictures
Ph.D., teaches is the Director moral philosophy

his

fellow of

emerge

G. Lageman, August He Air, Maryland.

of the Harford Pastoral Ser Counseling at Notre Dame in Baltimore, College

Maryland.

219

1989 Institutes orReligion and Health

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220

Journal

of Religion

and Health

portrays Plato fo trial and death where he appears in four of his dialogues?Euthyphro, cused on the trial of Socrates Apology, as a man with is presented Socrates In these dialogues the Crito, and Phaedo. faced with death. Plato's when of his convictions eyes, courage Through saint of Western the major Socrates has become philosophical philosophy. in that is a recurring Socrates left no writings There for however, problem, his teachings, at the center posterity. portrait to form a clear picture of him apart from Plato's It is not possible in the works of Socrates of Xenophon, Ari (there are other pictures a exists here in the There his and Aristotle). parallel stophanes, fascinating for the and the the historical Socrates of tory namely quest quest for thought, the issue. the historical Chessick Jesus. Richard describes The most extreme view of the problem of depicting the real Socrates is presented and psychiatrist (1962) Jaspers by the famous twentieth-century philosopher who described Socrates as a sort of projection figure for men of each epoch. Albert Schweitzer once said that it is easier to get a historical picture of Jesus than Socrates because the descriptions of Jesus were made by men of simple
learning and were clear cut, whereas our sources about Socrates . . . are edu

Socrates.

The

first

involves

his

life and

while the second a of tragic drama.

cated

authors, each of whom adds his own twist to the de imaginative is Thus scription. Jaspers feels that to get a true historical picture of Socrates in The Great Philoso images. He writes impossible; one gets only conflicting and
"After studying the tradition, each of us retains an image of Socrates. . . .

phers,

Though our picture of him may lack scientific precision, he stands compellingly It is im before our eyes with all the captivating power of his human personality. an some to not is of What form the historic Socrates. more, possible image image
of Socrates is indispensable to our philosophical thinking. Perhaps we may say

that no philosophical thought is possible unless Socrates is present, if only as a to pale shadow. The way in which a man experiences Socrates is fundamental his thinking."1 with Jaspers's Chessick and I both disagree about the possibil pessimism a of of the clear historical and Socrates what ity picture developing knowing as he believed. man. do the of The debate and ideas the continues, images The basic to be fundamental to the philosophical ideas of Socrates continue a symbol the of Socrates has become Plato, quest. Largely through writings of freedom, individuality, and courage.

Kierkegaard's

view of Socrates

entitled his master's thesis "The Concept of Irony with Constant Kierkegaard to Socrates." Reference is the principle of infinite ab Irony for Kierkegaard stract negative to say "no" as an expression It is the capacity of subjectivity. human resonates freedom. with Socrates' to the Kierkegaard "no-saying"

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August

G. Lageman

221

Athenians.

is the archetype Socrates of the ethical man with To Kierkegaard, is of He selfhood?the his unrelenting the moral prototype single in passion. as sees in basic human the three life: dividual. aesthetic, steps Kierkegaard not only the moral To him, Socrates the moral, and the religious. epitomizes

truth. Kierkegaard but also the human that pursues values rational capacity limits in this regard. Kierkegaard concludes is a wise Socrates' that Socrates man because and what he he knows the difference between what he knows doesn't know.

Nietzsche's Nietzsche's sche never

view of Socrates

view of Socrates is filled with ambiguity and complexity. "Nietz re in a highly ceased to be involved complicated, deeply equivocal a figure who prompted means cata and with lationship, by very different for his person the same strophic results though not for his character, exactly of Socrates."2 Alexander Nehamas range of reactions?the figure recognizes that Nietzsche im confirms Socrates' through his love and hate of the man

in the history of Western "Envious of Socrates and his po portance thought. in the history sition of thought, he attacks him throughout his writings, his enemy with yet another though he knows that in doing so he is endowing and that he is therefore his greatest Socrates is dimension, giving gift, which to make him still more influential and than he has important been, already and the subject of even more writing than before."3 love and hate create in him a profound Nietzsche's toward So ambiguity crates. Neitzsche is adopting the Socratic and search dialectic?questioning Nietzsche is attempting to re-experience the ing for hidden presuppositions. Yet Nietzsche hates the victory of reason that he sees spirit of Socrates. in Socrates' as a "villain," describes Socrates thought. Nietzsche yet he re as another Socrates and models Ecce Homo after Socrates and gards himself Goethe. Nietzsche admires Socrates because he sees him as a passionate man in control of these passions. Nietzsche and agrees with Socrates' understands desire not to have disciples. Both men share a strong desire to understand of its nature. Nietzsche views virtue, they differ in their definitions although as applying a knife vivisectionally Socrates to the virtues of his time in an to uncover attempt hypocrisy role of the buffoon who made engage others in discussions and others deceit. To Nietzsche, seriously concerns. Socrates and take him the played thus was able to

of his passionate

LF. Stone's In The conflict Trial

The Trial

of Socrates LF. and Stone the maintains people that of Athens. there Stone is a fundamental that So argues

of Socrates, between Socrates

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222

Journal

of Religion

and Health

that

a shepherd as a herd that required or King, and con with Socrates treated condescension and democracy subsequently as a political saw man in the governing animal tempt. The Athenians poli cies of the state. Socrates, with this view, withdrew from political disagreeing on to criticize Socrates' "The only definition life. Stone moves of vir thought. crates saw the Athenians to led the im the on

ever ventured tue Socrates in his many to define it was fruitless attempts that Socrates' Stone maintains dialectic equate virtue with knowledge."4 to a dead end. To him, Socrates was constantly for certainty in searching a on never it. of definition and to Stone raise goes shape perfect finding about the trial: Why set out to antagonize did Socrates portant questions jury? Why his own behalf? tions
secular

did Socrates The Socrates'

not

invoke

the Athenian

about
saint.

book of Stone's importance trial and calls into question

principle speech is that it raises basic ques as a the picture of Socrates

of free

Socrates Two

and psychotherapy

worth

basic ideas, "know thyself and "an unexamined life is not to psychotherapy. to know With his charge living," are fundamental a focal point basic not only to philosophy Socrates established but oneself, also to religion and psychology. With these ideas as a foundation, psychother rhetorical invention. Other and apy is a Western thinkers, notably Nietzsche

of Socrates'

to include the irrational the Socratic dimen Freud, have expanded injunction sions of human existence. to examine Socrates' commitment life continues with us in a commitment to examine our premises, and beliefs. This commitment has presuppositions, the field of family therapy. H.A. Liddle has argued for the neces penetrated on the part of the therapist.5 declaration In such a sity of an epistemological a therapist states assumptions declaration about human nature and values that are embodied in the therapeutic Socrates' search for clear defi process. field as ongoing debates very much with us in the therapeutic we How continue. do understand and define the issues that diagnoses to us? people bring to be expanded from his individualistic Socrates' needs thought paradigm. becomes and relationships. Knowing thyself knowing thy family Murray Bo wen in us?an that there are two forces operating individuation argues force and a together force.6 nitions about is still to questioning commitment has been expanded unrelenting by of the Milan therapist, particularly approach, who asks questions to evoke possibilities. or ob These we call future-oriented designed questions server perspective "How did you react to ... ?" would be an exam questions. we ask state our assumptions The types of questions ple of this technique. and beliefs about people. Socrates' the family

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August

G. Lageman

223

in his Pulitzer Ernest The Denial Prize winning Becker of Death gives a a reflex of the is first and foremost definition "Heroism Socratic of courage: terror of death. We admire most to face death."7 This is precisely the courage in which the picture we develop from the four dialogues Plato portrays the is representative of judgment, the epitome of moral contribution may well not be the ef philosophy. fectiveness of his argument, the bringing of the human but rather side of Socrates back into focus. Our secular saint has feet of clay. his lifetime, Socrates was often in conflict with a group of itinerant During trial and death of Socrates. This picture, Stone's called Sophists. These men would, for a fee, teach the skill of excel the best of one's abilities and live accord (arete), that is, how to make to the practice familiar of psychother ingly. Does this not sound strikingly a seen even to he refused needs be not only as a Socrates, fee, apy? though a as but also As has in this been demonstrated philosopher psychotherapist. teachers lence article, his ideas are basic to the therapeutic enterprise. in my

References
to the Genius Introduction New York, University Press of R.D., A Brief of Nietzsche. is quoting from Japsers, Vol. I. America, 1983, p. 14. Chessick K., The Great Philosophers, New York, Harcourt Brace and World, Inc., 1962, p. 30. 2. Nehamas, Harvard A., Nietzsche: 1985, p. 24. Life as Literature. Press, Cambridge, University 3. Ibid, p. 232. 4. Stone, Brown and Company, I.F., The Trial Boston, Little, of Socrates. 1988, p. 39. 5. Liddle, H.A., A Call for Epistemologic "On the Problem of Eclecticism: Clarification man Scale Theories," Process, 1982, 21, 243-250. Family 6. Bowen, "Toward in One's the Differentiation of a Self Own Family." In Framo, M., New York, Interaction. 1972. Family Springer, 7. Becker, New York, The Free Press, E., The Denial 1937, p. 11. of Death. and Hu J., ed., 1. Chessick,

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