What is a Noun?

A noun is a word used to name a person, animal, place, thing, and abstract idea. Nouns are usually the first words which small children learn. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all nouns: Late last year our neighbours bought a goat. Portia White was an opera singer. The bus inspector looked at all the passengers' passes. According to Plutarch, the library at Alexandria was destroyed in 48 .!. Philosophy is of little comfort to the starving. A noun can function in a sentence as a sub"ect, a direct ob"ect, an indirect ob"ect, a sub"ect complement, an ob"ect complement, an appositi#e, an ad"ecti#e or an ad#erb.

Noun Gender
$any common nouns, like %engineer% or %teacher,% can refer to men or women. &nce, many 'nglish nouns would change form depending on their gender (( for e)ample, a man was called an %author% while a woman was called an %authoress% (( but this use of gender-specific nouns is #ery rare today. Those that are still used occasionally tend to refer to occupational categories, as in the following sentences. *a#id +arrick was a #ery prominent eighteenth(century actor. ,arah ,iddons was at the height of her career as an actress in the -.8/s. The manager was trying to write a want ad, but he couldn0t decide whether he was ad#ertising for a %waiter% or a %waitress%

Noun Plurals
$ost nouns change their form to indicate number by adding %(s% or %(es%, as illustrated in the following pairs of sentences: 1hen $atthew was small he rarely told the truth if he thought he was going to be punished. $any people do not belie#e that truths are self(e#ident. As they walked through the silent house. they were startled by an une)pected echo. 2 like to shout into the 3uarry and listen to the echoes that returned. 4e tripped o#er a box left carelessly in the hallway. ,ince we are mo#ing, we will need many boxes. There are other nouns which form the plural by changing the last letter before adding %s%. ,ome words ending in %f% form the plural by deleting %f% and adding %#es,% and words

ending in %y% form the plural by deleting the %y% and adding %ies,% as in the following pairs of sentences: The harbour at $arble $ountain has one wharf. There are se#eral wharves in 4alifa) 4arbour. 1arsaw is their fa#ourite city because it reminds them of their courtship. The #acation my grandparents won includes trips to twel#e 'uropean cities. The children circled around the headmaster and shouted, %Are you a mouse or a man5% The audience was shocked when all fi#e men admitted that they were afraid of mice. &ther nouns form the plural irregularly. 2f 'nglish is your first language, you probably know most of these already: when in doubt, consult a good dictionary.

6ossessi#e Nouns
2n the possessi#e case, a noun or pronoun changes its form to show that it owns or is closely related to something else. 7sually, nouns become possessi#e by adding a combination of an apostrophe and the letter %s.% 8ou can form the possessi#e case of a singular noun that does not end in %s% by adding an apostrophe and %s,% as in the following sentences: The red suitcase is assandra's. The only luggage that was lost was the prime minister's. The e)hausted recruits were woken before dawn by the drill sergeant's screams. The miner's face was co#ered in coal dust. 8ou can form the possessi#e case of a singular noun that ends in %s% by adding an apostrophe alone or by adding an apostrophe and %s,% as in the following e)amples: The bus's seats are #ery uncomfortable. The bus' seats are #ery uncomfortable. The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs. The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus' eggs. !elicia "emans's poetry was once more popular than Lord yron0s. !elicia "emans' poetry was once more popular than Lord yron0s. 8ou can form the possessi#e case of a plural noun that does not end in %s% by adding an apostrophe and a %s,% as in the following e)amples: The children's mittens were scattered on the floor of the porch. The sheep's pen was mucked out e#ery day. ,ince we ha#e a comple) appeal process, a #ury's #erdict is not always final. The men's hockey team will be playing as soon as the women's team is finished.

The hunter followed the moose's trail all morning but lost it in the afternoon. 8ou can form the possessi#e case of a plural noun that does end in %s% by adding an apostrophe: The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the duc$s' 3uacking, and the babies' s3ualling. The #anitors' room is downstairs and to the left. $y uncle spent many hours trying to locate the s%uirrels' nest. The archi#ist 3uickly finished repairing the diaries' bindings. 9eligion is usually the sub"ect of the roommates' many late night debates.

&sing Possessive Nouns

1hen you read the following sentences, you will notice that a noun in the possessi#e case fre3uently functions as an ad"ecti#e modifying another noun: The miner's face was co#ered in coal dust. 4ere the possessi#e noun %miner0s% is used to modify the noun %face% and together with the article %the,% they make up the noun phrase that is the sentence0s sub"ect. The concert was interrupted by the dogs' barking, the duc$s' 3uacking, and the babies' s3ualling. 2n this sentence, each possessi#e noun modifies a gerund. The possessi#e noun %dogs%0 modifies %barking,% %ducks%0 modifies %3uacking,% and %babies%0 modifies %s3ualling.% The film crew accidentally crushed the platypus's eggs. 2n this e)ample the possessi#e noun %platypus0s% modifies the noun %eggs% and the noun phrase %the platypus0s eggs% is the direct ob"ect of the #erb %crushed.% $y uncle spent many hours trying to locate the s%uirrels' nest. 2n this sentence the possessi#e noun %s3uirrels%0 is used to modify the noun %nest% and the noun phrase %the s3uirrels0 nest% is the ob"ect of the infiniti#e phrase %to locate.%

'ypes (f Nouns
There are many different types of nouns. As you know, you capitalise some nouns, such as %!anada% or %Louise,% and do not capitalise others, such as %badger% or %tree% :unless they appear at the beginning of a sentence;. 2n fact, grammarians ha#e de#eloped a whole series of noun types, including the proper noun, the common noun, the concrete noun, the abstract noun, the countable noun :also called the count noun;, the non(countable noun

:also called the mass noun;, and the collecti#e noun. 8ou should note that a noun will belong to more than one type: it will be proper or common, abstract or concrete, and countable or non(countable or collecti#e. 2f you are interested in the details of these different types, you can read about them in the following sections.

Proper Nouns
8ou always write a proper noun with a capital letter, since the noun represents the name of a specific person, place, or thing. The names of days of the week, months, historical documents, institutions, organisations, religions, their holy te)ts and their adherents are proper nouns. A proper noun is the opposite of a common noun 2n each of the following sentences, the proper nouns are highlighted: The )arroons were transported from *amaica and forced to build the fortifications in "alifax. $any people dread )onday mornings. +eltane is celebrated on the first of )ay. Abraham appears in the 'almud and in the ,oran. Last year, 2 had a +aptist, a +uddhist, and a Gardnerian Witch as roommates.

ommon Nouns
A common noun is a noun referring to a person, place, or thing in a general sense (( usually, you should write it with a capital letter only when it begins a sentence. A common noun is the opposite of a proper noun. 2n each of the following sentences, the common nouns are highlighted: According to the sign, the nearest town is </ miles away. All the gardens in the neighbourhood were in#aded by beetles this summer. 2 don0t understand why some people insist on ha#ing si) different $inds of mustard in their cupboards. The road crew was startled by the sight of three large moose crossing the road. $any child(care wor$ers are underpaid. ,ometimes you will make proper nouns out of common nouns, as in the following e)amples: The tenants in the Garnet Apartments are appealing the large and sudden increase in their rent. The meals in the ouncing +ean -estaurant are less e)pensi#e than meals in ordinary restaurants.

$any witches refer to the 9enaissance as the urning 'imes. The .iary of Anne !ran$ is often a child0s first introduction to the history of the "olocaust.

oncrete Nouns
A concrete noun is a noun which names anything :or anyone; that you can percei#e through your physical senses: touch, sight, taste, hearing, or smell. A concrete noun is the opposite of a abstract noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all concrete nouns: The #udge handed the files to the cler$. 1hene#er they take the dog to the beach, it spends hours chasing waves. The real estate agent urged the couple to buy the second house because it had new shingles. As the car dro#e past the par$, the thump of a disco tune o#erwhelmed the string %uartet's rendition of a minuet. The boo$ binder replaced the flimsy paper cover with a sturdy, cloth(co#ered board.

Abstract Nouns
An abstract noun is a noun which names anything which you can not percei#e through your fi#e physical senses, and is the opposite of a concrete noun. The highlighted words in the following sentences are all abstract nouns: uying the fire e)tinguisher was an afterthought. Tillie is amused by people who are nostalgic about childhood. *ustice often seems to slip out of our grasp. ,ome scientists belie#e that schi/ophrenia is transmitted genetically.

ountable Nouns
A countable noun :or count noun; is a noun with both a singular and a plural form, and it names anything :or anyone; that you can count. 8ou can make a countable noun plural and attach it to a plural #erb in a sentence. !ountable nouns are the opposite of non( countable nouns and collecti#e nouns. 2n each of the following sentences, the highlighted words are countable nouns: 1e painted the table red and the chairs blue. ,ince he inherited his aunt's library, =erome spends e#ery wee$end inde)ing his boo$s. $iriam found si) sil#er dollars in the toe of a soc$.

The oak tree lost three branches in the hurricane. &#er the course of twenty(se#en years, $artha allad deli#ered "ust o#er eight hundred babies.

Non- ountable Nouns

A non-countable noun :or mass noun; is a noun which does not ha#e a plural form, and which refers to something that you could :or would; not usually count. A non(countable noun always takes a singular #erb in a sentence. Non(countable nouns are similar to collecti#e nouns, and are the opposite of countable nouns. The highlighted words in the following sentences are non(countable nouns: =oseph 6riestly disco#ered oxygen. The word %o)ygen% cannot normally be made plural. (xygen is essential to human life. ,ince %o)ygen% is a non(countable noun, it takes the singular #erb %is% rather than the plural #erb %are.% 1e decided to sell the furniture rather than take it with use when we mo#ed. 8ou cannot make the noun %furniture% plural. The furniture is heaped in the middle of the room. ,ince %furniture% is a non(countable noun, it takes a singular #erb, %is heaped.% The crew spread the gravel o#er the roadbed. 8ou cannot make the non(countable noun %gra#el% plural. Gravel is more e)pensi#e than 2 thought. ,ince %gra#el% is a non(countable noun, it takes the singular #erb form %is.%

ollective Nouns
A collective noun is a noun naming a group of things, animals, or persons. 8ou could count the indi#idual members of the group, but you usually think of the group as a whole is generally as one unit. 8ou need to be able to recognise collecti#e nouns in order to maintain sub"ect(#erb agreement. A collecti#e noun is similar to a non(countable noun, and is roughly the opposite of a countable noun.

2n each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a collecti#e noun: The floc$ of geese spends most of its time in the pasture. The collecti#e noun %geese% takes the singular #erb %spends.% The #ury is dining on take(out chicken tonight. 2n this e)ample the collecti#e noun %"ury% is the sub"ect of the singular compound #erb %is dining.% The steering committee meets e#ery 1ednesday afternoon. 4ere the collecti#e noun %committee% takes a singular #erb, %meets.% The class was startled by the bursting light bulb. 2n this sentence the word %class% is a collecti#e noun and takes the singular compound #erb %was startled.%

What is a Pronoun?
A pronoun can replace a noun or another pronoun. 8ou use pronouns like %he,% %which,% %none,% and %you% to make your sentences less cumbersome and less repetiti#e. +rammarians classify pronouns into se#eral types, including the personal pronoun, the demonstrati#e pronoun, the interrogati#e pronoun, the indefinite pronoun, the relati#e pronoun, the refle)i#e pronoun, and the intensi#e pronoun.

Personal Pronouns
A personal pronoun refers to a specific person or thing and changes its form to indicate person, number, gender, and case.

0ub#ective Personal Pronouns

A sub#ective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as the sub"ect of the sentence. The sub"ecti#e personal pronouns are %2,% %you,% %she,% %he,% %it,% %we,% %you,% %they.% 2n the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a sub"ecti#e personal pronoun and acts as the sub"ect of the sentence: 1 was glad to find the bus pass in the bottom of the green knapsack. 2ou are surely the strangest child 1 ha#e e#er met. "e stole the selkie0s skin and forced her to li#e with him. 1hen she was a young woman, she earned her li#ing as a coal miner. After many years, they returned to their homeland. We will meet at the library at >:>/ p.m. 1t is on the counter. Are you the delegates from $alagawatch5

(b#ective Personal Pronouns

An ob#ective personal pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as an ob"ect of a #erb, compound #erb, preposition, or infiniti#e phrase. The ob"ecti#e personal pronouns are: %me,% %you,% %her,% %him,% %it,% %us,% %you,% and %them.% 2n the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is an ob"ecti#e personal pronoun: ,eamus stole the selkie0s skin and forced her to li#e with him. The ob"ecti#e personal pronoun %her% is the direct ob"ect of the #erb %forced% and the ob"ecti#e personal pronoun %him% is the ob"ect of the preposition %with.% After reading the pamphlet, =udy threw it into the garbage can. The pronoun %it% is the direct ob"ect of the #erb %threw.% The agitated assistant stood up and faced the angry delegates and said, %&ur leader will address you in fi#e minutes.% 2n this sentence, the pronoun %you% is the direct ob"ect of the #erb %address.% *eborah and 9oberta will meet us at the newest caf? in the market. 4ere the ob"ecti#e personal pronoun %us% is the direct ob"ect of the compound #erb %will meet.% +i#e the list to me.

4ere the ob"ecti#e personal pronoun %me% is the ob"ect of the preposition %to.% 20m not sure that my contact will talk to you. ,imilarly in this e)ample, the ob"ecti#e personal pronoun %you% is the ob"ect of the preposition %to.% !hristopher was surprised to see her at the drag races. 4ere the ob"ecti#e personal pronoun %her% is the ob"ect of the infiniti#e phrase %to see.%

Possessive Personal Pronouns

A possessive pronoun indicates that the pronoun is acting as a marker of possession and defines who owns a particular ob"ect or person. The possessive personal pronouns are %mine,% %yours,% %hers,% %his,% %its,% %ours,% and %theirs.% Note that possessi#e personal pronouns are #ery similar to possessi#e ad"ecti#es like %my,% %her,% and %their.% 2n each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a possessi#e personal pronoun: The smallest gift is mine. 4ere the possessi#e pronoun %mine% functions as a sub"ect complement. This is yours. 4ere too the possessi#e pronoun %yours% functions as a sub"ect complement. 4is is on the kitchen counter. 2n this e)ample, the possessi#e pronoun %his% acts as the sub"ect of the sentence. Theirs will be deli#ered tomorrow. 2n this sentence, the possessi#e pronoun %theirs% is the sub"ect of the sentence. &urs is the green one on the corner. 4ere too the possessi#e pronoun %ours% function as the sub"ect of the sentence.

.emonstrative Pronouns

A demonstrative pronoun points to and identifies a noun or a pronoun. %This% and %these% refer to things that are nearby either in space or in time, while %that% and %those% refer to things that are farther away in space or time. The demonstrati#e pronouns are %this,% %that,% %these,% and %those.% %This% and %that% are used to refer to singular nouns or noun phrases and %these% and %those% are used to refer to plural nouns and noun phrases. Note that the demonstrati#e pronouns are identical to demonstrati#e ad"ecti#es, though, ob#iously, you use them differently. 2t is also important to note that %that% can also be used as a relati#e pronoun. 2n the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a demonstrati#e pronoun: 'his must not continue. 4ere %this% is used as the sub"ect of the compound #erb %must not continue.% 'his is puny@ that is the tree 2 want. 2n this e)ample %this% is used as sub"ect and refers to something close to the speaker. The demonstrati#e pronoun %that% is also a sub"ect but refers to something farther away from the speaker. Three customers wanted these. 4ere %these% is the direct ob"ect of the #erb %wanted.%

1nterrogative Pronouns
An interrogative pronoun is used to ask 3uestions. The interrogati#e pronouns are %who,% %whom,% %which,% %what% and the compounds formed with the suffi) %e#er% :%whoe#er,% %whome#er,% %whiche#er,% and %whate#er%;. Note that either %which% or %what% can also be used as an interrogati#e ad"ecti#e, and that %who,% %whom,% or %which% can also be used as a relati#e pronoun. 8ou will find %who,% %whom,% and occasionally %which% used to refer to people, and %which% and %what% used to refer to things and to animals. %1ho% acts as the sub"ect of a #erb, while %whom% acts as the ob"ect of a #erb, preposition, or a #erbal. The highlighted word in each of the following sentences is an interrogati#e pronoun: Which wants to see the dentist first5 %1hich% is the sub"ect of the sentence.

Who wrote the no#el 9ockbound5 ,imilarly %who% is the sub"ect of the sentence. Whom do you think we should in#ite5 2n this sentence, %whom% is the ob"ect of the #erb %in#ite.% To whom do you wish to speak5 4ere the interrogati#e pronoun %whom % is the ob"ect of the preposition %to.% Who will meet the delegates at the train station5 2n this sentence, the interrogati#e pronoun %who% is the sub"ect of the compound #erb %will meet.% To whom did you gi#e the paper5 2n this e)ample the interrogati#e pronoun %whom% is the ob"ect of the preposition %to.% What did she say5 4ere the interrogati#e pronoun %what% is the direct ob"ect of the #erb %say.%

-elative Pronouns
8ou can use a relative pronoun is used to link one phrase or clause to another phrase or clause. The relati#e pronouns are %who,% %whom,% %that,% and %which.% The compounds %whoe#er,% %whome#er,% and %whiche#er% are also relati#e pronouns. 8ou can use the relati#e pronouns %who% and %whoe#er% to refer to the sub"ect of a clause or sentence, and %whom% and %whome#er% to refer to the ob"ects of a #erb, a #erbal or a preposition. 2n each of the following sentences, the highlighted word is a relati#e pronoun. 8ou may in#ite whomever you like to the party. The relati#e pronoun %whome#er% is the direct ob"ect of the compound #erb %may in#ite.% The candidate who wins the greatest popular #ote is not always elected. 2n this sentence, the relati#e pronoun is the sub"ect of the #erb %wins% and introduces the subordinate clause %who wins the greatest popular #ote.% This subordinate clause acts as an ad"ecti#e modifying %candidate.%

2n a time of crisis, the manager asks the workers whom she belie#es to be the most efficient to arri#e an hour earlier than usual. 2n this sentence %whom% is the direct ob"ect of the #erb %belie#es% and introduces the subordinate clause %whom she belie#es to be the most efficient%. This subordinate clause modifies the noun %workers.% Whoever broke the window will ha#e to replace it. 4ere %whoe#er% functions as the sub"ect of the #erb %broke.% The crate which was left in the corridor has now been mo#ed into the storage closet. 2n this e)ample %which% acts as the sub"ect of the compound #erb %was left% and introduces the subordinate clause %which was left in the corridor.% The subordinate clause acts as an ad"ecti#e modifying the noun %crate.% 2 will read whichever manuscript arri#es first. 4ere %whiche#er% modifies the noun %manuscript% and introduces the subordinate clause %whiche#er manuscript arri#es first.% The subordinate clause functions as the direct ob"ect of the compound #erb %will read.%

1ndefinite Pronouns
An indefinite pronoun is a pronoun referring to an identifiable but not specified person or thing. An indefinite pronoun con#eys the idea of all, any, none, or some. The most common indefinite pronouns are %all,% %another,% %any,% %anybody,% %anyone,% %anything,% %each,% %e#erybody,% %e#eryone,% %e#erything,% %few,% %many,% %nobody,% %none,% %one,% %se#eral,% %some,% %somebody,% and %someone.% Note that some indefinite pronouns can also be used as indefinite ad"ecti#es. The highlighted words in the following sentences are indefinite pronouns: )any were in#ited to the lunch but only twel#e showed up. 4ere %many% acts as the sub"ect of the compound #erb %were in#ited.% The office had been searched and everything was thrown onto the floor. 2n this e)ample, %e#erything% acts as a sub"ect of the compound #erb %was thrown.% 1e donated everything we found in the attic to the woman0s shelter garage sale.

2n this sentence, %e#erything% is the direct ob"ect of the#erb %donated.% Although they looked e#erywhere for e)tra copies of the magaAine, they found none. 4ere too the indefinite pronoun functions as a direct ob"ect: %none% is the direct ob"ect of %found.% $ake sure you gi#e everyone a copy of the amended bylaws. 2n this e)ample, %e#eryone% is the indirect ob"ect of the #erb %gi#e% (( the direct ob"ect is the noun phrase %a copy of the amended bylaws.% +i#e a registration package to each. 4ere %each% is the ob"ect of the preposition %to.%

-eflexive Pronouns
8ou can use a reflexive pronoun to refer back to the sub"ect of the clause or sentence. The refle)i#e pronouns are %myself,% %yourself,% %herself,% %himself,% %itself,% %oursel#es,% %yoursel#es,% and %themsel#es.% Note each of these can also act as an intensi#e pronoun. 'ach of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a refle)i#e pronoun: *iabetics gi#e themselves insulin shots se#eral times a day. The *ean often does the photocopying herself so that the secretaries can do more important work. After the party, 2 asked myself why 2 had fa)ed in#itations to e#eryone in my office building. 9ichard usually remembered to send a copy of his e(mail to himself. Although the landlord promised to paint the apartment, we ended up doing it ourselves.

1ntensive Pronouns
An intensive pronoun is a pronoun used to emphasise its antecedent. 2ntensi#e pronouns are identical in form to refle)i#e pronouns. The highlighted words in the following sentences are intensi#e pronouns: 2 myself belie#e that aliens should abduct my sister. The 6rime $inister himself said that he would lower ta)es.

They themselves promised to come to the party e#en though they had a final e)am at the same time. Written by Heather MacFadyen

What is a Preposition?
A preposition links nouns, pronouns and phrases to other words in a sentence. The word or phrase that the preposition introduces is called the ob"ect of the preposition. A preposition usually indicates the temporal, spatial or logical relationship of its ob"ect to the rest of the sentence as in the following e)amples: The book is on the table. The book is beneath the table. The book is leaning against the table. The book is beside the table. ,he held the book over the table. ,he read the book during class. 2n each of the preceding sentences, a preposition locates the noun %book% in space or in time. A prepositional phrase is made up of the preposition, its ob"ect and any associated ad"ecti#es or ad#erbs. A prepositional phrase can function as a noun, an ad"ecti#e, or an ad#erb. The most common prepositions are %about,% %abo#e,% %across,% %after,% %against,% %along,% %among,% %around,% %at,% %before,% %behind,% %below,% %beneath,% %beside,% %between,% %beyond,% %but,% %by,% %despite,% %down,% %during,% %e)cept,% %for,% %from,% %in,% %inside,% %into,% %like,% %near,% %of,% %off,% %on,% %onto,% %out,% %outside,% %o#er,% %past,% %since,% %through,% %throughout,% %till,% %to,% %toward,% %under,% %underneath,% %until,% %up,% %upon,% %with,% %within,% and %without.% 'ach of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a preposition: The children climbed the mountain without fear. 2n this sentence, the preposition %without% introduces the noun %fear.% The prepositional phrase %without fear% functions as an ad#erb describing how the children climbed.

There was re"oicing throughout the land when the go#ernment was defeated. 4ere, the preposition %throughout% introduces the noun phrase %the land.% The prepositional phrase acts as an ad#erb describing the location of the re"oicing. The spider crawled slowly along the banister. The preposition %along% introduces the noun phrase %the banister% and the prepositional phrase %along the banister% acts as an ad#erb, describing where the spider crawled. The dog is hiding under the porch because it knows it will be punished for chewing up a new pair of shoes. 4ere the preposition %under% introduces the prepositional phrase %under the porch,% which acts as an ad#erb modifying the compound #erb %is hiding.% The screenwriter searched for the manuscript he was certain was somewhere in his office. ,imilarly in this sentence, the preposition %in% introduces a prepositional phrase %in his office,% which acts as an ad#erb describing the location of the missing papers.

What 1s An Ad#ective?
An ad#ective modifies a noun or a pronoun by describing, identifying, or 3uantifying words. An ad"ecti#e usually precedes the noun or the pronoun which it modifies. 2n the following e)amples, the highlighted words are ad"ecti#es: The truc$-shaped balloon floated o#er the treetops. $rs. $orrison papered her $itchen walls with hideous wall paper. The small boat foundered on the wine dar$ sea. The coal mines are dar$ and dan$. )any stores ha#e already begun to play irritating hristmas music. A battered music bo) sat on the mahogany sideboard. The back room was filled with large, yellow rain boots. An ad"ecti#e can be modified by an ad#erb, or by a phrase or clause functioning as an ad#erb. 2n the sentence $y husband knits intricately patterned mittens.

for e)ample, the ad#erb %intricately% modifies the ad"ecti#e %patterned.% ,ome nouns, many pronouns, and many participle phrases can also act as ad"ecti#es. 2n the sentence 'leanor listened to the muffled sounds of the radio hidden under her pillow. for e)ample, both highlighted ad"ecti#es are past participles. +rammarians also consider articles :%the,% %a,% %an%; to be ad"ecti#es.

Possessive Ad#ectives
A possessive ad#ective :%my,% %your,% %his,% %her,% %its,% %our,% %their%; is similar or identical to a possessi#e pronoun@ howe#er, it is used as an ad"ecti#e and modifies a noun or a noun phrase, as in the following sentences: 2 can0t complete my assignment because 2 don0t ha#e the te)tbook. 2n this sentence, the possessi#e ad"ecti#e %my% modifies %assignment% and the noun phrase %my assignment% functions as an ob"ect. Note that the possessi#e pronoun form %mine% is not used to modify a noun or noun phrase. 1hat is your phone number. 4ere the possessi#e ad"ecti#e %your% is used to modify the noun phrase %phone number%@ the entire noun phrase %your phone number% is a sub"ect complement. Note that the possessi#e pronoun form %yours% is not used to modify a noun or a noun phrase. The bakery sold his fa#ourite type of bread. 2n this e)ample, the possessi#e ad"ecti#e %his% modifies the noun phrase %fa#ourite type of bread% and the entire noun phrase %his fa#ourite type of bread% is the direct ob"ect of the #erb %sold.% After many years, she returned to her homeland. 4ere the possessi#e ad"ecti#e %her% modifies the noun %homeland% and the noun phrase %her homeland% is the ob"ect of the preposition %to.% Note also that the form %hers% is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases. 1e ha#e lost our way in this wood. 2n this sentence, the possessi#e ad"ecti#e %our% modifies %way% and the noun phrase %our way% is the direct ob"ect of the compound #erb %ha#e lost%. Note that the possessi#e pronoun form %ours% is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases.

2n many fairy tales, children are neglected by their parents. 4ere the possessi#e ad"ecti#e %their% modifies %parents% and the noun phrase %their parents% is the ob"ect of the preposition %by.% Note that the possessi#e pronoun form %theirs% is not used to modify nouns or noun phrases. The cat chased its ball down the stairs and into the backyard. 2n this sentence, the possessi#e ad"ecti#e %its% modifies %ball% and the noun phrase %its ball% is the ob"ect of the #erb %chased.% Note that %its% is the possessi#e ad"ecti#e and %it0s% is a contraction for %it is.%

.emonstrative Ad#ectives
The demonstrative ad#ectives %this,% %these,% %that,% %those,% and %what% are identical to the demonstrati#e pronouns, but are used as ad"ecti#es to modify nouns or noun phrases, as in the following sentences: 1hen the librarian tripped o#er that cord, she dropped a pile of books. 2n this sentence, the demonstrati#e ad"ecti#e %that% modifies the noun %cord% and the noun phrase %that cord% is the ob"ect of the preposition %o#er.% 'his apartment needs to be fumigated. 4ere %this% modifies %apartment% and the noun phrase %this apartment% is the sub"ect of the sentence. '#en though my friend preferred those plates, 2 bought these. 2n the subordinate clause, %those% modifies %plates% and the noun phrase %those plates% is the ob"ect of the #erb %preferred.% 2n the independent clause, %these% is the direct ob"ect of the #erb %bought.% Note that the relationship between a demonstrati#e ad"ecti#e and a demonstrati#e pronoun is similar to the relationship between a possessi#e ad"ecti#e and a possessi#e pronoun, or to that between a interrogati#e ad"ecti#e and an interrogati#e pronoun.

1nterrogative Ad#ectives
An interrogative ad#ective :%which% or %what%; is like an interrogati#e pronoun, e)cept that it modifies a noun or noun phrase rather than standing on its own :see also demonstrati#e ad"ecti#es and possessi#e ad"ecti#es;: Which plants should be watered twice a week5

Like other ad"ecti#es, %which% can be used to modify a noun or a noun phrase. 2n this e)ample, %which% modifies %plants% and the noun phrase %which paints% is the sub"ect of the compound #erb %should be watered%: What book are you reading5 2n this sentence, %what% modifies %book% and the noun phrase %what book% is the direct ob"ect of the compound #erb %are reading.%

1ndefinite Ad#ectives
An indefinite ad#ective is similar to an indefinite pronoun, e)cept that it modifies a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase, as in the following sentences: $any people belie#e that corporations are under(ta)ed. The indefinite ad"ecti#e %many% modifies the noun %people% and the noun phrase %many people% is the sub"ect of the sentence. 2 will send you any mail that arri#es after you ha#e mo#ed to ,udbury. The indefinite ad"ecti#e %any% modifies the noun %mail% and the noun phrase %any mail% is the direct ob"ect of the compound #erb %will send.% They found a few goldfish floating belly up in the swan pound. 2n this e)ample the indefinite ad"ecti#e modifies the noun %goldfish% and the noun phrase is the direct ob"ect of the #erb %found%: The title of Belly0s fa#ourite game is %All dogs go to hea#en.% 4ere the indefinite pronoun %all% modifies %dogs% and the full title is a sub"ect complement.

What is an Adverb?
An adverb can modify a #erb, an ad"ecti#e, another ad#erb, a phrase, or a clause. An ad#erb indicates manner, time, place, cause, or degree and answers 3uestions such as %how,% %when,% %where,% %how much%. 1hile some ad#erbs can be identified by their characteristic %ly% suffi), most of them must be identified by untangling the grammatical relationships within the sentence or

clause as a whole. 7nlike an ad"ecti#e, an ad#erb can be found in #arious places within the sentence. 2n the following e)amples, each of the highlighted words is an ad#erb: The seamstress %uic$ly made the mourning clothes. 2n this sentence, the ad#erb %3uickly% modifies the #erb %made% and indicates in what manner :or how fast; the clothing was constructed. The midwi#es waited patiently through a long labour. ,imilarly in this sentence, the ad#erb %patiently% modifies the #erb %waited% and describes the manner in which the midwi#es waited. The boldly spoken words would return to haunt the rebel. 2n this sentence the ad#erb %boldly% modifies the ad"ecti#e %spoken.% 1e urged him to dial the number more expeditiously. 4ere the ad#erb %more% modifies the ad#erb %e)peditiously.% &nfortunately, the bank closed at three today. 2n this e)ample, the ad#erb %unfortunately% modifies the entire sentence.

on#unctive Adverbs
8ou can use a con#unctive adverb to "oin two clauses together. ,ome of the most common con"uncti#e ad#erbs are %also,% %conse3uently,% %finally,% %furthermore,% %hence,% %howe#er,% %incidentally,% %indeed,% %instead,% %likewise,% %meanwhile,% %ne#ertheless,% %ne)t,% %nonetheless,% %otherwise,% %still,% %then,% %therefore,% and %thus.% A con"uncti#e ad#erb is not strong enough to "oin two independent clauses without the aid of a semicolon. The highlighted words in the following sentences are con"uncti#e ad#erbs: The go#ernment has cut uni#ersity budgets@ conse%uently, class siAes ha#e been increased. 4e did not ha#e all the ingredients the recipe called for@ therefore, he decided to make something else. The report recommended se#eral changes to the ways the corporation accounted for donations@ furthermore, it suggested that a new auditor be appointed immediately.

The crowd waited patiently for three hours@ finally, the doors to the stadium were opened. atman and 9obin fruitlessly searched the building@ indeed, the =oker had escaped through a secret door in the basement. Written by Heather MacFadyen

What is a on#unction?
8ou can use a con#unction to link words, phrases, and clauses, as in the following e)ample: 2 ate the piAAa and the pasta. !all the mo#ers when you are ready.

o-ordinating on#unctions
8ou use a co-ordinating con#unction :%and,% %but,% %or,% %nor,% %for,% %so,% or %yet%; to "oin indi#idual words, phrases, and independent clauses. Note that you can also use the con"unctions %but% and %for% as prepositions. 2n the following sentences, each of the highlighted words is a co(ordinating con"unction: Lilacs and #iolets are usually purple. 2n this e)ample, the co(ordinating con"unction %and% links two nouns. This mo#ie is particularly interesting to feminist film theorists, for the screenplay was written by $ae 1est. 2n this e)ample, the co(ordinating con"unction %for% is used to link two independent clauses. *aniel0s uncle claimed that he spent most of his youth dancing on rooftops and swallowing goldfish. 4ere the co(ordinating con"unction %and% links two participle phrases :%dancing on rooftops% and %swallowing goldfish%; which act as ad#erbs describing the #erb %spends.%

0ubordinating on#unctions
A subordinating con#unction introduces a dependent clause and indicates the nature of the relationship among the independent clause:s; and the dependent clause:s;. The most common subordinating con"unctions are %after,% %although,% %as,% %because,% %before,% %how,% %if,% %once,% %since,% %than,% %that,% %though,% %till,% %until,% %when,% %where,% %whether,% and %while.% 'ach of the highlighted words in the following sentences is a subordinating con"unction: After she had learned to dri#e, Alice felt more independent. The subordinating con"unction %after% introduces the dependent clause %After she had learned to dri#e.% 1f the paperwork arri#es on time, your che3ue will be mailed on Tuesday. ,imilarly, the subordinating con"unction %if% introduces the dependent clause %2f the paperwork arri#es on time.% +erald had to begin his thesis o#er again when his computer crashed. The subordinating con"unction %when% introduces the dependent clause %when his computer crashed.% $idwifery ad#ocates argue that home births are safer because the mother and baby are e)posed to fewer people and fewer germs. 2n this sentence, the dependent clause %because the mother and baby are e)posed to fewer people and fewer germs% is introduced by the subordinating con"unction %because.%

orrelative on#unctions
orrelative con#unctions always appear in pairs (( you use them to link e3ui#alent sentence elements. The most common correlati#e con"unctions are %both...and,% %either...or,% %neither...nor,%, %not only...but also,% %so...as,% and %whether...or.% :Technically correlati#e con"unctions consist simply of a co(ordinating con"unction linked to an ad"ecti#e or ad#erb.; The highlighted words in the following sentences are correlati#e con"unctions: +oth my grandfather and my father worked in the steel plant.

2n this sentence, the correlati#e con"unction %both...and% is used to link the two noun phrases that act as the compound sub"ect of the sentence: %my grandfather% and %my father%. ring either a =ello salad or a potato scallop. 4ere the correlati#e con"unction %either...or% links two noun phrases: %a =ello salad% and %a potato scallop.% !orinne is trying to decide whether to go to medical school or to go to law school. ,imilarly, the correlati#e con"unction %whether ... or% links the two infiniti#e phrases %to go to medical school% and %to go to law school.% The e)plosion destroyed not only the school but also the neighbouring pub. 2n this e)ample the correlati#e con"unction %not only ... but also% links the two noun phrases :%the school% and %neighbouring pub%; which act as direct ob"ects. Note: some words which appear as con"unctions can also appear as prepositions or as ad#erbs.

Written by Heather MacFadyen

What is an 1nter#ection?
An inter#ection is a word added to a sentence to con#ey emotion. 2t is not grammatically related to any other part of the sentence. 8ou usually follow an inter"ection with an e)clamation mark. 2nter"ections are uncommon in formal academic prose, e)cept in direct 3uotations. The highlighted words in the following sentences are inter"ections: (uch, that hurtC (h no, 2 forgot that the e)am was today. "eyC 6ut that downC 2 heard one guy say to another guy, %4e has a new car, eh5% 2 don0t know about you but, good lord, 2 think ta)es are too highC

Written by Heather MacFadyen