ROBO VENTURE 1

Ok right, we are then ready to start off into the world of robotics. Almost all of us had hardly any practical experience with simple electronics and now this is ROBOTICS. Huge leap I guess. Well Ill try to make it as simple as I can. So get ready to soar away

Concept#1
This was never the big Q What is a voltage or a voltage level?, but it always creates doubts. So read along very carefully. Voltage level could be a wire placed at a particular volt or a path on the circuit board. There is nothing called an absolute voltage, a voltage /potential is with respect to another point. When we say This battery is of 12 volts , we mean the battery is of +12 volts with respect to the ve terminal (Did u get it??).There is always a reference for the measurement of the voltage/potential. That reference is often called the ground. Now people try to think ground in terms of a pin of an IC (integrated circuit) or the negative pin of the battery. If you do, then please stop doing that. Ground is a concept, ground is voltage level with which all the references are made. So we can call any level on our circuit as ground, all other voltages being measured with respect to it. Our ICs will need 5 volts for operation, the motors will need 12 Volts & LEDs may need 3 volts, so we will have four voltage levels in our circuit. The voltage levels are: Gnd (ground) b. 12 Voltage level c. 5 Voltage level d. 3 Voltage level The batterys negative pin is always (almost) connected to the Gnd (ground) because we get a +ve voltage with respect to it from the +ve pin.

Concept#2
Understanding the circuit diagrams and your connections are very important. Read this very carefully. I hope you have understood the very concept of ground and voltage level quite well. A circuit will constitute of various lesser circuits. In our venture into the world of robotics we shall learn those lesser circuit (the building blocks of main circuit). The lesser circuits have a definite function and definite connection. Now when you have a circuit diagram having a lot wiring and connections then try to identify the lesser circuits and find their functions independent of others. This way you will be able to understand the circuits better. These two circuits are for glowing of led, do you realize that these two are absolutely the same. I have taken the

negative as Gnd and hence the V voltage level is created at the top

Multimeter
With the help of a multimeter you can measure resistance, current, voltage & continuity. Measuring Resistance: Connect the black cable of the multimeter to the common socket(COM) & the red cable to the middle socket(V mA).Let us assume that you are trying to measure 10K (but you dont know for sure) resistance . Set the knob at the 200, if you get a 1 then the voltage you are measuring is higher than 200, hence change to 2000, even now you get 1 it means the resistanc e is higher than 2000. Similarly continue. Measuring Voltage: Let us assume you are trying to measure 15 volts from a source, set knob at 20 V . Now touch the black pin to the reference point and the red pin to the voltage of the point you want to measure. The voltage 15 will be displayed, if you get a ve value it means the black pin is at higher potential than the red pin .If you obtain a 1 on the LCD then the voltage you are measuring is higher than the voltage set (at the knob).If you want to measure the voltage drop across a resistance or a led connect the pins of multimeter in parallel. Have a look at the diagrams. I guess you have understood how and where to connect the multimeter for voltage measurement. For voltage drop across the resistance connect the multimeter to point A and point B . Measuring Current: Now be careful, first do some calculations and if the current you are measuring is less than 200mA, then set the knob at 200mA. Connect the pins of the multimeter in series (when the current mode is set the multimeter acts as a

wire with little resistance). If you feel the current is more than 200mA then change the red wire to the upper socket (10A), then

change the knob to 10A mode. Putthe wires of multimeter in series and check the current. Warning: Dont use the multimeter to measure current in parallel, your multimeter will get damaged. (Try to figure out why) Life is a hell for robotics hobbyist if we dont have a multimeter. It is rare never to have problems with the circuits you t ry out and for newbie success: failure is 1:9. So get ready to DEBUG/TROUBLESHOOT Follow the following steps: 1. Check (specially for the ICs) if anything is getting heated up abnormally if yes then cutoff the power supply and check t he connections again 2. Never use loose or unsoldered parts(like loose wire dangling from potentiometer),temporary connection are quick but the problem they create are hellish 3. Check if the battery is charged and can produce the required voltage (with a multimeter).In caseyou are using a transformer do the same checks. 4. Make sure all the wiring of the breadboard is tight. Use continuity tester to make sure of the connections 5. If you are using a breadboard, check if the input(+ve & ve from battery) reaches the Voltage regulator IC(like 7805/LM317).Check if the voltage levels(output of regulators) are at the required voltage(5Volts, 3.7Volts & whatever) 6. Remember all the checks are done with the help of a multimeter. Connect the black pin to the Gnd(ground) and check all other voltage with the red pin( taking Gnd as the reference) 7. Break the main circuit into the lesser circuits(of course in your mind) and analyze them separately 8. Check if the ICs(like LM324, ic555,ULN2803) are receiving the Vcc and Gnd at Correct pins(dont interchange Gnd and Vcc) 9. Check if all the voltage/Potential dividers produce the required voltage. 10. Check if the ICs are getting the proper inputs( lets take the case of the +ve & ve inputs of LM324 ) 11. Ask your friends if you are not able to sort out the problem All that I have said in the debugging part may not make sense at this time but dont worry, go ahead . Things will clear themselves up. Breadboard

Do you see the dark lines drawn over the photo of the breadboard? Well those lines represent the internal connections of the breadboard. As you can see the two outer rows on either side are connected horizontally (internally).Please note that there is a GAP between the two outer rows. The five holes inside (marked A, B, C, D, and E) are vertically connected. You can even see each of those columns are numbered from 160. ICs are connected across the rift (shown in photo). A, B, C, D, E are connected, hence when a pin is connected, it has four other holes for connection. All the ground should be connected (as mentioned there is a gap so you have to manually connect them). I have marked the Vcc 1, Vcc 2, Vcc 3, and Vcc 4. It means you can keep those rows at different Voltage levels with respect to the common ground. If you dont need so many different levels then connect those together, if you need two voltage levels, lets say 5volts for ICs and 12 volts for Motors then yo u may keep Vcc 3 & Vcc 4 at 5Volts and Vcc 1 and Vcc 2 at 12 Volts or any combination that you wish. Power supply is to be taken from Gnd (ground) & Vcc Wiring on the bread board is not permanent (like soldering) connection, so we need to have a good wiring practice for breadboard otherwise our circuits will not work most of the time. Good wiring diagram is given below.

Resistors
Resistors offer a resistance to the flow of current. Resistors are mainly classified according to their resistance values and their power ratings. The ones that are available in the shops are of 1/4W which we mainly use. P=I2 R, P=Power consumed/Heat produced, I=Current through the resistor, R=value of resistance We generally use them as: 1. Voltage divider 2. Current limiter 3.Current sensor Voltage divider: The figure at the left shows the diagram of a potential/voltage divider.A potential/voltage is connected to ground at one end and the voltage V (which we want to divide) at the other. The divided voltage V d is obtained in between the two resistances. Let us analyze The total resistance between Gnd and V is (R1+R2), so current through the resistors is i=V/(R1+R2) the current "i" flows from V to Gnd Now the drop across the resistor R1 is iR1 i.e. VR1/(R1+R2) So the voltage at middle point Vd=V-iR1=V- VR1/(R1+R2)= VR2/(R1+R2)

Current limiter: A LED generally works at 34 Volts, so if we give it a direct power supply of 5Volts then it will burn off as lot of current passes through the LED and it BOOMS (nah it doesnt make a sound). If we put a resistance in series then the total resistance in series increases and hence

the current decreases. Since current decreases the voltage across the LED also decreases to 34 Volts (the safe working voltage for LED)

POTENTIOMETER (POT ')

A Potentiometer has three terminals. As you can see down below this is the internal construction of the potentiometer. Do you see the dark 270o curve, which is a curved strip of resistive material? Now you all know the resistance increases with length, this is how a potentiometer works. There is a definite stretch of resistive material between A and B, so the resistance between the points A and B is constant. This value of resistance specifies the value of potentiometer; if the resistance between point A and B is 100K then we call it a 100K Potentiometer. Now let us come to the point w. The point w is connected to the wiper. This wiper touches the resistive material and moves along curve. As it moves along the curve, the length of resistive path between A and W changes, hence the resistance. Now, did you note that the length of the resistive path also changes between W and B? So when we turn the dial of the potentiometer clockwise The resistance between A and B remains constant The resistance between A and W remains increases The resistance between W and B remains decreases Potentiometers are used as: 1. Voltage divider

2. Variable resistor The standard symbol for a potentiometer The above figure shows the different types of potentiometers available in the market. The first potentiometer is mainly used when you want to change the value of resistance rarely and the second one used when you had to vary resistance frequently. The resistors of the first type are easy to be inserted in the breadboard and they remain fixed. Make this completely clear to yourself, that a Potentiometer as a variable resistor and a Potentiometer as a voltage divider are completely different from each other. Please never, never confuse both of them. Potentiometer as a variable resistance: You now understand how the resistance changes (between A and W / W and B) as we turn the dial/wiper. This is how it is used as a variable resistor. We only take two varying points, either (A and W) or (W and B), and on turning the knob/wiper we obtain a variable resistance. NOTE: While using a potentiometer as a variable resistor leave the third pin open.

Potentiometer as a potential divider: Now we know what a potential divider is. But still, Id like to remind you of it again. A potential has two resistances connected between GROUND and V (voltage you want to divide). So one end is GROUND and other is V. So at the centre you get the voltage. The divided voltage is : Vd=VR2/(R1+R2) Now let us have a look at the potentiometer and think how it can be used as a voltage/potential divider. As we move the wiper the value of R1 and R2 changes and hence we get the divided voltage, Vd at W (the middle pin of potentiometer)

CONSTRUCTION

Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with connections at both ends and a wiper which moves along the track as you turn the spindle. The track may be made from carbon, cermet (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for low resistances). The track is usually rotary but straight track versions, usually called sliders, are also available. Variable resistors may be used as a rheostat with two connections (the wiper and just one end of the track) or as a potentiometer with all three connections in use. Miniature versions called presets are made for setting up circuits which will not require further adjustment. Variable resistors are often called potentiometers in books and catalogues. They are specified by their maximum resistance, linear or logarithmic track, and their physical size. The standard spindle diameter is 6mm. The resistance and type of track are marked on the body: 4K7 LIN means 4.7 k linear track. 1M LOG means 1 M logarithmic track.

Some variable resistors are designed to be mounted directly on the circuit board, but most are for mounting through a hole drilled in the case containing the circuit with stranded wire connecting their terminals to the circuit board.

LINEAR (LIN) AND LOGARITHMIC (LOG) TRACKS

Linear (LIN) track means that the resistance changes at a constant rate as you move the wiper. This is the standard arrangement and you should assume this type is required if a project does not specify the type of track. Presets always have linear tracks. Logarithmic (LOG) track means that the resistance changes slowly at one end of the track and rapidly at the other end, so halfway along the track is not half the total resistance! This arrangement is used for volume (loudness) controls because the human ear has a logarithmic response to loudness so fine control (slow change) is required at low volumes and coarser control (rapid change) at high volumes. It is important to connect the ends of the track the correct way round, if you find that turning the spindle increases the volume rapidly followed by little further change you should swap the connections to the ends of the track.

RHEOSTAT
This is the simplest way of using a variable resistor. Two terminals are used: one connected to an end of the track, the other to the moveable wiper. Turning the spindle changes the resistance between the two terminals from zero up to the maximum resistance. Rheostats are often used to vary current, for example to control the brightness of a lamp or the rate at which a capacitor charges. If the rheostat is mounted on a printed circuit board you may find that all three terminals are connected! However, one of them will be linked to the wiper terminal. This improves the mechanical strength of the mounting but it serves no function electrically.

Rheostat Symbol

POTENTIOMETER
Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all three terminals connected. This arrangement is normally used to vary voltage, for example to set the switching point of a circuit with a sensor, or control the volume (loudness) in an amplifier circuit. If the terminals at Potentiometer Symbol the ends of the track are connected across the power supply then the wiper terminal will provide a voltage which can be varied from zero up to the maximum of the supply.

Presets These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor. They are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. For example to set the frequency of an alarm tone or the sensitivity of a light-sensitive circuit. A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust presets. Presets are much cheaper than standard variable resistors so they are sometimes used in projects where a standard variable resistor would normally be used.

Preset Symbol

Multiturn presets are used adjustments must be made. many times (10+) to move the track to the other, giving

Preset (open style)

Presets (closed style)

Multiturn preset

where very precise The screw must be turned the slider from one end of very fine control.

CAPACITOR
A capacitor is used to store charge. Like resistors there are fixed as well as variable capacitors also. But we use fixed capacitor in robotics most of the time; variable capacitors often find their application in analog communication. There are capacitors with no polarity and polarity. Ceramic and Mica capacitors available have nopolarity, but electrolytic capacitors have a polarity. Their symbols also differ. On the body of the electrolytic capacitor ve symbol is shown. Be careful about electr olytic capacitor because inverting polarity can cause the capacitor to explode. Every capacitor has two factors value of its capacitance and the other, the maximum voltage rating. Capacitances vary from 22pF to about 15000uF. Values <.1uF are mainly mica and ceramic capacitors and C>=1uF are electrolytic capacitors. See the maximum voltage ratings of capacitor when you select electrolytic capacitors Polarised (> 1F) | Unpolarised (< 1F) | Real Values | Variable & trimmers Function Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistors in timing circuits because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.

Capacitance This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that more charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is very large, so prefixes are used to show the smaller values. Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, (micro), n (nano) and p (pico): means 10-6 (millionth), so 1000000F = 1F n means 10-9 (thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1F p means 10-12 (million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types of capacitor with different labelling systems! There are many types of capacitor but they can be split into two groups, polarised and unpolarised. Each group has its own circuit symbol.

Polarised capacitors (large values, 1F +)

Examples: Circuit symbol: Electrolytic Capacitors Electrolytic capacitors are polarised and they must be connected the correct way round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -. They are not damaged by heat when soldering. There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached to each end (220F in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end (10F in picture). Radial capacitors tend to be a little smaller and they stand upright on the circuit board. It is easy to find the value of electrolytic capacitors because they are clearly printed with their capacitance and voltage rating. The voltage rating can be quite low (6V for example) and it should always be checked when selecting an electrolytic capacitor. It the project parts list does not specify a voltage, choose a capacitor with a rating which is greater than the project's power supply voltage. 25V is a sensible minimum for most battery circuits. Tantalum Bead Capacitors Tantalum bead capacitors are polarised and have low voltage ratings like electrolytic capacitors. They are expensive but very small, so they are used where a large capacitance is needed in a small size.

Modern tantalum bead capacitors are printed with their capacitance, voltage and polarity in full. However older ones use a colour-code system which has two stripes (for the two digits) and a spot of colour for the number of zeros to give the value in F. The standard colour code is used, but for the spot, grey is used to mean 0.01 and white means 0.1 so that values of less than 10F can be shown. A third colour stripe near the leads shows the voltage (yellow 6.3V, black 10V, green 16V, blue 20V, grey 25V, white 30V, pink 35V). The positive (+) lead is to the right when the spot is facing you: 'when the spot is in sight, the positive is to the right'. For example: blue, grey, black spot means 68F For example: blue, grey, white spot means 6.8F For example: blue, grey, grey spot means 0.68F

Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1F)

Examples: Circuit symbol: Small value capacitors are unpolarised and may be connected either way round. They are not damaged by heat when soldering, except for one unusual type (polystyrene). They have high voltage ratings of at least 50V, usually 250V or so. It can be difficult to find the values of these small capacitors because there are many types of them and several different labelling systems! Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier, so you need to use experience to work out what the multiplier should be! Colour Code For example 0.1 means 0.1F = 100nF. Sometimes the multiplier is used in place of the decimal point: For example: 4n7 means Colour Number 4.7nF. Black 0 Capacitor Number Code A number code is often used on small capacitors where printing is difficult: Brown 1 the 1st number is the 1st digit, Red 2 the 2nd number is the 2nd digit, the 3rd number is the number of zeros to give the capacitance in pF. Orange 3 Ignore any letters - they just indicate tolerance and voltage rating. Yellow 4 For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF!) For example: 472J means 4700pF = 4.7nF (J means 5% tolerance). Green 5 Capacitor Colour Code Blue 6 A colour code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is now obsolete, but of course there are many still around. The colours should be read like the resistor code, the top three colour bands giving the Violet 7 value in pF. Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band (voltage rating). Grey 8 For example: brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF = 0.01F. White 9 Note that there are no gaps between the colour bands, so 2 identical bands actually appear as a wide band. For example: wide red, yellow means 220nF = 0.22F. Polystyrene Capacitors This type is rarely used now. Their value (in pF) is normally printed without units. Polystyrene capacitors can be damaged by heat when soldering (it melts the polystyrene!) so you should use a heat sink (such as a crocodile clip). Clip the heat sink to the lead between the capacitor and the joint.

Real capacitor values (the E3 and E6 series) You may have noticed that capacitors are not available with every possible value, for example 22F and 47F are readily available, but 25F and 50F are not! Why is this? Imagine that you decided to make capacitors every 10F giving 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 and so on. That seems fine, but what happens when you reach 1000? It would be pointless to make 1000, 1010, 1020, 1030 and so on because for these values 10 is a very small difference, too small to be noticeable in most circuits and capacitors cannot be made with that accuracy. To produce a sensible range of capacitor values you need to increase the size of the 'step' as the value increases. The standard capacitor values are based on this idea and they form a series which follows the same pattern for every multiple of ten. The E3 series (3 values for each multiple of ten) 10, 22, 47, ... then it continues 100, 220, 470, 1000, 2200, 4700, 10000 etc. Notice how the step size increases as the value increases (values roughly double each time).

The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten) 10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68, ... then it continues 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 etc. Notice how this is the E3 series with an extra value in the gaps. The E3 series is the one most frequently used for capacitors because many types cannot be made with very accurate values.

Variable capacitors Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they are sometimes called 'tuning capacitors'. They have very small capacitance values, typically between 100pF and 500pF (100pF = 0.0001F). The type illustrated usually has trimmers built in (for making small adjustments - see below) as well as the main variable capacitor. Many variable capacitors have very short spindles which are not suitable for the standard knobs used for variable resistors and rotary switches. It would be wise to check that a suitable knob is available before ordering a variable capacitor.

Variable capacitors are not normally used in timing circuits because their capacitance is too small to be practical and the range of values available is very limited. Instead timing circuits use a fixed capacitor and a variable resistor if it is necessary to vary the time period.

Trimmer capacitors Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors. They are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust trimmers. The process of adjusting them requires patience because the presence of your hand and the tool will slightly change the capacitance of the circuit in the region of the trimmer! Trimmer capacitors are only available with very small capacitances, normally less than 100pF. It is impossible to reduce their capacitance to zero, so they are usually specified by their minimum and maximum values, for example 2-10pF. Trimmers are the capacitor equivalent of presets which are miniature variable resistors.

Variable Capacitor

Diodes
Diodes are two terminal devices which conduct electricity in one direction. Current flows from the anode to the Trimmer Capacitor cathode when the diode is forward biased. In a normal forward biased diode, energy is dissipated as heat in the junction, but in LEDs energy is dissipated as visible light. In robotics we use normal diodes as freewheeling /protection diode (you will come to know of it in relays) or to make a power supply (rectification circuit). LED's are of two types IR LED and normal LED. IR LED emits Infra Red radiations while normal LED emits visible light. So lets first talk about a normal diode. The diodes mostly used as freewheeling diodes for motors and relays are 1N4001 or 1N4007. These also find application in the Hbridge also. The drop across a Diode is very less, it ranges from 0.68 0 .8 Volts Signal diodes | Rectifier diodes | Bridge rectifiers | Zener diodes

Example: Circuit symbol: Function Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early diodes were actually called valves. Forward Voltage Drop Electricity uses up a little energy pushing its way through the diode, rather like a person pushing through a door with a spring. This means that there is a small voltage across a conducting diode, it is called the forward voltage drop and is about 0.7V for all normal diodes which are made from silicon. The forward voltage drop of a diode is almost constant whatever the current passing through the diode so they have a very steep characteristic (current-voltage graph). Reverse Voltage When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, but all real diodes leak a very tiny current of a few A or less. This can be ignored in most circuits because it will be very much smaller than the current flowing in the forward direction. However, all diodes have a maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded the diode will fail and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is called breakdown.

Ordinary diodes can be split into two types: Signal diodes which pass small currents of 100mA or less and Rectifier diodes which can pass large currents. In addition there are LEDs (which have their own page) and Zener diodes (at the bottom of this page). Connecting and soldering Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is marked by a line painted on the body. Diodes are labelled with their code in small print, you may need a magnifying glass to read this on small signal diodes! Small signal diodes can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are using a germanium diode (codes beginning OA...) in which case you should use a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint and the diode body. A standard crocodile clip can be used as a heat sink. Rectifier diodes are quite robust and no special precautions are needed for soldering them.

Testing diodes You can use a multimeter or a simple tester (battery, resistor and LED) to check that a diode conducts in one direction but not the other. A lamp may be used to test a rectifier diode, but do NOT use a lamp to test a signal diode because the large current passed by the lamp will destroy the diode!

Signal diodes (small current) Signal diodes are used to process information (electrical signals) in circuits, so they are only required to pass small currents of up to 100mA. General purpose signal diodes such as the 1N4148 are made from silicon and have a forward voltage drop of 0.7V. Germanium diodes such as the OA90 have a lower forward voltage drop of 0.2V and this makes them suitable to use in radio circuits as detectors which extract the audio signal from the weak radio signal. For general use, where the size of the forward voltage drop is less important, silicon diodes are better because they are less easily damaged by heat when soldering, they have a lower resistance when conducting, and they have very low leakage currents when a reverse voltage is applied. Protection diodes for relays Signal diodes are also used with relays to protect transistors and integrated circuits from the brief high voltage produced when the relay coil is switched off. The diagram shows how a protection diode is connected across the relay coil, note that the diode is connected 'backwards' so that it will normally NOT conduct. Conduction only occurs when the relay coil is switched off, at this moment current tries to continue flowing through the coil and it is harmlessly diverted through the diode. Without the diode no current could flow and the coil would produce a damaging high voltage 'spike' in its attempt to keep the current flowing.

Rectifier diodes (large current) Rectifier diodes are used in power supplies to convert alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process called rectification. They are also used elsewhere in circuits where a large current must pass through the diode. All rectifier diodes are made from silicon and therefore have a forward voltage drop of 0.7V. The table shows maximum current and maximum reverse voltage for some popular rectifier diodes. The 1N4001 is suitable for most low voltage circuits with a current of less than 1A.

Diode

Maximum Maximum Reverse Current Voltage 50V 100V 1000V

1N4001 1A 1N4002 1A 1N4007 1A

1N5401 3A 100V Bridge rectifiers 1N5408 3A 1000V There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The bridge rectifier is one of them and it is available in special packages containing the four diodes required. Bridge rectifiers are rated by their maximum current and maximumreverse voltage. They have four leads or terminals: the two DC outputs are labelled + and -, the two AC inputs are labelled . The diagram shows the operation of a bridge rectifier as it converts AC to DC. Notice how alternate pairs of diodes conduct.

Various types of Bridge Rectifiers Note that some have a hole through their centre for attaching to a heat sink Photographs Zener diodes Example: a = anode, k = cathode Circuit symbol:

Zener diodes are used to maintain a fixed voltage. They are designed to 'breakdown' in a reliable and non-destructive way so that they can be used in reverse to maintain a fixed voltage across their terminals. The diagram shows how they are connected, with a resistor in series to limit the current. Zener diodes can be distinguished from ordinary diodes by their code and breakdown voltage which are printed on them. Zener diode codes begin BZX... or BZY... Their breakdown voltage is printed with V in place of a decimal point, so 4V7 means 4.7V for example. Zener diodes are rated by their breakdown voltage and maximum power: The minimum voltage available is 2.7V. Power ratings of 400mW and 1.3W are common.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE (LED)

The main specification of LED (Blue & White): Current rating=20mA, Typical cut in voltage=2V Life time=2lakh hours Typical voltage=3.5V Maximum voltage is around 4.5V The main specification of LED (Red & Orange): Current rating=20mA, Typical cut in voltage=1.5V Life time=2lakh hours Typical voltage=1.9V (Orange & Small Red)/1.80(Red) Maximum voltage=2.1 (Orange & small Red)/1.9V (Red) Use this circuit on breadboard to determine the resistance in series (for a particular Vcc) which you must use with the led for proper working and life of the LED. Usually for medium light series resistance=330 (for Vcc=5V). The maximum value of 470 can be inserted for a small light. NOTE: Always try to experiment; you dont have to follow everything I say. Whats the fun in learning robotics without making a single mistake?

Example: Circuit Function LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them. Connecting and soldering

symbol:

LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelled a or + for anode and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is the short lead and there may be a slight flat on the body of round LEDs. If you can see inside the LED the cathode is the larger electrode (but this is not an official identification method). LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are very slow. No special precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs. Testing an LED Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply! It will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass through and burn it out. LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe value, for quick testing purposes a 1k resistor is suitable for most LEDs if your supply voltage is 12V or less. Remember to connect the LED the correct way round! For an accurate value please see Calculating an LED resistor value below.

Colours of LEDs LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, blue and white. Blue and white LEDs are much more expensive than the other colours. The colour of an LED is determined by the semiconductor material, not by the colouring of the 'package' (the plastic body). LEDs of all colours are available in uncoloured packages which may be diffused (milky) or clear (often described as 'water clear'). The coloured packages are also available as diffused (the standard type) or transparent. Tri-colour LEDs The most popular type of tri-colour LED has a red and a green LED combined in one package with three leads. They are called tri-colour because mixed red and green light appears to be yellow and this is produced when both the red and green LEDs are on. The diagram shows the construction of a tri-colour LED. Note the different lengths of the three leads. The centre lead (k) is the common cathode for both LEDs, the outer leads (a1 and a2) are the anodes to the LEDs allowing each one to be lit separately, or both together to give the third colour. Bi-colour LEDs A bi-colour LED has two LEDs wired in 'inverse parallel' (one forwards, one backwards) combined in one package with two leads. Only one of the LEDs can be lit at one time and they are less useful than the tri-colour LEDs described above. Sizes, Shapes and Viewing angles of LEDs LEDs are available in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. The 'standard' LED has a round cross-section of 5mm diameter and this is probably the best type for general use, but 3mm round LEDs are also popular. Round cross-section LEDs are frequently used and they are very easy to install on boxes by drilling a hole of the LED diameter, adding a spot of glue will help to hold the LED if necessary. LED clips are also available to secure LEDs in holes. Other cross-section shapes include square, rectangular and triangular. As well as a variety of colours, sizes and shapes, LEDs also vary in their viewing angle. This tells you how LED Clip much the beam of light spreads out. Standard LEDs have a viewing angle of 60 but others have a narrow Photograph beam of 30 or less.

Calculating an LED resistor value An LED must have a resistor connected in series to limit the current through the LED, otherwise it will burn out almost instantly. The resistor value, R is given by: R = (VS - VL) / I VS = supply voltage VL = LED voltage (usually 2V, but 4V for blue and white LEDs) I = LED current (e.g. 20mA), this must be less than the maximum permitted

If the calculated value is not available choose the nearest standard resistor value which is greater, so that the current will be a little less than you chose. In fact you may wish to choose a greater resistor value to reduce the current (to increase battery life for example) but this will make the LED less bright. For example If the supply voltage VS = 9V, and you have a red LED (VL = 2V), requiring a current I = 20mA = 0.020A, R = (9V - 2V) / 0.02A = 350 , so choose 390 (the nearest standard value which is greater). Working out the LED resistor formula using Ohm's law Ohm's law says that the resistance of the resistor, R = V/I, where: V = voltage across the resistor (= VS - VL in this case) I = the current through the resistor So R = (VS - VL) / I

Connecting LEDs in series If you wish to have several LEDs on at the same time it may be possible to connect them in series. This prolongs battery life by lighting several LEDs with the same current as just one LED. All the LEDs connected in series pass the same current so it is best if they are all the same type. The power supply must have sufficient voltage to provide about 2V for each LED (4V for blue and white) plus at least another 2V for the resistor. To work out a value for the resistor you must add up all the LED voltages and use this for VL. Example calculations: A red, a yellow and a green LED in series need a supply voltage of at least 3 2V + 2V = 8V, so a 9V battery would be ideal. VL = 2V + 2V + 2V = 6V (the three LED voltages added up). If the supply voltage VS is 9V and the current I must be 15mA = 0.015A, Resistor R = (VS - VL) / I = (9 - 6) / 0.015 = 3 / 0.015 = 200 , so choose R = 220 (the nearest standard value which is greater).

Avoid connecting LEDs in parallel! Connecting several LEDs in parallel with just one resistor shared between them is generally not a good idea. If the LEDs require slightly different voltages only the lowest voltage LED will light and it may be destroyed by the larger current flowing through it. Although identical LEDs can be successfully connected in parallel with one resistor this rarely offers any useful benefit because resistors are very cheap and the current used is the same as connecting the LEDs individually. If LEDs are in parallel each one should have its own resistor.

Reading a table of technical data for LEDs Suppliers' catalogues usually include tables of technical data for components such as LEDs. These tables contain a good deal of useful information in a compact form but they can be difficult to understand if you are not familiar with the abbreviations used. The table below shows typical technical data for some 5mm diameter round LEDs with diffused packages (plastic bodies). Only three columns are important and these are shown in bold. Please see below for explanations of the quantities. Type Standard Standard Standard Standard Super bright Low current IF max. Colour Red Yellow Green Red Red IF VF max. typ. VF VR Luminous max. max. intensity 5mcd @ 10mA Viewing Wavelength angle 60 660nm 625nm 590nm 565nm 430nm 660nm 625nm

30mA 1.7V 2.1V 5V 30mA 2.1V 2.5V 5V 25mA 2.2V 2.5V 5V 30mA 4.5V 5.5V 5V 30mA 1.85V 2.5V 5V 30mA 1.7V 2.0V 5V

Bright red 30mA 2.0V 2.5V 5V

80mcd @ 10mA 60 32mcd @ 10mA 60 32mcd @ 10mA 60 60mcd @ 20mA 50 500mcd @ 20mA 60 5mcd @ 2mA 60

High intensity Blue

Maximum forward current, forward just means with the LED connected correctly.

VF typ. VF max. VR max.

Typical forward voltage, VL in the LED resistor calculation. This is about 2V, except for blue and white LEDs for which it is about 4V. Maximum forward voltage. Maximum reverse voltage You can ignore this for LEDs connected the correct way round. Standard LEDs have a viewing angle of 60, others emit a narrower beam of about 30. The peak wavelength of the light emitted, this determines the colour of the LED. nm = nanometre.

Luminous intensity Brightness of the LED at the given current, mcd = millicandela. Viewing angle Wavelength

Flashing LEDs Flashing LEDs look like ordinary LEDs but they contain an integrated circuit (IC) as well as the LED itself. The IC flashes the LED at a low frequency, typically 3Hz (3 flashes per second). They are designed to be connected directly to a supply, usually 9 - 12V, and no series resistor is required. Their flash frequency is fixed so their use is limited and you may prefer to build your own circuit to flash an ordinary LED, for example our Flashing LED project which uses a 555 astable circuit. LED Displays LED displays are packages of many LEDs arranged in a pattern, the most familiar pattern being the 7-segment displays for showing numbers (digits 0-9). The pictures below illustrate some of the popular designs:

Bargraph

7-segment Starburst

Dot matrix

Infrared LED The main difference between LED and IR LED is that IR LED emits Infrared Radiations, which we cannot see by our visible eye(Its visible through cell phone and digital cameras). The second difference is that IR LED consumes a lot of current and gets damaged faster than LED's. The (IR sensor, IR LED pair) is less prone to external light effects compared to LDR+LED combination. NOTE: IR LED gets heated fast. Remember that IR LED always creates too many problems. It puts a lot of pressure on the battery and the voltage regulators. Make sure that the voltage across the IR LED doesnt exceed 1.4 volts. If possible obtain the data sheet of the IR LED and check the specifications of the working voltage and the current. I did a small test on the commonly available IR LED (With a violet plastic) 20mA, 1.16 volts across the IR LED 50mA, 1.25 volts across the IR LED 100mA, 1.30 volts across the IR LED I wouldnt advise you to go above 100mA of current through the IR LED (If you find that the sensor is not responding well to the reflected IR from a distant object then test by increasing the current in steps of 10 mA till u reach a satisfactory response). More current means more power consumption resulting in lesser battery life. Sensor Sensors are the circuit components which aid the robots in interacting with the outside world. Various types of the sensors that we commonly use in robotics are: LDRLight Dependent Resistor Infrared (IR) sensor TSOP 1738 GP2D120 Temperature sensor LM35 Acceleration sensors Condenser mic In all the sensors some electrical property changes, be it the output voltage or resistance. As a microcontroller accepts voltages only, all the information from the sensor should be in the form of voltage. So we have to convert the output into voltage for

those sensors whose output is not in the form of a voltage. The output of TSOP 1738, LM35, GP2D120 & Acceleration sensors is a voltage. So we can directly feed them into microcontroller (C). The resistance of LDR, IR Sensor & Condenser mic changes with the visible light, Infrared light & sound respectively. So we have to convert this change in resistance into change of voltage. This can be done by the use of Voltage/Potential divider (Etch this into your mind) Dont proceed further if you havent understo od how the Potential/Voltage divider functions. Go to the potentiometer page and understand the concept of potentiometer completely. The figure on the left represents a voltage divider. A voltage divider requires a minimum of two resistances (here R1 & R2) and two voltage levels (here Gnd & V). The voltage produced is Vd=VR2/(R1+R2)

So if we replace one of the resistances by LDR, it will still be a Voltage divider and still produce Vd. Hence, when the intensity of light varies, the resistance of the LDR (RLDR) varies and so does Vd. This is how we convert a resistance change into a voltage change Now lets analyze the sensors. You now know how to convert the resistance into voltage, but have you given a thought, what is the difference if LDR is placed in place of R1 & R2 .Do you realize why I have placed a potentiometer( as a variable resistance) in place of R2. What should be the value of that variable resistance? Could it be replaced by a fixed resistance? What should be its value? Well to explain all that here is insensible so we will know and understand these questions as we read along.