Grammar Reference

Unit 1
Present perfect simple
We use the present perfect for actions that happened at an unspecified time in the past. We also use the present perfect for actions that have recently been completed.

Unit 2
Determiners
Determiners are used before a noun and include articles (a, an and the) and quantifiers (all, any, both, each, every, few, etc.). Most quantifiers can be used with the preposition of, e.g. most of, a few of, several of.

Ive visited Paris so many times. Daves had a motorbike accident. Hes in hospital at the moment. Present perfect continuous
We use the present perfect continuous for actions that started in the past and are still in progress.

Most of the people in the room had known about the surprise guest.
However, no and every cannot be used in this way. Instead, none of and every one of are used.

None of the hotels were suitable for such important visitors. Verb patterns
Some verbs are only followed by the -ing form (avoid, enjoy, imagine, feel, suggest, consider, etc.) and some verbs are only followed by the infinitive form (agree, decide, expect, happen, manage, want, etc.). Some of the possible verb + infinitive structures are: verb + infinitive (agree, promise, seem, expect, refuse, want, etc.)

Hermiones been going out with Frank for six months. Theyre very happy. Past simple
We use the past simple for an action that happened at a specific time in the past and to describe a sequence of short actions in the past.

My grandfather got married in 1945. I went to the shops, bought a book and then went to a caf. The past continuous
We use the past continuous to describe longer actions in the past. It is often used in conjunction with the past simple, which describes a short action that interrupts a longer one.

Mark has agreed to work with Richard on the new project.

verb + object + infinitive with to (force, persuade, allow, inspire, etc.)

My mum allowed me to drive her car to the beach.

verb + object + past participle (get and have)

It was raining. Children were playing in the park. Jack was reading his newspaper when he heard a scream. Past perfect simple
We use the past perfect simple to talk about a completed event or action that happened before another event or action at a specific time in the past.

Rebecca had her hair cut in the new hairdressers on Cowley Road.
There are also some verbs that can be followed by both an -ing form and an infinitive form but with a difference in meaning (remember, try, go on, stop, etc.).

I remember meeting Lord Lucan in Mozambique in 1975. Did you remember to lock the door this morning?

Penny had heard all about the man in the grey suit before she met him at Joes Caf. Past perfect continuous
We use the past perfect continuous with action verbs and for and since to say how long an action had been in progress before a specific time in the past. We also use it to show the cause of something that happened in the past. We dont use the past perfect continuous with state verbs such as be, know, like, etc.

Simon had been driving for two hours when he realised someone was following him. Sir Malcolm was exhausted. Hed been playing golf all afternoon.
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Unit 3
will
We use will to talk about future facts and predictions. It is also used to make instant decisions about the present and to make offers and promises.

Unit 4
Talking about ability
We usually use can or cant to talk about ability in the present.

Phoebe can speak three languages.

We normally use will be able to to talk about ability in the future, although we can use can and cant when we want to talk about future arrangements.

I will be 21 in June. Im so excited. Ill buy you a new coat for your birthday. going to
We use going to to talk about future plans that we have already made. It is also used to make predictions about the future based on what is happening now.

The baby will be able to talk in a years time. I can meet you on Friday but I cant see you at the weekend.
We only use could to talk about general ability in the past. We also use could with verbs of perception such as see, hear, taste, feel and smell.

Tonys going to take us to Great Yarmouth on Sunday. Do you want to come? Look at that man in the red shirt. I think hes going to come over here. Present continuous
The present continuous is used for future arrangements. It is often used to talk about future plans that we have made with other people.

I could swim 100 metres when I was ten years old.

When we talk about past ability on one occasion we use expressions like managed to do or succeeded in doing. However, we can use could with verbs of perception to talk about one occasion in the past, and we can also use the negative form, couldnt, to talk about ability in the past on one occasion.

Im meeting Alicia for drinks tonight and Harry and Chelsea are coming round for dinner tomorrow. Present simple
The present simple is used to talk about future events that are scheduled or timetabled.

In 1996 Arthur managed to climb Mount Everest. On the peak he could see an amazing view of the Himalayas. He couldnt take any photos, though, because his hands were too cold. Nominal clauses
Nominal clauses function as nouns in a sentence. They often begin with that. In formal sentences it is possible to begin a sentence with a nominal clause that begins with that. In informal English, it is usual to use it followed by is, seems, appears, etc.

The bus leaves at 2.15 p.m. and the match starts at 3 p.m. Future continuous
The future continuous is used to talk about an action that will be in progress in the future. It is also used to talk about something that we expect will happen, and to make polite enquiries.

That he spoke to you first is unusual. Its unusual that he spoke to you first.
Nominal clauses can also begin with what and all. What is used to mean the thing which and all is used to mean everything which.

This time next year well be living in Hawaii. Shell probably be cooking dinner when I get home. Will you be wanting ice with your martini, Mr Bond? Future perfect
The future perfect is used to talk about a completed action or event in the future. The future perfect continuous is used to say how long an action in the future has been in progress for.

What I like best about this job are the working hours. All we have achieved in this world we must be thankful for.

By 2012 well have been married for 25 years. Alex will have been driving for eight hours by the time he arrives here.
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Unit 5
Reported speech
Tenses, personal and possessive pronouns, time expressions and demonstrative adjectives are all often changed when we use reported speech.

Unit 6
Question forms
Question words such as what, where, who, etc. are used to make subject and object questions. In object questions the question words are the objects of the question. We use auxiliary verbs between the question word and the subject of the question.

Im going to meet you tomorrow night, said Chris. Chris said he was going to meet her the following evening.
When the reporting verb is in the present simple or the present perfect we dont normally change the tense of the verb in the reported sentence. Neither do we change the tense if we are reporting a past perfect verb or would, could, should and had better.

Where did Maria go? She went to the shop to buy some milk.
In subject questions the question words are the subjects of the questions. We dont use auxiliary verbs in these questions:

Who lives in the old house? Jeff Delaware lives there. Hes 95.
In indirect questions we use affirmative word order and verb forms after the question words.

Im the best player in the world. Ronaldo says hes the best player in the world. You could do a lot better than this, said the teacher. The teacher said we could do a lot better than that.
In reported questions we make the same tense changes as in reported statements. The word order changes in reported questions and we add if / whether when we report questions that require yes / no answers.

Id like to know where Maria went yesterday. Question tags

Question tags are used to turn statements into questions. We add negative tags to affirmative statements, and affirmative tags to negative statements. If the statement includes an auxiliary or modal verb, this is repeated in the tag. If there isnt an auxiliary verb or a modal verb in the statement, we use do or did.

Wheres your mother? asked the police officer. The police officer asked where my mother was. Would you like a cup of coffee? asked the waiter. The waiter asked me if I would like a cup of coffee. Reporting verbs
Apart from say and tell there are a number of verbs that can be used to introduce reported statements. These verbs are used with a variety of structures. verb + infinitive with to

Youre Professor Simpsons wife, arent you? Brian doesnt like coffee, does he? Tag questions
Tag questions are used to respond to a statement. Affirmative tag questions are used with affirmative statements and negative tag questions are used with negative statements.

Octopuses are very intelligent. Sarah doesnt like flying.

Are they? Doesnt she?

We offered to help.
verb + object + infinitive with to

I reminded him to do his homework.

verb + gerund

Unit 7
Advice, obligation and prohibition
We often use must when the speaker wants to express their own feelings about the importance or necessity of something. When the obligation is external and comes from other people, we often prefer to use have to.

Sam suggested going for a pizza.

verb + preposition + gerund

Hes always boasting of being a good footballer.

verb + object + preposition + gerund

She warned us against smoking.

verb + that + should-clause

I really must phone my parents tonight. You have to pay income tax when you get a job.
We use should and ought to to express advice.

He requested that we should pay for it.

You should see a doctor about that cough. You ought to take more exercise.

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We use must to express obligation or an order.

Mixed conditionals
We use the third conditional to refer to hypothetical situations in the past and the second conditional to refer hypothetical situations in the present or future.

Hard hats must be worn on the building site.

We use mustnt to express prohibition.

Visitors mustnt feed the animals.

We use have to to express obligation.

Passengers have to wear seat belts.

We use need to express necessity.

If I had been older, I would have asked her to marry me. If he were a millionaire, hed build a new hospital for the poor.
A mixed conditional refers to both the past and the present. It combines both the third conditional and the second conditional.

We need to buy some food before we go into the jungle.

We use dont have to and neednt to express lack of necessity.

If we hadnt gone the wrong way, we would be at the party now. If I were American, I would have voted for a different president.

Cyclists dont have to wear crash helmets in Britain. Speculating

Modal verbs are used to talk about the certainty or the possibility of something happening. In the present we use must and cant to talk about certainty.

Unit 9
Habitual behaviour in the present
We use the present simple, often with an adverb of frequency, to talk about habits and routines in the present. However, when we want to comment on someones annoying habits in the present we use the present continuous with always. We can also suggest irritation by stressing will when we comment on someones habits.

It must be John. Who else would call on us at this time? It cant be Mary. Shes in New York all week.
We use might, may and could to talk about possibility.

It might be Kathmandu but it could be Lhasa.

In the past we use must have and cant have to talk about certainty. We use might have, may have and could have to talk about possibility.

Matthew gets up every day at half past seven. Hes always slamming the door when he leaves the house. He will speak when were trying to watch TV. Habitual behaviour in the past
We use used to to talk about past states and habits. We also use would to talk about past habits, but not states. We can also suggest irritation by stressing would when we comment on someones habits.

A bird cant have eaten the meat. It might have been a fox or a dog.

Unit 8
Modals in the past
We use should have and ought to have + past participle to say what the right thing to do was.

My granddad used to ride a motorbike to work. When they were children, they would go swimming every summer. She would always keep everyone waiting. Future in the past
We use was going to + infinitive without to when we talk about past things which were still in the future at that time. We also use was about to in this way.

Mary really should have told Barnaby that she was going out with Peter.
We use might have and could have + past participle to complain that somebody didnt do the right thing.

You could have done the washing up before you left the house.
We use neednt have + past participle to talk about something which happened but wasnt necessary.

I neednt have brought a sleeping bag as there were plenty of blankets.

We use didnt need to + infinitive to talk about something which didnt happen because it wasnt necessary.

Ashley was going to leave the house when he noticed the kitchen was on fire. Belinda was about to panic when she remembered what her mother had said.

I didnt need to go shopping this morning because Joanna had ordered everything online.
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Was to and was to have
We use was to + infinitive without to to talk about the future in the past. We use it when we talk about something that actually happened.

Grandpa Joe was to live in that house for the rest of his life.
We use was to have + past participle to talk about something we expected to happen but didnt.

I was to have started a new job in Cairo when I heard the terrible news.

Unit 10
Passive
The passive is formed with the correct form of the verb be + past participle. The passive is used when we dont want to say, or we cant say, who performed the action.

Oh no! My house has been burgled! The train has been delayed by 32 minutes.
The passive is also used to put the main focus at the beginning of the sentence. If we want to say who carried out the action we introduce the persons name with the preposition by.

The president has been shot dead while on holiday. Liverpool were beaten by Horsham in the FA Cup last night. Passives with verbs such as know and believe
Verbs such as know, believe, think, etc. are often used in the passive form after the subject it. it + passive (present or past) + that

It is believed by some people that aliens exist.

These verbs are also frequently used in the following passive structure. subject + passive (present or past) + to do / to have done

The sun was thought to go around the earth. Aliens are thought to have started the human race. Passive verbs with two objects
Verbs such as give, offer, send, award, show, etc. often have two objects, a person and a thing. Either of these objects can become the subject of a passive structure. The choice depends on what you want to make the main focus of the sentence.

Bobby Davro was awarded the Oscar for Best Supporting Actor.

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