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• Locations:
– Liver
– Pancreas
– Thyroid, salivary, and
most other glands
– Most kidney tubules
– Bronchioles (small
tubes within the lungs)
• Functions:
– Absorption
• Kidney tubules
– Microvilli often present
to increase the available
surface area
• Liver
– Secretion
• Kidney tubules
• Liver
• Pancreas
• Thyroid, salivary, and
most other glands
Cross-section of the thyroid gland
Simple Columnar Epithelium
• Microscopic Appearance:
– Single layer of tall, narrow cells.
– Oval or sausage-shaped nuclei,
vertically-oriented, usually located
in the basal half of the cell.
– Secretory vesicles sometimes
visible in apical portion of the cell.
– Microvilli occasionally present.
– Cilia occasionally present.
• Cilia are hair-like extensions of
the cell membrane that can move
and sweep material across the cell
surface
– Goblet cells often interspersed.
• Secrete a lubricating mucus
Simple Columnar Epithelium
• Locations:
– Inner lining of
stomach, intestines,
and rectum.
– Inner lining of
gallbladder
– Inner lining of uterus
and uterine tubes
• Microscopic Appearance:
– 2 or more layers of cells.
– Surface layers are square
or round (cuboidal).
• Locations:
– Some sweat gland ducts.
– Ovarian follicle
• Cells that surround the
developing egg
Stratified
Cuboidal To the left, we
have an oocyte
Epithelium (egg cell)
surrounded by
stratified
• Functions: cuboidal
epithelium. The
– Contributes to oocyte is circled
in blue
sweat secretion.
– Secretion of
ovarian
hormones (e.g.,
estrogens)
Stratified Columnar
Epithelium
• Microscopic Appearance:
– 2 or more layers of cells.
– Surface cells tall and narrow with
basally located nuclei.
• Locations:
– Rare.
– Small portions of anal canal, pharynx,
epiglottis, and male urethra.
– Sometimes seen in large ducts of
sweat and salivary glands.
• Functions:
– Often seen where 2 other tissue types
meet
– Structural integrity of gland ducts
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
• Microscopic Appearance:
– Looks multi-layered, but
it’s NOT!
• All cells touch the
basement membrane.
• In stratified epithelia,
only the bottom cell layer
touches the basement
membrane.
– Cells are of varying heights
which gives the appearance
of stratification. Nuclei are
at several levels.
– Often has goblet cells
interspersed.
– Cells often have cilia.
Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium
• Locations:
– Respiratory tract from nasal cavity to bronchi.
• Ciliated
• Goblet cells
– Portions of male reproductive tract
• Non-ciliated
Ciliated pseudostratified epithelium from the respiratory tract. Do you see how it
appears that there are multiple layers. Do you see the cilia (indicated by the arrow)?
Pseudostratified
Columnar Epithelium
• Functions:
– In the respiratory tract there
are lots of mucus-secreting
goblet cells.
– The mucus traps dust and
bacteria
– Cilia “sweep” the bacteria-
laden mucus up the
respiratory tract towards the
pharynx where it can be
swallowed.
– Smoking paralyzes cilia –
smokers have to cough
violently to expel their
mucus. Then they die!
Here, we have pathogens traveling down the pharynx
trying to attack the surface cells. How can they be
repelled???
The mucosal cells lining the trachea have released a flood of
mucus, trapping the pathogens! Now what???
The cilia successfully sweep the pathogens up and away!
Transitional Epithelium
• Microscopic Appearance:
– Somewhat resembles
stratified squamous
epithelium, but the surface
cells are rounded and often
bulge above surface (dome-
shaped).
– Typically 5-6 cell layers
thick when relaxed and 2-3
cell layers thick when
stretched.
– Cells may be flatter and
thinner when epithelium is
stretched.
– Some cells are binucleate,
i.e., they have 2 nuclei.
Transitional Epithelia
• Locations:
– Predominant epithelium lining
the urinary tract
– Found in part of the kidney, the
ureters (tubes that connect the
kidney to the urinary bladder),
the urinary bladder, and part of
the urethra.
• Functions:
– Stretches to allow filling of the
urinary tract.
– Originally called “transitional”
because it was thought to be an
intermediate between stratified
squamous and stratified
columnar epithelium. This isn’t
true but the name has persisted.
Easy Epithelium Review
Glands Thyroid Gland:
An endocrine
gland
• A gland is a cell or
an organ that
secretes substances
for use inside or
An exocrine
outside the body. gland
• Glands are
composed
predominantly of
epithelial tissue.
Stomach: Both
• Glands are broadly an exocrine and
classified as: an endocrine
gland
1. Endocrine
2. Exocrine
Exocrine Glands
• Typically secrete material into ducts
that lead to the body surface or to
one of the cavities that is continuous
with the body surface, i.e., digestive,
reproductive, respiratory tract.
• Exo = outside and crine = secrete. The parotid gland (a salivary gland)
• Can be multicellular or unicellular.
– Multicellular:
• Pancreas, stomach, sweat glands,
salivary glands, mammary glands,
sebaceous glands, etc.
– Unicellular:
• Goblet cells.
Goblet Cell
Endocrine Glands
• Endo = within.
• Do not secrete material
into ducts.
• Secrete chemical signals
called hormones into the
bloodstream where they
travel through the body
and affect other cells.
• Examples include:
– Thyroid, thymus, testes,
ovaries, pituitary, pineal,
adrenal, etc.
Exocrine Gland Structure
• Exocrine glands are either:
– Simple if their ducts do not
branch.
– Compound if their ducts do Compound
Simple
branch.
• Exocrine glands are further
classified by the shape of their
secretory portion as:
– Tubular if the secretory portion
is the same diameter as the duct.
– Alveolar if the secretory portion
is like a round ball .
– Tubuloalveolar if it’s a
combination of the 2.
Connective
Tissue
1. Binding of organs
2. Support
3. Physical protection
4. Immune protection
5. Movement
6. Storage
7. Heat production
8. Transport
Blood
Fibrous Connective Tissue
• Most diverse type of CT.
• Contain extremely conspicuous fibers – hence the name, fibrous
connective tissue.
• The illustration below shows a 3-D model of some typical CT fibers,
typically made of multiple strong filamentous proteins twisted about one
another.
• Fibrous CT consists of cells, fibers, and something called ground
substance.
• Of these 3, which you do suppose is typically NOT that abundant?
Cells of Fibrous CT:
1. Fibroblasts
– Fibro = fat, blast = making
– Large, flat cells with tapered ends;
produce fibers and ground substance.
– Inactive ones are known as fibrocytes.
• Macrophages
– Macro = large, phage = eating
– Large phagocytic cells that wander
through connective tissue, where they
engulf and destroy bacteria, other
foreign particles, and dead or dying cells
of our own body.
– They activate the immune system when
they encounter foreign matter called
antigens.
– Derived from white blood cells known
as monocytes.
Cells of Fibrous CT
1. Leukocytes
– Leuko = white, cyte = cell
– White blood cells that crawl out of the
bloodstream and spend the majority of
their time in the CT. Many are
phagocytes that wander in search of
pathogens.
2. Plasma Cells
– Certain white blood cells differentiate into
plasma cells when they detect foreign
agents.
– Plasma cells produce and secrete
antibodies (proteins that bind to foreign
molecules (antigens), thus inactivating
them or marking them for future
destruction.
Cells of Fibrous CT
• Mast Cells
– Often found in CT adjacent to
blood vessels.
– Secrete a chemical called
heparin which is an anti-
coagulant and a chemical
called histamine which is a
vasodilator.
• Adipocytes
– Adipo = fat
– Appear in small clusters in
some fibroconnective tissues.
– If they dominate an area, we
call that area adipose tissue.
– Contain huge droplets of
lipids for storage.
Fibers in Fibrous Connective Tissue:
1. Collagenous Fibers
2. Reticular Fibers
3. Elastic Fibers
• A thinner collagen
fiber coated with
glycoproteins.
– Stained black in the
adjacent micrograph
of the liver.
• These fibers can
branch extensively
and form networks
or frameworks for
certain organs.
Elastic Fibers
• Made primarily of a
protein called elastin,
whose coiled structure
allows it to stretch and
snap back like a rubber
band.
• Account for the ability of
the lungs, arteries, and
skin to spring back after
they are stretched.
In this slide, “A” is an elastic fiber
• Fresh elastic fibers are – what do you suppose “B” is?
yellowish and thus often
called yellow fibers.
Ground Substance
• Gelatinous material that occupies the space between
the cells and the fibers in connective tissues.
1. Areolar CT
2. Reticular Tissue
3. Adipose Tissue
2 3
Areolar CT
Microscopic
Appearance:
• Loose arrangement of
collagenous and
elastic fibers. Some
reticular fibers. (All 3
fiber types.)
• Scattered Cells. All 6
types can be present.
• Abundant ground
substance.
• Numerous blood
vessels. (Highly
vascular.)
Areolar CT
• Locations:
– Underlying nearly all
epithelia.
– Surrounding blood vessels,
nerves, trachea, and
esophagus.
– Between muscles.
– Within mesenteries, and the
visceral layers of the
pericardium and the pleura.
• Functions: Areolar CT
– Loosely binds
epithelia to deeper
tissues.
– Allows passage of
nerves and blood
vessels through
other tissues.
– Provides an arena
for immune
defense.
– Blood vessels
provide nutrients
and waste removal
for overlying
epithelia.
Reticular Tissue
• Microscopic Appearance:
– Loose network of
reticular fibers and a type
of fibroblast known as the
reticular cell.
– Infiltrated with numerous
white blood cells.
– Often appears dark purple
or black.
• Locations:
– Lymph nodes, spleen,
thymus, and bone
marrow.
Reticular Tissue
• Functions:
– The branching network
of reticular fibers will
form a scaffold-like
framework for
lymphatic organs.
• Spleen, thymus, and
lymph nodes.
• Such a framework is
known as a stroma.
• The functional tissue of
these organs is known
as the parenchyma.
Adipose Tissue
• Microscopic Appearance:
– Dominated by adipocytes –
large, empty-looking cells
with thin margins.
– Nucleus usually pressed
against the cell membrane –
signet ring appearance.
– Often pale.
– Blood vessels often present.
Adipose Tissue
• Locations:
– Subcutaneous fat
beneath skin.
– Breast.
– Heart surface.
– Cushioning organs
• Kidneys
• Eyes
Adipose Tissue
• Functions:
– Energy storage.
– Thermal insulation.
– Shock absorption
– Protective
cushioning for
some organs.
Types of
Dense CT 1
1. Dense regular
2. Dense irregular
2
Dense Regular
CT
• Microscopic
Appearance:
– Densely packed,
parallel, often wavy
collagenous fibers.
– Slender fibroblast nuclei
compressed between
bundles of collagenous
fibers.
– Scanty open space (little
ground substance)
– Scarcity of blood
vessels.
Dense Regular Connective Tissue
• Locations:
– Tendons.
– Ligaments.
• Microscopic Appearance:
– Densely packed, collagenous
fibers running in random
directions. Compare this to
dense regular CT.
– Scanty open space (ground
substance).
– Few visible cells.
– Scarcity of blood vessels.
Dense Irregular CT
• Locations:
– Deeper portion of
dermis of skin.
– Capsules around
visceral organs
such as the liver,
spleen, and
kidneys.
– Fibrous sheaths
around cartilages
and bones.
Dense Irregular CT
• Functions:
– Provides a durable,
hard to tear structure
that can withstand
stresses placed in
unpredictable
directions.
– Why aren’t tendons
and ligaments made of
this stuff?
Supporting Connective Tissue
2 1
Hyaline Cartilage
• Microscopic Appearance:
– Clear, glassy matrix, often
stained light blue or pink.
• Hyalos is Greek for glass.
– Fine, dispersed collagenous
fibers, not usually visible.
– Chondrocytes often in small
clusters of 3-4 cells within a
single lacuna (known as
cell nests or isogenous
groups).
– Covered by a
perichondrium – a fibrous
sheath made of dense
irregular connective tissue.
Hyaline Cartilage
• Locations:
– Forms the majority of
the fetal skeleton.
– Forms boxlike
structure around larynx
and supportive rings
around trachea and
bronchi.
– Attaches ribs to the
sternum.
– Forms a thin articular Close-up of Hyaline Cartilage. Notice
the 2 cells in the single lacuna
cartilage over the ends
of bones at moveable
joints.
Hyaline Cartilage
• Functions:
– Eases joint movements.
– Keeps airways patent.
– Moves vocal cords.
– Precursor of bone in
the fetal skeleton.
– Structural attachment.
Elastic
Cartilage
• Microscopic Appearance:
– Elastic fibers form web-like
mesh amid lacunae.
– Always covered by a
perichondrium.
• Locations:
– External ear.
– Epiglottis – flap of tissue
that covers the tracheas
when you swallow to
prevent food/liquid from
going down the “wrong
pipe.”
– Eustachian tube – connects
the ear to the nasopharynx.
Elastic Cartilage
• Functions:
– Provides flexible,
elastic support.
– What happens when
you bend and release
your ear?
A – Chondrocyte
B – Matrix w/ black
elastic fibers
C -Lacuna
Fibrocartilage
• Microscopic Appearance:
– Parallel collagenous fibers
similar to those of tendon.
– Rows of chondrocytes in
lacunae between
collagenous fibers.
• Chondrocytes are fewer and
smaller and are not in
isogenous groups.
– Never has a perichondrium.
• Locations:
– Pubic symphysis – the anterior
Fibrocartilage
joint between the 2 halves of the
pelvic girdle.
– Intervertebral discs that separate
the bones of the spinal column.
– Menisci (shock-absorbing pads of
cartilage) in the knee joint.
– At points where tendons insert on
bones near articular hyaline
cartilage.
• Functions:
– Resists compression and absorbs
shock in some joints.
– Often a transitional structure
between dense connective tissue
and hyaline cartilage.
• For example, at some tendon-
bone junctions.
More Connective Tissues
• Bone is the other supporting
connective tissue. It will be
discussed in detail later.
• Blood is a fluid connective
tissue that you’ll examine in
A&P II.
Muscle and Nervous Tissue
• Nervous tissue
– Consists of 2 cell types:
Neurons and glia.
– Detects stimuli, integrates
information, and transmits
signals.
• Muscular tissue
– 3 types: skeletal, cardiac,
and smooth.
– Specialized to contract and
exert forces on other
tissues.
– Major function is the
creation of movement.
Body Membranes
1. Cutaneous
membrane
2. Mucous membranes
3. Serous membranes
• 2 possibilities:
– Regeneration → Replacement of dead or damaged cells by the
same type of cells as before. Most skin injuries heal by
regeneration. The liver also regenerates quite well.
– Fibrosis → Replacement of damaged tissue with scar tissue,
composed mainly of collagen produced by fibroblasts. Helps hold
an organ together but does not restore normal function. Examples
include severe cuts and burns, the healing of muscle injuries, and
scarring of the lungs in tuberculosis.
Stages of Healing a Wound to the Skin