Beruflich Dokumente
Kultur Dokumente
Eric Cunningham
Paper two
Master of Arts, plan B
Department of Anthropology
University of Hawai‘i
Spring, 2007
Introduction
In Japan, the adaptive strategies of upland communities, which in the past allowed
for the sustainable use of natural resources, have been negatively impacted as they have
been drawn into larger national patterns of resource use. Forests that were important for
upland communities as sources of wild plants and animals, medicine, firewood, and green
fertilizer have been incorporated into larger socio-political realms and reinterpreted as
resources, first as timber and more recently as heritage resources for tourism. The socio-
cultural systems of upland communities also have been drawn into this larger national
strategy, causing the erosion of institutions, practices, and beliefs that had defined their
secure their livelihoods through a variety of measures: the promotion of heavy industry,
drawing tourists. None of these strategies have been very effective however, and upland
environments by focusing on the activities of humans. The essential and ubiquitous issue
is how humans relate to natural environments. I argue that humans relate to their natural
environments both physically with their bodies, but also culturally, imbuing natural
phenomena with meaning and value. Humans incorporate the natural world into socio-
cultural systems as they interact with and utilize natural phenomena (Bennett 1976,
Ingold 1993). The process by which humans convert nature into socio-natural
1
upland regions in modern Japan as it allows us to analyze both the meaning and the
examine the processes by which local village-level landscapes 1 are transitioned into
larger national landscapes through time. After first exploring the historical development
evaluation of adaptive strategies employed by modern day villages. Next, I will identify
what I am labeling ‘maladaptive forces’: processes that impact the ability of upland
communities to stem deterioration and work towards attaining desired ends. Finally, I
will offer an evaluation of the current state socio-natural environments of upland regions
Rather, they are part of a larger socio-political entity, the Japanese state, which means
they share a language and a host of socio-cultural features with an entire national
citizenry. Yet, in the past upland communities were often isolated and self-sufficient,
interactions in Japan’s upland areas requires an approach that allows for human behavior
the local to the national. Also, because humans constantly interact with natural
phenomena and convert them into culturally meaningful objects, a concept of adaptation
useful in addressing landscape change in upland Japan (Bennett 1976, Bennett 1993).
1
Here I use Smith’s definition of landscape as, “land transformed by human activity or perception”
(2003:10)
2
The transitioning nature into the cultural sphere also occurs at multiple levels, meaning
important questions to ask are: What strategies have allowed upland communities to
survive into the present? What factors have impacted the ability of upland communities
to maintain a good quality of living? What is needed for upland communities to persist in
the future?
Approximately two thirds of modern Japan’s land surface is forested. And much
of this land is mountainous (Knight 2000). Arable land is scarce and so rice farming has
traditionally occurred on the broad flood plains of coastal Japan. Japan’s upland areas
are comprised almost entirely of forested land and human settlement is largely limited to
small villages with populations of about 2000 people or less. Villages are known as
sanson 山村, which literally means ‘mountain village’. However, since WWII out-
migration has been a persistent problem for upland villages, which currently are
estimated to account for less than 5 percent of the national population, while
Up until the Second World War, forests played a vital role in upland communities
by providing a variety of natural products essential to daily life, such as: thatch for
roofing, bamboo, charcoal, firewood, wild plants, medicinal herbs, and game. In order to
ensure access to these resources, upland villages maintained common lands, a pattern that
had developed at least by the Edo Period (1603-1867 A.D.). Management of common
lands was achieved through the elaboration of formal regulations designating appropriate
3
times and techniques for the gathering of natural resources. Community members who
were assigned the task of patrolling common lands enforced regulations. Punishments
for violations were social in character, with the extreme being murahachibu 村八分
disturbance, while the management of forests as common lands limited practices that
meadowlands occurred annually in the common lands of many villages, which served to
burn off unwanted vegetation, while providing a layer of ash to promote the growth of
helped to create mosaic land patterns, which have been shown to promote species
diversity (Wayman, 2007, Natsuhara 1999). In addition, maintaining open forests helped
to cultivate wild edible foods that were highly valued, such as: matsutake mushrooms,
warabi 蕨 (fern shoots), fukinotou 蕗の薹 (sweet coltsfoot), and other sansai 山菜
villages helped create a ‘buffer zone’ that kept wildlife pests away from village crops
(Knight 2003).
This past pattern of forest utilization does not fit within the political economy of
force, which has forced them to the periphery and siphoned off valuable human, natural,
and economic resources. With the decline in traditional practices have come shifts in
adaptive strategies, which have in turn changed the structure of forest landscapes (Fig. 1).
As village populations shrink due to out-migration, the open common-use forests of the
4
past fall victim to neglect and begin to grow,
The years leading up to WWII were particularly turbulent for upland regions in
Japan. As the nation steered the country towards industrialism, nationalism, and
money. Also, village institutions of common land management started to break down as
5
widespread deforestation as more wood began to be used in the construction of railroads
and factories. Because bare slopes (Fig. 3) were unable to absorb precipitation, flooding
became rampant. Finally, in the 1930’s village communities suffered crippling poverty
when cash crops quickly lost value and Japan plummeted into a depression (Nishida
2003). The timeline in figure 4 gives a sense of the turbulent years preceding Japan’s
changing since the late 19th century, but with Japan’s defeat in WWII came a new push
towards modernization that was to transform rural lands into commodities and village
communities into labor pools. Post-war land reforms held both resonances and ruptures
6
with past land-use practices; these were not only economical, but socio-cultural as well.
(Bennett 1993, Toshitaka 1968). This resonance with the past, however, was tempered
rationale and statistical models to make management decisions based on the greater good
of the public (Iwamoto 2003). New employment opportunities began flooding into rural
areas, in the form of civil projects for road building, flood-control, and afforestation.
These new jobs became more and more attractive as foreign imports of agricultural
products and timber reduced the need for traditional forms of livelihood. In addition,
starting in the 1950’s the value of farm and forestlands, particularly those located near
cities and areas prime for the development of leisure facilities, began to skyrocket.
pattern of land-use that is common across Japan today. Many villagers opted to quit
farming and forestry, sell their land, and move to the cities. Though mountainous areas
have not been developed to the extent that lowland areas have, due to their isolation and
difficult geography, farming and forestry practices have still declined considerably,
The historical shifts in the political economy of Japan outlined above, including
land reforms, the development of market economies, and industrial modernization, have
7
behaviors, which have promoted structural changes in natural landscapes. Land
conversion has in turn reinforced the emergence of new social institutions and modes of
This will allow me to next evaluate the effectiveness of these adaptive strategies, while
illuminating some of the maladaptive forces limiting their success. Finally, I will be able
to look to the future and offer some thoughts on alternative strategies for promoting
The traditional adaptive strategies that developed in Japan’s upland areas involved
intervention created over time has been labeled satoyama 里山 in recent times. Though
the term has a long history, it was revived in the 1960’s by Japanese forest ecologist
Tsunahide Shidei. Takeuchi, et al. define the term as, “a natural environment that is
being managed and, therefore, its basic element can be represented as secondary nature”
2003). Though the satoyama model has come to embody certain nostalgia and there is
still debate concerning its temporal and spatial extent, I intend to use it as an ideal model
practices that have occurred as upland areas have been further transitioned into the larger
The satoyama model (Fig. 5) suggests that in the past the maintenance of open
land around village homes, gardens, and fields was an important function of human
8
interventions into local forests. Open forest lands promoted the growth of valued wild
foods and created areas suitable for the gathering. Forest floors free from thick
undergrowth also allowed for ease in collecting leaf litter for use as green fertilizer. In
forestlands helped to
wildlife pestilence. In
traditionally been perceived Fig. 5: The Satoyama model (Takeuchi et al. 2003:11, after Yamamoto 2001)
as the realm of spirits and other supernatural beings (Ivy 1995, Swanson 1981), the open
and more aesthetically pleasing to many villagers, as they are today (Knight 2000).
intermediate regions between villages and climax forests and suggests that such areas
Oku, and Nakashizuka 2001). However, upland regions in modern Japan are
transitioning more and more away from the satoyama model, due to the loss of human
labor and the abandonment of fields and forests. As an environment composed of natural
satoyama landscapes have both social and natural consequences. Threats from the forest
have come in imagined and realistic forms. As I’ve emphasized already, wildlife
pestilence has become a persistent problem for upland foresters and farmers who suffer
9
increasingly severe economic losses. Incursions by wildlife, however, also impact
villagers’ sense of security and threaten cultural conceptions of village well-being. The
and homes and contributing to anxieties about the future of villages (Knight 2003). In the
face of changing landscapes, upland communities are responding to the new realities of
examination of modern adaptive strategies and a critical exploration of why they succeed
or fail.
One of the strongest forces impelling change in upland regions has been the
economies has meant a move away from subsistence activities, with farmers and foresters
their own daily necessities. The strategy of commodity production is risky when, at the
behest of market forces, labor is heavily invested in particular cash crops, weakening the
as was common in pre-modern Japan. This was exemplified in the early 20th century in
Nagano prefecture when rapid drops in the value of silkworm cocoons at the beginning of
Japan’s Great Depression, leaving devastated many families that had converted primary
cropland to mulberry cultivation in order to tap a lucrative silk market (Wilson 2003).
10
Left with few alternatives, since WWII most families have come to rely less and
less on farming for subsistence (Waswo 1988), thus freeing them to explore alternative
subsistence strategies outside the realms of farming and forestry. At the same time,
steady rises in the importation of agricultural and wood products to Japan have kept
domestic prices low enough that farming and forestry activities have become untenable.
There has emerged in Japan’s rural areas therefore, an increase in part-time farming and
forestry activities. Based on statistics from the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries of Japan we can see that from 1906 to 1995 the percentage of full time farmers
recast Japan’s upland areas in the light of modern economics, so that the value of land
and labor—nature and humans—are now conceived in largely monetary terms. Upland
areas have taken on a quasi-urban character, with part-time forestry and farming being
supplemented with employment typical of urban areas (Knight 2000). Strategies of part-
time farming nullify historical systems of land-use maintained through cultural traditions
and practices that shaped the historical development of natural environments in upland
11
Tourism and urban connections
Japan have also lead to the emergence of tourism as an adaptive strategy. Tourism in
forest areas has gained in popularity in recent years as the Japanese economy has
continued to grow. At first glance, tourism appears to be a viable alternative for upland
areas. First and foremost, tourism provides much needed income. Also, drawing on
larger global discourses concerning eco-tourism, many in Japan argue the strategy is
‘green’, with little impact on local environments. Finally, rural tourism is tied to larger
the national level. Understood as socio-natural systems, this means that local
environments are opened to the impacts of an entirely new set of processes originating
somewhere beyond the local-level. Upland areas in Nagano prefecture, for example,
have had to cope with the impacts of increased numbers of visitors who come to enjoy a
12
variety of outdoor sports, with the heaviest impacts coming from ski resort development
(Fig. 7). Development projects meant to attract tourists may generate some income for
conceptions of upland areas that have emerged as they have become integrated with
larger national and international systems of values. These values are often clothed in
emphasize a particular aspect of a natural landscape and then offer it to the public.
Ascribing value based on external trends doesn’t make sense ecologically, because
single elements (Moon 1997). Rural tourism campaigns often pay attention only to the
needs and desires of urban tourists (see for example Thompson 2004), rather than
focusing on the integrity of a natural landscape. Therefore, the shaping of upland areas
breadth of interactions with the natural environment. For example, Knight has shown
how modern day ‘monkey parks’ in Japan, by provisioning Japanese macaques (Macaca
fuscata) in order to keep them out of the forest and within the sight of tourists, have
reconfigured troop feeding habits so that little time is spent foraging in forest habitats.
This has been detrimental, not only for the macaques themselves, who depend
13
physiologically on time spent procuring food, but also for local farmers who suffer the
level of interest among urban populations concerning upland areas, farming, and forestry.
However, this too has largely been clouded by notions of ‘traditional’ communities and
pure nature. Still, both rural and urban residents have built on this mutual interest to
establish new meaningful relationships. In some areas, for example, volunteer forest
associations have grown up around privately owned plantations for which owners are
unable to provide needed labor. Urban residents with a desire to spend time in a natural
forest setting are able to spend weekends working as a forester (Matsushita and Hirata
2002). On the one hand, these relationships have been beneficial for upland areas,
helping to bring much needed labor to maintain forests that would otherwise be
abandoned. On the other hand, such strategies tend to bolster Japan’s urban-focused
political economy by addressing the concerns of upland areas only as far as they relate to
exhibit came complete with ‘rural’ women wearing ‘rural’ clothing. The merits of these
types of relationships are difficult to judge. Although increased awareness of rural areas
14
is desirable, when they are part of larger national discourses, which draw on notions of
the rural as an embodiment of the nation itself and as a tourist product, the needs of rural
The migration of young adults from upland areas to Japan’s metropolises over the
last couple of decades has left upland communities with lopsided populations comprised
semi-annually to visit graves and see family members, family homes and lands are often
not sold and eventually fall into disrepair and become overgrown, (Knight 1997a). In the
directed at attracting younger people interested in settling and farming in upland areas
(Knight 1997a).
At first glance, this new trend seems like a possible solution (or at least partial
solution) to sever depopulation and landscape degradation affecting upland areas, yet
conflicts have arisen from encounters between villagers (those whose families have a
temporal longevity in a certain area) and settlers from urban areas (Knight 1997a).
(i.e. the use of herbicides), they hint at deeper disparities between values and beliefs that
draw their meaning from separate socio-cultural contexts. A brief evaluation of these
systems that have developed over time in Japan, while providing an opportunity for
15
A common theme that emerges in discussions of the differences between
established villagers and newer settlers is that of conservativism versus radicalism. What
we might call ‘radical farming’ consists of several elements: 1) a concern for the
agricultural practices; 3) an interest in social movements for justice and equity; and 4) an
interest in traditional practices and nativist sentiments (Moen 2002a, Moen 2002b). None
of these elements per se are opposed to those attitudes and behaviors exhibited by many
villager in upland areas, however they are based in philosophical writings that have
adaptive strategy that has little relation to the local landscapes to which they are being
applied. It is this disjunction that is at the heart of much conflict between radical farmers
increasingly larger social spheres, the causal processes that work to structure these
landscapes also proliferate. Balée has argued that humans and their landscapes can be
understood and studied as total phenomena and that different socio-political and
economic systems affect natural landscapes in qualitatively different ways (Balée 1998).
I have argued that through time, the local socio-natural environments of upland Japan
Balée’s notion of ‘total phenomena’ is correct, this incorporation has included not only
examine conflicts between upland human communities and the larger nation, it is clear
that these local communities were never fully incorporated. They maintain a sense of
16
local cultural values, which inform ideas about the proper ways of interacting with local
communities of Japan’s upland regions has not been a simple, uncontested process, but
in terms of the state of crisis in upland regions today is the ability to analyze processes of
incorporation in order to identify the maladaptive forces driving degradation. If the goal
that an analysis of maladaptive forces should be made from the perspective of the local
Maladaptive Forces
Essential to past adaptive strategies common in upland communities was the use
exploitation that might compromise the ability to use such lands in the future. From the
end of the 19th century, conventions of common usage began to destabilize as socio-
natural landscapes were sucked into the eddying whirlpools of the emerging Japanese
state. This historical event set into motion forces that contributed to the emergence of
new social institutions and patterns of resource use that have continued to be maladaptive
for upland communities to this day. Therefore, understanding the character of these
maladaptive forces and the manner in which they shape natural landscapes provides a
framework for making meaningful statements concerning future social agendas for
17
Urban Migration
devastating for the wellbeing of upland communities. Since WWII, population decreases
among upland villages have been severe, with many areas losing more than half of their
residents (Knight 2003:21). The individual motivations for migrating to urban areas are
beyond the scope of this paper to delve into any of these in a comprehensive way, so it
will suffice to conceive of migration as a behavioral choice, which on a large scale has
detrimental to upland communities due to losses in labor needed to maintain the integrity
of natural environments that have been shaped through human activity for hundreds of
homes, and weed-filled paddies), in turn, influence future behavioral choices made by
village residents (for example, whether to leave the village or not). This has created a
downward spiral of degradation, from which upland communities have been unable to
escape.
Rural depopulation has been most severe in the post-war period, but its origins
can be traced back to the turn of the century and the Meiji government’s push towards
become part of the new Japanese nation. In this transformation, upland regions that had
unable to sustain themselves in the modern economy. In other words, the social-natural
18
environments and adaptive strategies of upland regions were drawn into a national system
with differing sets of needs and desires; thus, the value ascribed to both humans and
In the Meiji Period (1868-1912) as forest land was placed under government
relationships based on cooperation, obligation, and debt that had guided village level
interactions, both with the natural environment and between individuals, began to be
unraveled. The consolidation of traditional villages (from 79,000 to 14,000 by the 1880’s)
caused wariness and stress as established local systems of social relationships were
considerably expanded. At the same time, villagers also found themselves suddenly a
part of a national system, with an entirely new set of obligations, such as mandatory
(life style improvement activities) encouraged upland communities to rationally use their
might use up an entire year’s worth of income (Partner 2001). These limitations on
resource use and social activities compromised the integrity of upland socio-natural
environments. While local systems of resource use and social relations were reworked or
abandoned entirely, new relationships with the emerging nation were created, with new
opportunities in Japan’s growing cities. Since the Meiji Period, upland communities have
continued to struggle to find a viable space within the national landscape. Economic
breakdown has forced most villagers to migrate to metropolitan areas, leaving aging
19
residents with little social support to carry on the farming and forestry traditions that had
As upland areas have been further drawn into the national landscape of Japan, an
ambivalent discourse surrounding their place in modernity has developed within the
larger society. Differing conceptions of upland areas are often contradictory in their
moral tone, while at the same time drawing on common themes. On the one hand, the
meaning potatoes), or increasingly populated by the elderly (an issue that raises a whole
other set of cultural ambivalences surrounding the aged, see Traphagan 2000). In other
words, rural areas are viewed as being unrefined and culturally apart from the modern
Japan of Tokyo and Osaka. A seemingly opposing conception draws on similar themes,
but paints a picture of the rural as pure, and as holding some link to Japan’s traditional
past.
Upland areas in Japan are negatively impacted by popular conceptions of the rural
in two ways. The first is that upland communities themselves are easily blamed for the
degradation they suffer. Little or no attention is paid to historical processes that have
suggested that upland communities are too traditional and conservative, or simply not
Minister Shinzo Abe, speaking of funding for rural development, recently stated to
20
by local authorities on projects meant to revitalize village economies (i.e. to make them
viable in the larger national economy). Misconceptions about the ability of rural people
to use funds wisely have been around since the ‘lifestyle improvement’ campaigns of the
the Kumano region of the Kii Peninsula in Wakayama prefecture, with the help of giant
buses tourists can retrace the paths of ancient pilgrim routes and even have a chance to
carouse with pilgrims dressed in traditional costumes (Knight 2000) (Fig. 9). Similarly,
the town of Tōno in Japan’s northern Tohoku region, made famous for its tales recorded
by the Japanese folklorist Yanagita Kunio2, has began using its ethnological fame, in an
attempt to transform itself into the traditional town that Yanagita encountered at the turn
of the century and that has since become a national symbol (Ivy 1995).
Japanese culture serves to mask the realities of the crises facing these communities today.
This parallax is particularly detrimental to upland areas because the realities of their
2
Yanagita Kunio (1875-1962) is known widely as the father of Japanese ethnology. His book, Tōno
monogatari 遠野物語 (Tales of Tōno) was published in 1910.
21
standard environmental discourse that sees forests as being characteristic of healthy
natural environments plays into Japanese notions of nature and desires for environmental
responsibility, while ignoring the roles humans have played in upland forest ecologies.
Forest Abandonment
this pattern of resource use in a variety of ways, Fig. 10: A “bald mountain” with a farm house in the
foreground (Bennett 2002, #238)
changes in forest structure. During the early 20th century, Japan’s imperial government
consumed an enormous amount of wood to support its war efforts, leaving a trail of
approximately two thirds of Japan is forested, with 40% of this having been planted (90%
after the Second World War) meaning that a large portion of forestland is sill first
This forest situation would be desirable, were it not occurring along with massive
urban migration and rural economic stagnation. As a result of post-war land reforms, the
majority of forestlands (67%) are still privately owned, with the average holding being
relatively small (about 3.7 hectares) (Akao 2002). Owners themselves often live away
from villages, but tend to hold onto lands that have been handed down and possibly
22
contain a family home or graves (Knight 1997a). The
perceptions, common among upland villagers, of being trapped with the forest closing in
A viable future for Japan’s upland areas requires more than simply working to
recreate the past. This is not to say, however, that information concerning past human
practices cannot be used as an analytical tool for understanding the present, and also as a
source of inspiration. In this paper I’ve attempted to situate the present crises confronting
larger systems of human interaction. My intention in doing this is to trace the historical
point, much discussion has centered on the economic aspects of decline among upland
modern Japan, where they are powerless against the expansion, both ideologically and
physically, of the nation’s sprawling megalopolises. Framing the state of crisis among
23
upland communities in economic terms contributes little to an understanding of what is
driving social disintegration and landscape degradation in these areas. By taking into
account the historical development of national institutions of resource use that conflict
with local adaptive strategies, we can begin to tease out the causes of decline and start
thinking about the practicalities of ensuring a future for mountain villages in modern
Japan.
people and the fostering of relationships with aging farmers and foresters who can
transfer a body of ecological knowledge that will otherwise be lost. However, the
continued decline of upland areas, combined with dominant cultural conceptions that
devalue these areas, encourage youth to look beyond their villages in search of prosperity.
education was cursory and peripheral to other subjects; ultimately students were
encouraged to strive for an educational path leading to universities and jobs in the cities.
Students who enrolled in agricultural high schools were viewed as having not made the
grade and many I knew ended up leaving high school early to take local manufacturing or
other skilled jobs. Anecdotally at least, it seems that for students farming and forestry are
not viewed as being particularly relevant to their lives. Education that encourages an
revitalizing villages.
Decline in rural areas is also driven by the cultural privileging of economic value
above all others (i.e. ecological, environmental, scenic, cultural and spiritual values)
when it comes to mountain communities. Over time, upland villages have been
24
transitioned into a national political economy based on capitalism, which at times they
money have been spent pursuing tourist projects that attempt to transform upland
landscapes into attractions based on popular conceptions of rural Japan. Some endeavors
have enjoyed minor success, but more often upland communities are left only with ill-
In Japan, there are many competing perceptions regarding the value of upland
areas. Though attempts can be made to integrate different perceptions, I argue that a
environments by the communities that daily interact with—and indeed are part of—those
define and articulate what their values are and how these relate to the natural
environment. I agree with Kellert, who has argued that local input and participation are
needed for effective natural resource management (Kellert 2000) and propose that, in
revitalization are mutually obtainable and logical goals. This becomes apparent when we
examine, as I have here, the consequences of the transition of local and regional socio-
natural environments into larger national systems of resource use. With forests, what
might be considered adaptive on a national scale often turns out to be maladaptive when
viewed from the local level. Therefore, future efforts to revitalize and sustain the natural
environments and human communities of Japan’s mountain areas should begin with
25
Conclusion
fields and forestlands. Understanding modern environments requires that we account for
the role that humans have played in shaping the world around them, which means we
must consider culture and society. Humans encounter, comprehend, and utilize the
Motivations for human behavior, therefore, can never be traced exclusively to the socio-
cultural or natural realms, but can be conceived, rather, as arising from a unified field of
variety of spatial and temporal extents, which differ across populations according to
level. Human behavior and environmental modification are motivated by the desire to
fulfill socially, culturally, and biologically defined wants and needs. At the same time,
human abilities to fulfill wants and needs are limited by social, cultural, and biological
peoples’ use of natural environments in order to understand why certain systems work
better than others and how this changes across space, over time, and through levels of
social organization.
26
The maladaptive forces we see impacting upland environments in Japan today—
mountain communities and landscapes have been increasingly incorporated into the
that none of have been particularly effective in stemming rural degradation. I contend
that the ineffectiveness of these strategies is due to their integration into the national
political economy of Japan, with its focus on economic growth. If upland communities
are to remain a part of the Japanese landscape into the future, there must be recognition
of the values they hold beyond the economic realm. Future projects directed at
revitalization would do well to consider these values in order to better enable local
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