Predicting the Behavior of Sucker-Rod Pumping Systems

S. G. GIBBS
ABSTRACT
A new method for predicting the behavior of sucker-rod
pumping systems is presented. The pumping system is
described by a flexible mathematical model which is solved
by means of partial difference equations with the aid of
computers. Polished rod and intermediate-depth dynamom-
eter cards can be calculated for various bottom-hole pump
conditions. The technique permits simulation of a wide
variety of operating conditions, both normal and abnormal.
The data generated with the new technique are useful in
refining the criteria for design and operation of sucker-rod
.I'ystms.
INTRODUCTION
Sucker-rod pumping systems are used in approximately
90 per cent of artificially lifted wells. In view of this wide
application, it behooves the industry to have a funda-
mental understanding of the sucker-rod pumping process.
Oddly enough, our understanding has been rather super-
ficial. This is evidenced by the semi-empirical formulas
which have been used as the basis for design and opera-
tion of sucker-rod installations.
Though we have realized the limitations of our methods
for many years, it has not been computationally feasible
to use more refined techniques. With the advent and wide-
spread use of digital computers, it is now possible to
handle the mathematical problems associated with sucker-
rod pumping. This paper summarizes a computer-oriented
method which can provide greater insight into the sucker-
rod pumping process. It is hoped that this technique, and
techniques which may evolve from it, will prove to be the
tool needed by industry to obtain the most efficient use
of rod pumping equipment.
THE MATHEMATICAL MODEL
Prediction of sucker-rod system behavior involves the
solution of a boundary value problem. Such a problem
includes a differential equation and a set of boundary con-
ditions. For the sucker-rod problem, the wave equation is
used, together with boundary conditions which describe
the initial stress and velocity of the sucker rods, the mo-
tion of the polished rod and the operation of the down-
hole pump. Of these items, the wave equation, the polished
rod motion condition and the down-hole pump conditions
are of primary importance. Discussion of the mathemat-
ical model centers about these factors.
ROD STRING SIMULATION WITH THE WAVE EQUATION
The one-dimensional wave equation with viscous damp-
Original manuscript received in Society of Petroleum Engineers office
April 4, 1963. Revised manuscript received June 3, 1963. Paper pre-
sented at SPE Rocky Mountain Regional Meeting, May 27-28, 1963, in
Denver, Colo.
SPE 588
JULY. 1963
SHELL DEVELOPMENT CO.
HOUSTON, TEX.
ing,
o'u(x, t) ., o'U(X, t)
at' = a' ox'
71'aV ,ou(x, t)
2L at
(1)
is used in the sucker-rod boundary value problem to simu-
late the behavior of the rod string. This equation describes
the longitudinal vibrations in a long slender rod and,
hence, is ideal for the sucker-rod application. Its use incor-
porates into toe mathematical model the phenomenon of
force wave reflection, which is an important characteristic
of real systems.
The viscous damping effect postulated in Eq. 1 yields
good solutions, even though non viscous effects such as
coulcomb friction and hysteresis loss in the rod material
are present. Fortunately, the nonviscous effects are rela-
tively small, so the viscous damping approximation used
in the wave equation is adequate. The coefficient v is a
dimensionless damping factor which is found in field
measurements to vary over fairly narrow limits.
For mathematical convenience the gravity term is
omitted in Eq. 1. The effect of gravity on rod load and
stretch can be treated separately, as will be noted later.
Since Eq. 1 is linear, the legitimacy of this procedure is
easy to demonstrate.
POLISHED ROD MOTION SIMULATION
The motion of the polished rod is determined by the
geometry of the surface pumping unit and the torque-
speed characteristics of its prime mover. By determining
the motion of the polished rod, we formulate an important
boundary condition.
From trigonometrical considerations it can be shown
that the position of the polished rod vs crank angle 8 is
given by (see Fig. 1)
u(O, (}) = L, [sin-
1
(L1 ~ ()) + cos-' (h' + 2i:h- L.')]
h = V L/ + L,' + 2L,L2 cos () (2)
These equations are obtained from the general solution of
the "four-bar" linkage problem and can be used to de-
scribe the kinematics of any modern beam pumping unit. '
If prime mover speed variations are disregarded, the angu-
lar velocity of the crank is constant, and Eq. 2 can be
used to predict the position of the polished rod vs time.
However, the constant-speed condition leading to constant
crank angular velocity is only approached in practice;
hence, it is better to make provisions for prime mover
speed variations in the mathematical model.
The speed at which the prime mover runs is determined
by its torque-speed characteristics and the torque imposed
upon it. The torque that the prime mover "feels" is the
net torque arising from the polished rod load and the
opposing torque from the counterbalance effect. The
lReferences given at tnd of paper.
769
torque from the rod load is obtained as the product of
the polished rod load and the torque factor. The torque
factor as obtained from mechanics is given by
TF = L,L.L5 - (J - if;)
Lah sin l; ,
5' _ -1 (h' + L; - L: )
." - cos 2Lah '
_ -1 (LJ sin l; )
if; - Sill L, .
(3)
The counterbalance torque which opposes the torque from
the well load is described by the relation
CET = L ,W, cos (J - d) , (4)
where d is the phase angle needed to orient the counter-
balance effect with respect to gravity. Thus, the net torque
imposed upon the prime mover is the algebraic sum of
the well torque and the counterbalance torque:
NT = TF (PRL) + CET (5)
This net torque, when considered along with the torque-
speed characteristics of the prime mover, determines the
instantaneous speed at which the prime mover rotates.
Thus, the instantaneous angular velocity of the crank can
be determined in view of the gear box ratio and sheave
sizes to reflect the speed variations of the prime mover as
it responds to the fluctuating net torque. Inertia effects
are not considered in this analysis.
DOWNHOLE PUMP SIMULATION
The most important boundary condition in the sucker-
rod problem is the one which describes the operation of
the down-hole pump. Undoubtedly, the mathematical de-
scription of the down-hole pump has been the greatest
difficulty in analytical treatment of the sucker-rod system.
Many attempts have been made to formulate explicit
expressions which describe its behavior, but unfortunately
these expressions have proved inadequate when applied
over the range of conditions encountered in practice. As
a matter of fact, it is unlikely that a general pump
boundary condition can be conceived which will permit
solution of the sucker-rod problem by classical methods.
In order to get around this impasse, it is convenient to
write the pump condition as
(l u (L, t)
au (L, t) + f3 a = P (t) , (6)
,x
wherein the parameters a, f3 and P (t) depend upon the
type of pump operation to be simulated. With the pump
condition written in this manner, the flexibility needed to
simulate widely varying pumping conditions can be
achieved. For example, the choice a = 0, f3 = 1, P(t) = 0
gives Eq. 6 the form
o u (L, t) = 0
ox '
which implies that the down-hole pump is free and
unloaded. This situation occurs or is approached in a
real sucker-rod installation when the pump is descending
with the traveling valve open. As a further example, take
a = 1, f3 = 0, P(t) = u,. In this case, the pump condition
becomes
u (L, t) = Un
which implies that the pump is stationary at some position
u,. This situation is approached in a high-pump-efficiency
installation while the fluid load is being transferred from
the rods to the tubing or from the tubing to the rods. As
a final example, take a = 0, [3 = 1, P (t) = Wt/EA. The
pump boundary condition then reduces to
770
EA
aU (L, t) _
- - W
f
,
'ox
which means that a steady load W
f
is being applied at the
pump. This condition exists while fluid is being lifted to
the surface.
It is instructive to list the choices of a, ,[3 and P (t)
for the case in which free gas is passing through the
pump. In this instance the pump dynagraph card' has the
shape depicted in Fig. 2. With regard to Fig. 2, let t, be
the time at which the traveling valve closes, t, be the time
when the standing valve opens, fa be the time when the
standing valve closes, and t, be the time at which the
traveling valve opens. The appropriate choices of a, [3
and P (t) are
a = 0
[3 = 1 t, :-:;; t < t"
P (t) = G, [u (L, t, ) - u (L, t)]
a=O
[3 = 1 1, < 1 < 1",
p (t) = Wt/EA
=: Ca :-:;; 1 < t"
P (t) = Wt/EA - G, [u (L, t) - u (L,
a = 0
[3 = 1 t, :-:;; 1 < t,',
p (t) = 0
where t,' is the time when the traveling valve again closes,
and a new pumping cycle is begun. The functions G, and
G, determine the shape of the pump card while the fluid
load is being transferred to the rods from the tubing or to
the tubing from the rods. These functions depend on the
FIG. I-BEAM PUMPING UNIT SHOW" AS A
FOUR-BAR LINKAGE.
o
<.> ..
- 0
2 -1
.. 0..
;: 2
o :::>
0..
t
2
(STANDING VALVE OPENS) t3 (STANDING VALVE CLOSES)
{ I
t, VALVE
PUMP DISPLACEMENT
FIG. 2-TYPICAL PUMP DYNAGRAPH SHOWING VALVE OPERATION.
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
pressure-volume relationship of the mixture being pumped.
As the amount of free gas passing through the pump
diminishes, the volumetric efficiency increases, and the
pump dynagraph tends to be rectangular in shape. Suitable
choices of a, f3 and P (t) can also be made to simulate
this situation.
The timing of valve opening and closing plays the key
role. In general it is impossible to predict these times, but
a special feature of the numerical method permits auto-
matic "sensing" of them by computer tests. These tests are
discussed in the next section.
NVMERICAL SOLVTION BY VSE OF PARTIAL
DIFFERENCE EQVATIONS
The mathematical model described in the previous sec-
tions is fairly complicated, and an analytical solution can
be obtained only in restricted instances (and then with
great difficulty). It is easier and more efficient to obtain
a solution by means of partial difference equations. Owing
to a fortunate mathematical circumstance, it is possible
to obtain extremely accurate solutions by means of the
difference-equation approach.
To obtain the numerical solution, the mathematical
model is recast into the language of differences. The wave
equation, a partial differential equation, is replaced by an
analagous partial difference equation'
T = 0, 1,2, ... ,
X=0,1,2,X*,
in which the notation
"vn1_ U (x, t + .At),
- u (x, t),
U (x, t - At),
,,+lV' - u (x + AX, t),
- u (x - AX, t),
7raV
r = --At
2L
(7)
is used. Eq. 7 is developed by means of difference quotient
approximations to the derivatives in the wave equation
3' u (x, t) ,...., u (x, t + At) - 2u (x, t) + U (x, t - At)
of Af
3' u (x, t) u (x + AX, t) - 2u (x, t) + u (x - AX, t)
{lx' .AX'
3 u (x, t) u (x, t + .At) - u (x, t)
in which the special choice of length and time increments
Ax . d k' h' h'
- = a IS ma e. By ma mg t IS C Olce, we can obtain
At
remarkably accurate solutions to the wave equation by
means of its difference analog (Eq. 7). As a matter of
fact, for the case of zero damping, solutions to Eq. 7
exactly satisfy the wave equation regardless of the size
of .Ax. When damping is considered, the solutions are no
longer exact but are very close. Investigation shows that,
for low-damping valves normally encountered in pumping
installations, the error in pump stroke introduced by the
numerical method should be less than 0.5 per cent. This
is the fortunate feature which permits rapid and eco-
nomical solution by means of digital computers, since the
rod need be divided into only a few intervals.
JULY. 1963
Likewise, the boundary conditions are recast into partial
difference form. In particular, the down-hole pump con-
dition becomes
AX P' + 2/1x*-,vr - V2/1x*-,vr
X*V' = (8)
3
IXAx +-'2/1
in which nv' denotes the displacement of the pump.
Eq. 8 is obtained directly from Eq. 6 by replacing the
derivative by a difference quotient.
The mechanism of the pump condition written in
difference form (Eq. 8) is exactly the same as that of
Eq. 6. A timely choice of IX, /1 and P (t) is needed, and
these choices depend on valve operation. The times of
valve opening and closing are "sensed" by the computer
with the following tests:
Test for t,-While x"vr - 2
x
*-,vr + V2
x
*-'vr = (no
load on pump), the computer senses when x*vr - X"V'-'
changes from positive to negative. This indicates that the
pump has reached its lowest position, at which time the
traveling valve closes. This is the computer's signal to
make the appropriate choices IX, /1 and P (t) to simulate
the desired pump condition.
Test for x"vr - 2
x
*-,vr + 1/2
x
*-,vr > (ten-
sion at the pump), the computer makes tests to determine
when EA - 2
X
*-1V' + 1/2 x,:,_,vr] = WI' At this time
Ax 2
the fluid load is completely borne by the rods, and the
standing valve opens.
Test for ta-While - 2
X
'-,-IV' + V2 x*-'V']= W,
AX 2
(fluid load imposed on the pump), the computer senses
when "V' - "V'-' changes from negative to positive. At
this time the pump has reached its highest position, and
the standing valve closes.
Test for t,--While - 2X*-'V' + 1;2 x*-'vr >
2
(tension at the pump), the computer determines when
x"vr - 2
X
*-1vr + V2 X*-'vr = At this time the fluid
2 .
load is completely borne by the tubing, and the traveling
valve opens.
In this manner the computer continually senses the
forces and movements which affect valve action and
makes the proper choices in the pump boundary condition
to simulate the desired down-hole dynagraph card.
Dynamic loads at the polished rod can be calculated
from the difference-equation version of Hooke's law
oF'" = EA[_ + 2'V' _ 1;22
v
r].
AX 2
The wave equation is written without the gravity term, so
the effects of gravity must be treated separately. Thus,
the total polished rod load, both static and dynamic, is
given by
PRL = 'F'" - Wb (9)
where Wb is the buoyant weight of the rods. In a similar
manner the load and displacement at the pump must be
adjusted to incorporate the effects of gravity. The dynamic
load at the pump is given by the difference equation
x* F'" = _ 2,,*-1Vr + 112 X*-'V']
Ax 2 '
and the true load is obtained by subtracting the force due
771
to buoyancy from the dynamic load,
PL = X*FT + W, . (J 0)
The effects of gravity on pump displacement are accounted
for by adding the static stretch of the rods-as they hang
in fluid with no attached fluid load-to the pump displace-
ments obtained in Eq. 8:
X'"ZT = ":'UT + Static Stretch (11)
Since the differential equation is linear, it is permissible
to superimpose the effects of gravity in this manner.
COMPARISON WITH FIELD MEASUREMENTS
The mathematical model as solved with partial differ-
ence equations permits accurate prediction of system
behavior. This is illustrated for a case in which the down-
hole operating conditions are known. Fig. 3a shows a
dynagraph card taken from an 8,900-ft well being pro-
duced at 12 strokes/min with a 74-in. conventional unit.
Since this well has an intake pressure above the bubble
point, it is known that the pump dynagraph is generally
rectangular. Knowledge of the intake pressure and fluid
composition also permits a good estimate of fluid load to
be made. Fig. 3b shows synthetic polished rod and pump
dynagraph cards produced for the same operating condi-
tions. As visual comparison indicates, the polished rod
cards compare closely. The pump stroke predicted by the
computer is in good agreement with the actual stroke
calculated from measured production.
FURTHER APPLICATIONS OF THE TECHNIQUE
To demonstrate the method further, several conditions
encountered in practice are simulated. Fig. 4 illustrates
the simulation of various down-hole pump volumetric
efficiencies. Fig. 4a shows a case wherein the volumetric
efficiency approaches 100 per cent. This condition occurs
in installations in which little or no gas is coming into
the pump and/or the pump intake pressure is above the
bubble point. Figs. 4b, 4c and 4d show volumetric effi-
ciencies** of 75, 50 and 25 per cent, respectively. Gen-
erally, the lower the efficiency the more adverse the com-
pression nose on the pump cards, which is caused by
greater amounts of free gas in the pump chamber. It is
interesting to note the effect of lower volumetric efficiency
on the loads imposed at the polished rod. The shape of
the card changes as a result of the slower transferral of
:;<>:'These efficiencies do not include losses due to pump slippage.
25,000
20,000
e 15,000
o
<t
S !O,OOO
5000
4
W
MAX
= 21,800 Ib
W
MIN
= 13,300 Ib
PRODUCTION = 200 bpd
3
MEASURED POLISHED
ROD DYNAGRAPH
2 I 0 -I -2 -3 -4
DISPLACEMENT, ft
7
fluid load to and from the rod string. This affects the
shape of the force waves which travel within the rod string
and can cause significant changes in the maximum and
minimum loads imposed at the polished rod.
The difference-equation technique can be usefully ap-
plied to the problems of pump spacing. Fig. 5 shows a
hypothetical analysis simulating the conditions which exist
during the pumping-up period. The spacing is assumed
to be such that the pump will hit up if a displacement of
-1.45 ft is reached. Fig. 5a shows the conditions soon
after the unit is started while the fluid load on the pump
is negligible. As indicated by the pump card, the pump
is overstroking and hitting up. The corresponding polished
rod card shows the reflections of the shock loads imposed
when the pump hits up. For this situation the pump
boundary condition is arranged to simulate a free-ended
rod on the upstroke until the pump has reached a dis-
placement of - 1.45 ft. When the pump reaches this point
as determined by a computer test, the boundary condition
is changed to simulate a fixed end. While the end is fixed,
a computer test senses the dynamic pump load, and when
this load decreases to zero, the boundary condition is
changed to simulate a free-ended rod again. At this time
the pump begins to descend with no attached load. Figs.
5b through 5d illustrate the conditions existing while the
fluid load is increasing to the full value of 2,600 lb. With
increased pump load and the resulting rod stretch, the
hitting-up condition no longer occurs.
A variety of pumping malfunctions can also be simu-
lated, as shown in Fig. 6. Fig. 6a simulates a gas-locked
pump. When the pump is gas-locked, the traveling valve
remains closed throughout the pumping cycle. This is
incorporated into the digital-computer solution by choos-
ing the pressure-volume relationship involved in the pump
boundary condition so that the fluid load is never com-
pletely removed from the pump, thereby requiring the
traveling valve to remain closed. In this condition, energy
is stored in the gas as pressure energy on the downstroke
and, for the most part, is returned to the system by gas
expansion on the upstroke. This results in a small amount
of pump work, which is indicated by the small area of the
corresponding polished rod card.
The results shown in Fig. 6b simulate the malfunction
caused by either a broken rod near the pump or a travel-
ing valve which is continuously stuck open. The pump
boundary condition used to effect this malfunction pro-
vides for a free-ended rod throughout the pumping cycle.
As expected, the area of the corresponding polished rod
W
MAX
= 22,100 Ib
W MIN = 12,900 Ib
PRODUCTION = 195 bpd
SYNTHETIC PUMP DYNAGRAPH
SYNTHETIC POLISHED
ROD DYNAGRAPH
6 5 4 3 2 I 0 -I -2 -3 -4
DISPLACEMENT, ft
FIG. 3-COMPARISON OF FIELD DYNAGRAI'H WITH SYNTHETIC DYNAGRAPHS.
772 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
card indicates a negligible amount of work being done
at the pump.
The cards of Fig. 6c simulate the pumped-off condition
which occurs when the capacity of the pumping equip-
ment exceeds the inflow capacity of the well. Accordingly,
the pump chamber is not completely filled on the upstroke,
and on the downstroke the fluid load is quickly released
when the plunger encounters the top of the fluid column
in the pump chamber. The pump boundary condition set
by the computer is similar to the normal condition for
I
20.000
15.000
;;j 10,0,),) -
o
--'
(a) 100- PERCENT
EFFICIENCY
It==============t=r-
20,000
15,000
g 10,000
o
-'
I I
7 6 5 4 3 2 I 0 -I -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
DISPLACEMENT, fj
500: __ .. -__=_==_i"': __ (e)
7 6 5 4 3 2 I 0 -I -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
DISPLACEMENT, fj
gas compression, except that the transferral of fluid load
does not begin on the downstroke until the pump reaches
a displacement which simulates the top of the fluid
column. The corresponding polished rod card shows the
abrupt load changes caused by the sudden release of
pump load which occurs when the plunger pounds fluid.
The dynagraph cards of Figs. 6d and 6e simulate the
hitting-up and hitting-down conditions. In each case the
polished rod dynagraphs have the jagged appearance of
actual dynagraphs taken in wells with pump malfunctions
r--------------------b-- (b) 75-PERCENT
EFFICIENCY
7 6 5 4 3 2 I 0 -I -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
DISPLACEMENT, fj
r-______________
EFFICIENCY
7 6 5 4 3 2 I 0 -I -2 -3 -4 -5 -6
DISPLACEMENT, fj
FIG. OF VARIOCS PI-,IP VOU;;Vn:TRlC EFFICIENCIES.
12,000 12,000
10,000 10,000
=::.
=::.
8000 8000
c5
0
<t 6000
<t
6000
0 0
-' -'
4000 4000
2000
(a)
2000
(b)
0 0
- 2000
4 I -I -3
- 2000
4 I -I -3
DISPLACEMENT, It DISPLACEMENT, ft
12,000 12,000
10,000 10,000
=::.
8000
=::.
8000
c5
c5
<t
6000 <t
6000
0
0
-'
-'
4000 4000
2000 2000
(c) (d)
0 0
- 2000
4 I -3
- 2000
4 I -I -3
DISPLACEMENT, It DISPLACEMENT, It
FIG. 5-SIMULATION OF CONDITIONS EXISTING DURING PUMPING-UP OPERATIONS.
J I j I. 1963
77a
of this type. The jagged appearance of the polished rod
cards is caused by reflections of the shock loads imposed
when the pump hits up or down.
An extremely interesting application is the evaluation
of the relative performance of different types of surface
pumping units. The mathematical solution is capable of
simulating any type of pumping unit simply by use of
the appropriate linkage dimensions involved in the pol-
ished rod motion condition (Eq. 2). The behavior of the
sucker-rod system is significantly affected by the type
of driving motion produced by the pumping unit. Signifi-
cant effects in polished rod loads, gear box torques and
pump strokes can be attributed to the various pumping-
unit geometries commercially available. To illustrate a
typical application of the technique, Fig. 7 shows hypo-
thetical cards produced by a conventional unit and by an
air-balanced unit. As indicated, the various unit geometries
and configurations produce variations in peak and mini-
12,000
10,000 -

8000
ci'
-
<I
6000
0
..J
4000 -
2000 -
0
.-=-
to)
I I I I I
3 2 o -I -2 -3
DISPLACEMENT, ft

10,000
.0
ci' 8000
6000
..J
4000
2000
(e)


DISPLACEMENT, ft
12,000
10,000

8000
0
<I 6000
0
..J
4000
2000
0
- 2000
4 I
mum loads and in dynamometer card shapes for the same
operating conditions.
Prime mover speed variations also exert a significant
influence on the behavior of sucker-rod systems. The
mathematical solution can be used to study these effects,
as shown in Fig. S. Fig. Sa shows synthetic dynagraph
cards in which prime mover speed variations are neglected.
Fig. Sb simulates a medium-slip prime mover for the
same condition. It is useful to note that the peak load
for the constant-speed condition is slightly too high, and
the minimum load is slightly too low. The constant-speed
condition is somewhat unrealistic, although it may be
closely approached in wells with good counterbalance and
large rotary inertia. Prime mover speed variations tend
to soften the loads imposed at the polished rod and
usually operate to decrease the load range. Some effect
on pump stroke is also noted.
The design of tapered rod strings has posed an inter-
12,000
10,000

8000
ci'
<I 6000
0
..J
4000
2000
(b)
0
- 2000
4 I -3
DISPLACEMENT, It
12,000..-------------,---------,
10,000
.0
ci' 8000
<I
6000
o
..J
4000
2000
(d)
r-L===========t---------i

DISPLACEM ENT, ft
(e)
-3
DISPLACEMENT, It
FIG. 6-SIMULATION OF PUMPING MALFUNCTIONS.
20,000
.0
15,000
0 10,000
<I
0
-' 5000
AIR - BALANCED UNIT
0
4 3 2 I 0 -I -2 -3 -4 4 3 2 I 0 -I - 2 -3 -4
DISPLACEMENT, ft DISPLACEMENT, It
FIG. 7-SYNTHETIC DYNAGRAPHS PRODUCED WITH POLISHED ROD MOTIONS OF CONVENTIONAL AND AIRBALANCED UNITS.
774 JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY
25,000
20,000
15,000
.0
;i 10,000
o
-'
5000
(0) NO Sli P
~ ~ ~ ~ ~
3 I -I - 2 -3 -4
DISPLACEMENT. ft
(b) MEDIUM SLIP
-I -2 -3 -4
FIG. 8-EFFECT OF PRIME MOVER SPEED VARIATION.
esting problem for many years. The question arises in
any tapered-rod string installation regarding the percentage
of each rod size required to produce balanced stresses.
The difference-equation technique (suitably generalized)
provides means for studying and making optimum the
design of tapered strings. Fig. 9 shows a dynagraph card
calculated at the junction of 'Ys - and % -in. rods in a
4,500-ft well. With this card it is possible to calculate the
stress at the junction and so determine if the percentage
of each rod size is adequate. It is important to note that
the peak load always occurs at the polished rod and not
at some intermediate depth, as has been conjectured in
the past.
DESIGN OF SUCKER-ROD INSTALLATIONS
Another application of the difference-equation tech-
nique is in the design of rod pumping installations. The
mathematical solution generates entire dynagraph cards
for both the polished rod and the pump. Design data such
as maximum and minimum rod loads, polished rod horse-
power and pump stroke can be obtained from these cards.
Since the technique requires a digital computer, it is best
to precompute design data for various pumping units,
prime movers, rod designs, fluid loads, volumetric effi-
ciencies and pumping speeds. With precomputed data, the
impracticality of using the digital computer on each
design occasion is eliminated.
An efficient way of summarizing the precomputed design
data is in graphical nondimensional form. In this scheme
the various design factors are incorporated into the fol-
lowing groups:
WdSK = nondimensional fluid load,
N /N, = nondimensional pumping speed,
Wx/W
f
= nondimensional maximum dynamic load,
W,,jW, = nondimensional minimum dynamic load,
S./S = nondimensional pump stroke, and
P /W,SN = nondimensional polished rod horsepower.
The groups are chosen in a manner which makes the
calculations as simple as possible. For example, S./S =
0.85 means that the gross pump stroke is 85 per cent of
the polished rod stroke. Similarly, Wx/W, = 2 means that
the maximum dynamic polished rod load is double the
fluid load. As a further step toward simplicity, the effects
of the fluid load and the inertial effects of the sucker rod
are lumped into the so-called dynamic load. The maximum
polished rod load is therefore the weight of rods in fluid
plus the maximum dynamic load,
JULY, 1963
DYNAG RAPH CARD AT JUNCTION BETWEEN
RODS AND 3/4 -INCH RODS
14.000
12.000
10.000
8000
,e
ci 6000

0
...J 4000
2000
-PUMP CARD
0
-2000
4 3 2 o -I -2 -3
DISPLACEMENT. ft
FIG. 9--CALCULATED DYNAGRAPH CARDS IN A TWO-WAY
COMBINATION ROD STRING.
-4
(12)
The corresponding formula for minimum polished rod
load is
Wmin == WfJ - Wn (13)
where Wn is the minimum dynamic load.
To illustrate the method, a typical set of design curves
and a sample design calculation are shown in Fig. 10. The
sample curves are valid for conventional units, uniform
rods, 75-per cent volumetric efficiency and negligible
prime mover slip. More curves can be developed for
tapered strings, other types of units, other volumetric
efficiencies, etc.
VISUAL DIAGNOSIS OF OPERATING CONDITIONS
A useful feature of the new method is that entire dyna-
graph cards can be predicted. When field dynagraph cards
are compared with synthetic dynagraphs generated with
the computer, it is possible in many cases to diagnose
down-hole operating conditions. This process is illustrated
in Fig. 11. Fig. 11 a shows an actual dynagraph card
taken in an installation with a 44-in. conventional unit
operating 4,700 ft of %-in. rods at 14 strokes/min with a
1 % -in. pump. For this depth and speed, N /N, = 0.27.
Fig. 11 b shows a set of synthetic dynagraphs for approxi.
mately the same nondimensional speed, N /N, = 0.25.
By visual comparison it appears that the field dynagraph
corresponds to the condition WdSK = 0.4 with 75 per
cent pump efficiency. For this installation the fluid load
WI is calculated to be about 4,500 lb. Also, by use of the
design curves (Fig. 10), the pump stroKe is calculated as
approximately 36 in. Thus, the calculated fluid load indi-
cates that the well is virtually pumped-off, the efficiency
775
776
9
C 8
7 7
0..1
G 6
5 - 5
;;:
;-
,
,
:;;1< ;
4 - 4
3-
2
:r
0..2
0..5
I r-
I ~
0.
(0)
cL
17 ---------------,0..1 12
16
1.5
1.4 -
13
1.2
Vl
,
1.1
Q.
Vl
1.0.
0..9
0..8
0..7
0..6
0..5
0.
DESIGN ASSUMPTICNS
CCNVENTICNAL UNIT
S= 4.5 It
N = 16 spm
L =450.0. It
3/4 -INCH RCDS
Wb=65CC Ib
I 1;2 -INCH PUMP
WI = 250.0. Ib
NINo 0..3
EFFICIENCY = 75 PERCENT
PRCDUCTICN REQUIRED = 150. bpd
0..4
II
10.
9
"' 0 7
x
Q I ~
6
WI 4
SK
3
(c)
0..5 0..1
0..2 NINo 0..3
DESIGN CALCULATICNS
0..4
!!. = __ N_L_ 16 (450.0.) = 0..30.
No 240.,0.0.0. 240., 0.0.0.
K = EA = 30.,0.0.0., 0.0.0. (0..442) =2945 Ib/lt
L 450.0.
WI 250.0.
SK = 4.5 (2945) = 0.189
Wx = 205
WI .
W,=2.C5 (250.0.) =51251b
FRCM CURVES
Wn
WI = 0..82
, W
n
= 0..82 (250.0.)= 20.50. Ib
~ = 0.977
S .
, Sp =0..977 (4.5) = 4.4 It
0..3
0.4
0..5
(d)
0..5
W;SN' 10.
5
= 3.61; P= 3.61 (250.0.) (4.5) (16) 10.-
5
= 6.5 hp
WMAX = Wb + W, = 650.0. + 5125 = 11,625 Ib
WMIN = Wb- Wn = 650.0. - 20.50. = 4450. Ib
We = WMAX ~ WM1N = 80.37 Ib
NT =6(S) (WMAX-We) = 96,80.0. In.-Ib
PRCDUCTICN = 1.4 (1.5)2 (4.4) (16) (0..75) = 166 bp.d
FIG. IO-INSTALi.ATION DESIGN BY MEANS OF NON DIMENSIONAL PARAMETERS.
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECH'\"OLOG Y
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.5
JULY, 1963
e=IOO%
/ ~ ~
- - - - - - - - - . - - ~ - - -
L '4700 ft
N' 14 spm
3/4 - I NCH RODS
I 314-INCH PUMP
1i, 14 (4700) , 0.27
NO 240,000
(0) ACTUAL DYNAGRAPH
75 %
(b) SYNTHETIC DYNAGRAPHS
50 %
FIG. ll-VIS[;AL DIAGNOSIS OF DOWN-HoLE OPERATING CONDITIONS.
25 %
of 75 per cent indicates reasonably good down-hole gas
separation and the pump stroke when compared with
measured production indicates that the pump is in good
mechanical condition.
It should be pointed out that, in comparisons of meas-
ured cards with calculated cards, the shape rather than
the area must be used. This is because the field card can
be made thin or fat by merely changing rings in the
dynamometer. Also, the principal diagnostic features of
a surface dynagraph lie in the middle two-thirds of the
card. A key item is the relative position of the maximum
and minimum loads. The features of the card near the
ends of the stroke are likely to be unreliable as diagnostic
indicators. It should also be stressed that tubing move-
ment, prime mover slip, rod design and unit geometry all
exert influences on dynagraph card shape. Hence, extreme
variations from the conditions used to generate the syn-
thetic cards may limit the use of visual diagnosis.
CONCLUSIONS
1. In view of the wide use of sucker-rod pumping, a
fundamental understanding of the system is economically
essential.
2. The technique of differenc equations can be used to
refine the criteria for designing and operating sucker-rod
installations. The method can be useful to manufacturers
for predicting the effect of various pumping-unit designs
on system behavior. It can also be useful to oil producers
for selecting equipment and for determining optimum
methods of operation.
778
NOMENCLATURE
a = velocity of force propagation, ftl sec
A = area of sucker rods, sq in.
CBT = counterbalance torque, in.-Ib
E = modulus of elasticity, psi
oF' = dynamic polished rod load, lb
x* pr = dynamic pump load, lb
K = spring constant for rod string, lb/ft
L = length of sucker-rod string, ft
N = pumping speed, strokes/min
No = natural frequency of rod string, cycles/min
NT = net torque, in.-Ib
P = polished rod horsepower, hp
PL = pump load, lb
PRL = polished rod load, lb
S = polished rod stroke, ft
Sp = pump stroke, ft
t = time, seconds
T = difference notation for t, dimensionless
TP = torque factor, in.
u(x,t) = displacement of the sucker rod at
arbitrary depth and time, ft
"ur = difference notation for u (x,t), ft
Wb = weight of sucker rods in fluid, lb
We = counterweight, lb
Wi = fluid load, lb
W min = minimum polished rod load, lb
Wmox = maximum polished rod load, lb
Wn = minimum dynamic polished rod load, lb
Wx = maximum dynamic polished rod load, lb
x = distance along unstrained sucker rod
measured from polished rod, ft
X = difference notation for x, dimensionless
x* = difference notation for L, dimensionless
X* zr = pump displacement including static rod
stretch, ft
v = damping factor, dimensionless
REFERENCES
1. Gray, H. E.: "Kinematics of OilWell Pumping Units", Paper
presented at the API Midcontinent Dist. Meeting, Amarillo,
Tex. (March 2729, 1963).
2. Gilbert, W. E.: "An OilWell Pump Dynagraph", Drill. and
Prod. Pmc., API (1936).
3. Milne, E.: Numerical Solution of Differential Equations, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., N. Y. (1953). ***
JOURNAL OF PETROLEUM TECHNOLOGY