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Recent developments in three phase load flow analysis / edited by: Mohammad Yusri Hassan. Includes index ISBN 978-983-52-0680-1 I. Electric power system--Load dispatching. I. Mohammad Yusri Hassan. 621.317 Editor: Mohammad Yusri Hassan Pereka Kulit: Mohd Nazir Md. Basri & Mohd Asmawidin Bidin Diatur huruf oleh / Typeset by
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Contents
CONTENTS
Preface Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Review of Load Flow Analysis Khalid Mohamed Nor Single-Phase Load Flow Analysis Khalid Mohamed Nor Hazli Mokhlis Taufiq A Gani Three-Phase Power-Flow Methods using Sequence Components Mamdouh Abdel-Akher Khalid Mohamed Nor Unbalanced Distribution Power Flow Analysis using Sequence and Phase Components Mamdouh Abdel-Akher Khalid Mohamed Nor
ix
1 23
Chapter 3
49
Chapter 4
81
vi Chapter 5
Contents
Representing Single-Phase and Two-Phase 107 Lines with Dummy Lines and Dummy Nodes Mamdouh Abdel-Akher Khalid Mohamed Nor Unbalanced Three Phase Power Flow with 113 Dummy Lines and Nodes Mamdouh Abdel-Akher Khalid Mohamed Nor Three Phase Load Flow Analysis with 137 Distributed Generation Syafii Ghazali Khalid M Nor M. Abdel-Akher Future Potentials and Works Syafii Ghazali and Khalid Mohamed Nor 153 161
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8 Index
Preface
ix
PREFACE
Load Flow is the most used analysis in power system. It is required in virtually all aspect of engineering and technical activity in electrical power engineering. Due to its importance and significance, it was amongst the early area that power system researchers worked on especially with the advent of digital computers. Since its long history many can be forgiven for perceiving that all its well and not much need to be studied anymore about load flow. In its early stage load flow was formulated as a balanced problem. It does simplify the problem in the sense the size of the variables to be solved is drastically reduced. The balanced problem was solved with many mathematical methods that exploit the intrinsic nature of the load flow problem. Over the years as the load flow algorithms increased in complexities, in terms of control variables and development of HVDC and FACTS, the original problem has to be modified and consequently, the programming code need to updated constantly from time to time. From another aspect, computer and computing technology has developed so fast and so much, that most of the original programs that implemented the load flow algorithm have been ported, from the main-frame, to minicomputer to UNIX workstation and now to the ubiquitous Microsoft windows based personal computer or personal workstation. How do we developed the algorithm and what computing technique that we need to employ that minimized the disruption in program maintenance as well ensure minimum computing resources is expended to achieve this objective?
Preface
While transmission system may still remain a well balanced three phase networks, the distribution system is not necessarily so. This is because transposition used in transmission lines may not be available at all parts of a distribution system. Furthermore the advent of switching mode supplies that power the dominant portion of consumer loads in single phase, means the load are no longer balanced while the networks is lightly unbalanced. From a restricted point of view, but nonetheless quite significant, many networks in North America and some other parts of the world, use single phase and two phase networks to minimize the cost of transmission lines to supply remote loads over long distances. The load flow problem for this kind of network requires special considerations. Many developments in load flow analysis is being reported in this monograph. Most materials have been published in refereed journals. They have been updated and edited for additional clarity and of course continuity of presentation. This monograph was conceived earlier as the number of work that was done students working under my supervision increased. The works developed towards a better understanding of the load flow analysis. It is not so much the formulation but rather the modeling and the application of previous works to solve a wider type of problems. This publication is hoped to add values to an already voluminous amount of information about load flow in the literature.
Mohammad Yusri Hassan Facuty of Electrical Engineering Universiti Teknologi Malaysia 2008
1
LITERATURE REVIEW OF LOADFLOW ANALYSIS
Khalid Mohamed Nor
1.1.
Introduction Power-flow studies is an essential tool in planning and designing the future expansion of power systems as well as determining the best operation of existing power systems. The main objective of an unbalanced three-phase power-flow study is to obtain the individual phase voltages at each bus corresponding to the network specified conditions. The balanced three-phase power-flow studies assume that the system unbalances may be neglected. However, there are many cases in which the unbalances of loads, untransposed transmission lines etc. cannot be ignored. Besides, in distribution systems, there are several examples in which the balanced conditions hypothesis cannot be applied. A typical case would be mixed single-phase, two-phase, and threephase systems in which it is obviously impossible to use a balanced model hypothesis. These cases must be handled with a complete three-phase power system model, as has been proposed by several authors in the literature. This chapter presents a survey of the basic formulation and the various unbalanced power-flow algorithms used for solving and analyzing unbalanced electrical networks. The unbalanced three-
phase power-flow methods can be categorized into three main groups. Firstly, methods are developed for solving general network structure; therefore, these methods can be applied for solving meshed transmission as well as radial distribution power systems. The second group is particularly intended for radial distribution systems since they consider primarily the radial structure of the network. Most of the methods, in both first and second categories, are developed using power system models established in phase coordinates frame of reference. Finally, the third category includes few methods that are established based on symmetrical components frame of reference. These methods cannot solve power systems that contain singlephase and two-phase line segments which is the case in distribution power systems. Therefore, the application of these methods is limited to pure three-phase systems and they are normally used for power quality studies since voltage sag analysis is usually studied based on the concept of symmetrical components. 1.2. Discussion of the frame of reference Power systems have been traditionally analyzed using symmetrical components matrix transformations [1]. This technique has been widely used in unbalanced electric power systems in steady-state analysis. Symmetrical components transformation decouples symmetrical three-phase power systems into positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence networks. Symmetrical power systems include components such as transposed transmission lines, transformers, and generators which can be decoupled using the symmetrical components transformation. The advantage of the sequence networks is that the problem size is greatly reduced and the formulation of the problem is simplified. In addition, many power system analyses can be integrated such as balanced and unbalanced power-flow.
Unfortunately, if a power system includes components such as salient-pole synchronous machines, unbalanced loads, and untransposed lines, the network cannot be uncoupled by the mean of symmetrical components. Besides, the phase shifts introduced by special transformer connections are difficult to be represented and distribution power systems have mixed single-phase, twophase, and three-phase circuits. Consequently, the trend was to use the untransformed phase coordinates for unbalanced power-flow solution and a few methods are developed based on the symmetrical components. However, once the phase coordinates are used, the symmetric power systems components such as transposed transmission lines, transformers, generators etc. cannot longer be used. Hence, a complete threephase power flow problem should be solved using three-phase power system models in phase coordinates which will be computationally expensive. 1.3 Basic formulation of unbalanced power-flow The network power-flow equations can be formulated analytically in variety of forms such as node voltage, branch voltages, or based on the network structure in case of distribution systems. In this section, the most common and general formulation based on the node voltages will be introduced since it is the suitable form for many power system analyses [2, 3] The formulation of the network equations in the nodal admittance form results in complex linear simultaneous algebraic equations in terms of node currents. The node voltages can be calculated by the direct solution of the liner equation if the node currents are known. Nevertheless, in a power system, values of powers are known (specified) rather than currents. Thus, the resulting equations in terms of powers quantities, known as the power-flow equations, become nonlinear and must be solved by iterative techniques.
The objective of the unbalanced three-phase power-flow is to obtain the individual phase voltages at all buses corresponding to the network specified conditions. The introduction of three-phase voltage magnitudes and angles implies that at each bus, there are six independent constraints required to solve for six unknowns. The six constraints are dependent on the type of buses. There are two main types for buses; they are load (PQ) and generator buses or PV buses. One of the generators has to be selected as slack or swing generator. The three-phase busbars of an unbalanced power system are as follows [3, 4]: i. Load bus (PQ): at the load bus, both the generated active abc power Pi abc _ gen and the generated reactive power Qi _ gen shown in Figure 1.1 are zero. The active power Pi abc _ load and the reactive power Qiabc _ load drawn from the system by the load are known from historical record, load forecast, or measurement. The unknowns at the load bus are the threephase voltages magnitudes and angles. Voltage controlled bus (PV): any bus of the network at which the voltage is maintained constant is said to be voltage controlled or PV bus. The total three-phase active power Pi abc _ gen output is specified together with one voltage magnitude. The latter may correspond to one of the threephase voltages or any combination of the three-phase voltages. The positive sequence voltage magnitude is usually specified. The unknowns at PV bus are the total reactive power Qiabc _ gen and the voltage angle of the specified iii. voltage magnitude. Slack bus: The slack bus is one of the generator buses selected as a reference bus. Therefore, both the magnitude and angle of the positive sequence voltage are specified. In this case, the total active and reactive power are not specified, but obtained at the end of the study. The reason is
ii.
Bus N Bus i
p Pi _ gen
p Pi _ sch
p Pi _ calc
p Pi _ load
Bus k
Qip _ gen
Qip _ sch
Qip _ calc
Qip _ load
Bus k
(b) Reactive power-flow Figure 1.1 Notation for active and reactive power-flows of phase p at a general bus i Figure 1.1 shows the active and reactive power-flows of a phase p at a general bus i in the network. From Figure 1.1, the basic equations of the power-flow problem, which are normally
called mismatch equations, can be written for a phase p at a general bus i as follows:
p p p p p Pi p = Pi _ sch P i _ calc = P i _ gen P i _ load P i _ calc p p p p Qip = Qip _ sch Qi _ calc = Qi _ gen Qi _ load Qi _ calc
(1.1) (1.2)
The active and reactive power mismatches in (1.1) and (1.2) are calculated according to the bus specification. The active and reactive power are specified for PQ busbars, therefore the active and reactive power mismatches can be computed. The treatment of mismatch equations of generator buses in unbalanced three-phase power-flow analysis varies according to the method and the generator model utilized. This is because both the total specified power and the specified positive sequence voltage at the generator terminal busbar are subjected to the condition that the internal voltages, the voltages behind the generator reactance, are balanced. The active power mismatch equation of PV bus can be written as follows [5]:
abc abc E q yq V a + a 2 V b + aV c = Pi abc i _ load jQi _ calc + _ gen P
[V
* a
Vb
where
Eq the voltage behind the positive sequence generator reactance Ygen the generator admittance matrix
The calculated reactive power in (1.3) is computed during the iterative solution process form the current injected at the generator terminals from the network side as follows:
* * * Qiabc _ calc = Im Va I a + Vb I b + Vc I c
(1.4)
The solution of (1.3) and (1.4) guarantees a balanced internal voltage of a generator by calculating Eq during the solution process. The specified active power will have some mismatch after voltage regulator action is introduced, but this mismatch tends to be corrected at successive stages of the solution process [5]. In contrast to the traditional balanced three-phase power-flow, the slack generator cannot be excluded from the solution process since only one voltage magnitude and angle are specified. Therefore, the constraint of balanced internal bus voltage must be maintained as in the case of the other PV generators. The complete process and flowchart for solving generator terminal voltages can be found in detail in the hybrid power-flow method proposed by [5].
1.4. General network structure methods The general network structure methods can be used for solving both transmission and distribution systems. These methods are established based on phase coordinates models without any simplifications. The following subsection will give a review for different methods reported in the literature for the general network structure methods.
Early techniques, Newton Raphson, Fast decoupled, and Gauss-Seidel Due to robust convergence, Newton Raphson three-phase power-flow was proposed by Wasley and Shlash and later by Birt et. al.[6]. The fast decoupled three-phase Newton Raphson was introduced by Arrillaga and Arnold [7]. The Y-Bus Gauss-Seidel method was introduced by Laughton et al. [8]. These elementary
1.4.1.
methods made some assumptions about generators either to simplify the problem or to improve the convergence characteristics [5]. Examples of such assumptions are that the real power specified is the total power at the internal busbars, in practice, the specified quantity is the power leaving the terminal busbar, or that the voltage magnitude is maintained at the internal busbar instead of the terminal busbar, or that a small value of the machine positive sequence impedance is specified in order to avoid numerical difficulty [7].
1.4.2. Z-Bus Gauss method The assumptions made in the early developments are recovered in the hybrid power-flow method reported by [5]. The hybrid method is an iterative technique which utilizes the implicit Z-BUS Gauss for load busbars combining with Y-BUS Gauss method for generator busbars. The application of the Z-Bus Gauss method for a distribution system power-flow analysis was introduced by Sun et al. [9] and subsequently by Chen et al. [10]. The Z-Bus method was chosen by Chen et al. [10] for distribution system power-flow for the following reasons:
i. Newton Raphson approach is known for its excellent convergence characteristics, but its major shortcoming is the requirements of the Jacobian matrix, with a rank four times that of the Y-Bus be recalculated for each iteration. ii. The convergence character of the Z-Bus method is highly dependent on the number of specified voltage buses (PV nodes) in the system. If the only voltage specified bus in the system is the swing bus, the rate of convergence is comparable to the Newton Raphson method, which is the case in distribution systems at this era (1991). At this time, the introduction of PV nodes was not popular in distribution systems and all generation units, usually called
10
Costa et al. [17] for balanced three-phase power-flow analysis. In this development, the current injection equations are written in rectangular coordinates and an order of 2n bus admittance matrix is composed of 2 2 blocks. A new dependent variable Q is introduced for each PV node, together with the additional equation imposing the condition of zero deviation in the bus voltage. Except of PV nodes, the Jacobian matrix has the elements of the offdiagonal blocks equal to those of the admittance matrix. The elements of the diagonal blocks are updated every iteration, according to the load model being considered for a certain PQ bus. The current mismatch formulation was tested on large scale systems and has achieved an average 30% speedup, when test benched against a state of the art production grade balanced threephase Newton Raphson power-flow.
The performance results of balanced three-phased power-flow Newton Raphson based on current mismatch formulation encouraged Garcia et al. [18] to develop Newton Raphson unbalanced power-flow using current injection method. The threephase current injection equations are written in rectangular coordinates in similar manner to the case of the balanced powerflow. The resultant equations are of an order 6n system of equations. The Newton Raphson Jacobian matrix is composed of 6 6 block matrices and retains the same structure as the threephase nodal voltage admittance matrix. The three-phase current injection method has the advantage that the recalculated elements of the Jacobian matrix during the solution process are very small. In some situations, for a radial distribution system with no PV nodes, the Jacobian matrix is constant. Practical experience of the three-phase current injection reports some convergence problems that were identified when the threephase current injection method was applied to calculate powerflows in heavily loaded systems [19]. This is because the PV bus representation in the current injection formulation required a change of the corresponding column of the Jacobian matrix.
11
Consequently a new representation for PV nodes is reported by Garcia et al. [19]. The improvement of PV representation made the convergence characteristics of the three-phase current injection method typical to the standard unbalanced three-phase Newton Raphson method.
1.5. Radial network structure methods Distribution networks are characterized with a radial structure with high R/X ratio of transmission lines. A distribution feeder begins at a substation where the electric supply is transformed from the high voltage transmission system to a lower voltage distribution network to deliver the electric power to customers. Due to the radial structure, a variety of power-flow methods are specially intended for solving distribution networks. These methods consider primarily the radial structure of the distribution network in the formulation of the power-flow algorithm.
1.5.1. Forward/backward sweep analysis A distribution feeder is nonlinear because most loads are assumed to be constant complex power loads. The approach of the linear system can be modified to take into account the nonlinear characteristics of the distribution feeder (Kersting and Mendive 1974). In this approach, an iterative technique involves mainly two basic steps based on Kirchhoffs voltage and current laws. The two steps are named as backward sweep and forward sweep and they are repeated until convergence is achieved. This iterative technique is known as the forward/backward sweep analysis method.
The backward sweep is primarily a current or a power-flow summation with possible voltage updates. The forward sweep is primarily a voltage drop calculation with possible current or power-flow updates. This algorithm is based on the fact that the current at the end of the sub-lateral is zero whereas the voltage at the source node is specified. Therefore, by the application of both the forward/backward sweeps in iterative scheme a radial distribution feeder can be solved.
12
1.5.2. Compensation-based methods The basic forward/backward sweep method presented by Kersting and Mendive [20] was extended for weakly meshed distribution networks. Firstly, a compensation-based balanced power-flow was proposed by Shirmohammdi et al. [21]. In this method, the authors break the interconnected loops at a number of breakpoints in order to convert the network into a radial structure. The radial network is solved efficiently by the forward/backward sweep method. The flows at different breakpoints are considered by injecting currents at their two end nodes. The solution of the radial network with the additional breakpoints current compensation completes the solution of the weakly meshed network.
Later, an improved compensation-based version was presented by Luo and Semlyen [22] for large and weakly meshed distribution networks. In this method, branch powers are used instead of branch currents in the method presented by Shirmohammdi et al. [21]. The weakness of this improved version is that: firstly the effect of load and shunt admittance are ignored in the loop impedance matrix, secondly, the shunt admittances are ignored in the main powerflow algorithm, and finally, one single source is considered. The first and second weaknesses were recovered by Haque [23] whereas the voltage dependent load models were incorporated in algorithm and reported in [24]. Later, Haque [25] generalized the method for solving distribution networks having more than one feeding source. The basic compensation-based method proposed by Shirmohammdi et al. [21] for balanced power-flow was extended for unbalanced power-flow analysis by Cheng and Shirmohammadi [26]. In this development, different component models are incorporated such as multi-phase operation, dispread generation (PV nodes), distributed loads, voltage regulators, and shunt capacitors with automatic tap controls.
13
1.5.3. Fast decoupled for radial networks At the same time that Cheng and Shirmohammadi [26] proposed the unbalanced power-flow compensation-based method, Zimmerman and Chiang [27] introduced the fast decupled powerflow for solving unbalanced radial distribution systems. The basic concept of the method is based on the fact that the voltage and current injected into each sub-lateral are given, and hence, it is possible to compute all voltages and currents in the rest of the feeder. This is because the current at the end of radial feeder is zero and the voltage is unknown whereas the voltage at the source is specified.
The fast decoupled method by Zimmerman and Chiang [27] depends on the numerical characteristics of a distribution line. Therefore, it is possible to make decoupling approximation to the Jacobian matrix required for updating the end voltages. Due to the reduced load flow equations, the fast decoupled method is very fast when it was compared against the former Newton Raphson, implicit Zbus Gauss method, and the forward/backward sweep method. The fast decoupled method uses lateral variables instead of node variables, this makes the method efficient for a given system structure, but it may add some overhead if the system structure is changed regularly, which is common in distribution systems due to switching operations. The last fast decoupled power-flow method for solving distribution networks was introduced by Lin et al. [28]. The method uses the traditional Newton Raphson algorithm in a rectangular coordinate system. The Jacobian matrix can be decoupled both on phases and on real and imaginary parts based on assumptions such as neglecting the off-diagonal blocks (mutual coupling). Therefore, the memory requirements of the traditional fast decoupled load flow can be reduced to only one-sixth. This fast decoupled method can be executed with performance of 10 to 100 times faster than other methods for test systems of 45 to 270 buses. Although the method has excellent performance
14
characteristics, the assumptions made in this fast decoupled version reduces the accuracy of the method.
1.5.4. Newton Raphson for radial networks The application of Newton Raphson method for solving balanced radial feeders was presented by Zhang and Cheng [29]. This method is based on the formulation of the Jacobian matrix as UDUT form, where U is a constant upper triangular matrix depending solely on system topology and D is a block diagonal matrix resulting from the radial structure of distribution systems. This formulation allows the conventional Newton Raphson algorithm with forming of the Jacobian matrix, LU factorization and forward/backward substitution be replaced by forward/backward sweeps on radial feeders with equivalent impedances.
Reliable load-flow utilizes Newton Raphson method was presented by Gmez and Ramos [30]. The purpose of the algorithm is to enhance convergence rate. This is achieved by writing the load-flow equation in alternative variables consisting of 3N equations (2N linear plus N quadratic) to make the load-flow equations more linear. The algorithm is validated with many illcondition networks reported in the literature and then compared with some of the existing algorithms in terms of convergence characteristics and computation time. The last application of Newton Raphson for unbalanced radial distribution systems was proposed by Teng and Chang [31]. In this method, the authors used branch voltages as state variables and employed the Newton Raphson algorithm to solve the load flow problem. By utilizing branch voltages as state variables, a constant Jacobian matrix can be obtained, and a building algorithm for the Jacobian matrix can be developed from the observation of the constant Jacobian matrix. In addition, lower and upper triangular factorization is developed to avoid the time-consuming in computation. The branch voltage Newton Raphson method gave
15
fast execution time when it was compared with the Gauss Z-Bus method [10].
1.5.5. Direct solution of radial networks A direct approach was developed by Teng [32], in this approach, special topological characteristics of distribution system were fully utilized to make direct solution possible. The powerflow solution is obtained by developing two matrices and a simple matrix multiplication. The two matrices are the bus-injection to branch-current matrix and the branch-current to bus voltage matrix. Due to the distinctive solution techniques of this method, the consumed time for LU decomposition of the Jacobian matrix or the admittance matrices, or the consumed time for the forward/backward substitution required in the traditional powerflow methods is no longer necessary. 1.5.6. Phase decoupling methods The fast execution time and low memory requirements can be obtained by phase decoupling methods. Firstly, the phase decoupled methodology for solving radial distribution networks was presented by Lin and Teng [33]. In this method, the Newton Raphson algorithm is used to assure rapid convergence. The Jacobian matrix is formulated based on branch currents. Therefore, the specified powers are represented by equivalent current injections for load buses. The resultant Jacobian matrix has constant elements corresponding to self or mutual impedances. The Jacobian matrix is decoupled based on the fact that the line selfimpedance is significantly greater than the mutual impedance, and hence, the off-diagonal blocks are neglected in the Jacobian matrix resulting in the phase decoupled method.
Secondly, the quasi-coupled unbalanced radial power-flow was presented by Ramos et al. [34]. In this method, a distribution network is decoupled into a three independent single-phase networks. Consequently, three separate balanced power-flow programs can be run. However, the results provided by this process
16
may not be accurate enough in certain circumstances. Therefore, the mutual coupling is considered by an equivalent branch voltage sources or bus current injections for accurate results. In this method, the bus current injections are more appropriate when Newton Raphson is employed whereas branch voltage sources are suitable when forward/backward sweeps are adopted. The quasidecoupled method has a 30-40 % execution time saving when it is compared with the compensation based method by Cheng and Shirmohammadi [26]. The disadvantage of the quasi-coupled method is that it has accuracy limitations.
Sequence component methods The first algorithm used in unbalanced power-flow solution for analyzing three-phase network was presented El-Abiad et al. [35]. This method utilized Gauss Seidel iterative scheme based on the bus impedance matrix established in sequence components. Twenty six years later, Lo and Zhang [36] introduced the decomposed three-phase power-flow method based on symmetrical networks. In this method, the power-flow problem is decomposed into three sub-problems. The sub-problems involve the solution of the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence networks. The positive sequence network sub-problem is solved using Newton Raphson method. The other two sub-problems are formulated into a set of linear simultaneous equations. The mutuality is included by putting the three-sub-problems into an iterative process. 1.6.
Due to the mutual coupling of transmission lines, Lo and Zhang [36] power-flow method requires the construction of 3N 3N admittance matrix in sequence components. Consequently, Zhang and Chen (1993) introduced the decoupled line model that allows the formulation of the admittance matrices corresponding to each network independently rather than the construction of 3 N 3 N admittance matrix. The proposed method by Zhang and Chen [37] allows the treatment of the positive sequence network independent on the negative and zero sequence networks. The positive sequence network is solved using the bus
17
admittance matrix, and later Zhang [38] solved the positive sequence using the conventional Newton Raphson and fast decoupled balanced power-flow algorithms whereas parallel processing solution was reported by Zhang et al. [39]. The differences between the decoupled unbalanced powerflow methods by Zhang [38] and the method by Lo and Zhang [36] are retained to transformer and transmission line models. In Lo and Zhang method [36], the Y- transformer phase shift is incorporated in the 3 N 3 N admittance matrix. On the other hand, Zhang [38] used the classical transformer model [40] for constructing the decoupled 3 N 3 N admittance matrix. In this transformer model, the Y- transformer phase shift cannot be suitably incorporated in the solution process [40]. The latest application of symmetrical components for unbalanced power-flow analysis was introduced by Smith and Arrillaga [41]. In this development, the sequence components mismatches are utilized at generator busbars rather than phase components mismatches. In this method, it is reported that the unbalanced power-flow will find one of two solutions at each load busbar. One of the two solutions corresponds to abnormal levels of zero sequence voltage. The abnormal solution can be avoided by ensuring a path for the zero-sequence current from the load.
Conclusions The chapter has presented a survey for the unbalanced powerflow methods. These methods were classified to three main categories. Firstly, methods have the ability to solve general network structure. Secondly, methods are intended specially for solving radial and weakly meshed distribution networks. Finally, methods are developed based on symmetrical components theory. Among of these methods, the phase decoupling or sequence decoupled power-flow methods have the best performance with regards to execution time and memory requirements. However, these methods have inaccurate results or have modeling 1.7.
18
complexity that prevents them to be used for a general network structure. The advantage of the sequence decoupled methods is that it is possible to use only one balanced power-flow for solving the positive sequence network rather than three in case of phase decoupling methods. Besides, the coupling in the sequence components model is lower than its counterpart in phase coordinates model. Also, there are many symmetric elements which are naturally uncoupled in sequence model whereas they are coupled in phase coordinates. Therefore, the decoupling of the unbalanced network into positive-, negative-, and zero-sequence is more suitable than phase decoupling. However, to decouple sequence networks, and at the same time retain the phase coordinates modeling features, the power system sequence component models need to be rewritten and improved to fulfill the unbalanced power systems modeling requirements. This will be described in the next chapter.
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2
SINGLE-PHASE LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS
Khalid Mohamed Nor Hazli Mokhlis Taufiq A Gani
2.1 Introduction Load flow analysis is used in planning and designing the future expansion of power systems, as well as in system operation. Load flow also provides steady state condition for other analysis such as stability studies, short-circuit and outage security assessment.
From the basic load flow formulation, such as given in references [3], more sophisticated algorithm have been developed that handle complex devices such the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) and High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC). Practical load flow analyses also require good graphical user interface and efficient data management system. As power engineering continues to develop many new requirements will continue to drive the need to modify load flow analysis software implementation. The factors that drive the need for modifications are: a) Data structure changes addition of new data type or additional control features such as the UPFC. b) Modification of analysis algorithm new solution method. c) Change of platform Windows, Linux and web-based. (File format, input/output, graphical user interface) d) Change of application such as real-time applications.
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Factors (a) and (b) are caused by the development of new power electronic devices such as Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) devices such as the UPFC. Since the load flow software is not designed to simulate these devices directly, the analysis and data structure of the software must be adapted and extended. Minor changes in system functionality and data may propagate through the whole program, which lead to massive reconstruction of the code. These problems arose in the traditional function-oriented software development methodology approach adopted of implementing load flow algorithm. In the function-oriented approach, a strong dependency exists between the pieces of the code and a strong coupling exists between data structure and procedure [1]. Little discrepancies in the data structures may lead to programming errors that are very hard to detect and thus making modification very difficult. Change from one platform to other will cause the existing codes application unable to work in the new platform. The codes will need to be modified to suit particular requirement of the new platform. This problem is usually solved by using library files rather than by using code. However, a library file could not be extended for new requirements. Any extension can only be carried out at source code level. Another problem is that not all type of platforms supports the same type of library files. In the case of real time application, modification is generally only on the data input/output. However data input/output that are coupled tightly with the analysis will cause difficulty in modification. The problems discussed above makes the tasks of software maintenance (including upgrading) time consuming and costly. In order to minimize investment and time to maintain and upgrade software application we must try to 1) Retain as much as possible existing codes. 2) Modify by reusing as much as possible elements of the previous codes.
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3) Uncouple tight linkage between modules so that a change in any module does not propagate or escalate into other modules. The above strategies are implemented by taking into account all possibilities of adding new requirement in the development of the algorithm, code implementation and software application architecture. One of the popular approaches that were used in solving reuse problems for software upgrading is by using Object Oriented Programming (OOP). There are many reports on the application of OOP for power system application [1, 2, 7]. The main focus of reuse was on reusing existing classes through inheritance feature of OOP. Other features by OOP such as aggregation and polymorphism are not intensively explored. Another approach in software reuse is to use Componentbased Development (CBD). In CBD, the essential building block is called component. A small number of reports have been appeared on the application of CBD in developing power system analysis. Such example is in [7], where OOP and CBD were applied in developing power system analysis software. In this report, different components, which are load flow, fault, mathematical solver and graphical user interface (GUI), were integrated into load flow analysis software. These components can be reused for other application since each of them is independent between each other. Changing on any component will not affect the rests. A part from software application reusability, another issue that is not reported in literature was on the code and algorithm reuse.
2.2 Code Reusability Code reusability uses as much as possible earlier codes whenever the algorithm is modified (changed) to incorporate (due to) new control devices. We have considered the case of full Newton Raphson solver as well the Fast Decoupled solver. In Newton Raphson technique we used matrix partitioning to achieve reusability, whereas in Fast Decoupled we modified the matrix
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equations while preserving sparsity structure and add a third set of decoupled equation.
2.2.1 Matrix Partitioning in Full Newton-Raphson Implementation In the Newton-Raphson (NR) solution of load flow, devices control equations may be combined together with nodal mismatch equations [3]. These additional variables and equations will alter the structure of NR matrix equations due to nodal mismatch equations only. As a result, algorithm and codes need to be modified to accommodate the changes whenever new and different control devices are introduced. In order to avoid such drawback, matrix partitioning approach is applied in solving NR method. Equation 2.1 shows the NR matrix equation that has been coupled with additional equations correspond to the control devices. The matrix equation is partitioned into sub-matrices corresponding to the nodal mismatch equations, which are shown by sub-matrix J, and sub-matrices shaded in gray involve equations of the control devices.
J A21 A12 A22 X1 X2 B1 B2
(2.1)
The sub-matrices are representing particular matrices as follows: J is the Jacobian matrix with dimensions (Nbusx2)x (Nbusx2) due to nodal mismatch equations. A12 is a matrix of devices equations with dimensions (Nbusx 2) x (Nequ). A21 is a matrix of devices equations with (Nequ) x (2 x Nbus). A22 is a matrix of devices equations with (Nequ x (Nequ) B1 is power mismatch of active and reactive with 1x (Nbus x 2).
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B2 is mismatch of control devices equations with 1 x (Nequ). X1 is a vector of voltage magnitude and phase angle ( V , ) with (Nbus x 2) x 1 X2 is a vector of device variables that need to be calculated with (Nequ x 1)
Nequ Number of set of equations for a particular device, which every other device would have its own set of equations. Nbus Number of buses in the power system network.
Equation 2.1 can be expanded into:
JX 1 +A 12X2 =B 1
A21 X 1 + A22 X 2 = B 2
(2.2) (2.3)
(2.4)
[A
22
] [B
1
A21 J 1 B1
(2.5)
Equation (2.5) is solved first and X2 is then substituted into equation (2.4) and solved to get X1. If equation (2.4) is expanded as in equation (2.6), the right hand side of equation (2.6) composes of two terms involving matrix product of J-1 which have been calculated in equation (2.5).
X 1 = J 1 B1 J 1 A12 X 2
(2.6)
As an example of load flow application using the above equations, let us consider a two-bus system shown in Figure 2.1, where a UPFC is connected between bus m and bus k [3].
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V sssc
Vm
Vk
Shunt C o n v e rte r
V dc
S e r ie s C o n v e rte r
V S ta t
V S ta t
S ta t
V sssc
sssc
Variables related to UPFC that need to be find along with the usual load flow parameters are VSSSC , SSSC , VStat and Stat . The following are related equations of UPFC variables, which are based on equation 2.1.
[B2 ] = [Pmk
Q mk Pbb ]
(2.7)
T
(2.8)
Pmk V m Q mk Vm V m Pbb Vm V m Vm
(2.9)
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Vsssc Vsssc
Pk Vsssc Pm Vsssc
Pk Stat 0 Qk Stat 0
(2.10)
Pmk Pmk Vsssc 0 Vsssc sssc Qmk Qmk [A22 ] = Vsssc 0 Vsssc sssc P Pbb Pbb bb Vsssc VStat Vsssc VStat sssc
(2.11)
Where, Pmk and Qmk are the power mismatches of power flow from bus m to k and Pbb is the active power mismatch of UPFC source. The main modification of basic load flow codes is in the power mismatches equations, where new subroutines are added to include the effects of power injection at particular buses. Such an example is shown in Figure 1, where the power mismatches at bus k needs to include the power injection of the shunt converter (VStat). The new equations of power mismatches when considering new devices will be as follows:
Pi new = Piold Pi injected Q
new i
= Q
old i
injected i
(2.12) (2.13)
where,
Pi new , Qinew : Pi , Q
old old i
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The codes to implement the above equations are added in a special routine (such as a class or function) for UPFC and not into the original power calculation, which has been developed. Therefore, the original power calculation codes are preserved. The above example shows that the NR matrix solution can be separated into two different equations. The first one is to solve the usual variables (V and ), and the second one is to solve control devices variables. By doing so, sub-matrix J of the NR matrix equation remains unchanged. New control equations can therefore be added into the codes without modifying the original codes since they are solved separately. Although we need to add new functions for control devices, the same original codes are still used without any change. This approach makes the original NR codes and algorithm reusable.
2.2.2 Modification for Fast-Decoupled Algorithm In Fast Decoupled (FD) load flow, sub-matrices A12 and A21 in equation 2.1 are approximated to zero. As usual, the two matrices in FD to be solved iteratively are:
[P / V ] = [B '][ ]
[Q / V ] = [ B" ][V ] where,
P, Q
(2.14) (2.15)
: active and reactive power mismatch vectors V , : voltage magnitude and angle correction vectors
' Bik = 1 / X ik
and
" 2 2 B ik = X ik / Rik + X ik
(2.16)
31 (2.17)
and
The [k,k] element of matrix B is included with the impedance of UPFC on the shunt converter as follow:
"' " 2 2 B kk = B kk X Stat / R Stat + X Stat
(2.18)
where,
Rik , xik Si
The decoupling of the NR equation of 1 leaves the control devices equations involving sub-matrix A22 to be as in equation 19, where the variables are as defined in the earlier equations.
Pmk Pmk 0 Vsssc Vsssc sssc Qmk Qmk Vsssc 0 V sssc sssc Pbb Pbb Pbb Vsssc Vsssc Stat sssc sssc Pmk Vsssc = Qmk (2.19) V sssc Pbb Stat
The above equations are solved sequentially i.e. by solving equation 2.14 first, then 2.15 and 2.19 or simply stated as [P, Q, UPFC] sequence. This process is simplified in the following flow chart by taking FACTS as an example.
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[P]
[Q]
The above flow chart shows a FD algorithm that has been modified to include additional analysis. In this flow chart, the FACTS routine is added into the algorithm without changing or modifying any of the previously developed algorithm and codes. In Figure 2.2, the previous algorithm is represented by unshaded boxes and the new added routines are represented by shaded boxes. The routine consists of various tasks (in the form of function) to include FACTS into the load flow analysis. In the case of UPFC for example, the routine of calculate new active mismatch will calculate the injected active power due to the shunt converter at a
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certain bus that connected to UPFC. This power will then be subtracted from the power mismatch that has been calculated in the previous algorithm to get new power mismatch at certain buses (equations 2.12). By developing this routine, the original codes for calculating the active power mismatches still applicable without any modification. The same explanation also applied in recalculating new reactive power mismatches due to the injected reactive power. This example showed how code reusability can be obtained in FD method. The algorithm can be extended to include other FACTS devices such as SSSC and StatCom without affecting previously developed algorithm and codes.
2.3 Object Oriented Reusability 2.3.1 Reusability in Power System Model Object oriented power system model represents each electrical device as an object. The object has properties of data, methods and relationship with other devices. Data are variables related to the object, while a method is a task to do certain job related to it. Data and method can be set to be publicly accessible or restricted for it own usage. This property makes the internal data and method that are not necessary for other class hidden and therefore prevent their misuse.
Various power system models have been proposed such as in [1, 2]. However, there is no dominantly accepted model. Every software developer has their own model that suits their own requirements. In OOP, a new class can inherit from an existing class, or created as an aggregation of more than one class. Inheritance allows new class to inherit data and method from the parent class. To make the object versatile we can use polymorphism to accept multiple input and output.
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In order to fully exploit OOP, i.e. to use inheritance and aggregation, the hierarchy of the device classes must be modeled at the right granularity. Therefore, our approach is to design model based on the primitive objects of linear circuit elements i.e. node or bus, branch and source. These objects are defined as the basic (parents) objects. The reason is because all electrical devices can be modeled as equivalent circuit comprising of these primitive elements. By doing so, the model is flexible to be extended with new device objects. Using the class diagram notation of Unified Modeling Language (UML) [ ?] where all classes are used to model power system devices and their relationships are drawn as shown in Figure 4. A base class, Power System Devices is designed to share all common data and method for its derived classes. Basic properties such as the number of devices, the id number and the name of the device are defined in this class. These properties are common and required to all type of devices. As examples of inheritance are the transformer and transmission line classes that derived from the Branch class. In Branch class, there are resistance, reactance and susceptance data that are common for transformer and transmission line devices. Derived classes will share these common data and methods. By using inheritance, a derived class will only contain data and methods that are different from the parents class. Under the base class, the Node class represents a node, while Branch class represents a branch connected between two nodes. Any devices that are connected to one node are derived from the Node class. Classes for devices that are connected between two nodes are derived from the Branch class and for more than two nodes the devices are derived from MultiNodesDevice class. The Node class contains the data and method related for a
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node such as voltage and phase angle, and calculating nodal power mismatches.
TPowerSystemDevice
TNode
TBranch
TMultiNodeDevice
TLoad
TLine
THVDC
TUPFC
TTransMultiWinding
TSSSC
TStatcom
TSSSC
TSVS
The derived classes from the Node class are Load, AC generator and Static Shunt Compensator (StatCom) classes. The Transformer class is a two-node device class. The Line class, for transmission line, is a composite class of two nodes and a Branch classes. The circuit models of the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC), Multi Winding Transformer and Static Series Synchronous Compensator (SSSC) contain internal nodes and shunts. Therefore, these devices are derived from the MultiNodeDevice class, which is a composition of Bus, Node, and Branch class. UPFC is in effect a combination of SSSC and StatCom devices. For this reason, we can combine the UPFC class data and method from SSSC and StatCom classes. Under SSSC class there is Synchronous Voltage Source (SVS) class as the derived class.
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This is possible because SVS model is a simplified form of SSSC model by neglecting the coupling transformers impedance. A fragment of C++ code related to the UPFC class is presented as follows.
class TUPFC : public MultiNodeDevice { private: void Calculate_Pmk(); void Calculate_Qmk(); void Calculate_Pbb(); protected: public: TSSSC *SSSC; TStatcom *STAT; void Develop_Matrice_B(); void Develop_Matrice_C();