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THE THEORY
3. Now that the HRA is in force, it is not obvious that the common law needs
to be developed to protect the prisoner’s rights under the ECHR. For
example, in Wainwright Lord Hoffman did not consider that the mere fact
that a Convention right (article 8) may have been breached necessitated the
development of the common law to protect such a constitutional right:
(para 52)
‘....., a finding that there was a breach of article 8 will only demonstrate that
there was a gap in the English remedies for invasion of privacy which has
since been filled by sections 6 and 7 of the 1998 Act. It does not require that
the courts should provide an alternative remedy which distorts the principles
of the common law’
4. Perhaps the disadvantages of the HRA do not matter as long as the breach
of a constitutional right has a remedy (eg public law, statutory or criminal).
The remedy does not necessarily:
(1) Require compensation (injunctive and declaratory relief may
suffice) and
(2) Need to be a remedy in tort.
6. Tort is not the best mechanism for balancing the rights of individuals
against the interests of the public. Most rights are not absolute. A detailed
description of the circumstances in which there may be an interference
with such rights must be set out. This does not lie easily with tort as we
know it. Detailed rules are required to indicate the circumstances in which
there may be lawful interference with rights: see Lord Hoffman in
Wainwright (para 31) and Sir Robert Megarry V-C in Malone (at 372-381
in relation o telephone tapping). The protection of constitutional rights
requires detailed rules and not broad common law principles. The common
law is too blunt an instrument.
11. The remedy for breach of these different sorts of constitutional rights
differ. In summary:
a. constitutional right in a written constitution can be actionable without
proof of loss by relying on the provisions of the written constitution
itself or the implementing statute without proof of loss;
Damage in tort
13. Historically, torts have been divided into torts that are actionable per se
(that is, without proof of damage) and torts that are actionable on the case
(that is, where proof of damage is required.) Examples of torts which are
actionable per se are
(1) Trespass and conversion. (which concern property rights)
(2) trespass to the person (which concerns liberty of the person)
(3) defamation (which concern reputation).
15. In respect of physical or mental injury in tort, the mental injury must be a
recognised psychiatric condition. Mere anxiety and distress is insufficient
damage to be actionable.
IN PRACTICE
1
Judgment of the House of Lords awaited (hearing 14th February 2006)
19. The case which gave rise to misfeasance in public office as a cause of
action was Ashby v White which concerned the right to vote. However, in
right to vote cases, the ECHR provides a much more effective remedy: see
Hirst v UK (blanket ban on prisoners’ right to vote breached Article 3 of
the First Protocol).
(2) NEGLIGENCE
Suicides/self-harming
24. Curiously however the Home Office cannot intervene to enforce medical
treatment or food on a prisoner (with capacity) to prevent him dying (even
if it is the prisoner’s choice to take action that results in his death): Kay J
in R v Collins and Ashworth Hospital Authority ex p Brady [2000] Lloyd’s
Rep. Med 355 at para 71:
‘it would be somewhat odd if there is a duty to prevent suicide by an action
(for example, the use of a knife in a cell) but not even a power to intervene to
prevent self-destruction by starvation. I can see no moral justification for the
law indulging its fascination with the difference between acts and omissions
in a context such as this and no logical need for it to do so’.
25. The HRA has not directly modified the tort of false imprisonment: the
Court in R v Deputy Governor of Parkhurst Prison ex p Hague rejected the
suggestion that an otherwise lawful detention could be rendered unlawful
by intolerable conditions of detention (cf Article 3) and stopped the
potential expansion of the tort.
27. However, the Court has not balked from leaving a prisoner without a
remedy if he does not fall within the HRA: R (oao Wright) v SSHD [2006]
EWCA 68 CA.
28. Further the Court has not facilitated a reversal of the burden of proof so
that the State has to justify the continued detention, as is common when
considering a breach of Convention rights. In R (oao Henry) v Parole
Board (25/03/04) Sullivan J held that it was not wrong of the Parole Board
to place the burden of proof on the prisoner to show that he was no longer
a danger to the public and the imposition of such an evidential burden was
not incompatible with Article 5 ECHR.
29. It is likely that the approach of the Court in determining whether an assault
has occurred or not will be informed by the HRA caselaw. It is likely that
claims for breach of the HRA will be brought together with claims for
trespass against the person and there will be a cross-fertilisation of
approach. The Court will more easily find that there has been an assault
where there has also been a breach of a Convention right. For example:
31. In Young v UK the requirement to provide a urine sample for the purpose
of MDT, without the Claimant’s consent and while watched by prison
officers was alleged to have breached her Article 8 right to privacy and
autonomy.
(iii) Searches
BREACH OF CONFIDENCE/PRIVACY
34. The obligations under the ECHR have strengthened those torts which can
be used to protect privacy (eg misfeasance in public office). For example,
(1) privacy of prisoner’s correspondence (rule 39 & confidential
handling arrangements): Watkins v Home Office;
(2) privacy of medical records: R (oao Szuluk) v (1) Governor of
Full Sutton (2) SSHD [2004] EWCA Civ 1426 CA.
35. The right to peaceful protest does not appear to have been protected: see
Sedley J in Hipperson v (1) Hodge Jones & Allen and (2) T V Edwards
(b) privacy
37. ECHR principles have effected the procedure applicable to torts. The
following are only examples but have a greater or lesser impact on
establishing whether a tort has been committed:
(1) Burden and standard of proof in assaults on prisoners:
Sheppard v Home Office (11/12/02) CA;
(2) Absence of Documentation on discovery: where the State has
no convincing explanation for failing to provide the original
documents (medical records) then the court can draw
inferences: Trubrukov v Russia (05/07/05);
(3) Cross-examination: there is no need for a prisoner to have the
right to cross-examine witnesses in an inquest into a self-
harming incident: R (oao D) v SSHD [2006] EWCA 143 CA;
(4) Handcuffing of witnesses/Claimants while in court and/or
giving evidence: Trotter v HM’s Advocate (27/09/000).
WENDY OUTHWAITE
March 2006