SYLLABUS DETAILS

Topic 1: Cells
1.1 Cell Theory 1.11 Discuss the theory that living organisms are composed of cells. Skeletal muscle and some fungal hyphae are not divided into cells but have a multinucleate cytoplasm. Some biologists consider unicellular organisms to be acellular. 1.1.2 State that a virus is a non-cellular structure consisting of DNA or RNA surrounded by a protein coat. 1.1. State that all cells are formed from other cells. 1.1.! "#plain three advantages of using light microscopes. Advantages include colour images instead of monochrome$ larger field of vie%$ easily prepared sample material$ the possibility of e#amining living material and observing movement. 1.1.& 'utline the advantages of using electron microscopes. (n comparing electron and light microscopes$ the terms resolution and magnification should be e#plained. Scanning and transmission electron microscopes should be mentioned briefly$ but the principles of ho% they %ork need not be discussed. 1.1.) Define organelle. An organelle is a discrete structure %ithin a cell$ and has a specific function. 1.1.* +ompare the relative si,es of molecules$ cell membrane thickness$ viruses$ bacteria$ organelles and cells$ using appropriate S( units. Appreciation of relative si,e is re-uired$ such as molecule .1 nm/$ thickness of membranes .10 nm/$ viruses .100 nm/$ bacteria .11m/$ organelles .up to 10 1m/$ most cells .up to 100 1m/. 2he three-dimensional nature3shape of cells should be emphasi,ed 1.1.4 +alculate linear magnification of dra%ings. Dra%ings should sho% cells and cell ultrastructure %ith scale bars . eg 11m /. 5agnification could also be stated$ eg # 2&0. 1.1.6 "#plain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting cell si,e. 5ention the concept that the rate of metabolism of a cell is a function of its mass7volume ratio$ %hereas the rate of e#change of materials and energy .heat/ is a function of its surface area. Simple mathematical models involving cubes and the changes in the ratio that occur as the sides increase by one unit could be compared. 1.1.10 State that unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life. 1.1.11 "#plain that cells in multicellular organisms differentiate to carry out speciali,ed functions by e#pression some of their genes but not others. 1.1.12 Define tissue$ organ$ and organ system. 1.2 Prokaryotic Cells 1.2.1 Dra% a generali,ed prokaryotic cell as seen in electron micrographs. 8se images of bacteria as seen in electron micrographs to sho% the structure. 2he diagram should sho% the cell %all$ plasma membrane$ mesosome$ cytoplasm$ ribosomes and the nucleoid .region containing naked DNA/. 1.2.2 State one function for each of the follo%ing7 cell %all$ plasma membrane$ mesosome$ cytoplasm$ ribosomes$ and naked DNA 1.2. State that prokaryotes sho% a %ide range of metabolic activity including fermentation$ photosynthesis and nitrogen fi#ation. 1.3 E karyotic cell str ct re 1. .1 Dra% a diagram to sho% the ultrastructure of a generalised animal cell as seen in electron micrographs. 2he diagram should include ribosomes$ rough endoplasmic reticulum .r"R/$ lysosomes$ 9olgi Apparatus$ mitochondrion and nucleus. 1. .2 State one function of each of these organelles7 ribosomes$ rough endoplasmic reticulum$ lysosome$ 9olgi apparatus$ mitochondrion and nucleus. 9olgi apparatus %ill be used in place of 9olgi body$ comple#$ or dictyosome. 1. . +ompare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. Differences should include naked DNA versus DNA associated %ith protein$ DNA in cytoplasm versus DNA enclosed in a nuclear envelope$ no mitochondria versus mitochondria$ *0S versus 40S ribosomes. 1. .! Describe three differences bet%een plant and animal cells. 1. .& State the composition and function of the plant cell %all. 2he composition of the plant cell %all should be considered only in terms of cellulose microfibrils. 1.! "e#$ra%es 1.!.1 Dra% a diagram to sho% the fluid mosaic model of a biological membrane. 2he diagram should sho% the phospholipid bilayer$ cholesterol$ glycoproteins and integral and peripheral proteins. 8se the term plasma membrane not cell surface membrane for the membrane surrounding the cytoplasm. (ntegral proteins are embedded in the phospholipid of the membrane %hereas peripheral proteins are attached to its surface. :ariations in composition related to the type of membrane$ and the functions of cholesterol and glycoproteins$ are not re-uired. 1.!.2 "#plain ho% the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of phospholipids help to maintain the structure of cell membranes 1.!. 1.!.! 1.!.& 1.!.) 1.!.* 1.!.4 1.& 1.&.1 1.&.2 1.&. ;ist the functions of membrane proteins including hormone binding sites$ en,ymes$ electron carriers$ channels for passive transport and pumps for active transport. Define diffusion and osmosis. 'smosis is the passive movement of %ater molecules$ across a partially permeable membrane$ from a region of lo%er solute concentration to a region of higher solute concentration. "#plain passive transport across membranes in terms of diffusion. 5ention channels for facilitated diffusion. "#plain the role of protein pumps and A2< in active transport across membranes. "#plain ho% vesicles are used to transport materials %ithin a cell bet%een the rough endoplasmic reticulum$ 9olgi apparatus and plasma membrane. Describe ho% the fluidity of the membrane allo%s it to change shape$ break and reform during endocytosis and e#ocytosis. Cell Di'isio% State that the cell-division cycle involves interphase$ mitosis$ and cytokinesis. State that interphase is an active period in the life of a cell %hen many biochemical reactions occur$ as %ell as DNA transcription and DNA replication. Describe the events that occur in the four phases of mitosis .prophase$ metaphase$ anaphase$ and telophase/. (nclude supercoiling of chromosomes$ attachment of spindle microtubules$ splitting of scntromeres$ movement of sister chromosomes to opposite poles and breakage and reformation of nuclear membranes.

2e#tbooks vary in the use of the terms chromosome and chromatid. (n this course$ the t%o DNA molecules formed by DNA replication are considered to be sister chromatids until the splitting of the centromere at the start of anaphase= after this they are individual chromosomes. 2he terms centrosome and kinetochore are not e#pected. 1.&.! "#plain ho% mitosis produces t%o genetically identical nuclei. 1.&.&. 'utline the differences in mitosis and cytokinesis bet%een animal and plant cells. ;imit this to the lack of the centrioles in plant cells and the formation of the cell plate. 1.&.) State that gro%th$ tissue repair and ase#ual reproduction involve mitosis. 1.&.* State that tumors .cancers/ are the result of uncontrolled cell division and that these can occur in any organ.

Topic 2: The Che#istry o( Li(e

2.1 Che#ical Ele#e%ts a%) *ater 2.1.1 State that the most fre-uently occurring chemical elements in living things are carbon$ hydrogen$ and o#ygen. 2.1.2 State that a variety of other elements are needed by living organisms including nitrogen$ calcium$ phosphorus$ iron$ and sodium. 2.1. State one role for each of the elements mentioned in 2.1.2 Refer to the roles in both plants and animals. 2.1.! 'utline the difference bet%een an atom and an ion 2.1.& 'utline the properties of %ater that are significant to living organisms including transparency$ cohesion$ solvent properties$ and thermal properties. Refer to the polarity of %ater molecules and hydrogen bonding %here relevant. >uantitative details of bond angles$ bond strengths or electronegativity are not re-uired. 'ne e#ample to illustrate the importance of each property is sufficient. 2hermal properties ? refer to the large amounts of energy re-uired to heat up %ater and change its state .and the reverse/. Solvent properties ? %ater is capable of dissolving many organic and inorganic substances. 2.1.) "#plain the significance to organisms of %ater as a coolant$ transport medium and habitat$ in terms of its properties. @oth plants and animals should be mentioned. No physical$ chemical or -uantitative details are re-uired 2.2 Car$ohy)rates+ Lipi)s+ a%) Protei%s 2.21 Define organic. +ompounds containing carbon that are found in living organisms .e#cept hydrogencarbonates$ carbonates$ and o#ides of carbon/ are regarded as organic. 2.22 Dra% the basic structure of a generali,ed amino acid. No details about the R group are re-uired.

R A A N + A +

' 'A

2.2. Dra% the ring structure of glucose and ribose. Diagrams such as the follo%ing are acceptable. +A2 'A A + 'A + A 'A + A ' A + 'A A + 'A A'A2+ + A A + 'A ' A + A + 'A

'A

2.2.! Dra% the structure of glycerol and a generali,ed fatty acid. 2he (8<A+ name of glycerol %ill not be used. 2he term fatty acid can refer to aliphatic and aromatic fatty acids. A A + 'A A + 'A A + 'A A A+ .+A2/
n

' + 'A

2.2.& 'utline the role of condensation and hydrolysis in the relationships bet%een monosaccharides$ disaccharides$ and polysaccharides= fatty acids$ glycerol$ and glycerides= amino acids$ dipeptides$ and polypeptides. 2.2.) Dra% the structure of a generali,ed dipeptide$ sho%ing the peptide linkage. Neither the fact that the linkage is planar$ nor that it permits rotation about the +-N bond$ is re-uired. 2.2.* ;ist t%o e#amples for each of monosaccharides$ disaccharides$ and polysaccharides. 2he names of the component monomer units of the dissacharide and polysaccharide e#amples are re-uired$ but not the structural formulas. 2.2.4 State one function of a monosaccharide and one function of a polysaccharide 2.2.6 State three functions of lipids. 2.2.10 Discuss the use of carbohydrates and lipids in energy storage 2.3 E%,y#es 2. .1 Define enzyme and active site. 2. .2 "#plain en,yme-substrate specificity. 2he lock-and-key model can be used as a basis for the e#planation. 2. . "#plain the effects of temperature$ pA and substrate concentration on en,yme activity. +ross reference %ith &.).1. Bor temperature and pA$ refer to denaturation of the active site. 2. .! Define denaturation. Denaturation ? structural change in a protein that results in a loss .usually permanent/ of its biological properties. Refer only to heat and pA as agents. 2. .& "#plain the use of pectinase in fruit Cuice production$ and one other commercial application of en,ymes in biotechnology. Applications could include the use of en,ymes in biological %ashing po%der$ tenderi,ing meat or production of glucose syrup. Detailed chemistry is not e#pected$ but reasons for the use of biotechnology as %ell as advantages conferred by it are re-uired. 2.! D-A Str ct re

2.!.1 'utline DNA nucleotide structure in terms of sugar .deo#yribose/$ base and phosphate. +hemical formulas and the purin3pyrimidine subdivision are not re-uired. Simple shapes can be used to represent the component parts. 'nly the spatial arrangement is re-uired.

phosphate nitrogen base sugar 2.!.2 State the names of the four bases in DNA. 2.!. 'utline ho% the DNA nucleotides are linked together by covalent bonds into a single strand.

"ach phosphate .e#cept the terminal phosphates that are Coined to only one sugar/ is Coined to t%o sugars by covalent bonds. "ach sugar is Coined to t%o phosphates and one nitrogen base by covalent bonds.

2.!.! "#plain ho% a DNA double heli# is formed using complementary base pairing and hydrogen bonds. 2 .!.& Dra% a simple diagram of the molecular structure of DNA. ;abel A-2$ 9-+ linkages$ dotted lines indicate hydrogen bonds$ solid lines indicate covalent bonds. 2he number of hydrogen bonds bet%een pairs and details of purine3pyrimidines are not re-uired.

2.& D-A .eplicatio% 2.&.1 State that DNS replication is semi-conservative. 2.&.2 "#plain DNA replication in terms of un%inding of the double heli# and separation of the strands by helicase$ follo%ed by formation of the ne% complementary strands by DNA polymerase. (t is not necessary to mention that there is more than one DNA polymerase. 2.&. "#plain the significance of complementary base pairing in the conservation of the base se-uence of DNA. 2./ Tra%scriptio% a%) Tra%slatio% 2.).1 +ompare the structure of RNA and DNA. ;imit this to the names of sugars$ bases and the number of strands. 2.).2 'utline DNA transcription in terms of the formation of an RNA strand complementary to the DNA strand by RNA polymerase. 2.). Describe the genetic code in terms of codons composed of triplets of bases. 2.).! "#plain the process of translation$ leading to peptide linkage formation. (nclude the roles of messenger RNA .mRNA/$ transfer RNA .tRNA/$ codons$ anticodons$ and ribosomes. 2.).& Define the terms degenerate and universal as they relate to the genetic code. Degenerate ? having more than one base triplet to code for one amino acid. 8niversal ? found in all living organisms. 2.).) "#plain the relationship bet%een one gene and one polypeptide. 2.0 Cell .espiratio% 2.*.1 Define cell respiration. +ell respiration ? controlled release of energy in the form of A2< from organic compounds in cells. 2.*.2 State that in cell respiration glucose in the cytoplasm is broken do%n into pyruvate %ith a small yield of A2<. 2.*. "#plain that in anaerobic cell respiration pyruvate is converted into lactate or ethanol and carbon dio#ide in the cytoplasm$ %ith no further yield of A2<. 5ention that ethanol and carbon dio#ide are produced in yeast %hereas lactate is produced in humans. 2.*.! "#plain that in aerobic cell respiration pyruvate is broken do%n in the mitochondrion into carbon dio#ide and %ater %ith a larger yield of A2<. 2.1 Photosy%thesis 2.4.1 State that photosynthesis involves the conversion of light energy into chemical energy. 2.4.2 State that %hite light from the sun is composed of a range of %avelengths .colors/. Reference to actual %avelengths or fre-uencies is not e#pected. 2.4. State that chlorophyll is the main photosynthetic pigment. 2.4.! 'utline the differences in absorption of red$ blue and green light by chlorophyll. Students should appreciate that pigments actively absorb certain colours of light due to their structure. 2he remaining colours of light are reflected and give rise to the colour perceived by the brain of the observer. (t is not necessary to mention %avelengths of the structure responsible for the absorption. 2.4.& State that light energy is used to split %ater molecules .photolysis/ to give o#ygen and hydrogen$ and to produce A2<. 2.4.) State that A2< and hydrogen .derived from the photolysis of %ater/ are used to fi# carbon dio#ide to make organic molecules.

2.4.* "#plain that the rate of photosynthesis can be measured directly by the production of o#ygen or the uptake of carbon dio#ide$ or indirectly by the increase in biomass. 2he recall of details of specific e#periments to indicate that photosynthesis has occurred or to measure the rate of photosynthesis %ill not be e#pected. 2.4.4 'utline the effects of temperature$ light intensity and carbon dio#ide concentration on the rate of photosynthesis. 2he shape of the graphs is re-uired. 2he concept of limiting factors is not e#pected.

Topic 3: 2e%etics
3.1 Chro#oso#es+ 2e%es+ Alleles a%) " tatio%s .1.1 State that eukaryote chromosomes are made of DNA and protein. 2he names of the proteins .histones/ are not re-uired$ nor is the structural relationship bet%een DNA and the proteins. See 1. . .1.2 State that in karyotyping$ chromosomes are arranged in pairs according to their structure. Daryotyping can be done by using enlarged photocopies of chromosomes. .1. Describe one application of karyotyping. +ross reference %ith .2.&. .1.! Define gene$ allele and genome. 9eneEa heritable factor that controls a specific characteristic. AlleleEone specific form of a gene$ differing from other alleles by one or a fe% bases only and occupying the same gene locus as other alleles of the gene. 9enomeEthe %hole of the genetic information of an organism. .1.& Define gene mutation. 2he terms point mutation or frameshift mutation %ill not be used. .1.) "#plain the conse-uence of a base substitution mutation in relation to the process of transcription and translation$ using the e#ample of sickle cell anemia. 9A9 has mutated to 929 causing glutamic acid to be replaced by valine$ and hence sickle cell anemia. 2he relationship bet%een the fre-uency of the sickle cell allele and the distribution of malaria should be discussed. 3.2 "eiosis .2.1 State that meiosis is a reduction division in terms of diploid and haploid numbers of chromosomes. .2.2 Define homologous chromosomes. .2. 'utline the process of meiosis$ including pairing of chromosomes follo%ed by t%o divisions$ %hich results in four haploid cells. .2.! "#plain ho% the movement of chromosomes during meiosis can give rise to genetic variety in the resulting haploid cells. +rossing over is not re-uired. .2.& "#plain that non-disCunction can lead to changes in chromosome number$ illustrated by reference to Do%nFs syndrome .trisomy 21/. 2he recognition of Do%nFs syndrome in a person is not re-uired. 2ranslocation of part of chromosome 21 possibly resulting in Do%nFs syndrome is not re-uired. .2.) State 5endelFs la% of segregation. .2.* "#plain the relationship bet%een 5endelFs la% of segregation and meiosis. A simple monohybrid cross can be used in the e#planation. 3.3 Theoretical 2e%etics . .1 Define7 genotype$ phenotype$ dominant allele$ recessive allele$ codominant alleles$ locus$ homozygous$ heterozygous$ carrier and test cross. 9enotypeEthe alleles possessed by an organism. <henotypeEthe characteristics of an organism. Dominant alleleEan allele that has the same effect on the phenotype %hether it is present in the homo,ygous or hetero,ygous state. Recessive alleleEan allele that only has an effect on the phenotype %hen present in the homo,ygous state. +odominant allelesEpairs of alleles that both affect the phenotype %hen present in a hetero,ygote. .2he terms incomplete and partial %ill no longer be used./ ;ocusEthe particular position on homologous chromosomes of a gene. Aomo,ygousEhaving t%o identical alleles of a gene. Aetero,ygousEhaving t%o different alleles of a gene. +arrierEan individual that has a recessive allele of a gene that does not have an effect on their phenotype. 2est crossEtesting a suspected hetero,ygote by crossing it %ith a kno%n homo,ygous recessive. .2he term backcross is no longer used./ . .2 +onstruct a <unnett grid. . . +onstruct a pedigree chart. . .! State that some genes have more than t%o alleles .multiple alleles/. . .& Describe A@' blood groups as an e#ample of codominance and multiple alleles. <henotype 9enotype ' ii A (A(A or (A(i @ (@(@ or (@(i A@ (A(@ . .) 'utline ho% the se# chromosomes determine gender by referring to the inheritance of G and H chromosomes in humans. . .* State that some genes are present on the G chromosome and absent from the shorter H chromosome in humans. . .4 Define sex linkage. . .6 State t%o e#amples of se# linkage. "#amples from any species %here the female is the homogametic se# can be used$ although humans %ill probably be referred to most commonly. +olour blindness and hemophiliaEboth these conditions are produced by a recessive se#-linked allele on the G chromosome. Gb and Gh is the notation for the alleles concerned. 2he corresponding dominant alleles are G@ and GA. . .10 State that a human female can be homo,ygous or hetero,ygous %ith respect to se#-linked genes. . .11 "#plain that female carriers are hetero,ygous for G-linked alleles. . .12 +alculate and predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring of monohybrid crosses involving any of the above patterns of inheritance. . .1 Deduce the genotypes or phenotypes of individuals in pedigree charts.

Bor dominant and recessive alleles upper-case and lo%er-case letters respectively should be used. ;etters representing alleles should be chosen %ith care to avoid confusion bet%een upper and lo%er case. Bor codominance$ the main letter should relate to the gene and the suffi# to the allele$ both upper case. Bor e#ample$ red and %hite codominant flo%er colours should be represented as +R and +% respectively. Bor sickle cell anemia$ AbA is normal and Abs is sickle cell. 3.! 2e%etic E%3i%eeri%3 a%) 4ther Aspects o( Biotech%olo3y .!.1 State that <+R .polymerase chain reaction/ copies and amplifies minute -uantities of nucleic acid. Details of method are not re-uired. .!.2 State that gel electrophoresis involves the separation of fragmented pieces of DNA according to their charge and si,e. .!. State that gel electrophoresis of DNA is used in DNA profiling. .!.! Describe t%o applications of DNA profiling. Applications could include paternity suits or criminal investigations .murder or rape/ or the identification of people %ho died a long time ago .e.g. the dead tsars of Russia and some "gyptian mummies/. 2he problems caused by contamination of samples should be mentioned. .!.& Define genetic screening. 9enetic screeningEtesting an individual for the presence or absence of a gene. .!.) Discuss three advantages and3or disadvantages of genetic screening. Discuss three advantages$ three disadvantages or any combination of the t%o. 2hese may include ethical issues$ pre-natal diagnosis of genetic diseases$ immigration disputes and confirmation of animal pedigrees. .!.* State that the Auman 9enome <roCect is an international cooperative venture established to se-uence the complete human genome. .!.4 Describe t%o possible advantageous outcomes of this proCect. (t should lead to an understanding of many genetic diseases$ the development of genome libraries and the production of gene probes to detect sufferers and carriers of genetic diseases .eg Duchenne muscular dystrophy/. (t may also lead to production of pharmaceuticals based on DNA se-uences. .!.6 State that genetic material can be transferred bet%een species because the genetic code is universal. +ross reference %ith 2.).&. .!.10 'utline a basic techni-ue used for gene transfer involving plasmids$ a host cell .bacterium$ yeast or other cell/$ restriction en,ymes .endonuclease/ and DNA ligase. 2he use of E. coli in gene technology is %ell documented. 5ost of its DNA is in one circular chromosome but it also has plasmids .smaller circles of DNA heli#/. 2hese plasmids can be removed and cleaved by restriction en,ymes at target se-uences. DNA fragments from another organism can also be cleaved by the same restriction en,yme and these pieces can be added to the open plasmid and spliced together by ligase. 2he recombinant plasmids formed can be inserted into ne% host cells and cloned. .!.11 State t%o e#amples of the current uses of genetically modified crops or animals. "#amples include salt tolerance in tomato plants$ delayed ripening in tomatoes$ herbicide resistance in crop plants$ factor (G .human blood clotting/ in sheep milk. .!.12 Discuss the potential benefits and possible harmful effects of one e#ample of genetic modification. Some gene transfers are regarded as potentially harmful. A possible problem e#ists %ith the release of genetically engineered organisms in the environment. 2hese can spread and compete %ith the naturally occurring varieties. Some of the engineered genes could also cross species barriers. @enefits include more specific .less random/ breeding than %ith traditional methods. .!.1 'utline the process of gene therapy using a named e#ample. 2his involves replacement of defective genes. 'ne method involves the removal of %hite blood cells or bone marro% cells and$ by means of a vector$ the introduction and insertion of the normal gene into the chromosome. 2he cells are replaced in the patient so that the normal gene can be e#pressed. "#amples are the use in cystic fibrosis and S+(D .a condition of immune deficiency$ %here the replaced gene allo%s for the production of the en,yme ADAEadenosine deaminase/. A cure for thalassemia is also possible. .!.1! Define clone. +loneEa group of genetically identical organisms or a group of cells artificially derived from a single parent cell. .!.1& 'utline a techni-ue for cloning using differentiated cells. 2he method used to clone Dolly the sheep is a good e#ample. .!.1) Discuss the ethical issues of cloning in humans. +loning happens naturally$ for e#ample mono,ygotic t%ins. Some may regard the in vitro production of t%o embryos from one to be acceptable. 'thers %ould see this as leading to the selection of those Ifit to be clonedJ and visions of Ieugenics and a super-raceJ.

Topic !: Ecolo3y a%) E'ol tio%

!.1 Co## %ities a%) Ecosyste#s !.1.1 Define ecology, ecosystem, population, community, species, and habitat. "cologyEthe study of relationships bet%een living organisms and bet%een organisms and their environment. "cosystemEa community and its abiotic environment. <opulationEa group of organisms of the same species %ho live in the same area at the same time. +ommunityEa group of populations living and interacting %ith each other in an area. SpeciesEa group of organisms %hich can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. AabitatEthe environment in %hich a species normally lives or the location of a living organism. !.1.2 "#plain ho% the biosphere consists of interdependent and interrelated ecosystems. !.1. Define autotrophy .producer/$ heterotroph .consumer/$ detritivore and saprtroph .decomposer/. !.1.! Describe %hat is meant by a food chain giving three e#amples$ each %ith at least three linkages .four organisms/. Bood chains are best determined using real e#amples and information based on natural ecosytems. A K @ indicates that A is being IeatenJ by @ .i.e. the arro% indicates the direction of energy flo%/. "ach food chain should include a producer and consumers$ but not decomposers. Named organisms at either species or genus level should be used. +ommon species names can be used instead of binomial names. !.1.& Describe %hat is meant by a food %eb. !.1.) Define trophic level. !.1.* Deduce the trophic level of organisms in a food chain and a food %eb. 2he student should be able to place an organism at the level of producer$ primary consumer$ secondary consumer etc$ as the terms herbivore and carnivore are not al%ays applicable. !.1.4 +onstruct a food %eb containing up to 10 organisms$ given appropriate information. See !.1.! !.1.6 State that light is the initial energy source for almost all communities.

Reference to communities that start %ith chemical energy is not re-uired. !.1.10 "#plain the energy flo% in a food chain. "nergy losses bet%een trophic levels include material not consumed or material not assimilated$ and heat loss through evaporation !.1.11 State that %hen energy transformations take place$ including those in living organisms$ the process is never 100L efficient$ commonly being 10-20L. Reference to the second la% of thermodynamics is not e#pected. !.1.12 "#plain %hat is meant by a pyramid of energy and the reasons for its shape. A pyramid of energy sho%s the flo% of energy from one trophic level to the ne#t in a community. 2he units of pyramids of energy are therefore energy per unit area per unit time$ eg M m-2 yr-1. !.1.1 "#plain that energy can enter and leave an ecosystem$ but that nutrients must be recycled. !.1.1! Dra% the carbon cycle to sho% the process involved. 2he details of the carbon cycle should include the interaction of living organisms and the biosphere through the processes of photosynthesis$ respiration$ fossili,ation and combustion. Recall of specific -uantitative data is not re-uired. !.1.1& "#plain the role of saprotrophic bacteria and fungi .decomposers/ in recycling nutrients. Specific names of decomposer organisms are not re-uired. !.2 Pop latio%s !.2.1 'utline ho% population si,e can be affected by natality$ immigration$ mortality$ and emigration. !.2.2 Dra% a graph sho%ing the sigmoid .S-shaped/ population gro%th curve. !.2. "#plain reasons for the e#ponential gro%th phase$ the plateau phase and the transitional phase bet%een these t%o phases. !.2.! Define carrying capacity. !.2.& ;ist three factors %hich set limits to population increase. !.2.) Define random sample. !.2.* Describe one techni-ue used to estimate the population si,e of an animal species based on a capture-mark-release-recapture method. :arious mark and recapture methods e#ist. Dno%ledge of the ;incoln inde# .%hich involves one mark$ release and recapture cycle/ is re-uired. population si,e N n1 # n2 n n1 N number of individuals initially caught$ marked and released n2 N total number of individuals caught in the second sample n N number of marked individuals in the second sample Although simulations can be carried out .eg sampling beans in sa%dust/$ it is much more valuable if this is accompanied by a real e#ercise on a population of animals. 2he limitations and difficulties of the method can be fully appreciated and some notion of the importance of sample si,e can be e#plained. (t is important that students appreciate the need for choosing an appropriate method for marking organisms. !.2.4 Describe one method of random sampling used to compare the population numbers of t%o plant species$ based on -uadrat methods. !.2.6 +alculate the mean of a set of values. +andidates %ill be e#pected to kno% the formula for calculating the mean. !.2.10 State that the term standard deviation is used to summari,e the spread of values around the mean and that )4L of the values fall %ithin O 1 standard deviation of the mean. Bor normally distributed data about )4L of all values lie %ithin 1 standard deviation .s.d. or s or P/ of the mean. 2his rises to about 6&L for O2 standard deviations. !.2.11 "#plain ho% the standard deviation is useful for comparing the means and the spread of ecological data bet%een t%o or more population. A small standard deviation indicates that the data is clustered closely around the mean value. +onversely a large standard deviation indicates a %ider spread around the mean. Details of statistical tests to -uantify variations bet%een populations$ such as standard error$ or details about confidence limits are not re-uired. !.3 E'ol tio% !. .1 Define evolution. "volutionEthe process of cumulative change in the heritable characteristics of a population. !. .2 State that populations tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support. !. . "#plain that the conse-uence of the potential overproduction of offspring is a struggle for survival. !. .! 2ate that the members of a species sho% variation. !. .& "#plain ho% se#ual reproduction promotes variation in a species. ;imit this to meiosis .see .2/ and fertili,ation .see &.*.!/ !. .) "#plain ho% natural selection leads to the increased reproduction of individuals %ith favourable heritable variations. 2he Dar%inEQallace theory is accepted by most as the origin of ideas about evolution by means of natural selection. !. .* Discuss the theory that species evolve by natural selection. !. .4 "#plain t%o e#amples of evolution in response to environmental change= one must be multiple antibiotic resistance in bacteria. !.! Classi(icatio% !.!.1 Define species SpeciesEa group of organisms %hich can interbreed and produce fertile offspring. !.!.2 Describe the value of classifying organisms. 2his refers to natural classification. (nclude ho% the organi,ation of data assists in identifying organisms$ sho%s evolutionary links and enables prediction of characteristics shared by members of a group. !.!. 'utline the binomial system of nomenclature. !.!.! State that organisms are classified into the kingdoms <rokaryotae$ <rotoctista$ Bungi$ <lantae$ and Animalia. 2his system uses the five kingdom classification system of 5argulis and Sch%art, .based on Qhittaker/$ %hich is found in most te#tbooks. !.!.& ;ist the seven levels in the hierarchy of ta#aEkingdom$ phylum$ class$ order$ family$ genus$ and speciesEusing an e#ample from t%o different kingdoms for each level. !.!.) Apply and3or design a key for a group of up to eight organisms. A dichotomous key should be used. !.& 5 #a% I#pact !.&.1 'utline t%o local or global e#amples of human impact causing damage to an ecosystem or the biosphere. 'ne e#ample must be the increased greenhouse effect.

(n studying the greenhouse effect students should be made a%are that it is a natural phenomenon and that %ithout it organisms may have evolved differently. 2he problem lies in its enhancement by certain human activities. Dno%ledge that gases other than carbon dio#ide e#ert a greenhouse effect is re-uired .eg methane and +B+s/. !.&.2 "#plain the causes and effects of the t%o e#amples in !.&.1$ supported by data. !.&. Discuss measures %hich could be taken to contain or reduce the impact of the t%o e#amples$ %ith reference to the functioning of the ecosystem.

Topic &: 5 #a% 5ealth a%) Physiolo3y

&.1 &.1.1 &.1.2 &.1. &.1.! &.1.& &.1.) &.1.* &.2 &.2.1 &.2.2 &.2. &.2.! &.2.& &.2.) &.3 &. .1 &. .2 &. . &. .! &. .& &. .) &.! &.!.1 &.!.2 &.!. &.!.! &.!.& &.& &.&.1 &.&.2 &.&. &.&.! &.&.& &./ &.).1 &.).2 &.). &.).! Di3estio% "#plain %hy digestion of large food molecules is essential. +ross reference %ith topic 2. "#plain the need for en,ymes in digestion. +ross reference %ith topic 2. 2he need for increasing the rate of digestion at body temperature is the important point. State the source$ substrate$ products$ and optimum pA conditions for one amylase$ one protease$ and one lipase. Any human en,ymes can be selected. Details of structure or mechanisms of action are not re-uired. Dra% a diagram of the digestive system. 2he diagram should sho% the mouth$ esophagus$ stomach$ small intestine$ large intestine$ anus$ liver$ pancreas and gall bladder. 'utline the function of the stomach$ small intestine and large intestine. Distinguish bet%een absorption and assimilation. "#plain ho% the structure of the villus is related to its role in absorption of the end products of digestion. The Tra%sport Syste# Dra% a diagram of the heart sho%ing all four chambers$ associated blood vessels and valves. All blood vessels connected directly to the heart$ including coronary vessels$ should be sho%n. +are should be taken to sho% relative %all thickness of the four chambers. 2he histology of the heart is not re-uired. Describe the action of the heart in terms of collecting blood$ pumping blood and opening and closing valves. A basic understanding is re-uired$ limited to the collection of blood by the atria %hich is then pumped out by the ventricles into the arteries. 2he direction of flo% is controlled by atrio-ventricular and semilunar valves. 'utline the control of the heartbeat in terms of the pacemaker$ nerves$ and adrenalin. Aistology of the heart muscle$ names of nerves or transmitter substances are not re-uired. Students should understand that the heart beats Iof its o%n accordJ .myogenic/ and speeds up or slo%s do%n through involuntary control. "#plain the relationship bet%een the structure and function of arteries$ capillaries$ and veins. State that blood is composed of plasma$ erythrocytes$ leucocytes .phagocytes and lymphocytes/ and platelets. State that the follo%ing are transported by the blood7 nutrients$ o#ygen$ carbon dio#ide$ hormones$ antibodies$ and urea. No chemical details are re-uired. Patho3e%s a%) Disease Define pathogen. <athogenEan organism or virus that causes a disease. State one e#ample of a disease caused by members of each of the follo%ing groups7 viruses$ bacteria$ fungi$ proto,oa$ flat%orms and round%orms. Students should kno% to %hich group the pathogen that causes each disease belongs. ;ist si# methods by %hich pathogens are transmitted and gain entry to the body. Note that this is simply a list and no descriptions or details of methods are re-uired. Describe the cause$ transmission and effects of one human bacterial disease. A locally occurring disease %ould be of greatest relevance to students. "#plain %hy antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not viruses. Antibiotics block specific metabolic path%ays found in bacteria$ but not in eukaryotic cells. :iruses reproduce using the host cell metabolic path%ays that are not affected by antibiotics. "#plain the cause$ transmission and social implications of A(DS. A(DS is selected as one syndrome %here the immune system fails and opportunistic pathogens cause further harm. De(e%ce A3ai%st I%(ectio s Disease "#plain ho% skin and mucous membranes act as barriers against pathogens. A diagram of the skin is not re-uired. 'utline ho% phagocytic leucocytes ingest pathogens in the blood and in body tissues. Details of the sub-divisions and classifications of phagocytes are not re-uired. State the difference bet%een antigens and antibodies. "#plain antibody production. 5any different types of lymphocyte e#ist. "ach type recogni,es one specific antigen and responds by dividing to form a clone. 2his clone then secretes a specific antibody against the antigen. No other details are re-uired. 'utline the effects of A(: on the immune system. 2he effects of A(: should be limited to a reduction in the number of active lymphocytes and a loss of the ability to produce antibodies. 2as E6cha%3e ;ist the features of alveoli that adapt them to gas e#change. 2his should include a large total surface area$ a %all consisting of a single layer of flattened cells$ a moist lining and a dense net%ork of capillaries. State the difference bet%een ventilation$ gas e#change$ and cell respiration. "#plain the necessity for a ventilation system. A ventilation system is needed to maintain concentration gradients in the alveoli. Dra% a diagram of the ventilation system including trachea$ bronchi$ bronchioles and lungs. "#plain the mechanism of ventilation in human lungs including the action of the internal and e#ternal intercostal muscles$ the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles. 5o#eostasis a%) E6cretio% State that homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment at a constant level or bet%een narro% limits$ including blood pA$ o#ygen and carbon dio#ide concentrations$ blood glucose$ body temperature and %ater balance. 2he internal environment consists of blood and tissue fluid. +ross reference %ith 2. . . "#plain that homeostasis involves monitoring levels of variables and correcting changes in levels by negative feedback mechanisms. State that the nervous and the endocrine systems are both involved in homeostasis. State that the nervous system consists of the central nervous system .+NS/ and peripheral nerves and is composed of special cells called neurons that can carry electrical impulses rapidly.

No structural or functional division of the nervous system or details of impulse transmission or synapses are re-uired. &.).& Describe the control of body temperature including the transfer of heat in blood$ the role of s%eat glands and skin arterioles$ and shivering. &.).) State that the endocrine system consists of glands %hich release hormones that are transported in the blood. 2he nature and action of hormones or direct comparisons bet%een nerve and endocrine systems are not re-uired. &.).* "#plain the control of blood glucose concentration$ including the roles of glucagon$ insulin and R and S cells in the pancreatic islets. R islet cells produce glucagon= S islet cells produce insulin. 2he regulation of glucose concentration %ithin normal limits and the feedback mechanisms should be stressed. 2he effects of adrenaline are not re-uired here. &.).4 Define excretion. &.).6 'utline the role of the kidney in e#cretion and the maintainance of %ater balance. Details of structure or physiology are not re-uired. 5ention that$ by adCusting the volume and content of the urine$ the kidney removes urea$ e#cess salts and %ater. &.0 .epro) ctio% &.*.1 Dra% diagrams of the adult male and female reproductive systems. 2he relative positions of the organs is important. Do not include any histological details$ but include the bladder and urethra. &.*.2 "#plain the role of hormones in regulating the changes of puberty .testosterone$ estrogen/ in boys and girls$ and in the menstrual cycle .follicle stimulating hormone .BSA/$ luteini,ing hormone .;A/$ estrogen and progesterone/. Reference to the fact that in males ;A is called interstitial cell stimulating hormone .(+SA/ and the involvement of the hypothalamus .releasing factors/ in both se#es are not e#pected. "mphasi,e feedback control. 2he menstrual cycle e#planation should include graphs sho%ing relative changes of hormone levels and the endometrium. &.*. ;ist the secondary se#ual characteristics in both se#es. &.*.! State the difference bet%een copulation and fertili,ation. Acrosome reaction$ meiotic details etc are re-uired for higher level. .See topic 6./ &.*.& Describe early embryo development up to the implantation of the blastocyst. ;imit this to several mitotic divisions resulting in a hollo% ball of cells called the blastocyst. &.*.) State that the fetus is supported and protected by the amniotic sac and amniotic fluid. "mbryonic details of the fetus and the structure of amniotic membranes or placenta are not e#pected. &.*.* State that materials are e#changed bet%een the maternal and fetal blood in the placenta. &.*.4 'utline the process of birth and its hormonal control$ including progesterone and o#ytocin. ;imit this to the reduction in the level of progesterone that results in the release of o#ytocin. '#ytocin causes uterine contractions that trigger further release of o#ytocin. 2his is an e#ample of positive feedback. &.*.6 Describe four methods of family planning and contraception. At least one method from each of the follo%ing types should be studied7 mechanical$ chemical$ behavioural. &.*.10 Discuss the ethical issues of family planning and contraception. &.*.11 'utline the techni-ue of amniocentesis. Amniocentesis involves %ithdra%ing some amniotic fluid containing embryonic cells using a syringe. (t can be used to diagnose nearly !00 conditions from chromosomal abnormalities to biochemical disorders. 5ention possible risks from the procedure. +ross reference %ith .!.). &.*.12 'utline the process of in vitro fertili,ation .(:B/. &.*.1 Discuss the ethical issues of (:B.

Topic /: - cleic Aci)s a%) Protei%s

/.1 D-A Str ct re ).1.1 'utline the structure of Nucleosomes. ;imit this to the fact that a nucleosome consists of DNA %rapped around eight histone protein molecules and held together by another histone protein. ).1.2 State that only a small proportion of the DNA in the nucleus constitutes genes and that the maCority of DNA consists of repetitive se-uences. 2he function of the repetitive se-uences is not re-uired but students should kno% that the presence of such se-uences is used in DNA profiling .see .!. /. ).1. Describe the structure of DNA including the antiparallel strands$ T?&T linkages and hydrogen bonding bet%een purines and pyrimidines. 5aCor and minor grooves$ direction of the It%istJ$ alternative @ and U forms and details of the dimensions are not re-uired. /.2 D-A .eplicatio% ).2.1 State that DNA replication occurs in a &T K T direction. 2he &T end of the free DNA nucleotide is added to the T end of the chain of nucleotides %hich is already synthesi,ed. ).2.2 "#plain the process of DNA replication in eukaryotes including the role of en,ymes .helicase$ DNA polymerase ((($ RNA primase$ DNA polymerase ( and DNA ligase/$ 'ka,aki fragments and deo#ynucleoside triphosphates. 2he function of the en,ymes listed should be stated in general terms only. 2he e#planation of 'ka,aki fragments in relation to the direction of DNA polymerase ((( action is re-uired. DNA polymerase ((( adds nucleotides in the &TK T direction. DNA polymerase ( e#cises the RNA primers and replaces them %ith DNA. Details of 5eselson and StahlFs e#periment are not re-uired. ).2. State that in eukaryotic chromosomes$ replication is initiated at many points. /.3 Tra%scriptio% ). .1 State that transcription is carried out in a &TK T direction. 2he &T end of the free RNA nucleotide is added to the T end of the RNA molecule %hich is already synthesi,ed. ). .2 'utline the lac operon model as an e#ample of the control of gene e#pression in prokaryotes. 'perons are found only in prokaryotes. 5ention only the idea of a regulator gene producing a protein that prevents RNA polymerase binding to the promoter region. ). . "#plain the process of transcription in eukaryotes including the role of the promoter region$ RNA polymerase$ nucleoside triphosphates and the terminator. 2he follo%ing details are not re-uired7 there is more than one type of RNA polymerase$ features of the promoter region$ the need for transcription protein factors for RNA polymerase binding$ 2A2A bo#es .and other repetitive se-uences/$ the e#act se-uence of the bases %hich act as terminators. 9ene regulation can be limited to the presence of other genes .often on other chromosomes/ that affect binding of RNA polymerase to the promoter region$ and to the control of both the post-transcriptional modification of RNA and posttranslational modification of proteins. ). .! Distinguish bet%een the sense and antisense strands of DNA.

). .& ). .) ). .* /.! ).!.1

).!.2 ).!. ).!.! ).!.& ).!.) /.& ).&.1 ).&.2 ).&. ).&.! /./ ).).1 ).).2 ).). ).).!

).).&

2he sense strand is the coding strand and has the same base se-uence as mRNA .%ith uracil instead of thymine/. 2he antisense strand is transcribed and has the same base se-uence as tRNA. State that eukaryotic RNA needs the removal of introns to form mature mRNA. Burther details of the process of post-transcriptional modification of RNA are not re-uired. State that reverse transcriptase catalyses the production of DNA from RNA. 2his is an opportunity to relate some aspects of the DNA viral life cycle to that of the A(DS virus .an RNA virus/. "#plain ho% reverse transcriptase is used in molecular biology. 2his en,yme can make DNA from mature mRNA .eg human insulin/$ %hich can then be spliced into host DNA .eg E. coli/$ %ithout the introns. Tra%slatio% "#plain ho% the structure of tRNA allo%s recognition by a tRNA-activating en,yme that binds a specific amino acid to tRNA$ using A2< for energy. "ach amino acid has a specific tRNA-activating en,yme .the name aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase is not re-uired/. 2he shape of tRNA and ++A at the T end should be included. Degeneracy .some amino acids having more than one tRNA/ should also be included. 'utline the structure of ribosomes including protein and RNA composition$ large and small subunits$ t%o tRNA binding sites and mRNA binding sites. State that translation consists of initiation$ elongation and termination. State that translation occurs in a &TK T direction. During translation$ the ribosome moves along the mRNA to%ards the T end. 2he start codon is nearer to the &Tend than the stop codon. "#plain the process of translation including ribosomes$ polysomes$ start codons and stop codons. Naming of the < and A sites$ initiating methionine$ details of the 2 factor and recall of actual stop codons are not re-uired. State that free ribosomes synthesi,e proteins for use primarily %ithin the cell and that bound ribosomes synthesi,e proteins primarily for secretion or for lysosomes. +ross reference %ith 1.!.*. Protei%s "#plain the four levels of protein structure$ indicating each levelFs significance. >uaternary structure may involve the binding of a prosthetic group to form a conCugated protein. 'utline the difference bet%een fibrous and globular proteins$ %ith reference to t%o e#amples of each protein type. "#plain the significance of polar and non-polar amino acids. ;imit this to controlling the position of proteins in membranes$ creating hydrophilic channels through membranes and the specificity of active sites in en,ymes. +ross reference %ith 1.!. State si# functions of proteins$ giving a named e#ample of each. 5embrane proteins should not be included. E%,y#es State that metabolic path%ays consist of chains and cycles of en,yme catalysed reactions. Describe the induced fit model. 2his is an e#tension of the lock-and-key model. (ts importance in accounting for the broad specificity of some en,ymes .the ability to bind several substrates/ should be mentioned. "#plain that en,ymes lo%er the activation energy of the chemical reactions that they catalyse. 9raphical representation of both e#ergonic and endergonic reactions should be covered$ but specific energy values do not need to be recalled. "#plain the difference bet%een competitive and non-competitive inhibition$ %ith reference to one e#ample of each. +ompetitiveEan inhibiting molecule structurally similar to the substrate molecule binds to the active site$ preventing substrate binding. "#amples include inhibition of butanedioic acid .succinate/ dehydrogenase by propanedioic acid .malonate/ in the Drebs cycle$ and inhibition of folic acid synthesis in bacteria by the sulfonamide <rontosilV .an antibiotic/. Non-competitiveElimited to an inhibitor molecule binding to an en,yme .not to its active site/ that causes a conformational change in its active site$ resulting in a decrease in activity. "#amples include Ag2W$ AgW$ +u2W and +N- inhibition of many en,ymes .eg cytochrome o#idase/ by binding to -SA groups$ thereby breaking -S-S- linkages= and nerve gases like Sarin and DB< .diisopropyl fluorophosphate/ inhibiting ethanoyl .acetyl/ cholinesterase. Reversible inhibition$ as compared to irreversible inhibition$ is not re-uired. "#plain the role of allostery in the control of metabolic path%ays by end-product inhibition. Allostery is a form of non-competitive inhibition. 5ention that the shape of allosteric en,ymes can be altered by the binding of end products to an allosteric site$ thereby decreasing its activity. 5etabolites can act as allosteric inhibitors of en,ymes earlier in a metabolic path%ay and regulate metabolism according to the re-uirements of organisms= a form of negative feedback. "#amples include A2< inhibition of phosphofructokinase in glycolysis and inhibition of aspartate carbamoyltransferase .A2+ase/ %hich catalyses the first step in pyrimidine synthesis.

Topic 0: Cell .espiratio% a%) Photosy%thesis

0.1 Cell .espiratio% *.1.1 State that o#idation involves the loss of electrons from an element %hereas reduction involves a gain in electrons$ and that o#idation fre-uently involves gaining o#ygen or losing hydrogen$ %hereas reduction fre-uently involves loss of o#ygen or gain in hydrogen. *.1.2 'utline the process of glycolysis including phosphorylation$ lysis$ o#idation and A2< formation. (n the cytoplasm$ one he#ose sugar is converted into t%o three-carbon atom compounds .pyruvate/ %ith a net gain of t%o A2< and t%o NADA W AW. <hosphorylation is a process in %hich A2< is made in vivo .in glycolysis the process is substrate level phosphorylation/. *.1. Dra% the structure of a mitochondrion as seen in electron micrographs. *.1.! "#plain aerobic respiration including o#idative decarbo#ylation of pyruvate$ the Drebs cycle$ NADA W AW$ the electron transport chain and the role of o#ygen. (n aerobic respiration .in mitochondria in eukaryotes/ each pyruvate is decarbo#ylated .+'2 removed/. 2he remaining t%ocarbon molecule .acetyl group/ reacts %ith reduced coen,yme A$ and at the same time one NADA W AW is formed. 2his is kno%n as the link reaction. (n the Drebs cycle each acetyl group .+A +'/ formed in the link reaction yields t%o +'2. 2he names of the intermediate compounds in the cycle are not re-uired. 2hus it %ould be acceptable to note7 +2 W +! N +) K +& K etc. Students should also note that the hydrogen atoms removed are collected by Ihydrogen-carrying coen,ymesJ. 'ne turn of the Drebs cycle yields7

2 +'2 # NADA W AW 1 # BADA2 1 # A2< .by substrate level phosphorylation/

*.1.& "#plain o#idative phosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis. +ross reference %ith *.2.!. 2he synthesis of A2< is coupled to electron transport and the movement of protons .AW ions/E the chemiosmotic theory. @riefly$ the electron transport carriers are strategically arranged over the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. As they o#idi,e NADA W AW and BADA2$ energy from this process forces protons to move$ against the concentration gradient$ from the mitochondrial matri# to the space bet%een the t%o membranes .using proton pumps/. "ventually the AW ions flo% back into the matri# through protein channels in the A2< synthetase molecules in the membrane. As the ions flo% do%n the gradient$ energy is released and A2< is made. *.1.) "#plain the relationship bet%een the structure of the mitochondrion and its function. ;imit this to cristae forming a large surface area for the electron transport chain$ the small space bet%een inner and outer membranes for accumulation of protons and the fluid matri# containing en,ymes of the Drebs cycle. *.1.* Describe the central role of acetyl +oA in carbohydrate and fat metabolism. Acetyl +oA is an intermediate in carbohydrate .glucose/ metabolism. (n lipid metabolism the o#idation of the fatty acid chains results in the formation of t%o-carbon atom .acetyl/ fragments %hich then pass through the Drebs cycle. 0.2 Photosy%thesis *.2.1 Dra% the structure of a chloroplast as seen in electron micrographs. *.2.2 State that photosynthesis consists of light-dependent and light-independent reactions. Not IlightJ and IdarkJ reactions. *.2. "#plain the light-dependent reactions. (nclude the photoactivation of photosystem (($ photolysis of %ater$ electron transport$ cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation$ photoactivation of photosystem ( and reduction of NAD<W. *.2.! "#plain photophosphorylation in terms of chemiosmosis. "lectron transport causes the pumping of protons to the inside of the thylakoids. 2hey accumulate .pA drops/ and eventually move out to the stroma through protein channels in the A2< synthetase en,ymes. 2his provides energy for A2< synthesis. +ross reference *.1.&. *.2.& "#plain the light-independent reactions. (nclude the roles of ribulose bisphosphate .Ru@</ carbo#ylase$ reduction of glycerate -phosphate .9</ to triose phosphate .2</$ NAD<A W AW$ A2<$ regeneration of Ru@< and synthesis of carbohydrate. *.2.) "#plain the relationship bet%een the structure of the chloroplast and its function. ;imit this to the large surface area of thylakoids for light absorption$ the small space inside thylakoids for accumulation of protons and the fluid stroma for the en,ymes of the +alvin cycle. *.2.* Dra% the action spectrum of photosynthesis. *.2.4 "#plain the relationship bet%een the action spectrum and the absorption spectrum of photosynthesis pigments in green plants. A separate spectrum for each pigment .chlorophyll a$ chlorophyll b$ etc/ is not re-uired. *.2.6 "#plain the concept of limiting factors %ith reference to light intensity$ temperature and concentration of carbon dio#ide.

Topic 1: 2e%etics
1.1 "eiosis 4.1.1 Describe the behaviour of the chromosomes in the phases of meiosis. Students %ill be e#pected to kno% the names of the phases. 2he subdivisions of prophase ( %ill not be re-uired. 4.1.2 'utline the process of crossing over and the formation of chiasmata. +ross reference %ith 4. .2. 4.1. "#plain ho% meiosis results in an effectively infinite genetic variety in gametes through crossing over in prophase ( and random orientation in metaphase (. +ross reference %ith .2.!. 2he number of different types of gamete produced is 2n .%here n N haploid number/. 4.1.! Define recombination. RecombinationEthe reassortment of genes or characters into different combinations from those of the parents. Recombination occurs for linked genes by crossing over and$ for unlinked genes$ by chromosome assortment. 4.1.& State 5endelFs la% of independent assortment. 4.1.) "#plain the relationship bet%een 5endelFs la% of independent assortment and meiosis. 1.2 Dihy$ri) Crosses 4.2.1 +alculate and predict the genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring of dihybrid crosses involving unlinked autosomal genes. 4.2.2 (dentify %hich of the offspring in dihybrid crosses are recombinants. Recombination has often been restricted to linked genes but it also applies to non-linked situations. Bor e#ample$ in the cross tall$ %hite X2trrY %ith short$ red XttRrY$ the F1 %ill contain four different phenotypesEtall$ %hite X2trrY$ short$ red XttRrY$ tall$ red X2tRrY and short$ %hite XttrrY. 2he tall$ red and the short$ %hite are the recombinants. 4.2. 'utline the use of the chi-s-uared test in analysing monohybrid and dihybrid crosses using given values. Students should appreciate that the test can be used to establish %hether an observed ratio differs significantly from the e#pected one. 1.3 A toso#al 2e%e Li%ka3e 4. .1 State the difference bet%een autosomes and se# chromosomes. 4. .2 "#plain ho% crossing over in prophase ( .bet%een non-sister chromatids of a homologous pair/ can result in an e#change of alleles. 2he fact that crossing over does not occur in male Drosophila %ill not be e#pected. 4. . Define linkage group. 4. .! "#plain an e#ample of a cross bet%een t%o linked genes.

Alleles are usually sho%n side-by-side in dihybrid crosses eg 2t@b. (n representing crosses involving linkage it is more common to sho% them as vertical pairs7

2his format %ill be used in e#amination papers$ or candidates %ill be given sufficient information to allo% them to deduce %hich alleles are linked. 2here are several advantages arising from this format. 2he line.s/ can be taken to represent the chromosome.s/ thereby indicating linkage visually. Also$ the linked alleles and the cross-over allele combinations are clear. (n a side-by-side format it is impossible to tell %hich allele is linked to %hich. 4. .& (dentify %hich of the offspring in such dihybrid crosses are recombinants. (n a test cross of the recombinants %ill be and

1.! Poly3e%ic I%herita%ce 4.!.1 Define polygenic inheritance. 4.!.2 "#plain that polygenic inheritance can contribute to continuous variation using t%o e#amples. 'ne e#ample must be human skin colour. Auman melanin production seems to be controlled by three or four genes. Dealing %ith all four genes at once is un%ieldy and the principle can be e#plained clearly enough using t%o genes.

Topic 7: 5 #a% .epro) ctio%

7.1 Pro) ctio% o( 2a#etes 6.1.1 Dra% the structure of testis tissue as seen using a light microscope. ;ight microscopes sho% the presence of seminiferous tubules %ith blood capillaries and interstitial cells. Dra% one seminiferous tubule in transverse section .2S/ %ith adCacent interstitial cells. 2he sectioned tubules have an outer germ cell layer %ith basement membrane$ developing spermato,oa and the Sertoli cells that provide nourishment. 6.1.2 'utline the processes involved in spermatogenesis including mitosis$ cell gro%th$ the t%o divisions of meiosis and cell differentiation. +ross reference %ith 1.& and 4.1. 2he names of the intermediate stages are not re-uired. 6.1. 'utline the origin and the role of the hormones BSA$ testosterone and ;A in spermatogenesis. 2he name (+SA %ill not be used. 6.1.! Dra% the structure of the ovary as seen using a light microscope. Developing oocytes can be seen. 2he stages of developing 9raafian follicles are visible. 2he primary oocytes are surrounded by the ,ona pellucida. 6.1.& 'utline the processes involved in oogenesis including mitosis$ cell gro%th$ the t%o divisions of meiosis$ the une-ual division of cytoplasm and the degeneration of polar bodies. +ross reference %ith 1.& and 4.1. Names of the stages are not re-uired. 6.1.) Dra% the structure of a mature sperm and egg. 6.1.* 'utline the role of the epididymis$ seminal vesicle and prostate gland in the production of semen. 6.1.4 +ompare the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis including the number of gametes and the timing of the formation and release of gametes. 7.2 8ertili,atio% a%) Pre3%a%cy 6.2.1 Describe the process of fertili,ation including the acrosome reaction$ penetration of the egg membrane by a sperm and the cortical reaction. 6.2.2 'utline the role of human chorionic gonadotrophin .A+9/ in early pregnancy. 6.2. Describe the structure and functions of the placenta including its hormonal role in the maintenance of pregnancy .secretion of estrogen and progesterone/. Details of the embryological development of humans$ formation and evolutionary origins of the e#tra-embryonic membranes and hormonal control of lactation are not re-uired. <rolactin in connection %ith &.*.6 and &.*.10 might also be discussed here.

Topic 19: De(e%ce A3ai%st I%(ectio s Disease

19.1 Types o( De(e%ce 10.1.1 Describe the process of clotting. ;imit this to the release of clotting factors from platelets and damaged cells resulting in the formation of thrombin. 2hrombin catalyses the conversion of soluble fibrinogen into the fibrous protein fibrin %hich captures red blood cells. 10.1.2 'utline the principle of challenge and response$ clonal selection and memory cells as the basis of immunity. 2his is intended to be a simple introduction to the comple# topic of immunity. 2he idea of a polyclonal response can be introduced here. 10.1. Define active immunity$ passive immunity$ natural immunity and artificial immunity. Active immunityEimmunity due to the production of antibodies by the organism itself after the bodyFs defence mechanisms have been stimulated by invasion of foreign micro-organisms. <assive immunityEimmunity due to the ac-uisition of antibodies from another organism in %hich active immunity has been stimulated$ including via the placenta or in colostrum. Natural immunityEimmunity due to infection. Artificial immunityEimmunity due to inoculation %ith vaccine. 10.1.! "#plain Antibody production. ;imit the e#planation to antigen presentation by macrophages and activation of helper 2-cells leading to activation of @cells$ %hich divide to form clones of antibody secreting plasma cells and memory cells. 10.1.& State that cytoto#ic 2-cells destroy cancer cells and body cells infected %ith viruses. 10.1.) Describe the production of monoclonal antibodies= one use of them in diagnosis and one use in treatment. <roduction should be limited to the fusion of tumour and @-cells and their subse-uent proliferation and production of antibodies. Detection of antibodies to A(: is one e#ample in diagnosis. 'thers are detection of a specific cardiac isoen,yme in suspected cases of heart attack and detection of A+9 in pregnancy test kits. "#amples of the use of these antibodies for treatment include targeting of cancer cells %ith drugs attached to monoclonal antibodies$ emergency treatment of rabies or cancer$ blood and tissue typing for transplant compatibility and purification of industrially made interferon. 10.1* 'utline the principle of vaccination. "mphasi,e the role of memory cells here. 2he primary and secondary responses can be clearly illustrated by a graph. <recise details of all the types of vaccine .attenuated virus$ inactivated to#ins$ etc/ for specific diseases are not re-uired. 10.1.4 Discuss the benefits and dangers of vaccination against bacterial and viral infection$ including the 55R vaccine .combined measles3mumps3rubella/ and t%o other e#amples.

Topic 11: -er'es+ " scles a%) "o'e#e%t

11.1 -er'es 11.1.1 'utline the general organi,ation of the human nervous system including the +NS .brain and spinal cord/ and the <NS .nerves/. 11.1.2 Dra% the structure of a motor neuron. (nclude dendrites$ cell body %ith nucleus$ elongated a#on$ myelin sheath$ nodes of Ranvier and motor end plates. 11.1. Define resting potential and action potential. 11.1.! "#plain ho% a nerve impulse passes along a non-myelinated neuron .a#on/. (nclude the role of NaW ions$ DW ions$ voltage-gated ion channels$ active transport and changes in membrane polari,ation. 11.1.& "#plain the principles of synaptic transmission. (nclude +a2W influ#= the release$ diffusion and binding of the neurotransmitter= depolari,ation of the post-synaptic membrane and subse-uent removal of the neurotransmitter. 11.2 " scles a%) "o'e#e%t 11.2.1 'utline the great diversity of locomotion in the animal kingdom as e#emplified by movement in an earth%orm$ s%imming in a bony fish$ flying in a bird and %alking in an arthropod. 11.2.2 Describe the roles of nerves$ muscles and bones in producing movement or locomotion. 11.2. Dra% a diagram of the human elbo% Coint. (nclude cartilage$ synovial fluid$ tendons$ ligaments$ named bones and named antagonistic muscles. 2he only muscles e#pected are the biceps and triceps. 11.2.! 'utline the functions of the above-named structures of the human elbo% Coint. 11.2.& Dra% the structure of skeletal muscle fibres as seen in electron micrographs. "lectron micrographs can be interpreted to sho% sarcomeres and their characteristic dark and light bands. 2he detailed structure can be deduced so that thin actin filaments and thick myosin filaments interdigitate. 2he sarcoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria should be included. No names of lines or bands are e#pected. 11.2.) "#plain ho% skeletal muscle contracts by the sliding of filaments. (nclude the roles of the sarcoplasmic reticulum$ +a2W ions$ troponin$ tropomyosin$ actin$ myosin= the formation$ movement and breakage of cross-bridges= and A2<.

Topic 12: E6cretio%

12.1 E6cretio% 12.1.1 'utline the need for e#cretion in all living organisms. 12.1.2 State that e#cretory products in plants include o#ygen$ and in animals they include carbon dio#ide and nitrogenous compounds. 12.1. Discuss the relationship bet%een the different nitrogenous %aste products and habitat in mammals$ birds and fresh%ater fish. Surplus amino acids must be degraded to relatively harmless nitrogen-containing compounds. Bresh%ater fish can get rid of ammonia$ although highly to#ic .due to its basicity/$ because it can be diluted by the readily available %ater. @irds are unable to carry too much %ater so they e#crete uric acid %hich is insoluble and e#pelled as a paste .most of the %ater is removed before e#cretion/. 5ammals e#crete urea. Some desert mammals produce very concentrated urine .having a long loop of AenlZ/. See 12.2.). 12.2 The 5 #a% :i)%ey 12.2.1 Dra% the structure of the kidney. (nclude the corte#$ medulla$ pelvis$ ureter and renal blood vessels. 12.2.2 Dra% the structure of a glomerulus and associated nephron. 12.2. "#plain the process of ultrafiltration including blood pressure$ fenestrated blood capillaries and basement membrane. 12.2.! Define osmoregulation. 'smoregulationEthe control of the %ater balance of the blood$ tissue or cytoplasm of a living organism. 12.2.& "#plain the reabsorption of glucose$ %ater and salts in the pro#imal convoluted tubule$ including the roles of microvilli$ osmosis and active transport. 12.2.) "#plain the roles of the loop of AenlZ$ medulla$ collecting duct and ADA in maintaining the %ater balance of the blood. +ross reference %ith &.).1 and &.).2. Details of the control of ADA secretion are only re-uired in option A. 12.2.* +ompare the composition of blood in the renal artery and renal vein$ and compare the composition of glomerular filtrate and urine. 12.2.4 'utline the structure and action of kidney dialysis machines.

Topic 13: Pla%t Scie%ce

13.1 Pla%t Str ct re 1 .1.1 'utline the %ide diversity in the plant kingdom as e#emplified by the structural differences bet%een bryophytes$ filicinophytes$ coniferophytes and angiospermophytes. No details of internal structures or life cycles are e#pected. 1 .1.2 Dra% a diagram to sho% the e#ternal parts of a named dicotyledonous plant. (nclude the root$ stem$ leaf$ a#illary and terminal buds. 1 .1. Dra% plan diagrams to sho% the distribution of tissues in the stem$ root and leaf of a generali,ed dicotyledonous plant. "ither one species could be selected for the %hole study or different species could be used for the stem$ root and leaf$ depending on the availability of material and3or local interest. Note that plan diagrams sho% distribution of tissues .eg #ylem$ phloem/ and do not sho% individual cells. 2hey are sometimes called Ilo% po%erJ diagrams. 1 .1.! "#plain the relationship bet%een the distribution of tissues in the leaf and the functions of these tissues. 2he functions should include absorption of light$ gas e#change$ support$ %ater conservation$ transport of %ater and products of photosynthesis. 1 .1.& 'utline four adaptations of #erophytes. 2hese could include7 +A5 and +! physiology$ reduced leaves$ rolled leaves$ spines$ deep roots$ thickened %a#y cuticle$ reduced number of stomata$ stomata in pits surrounded by IhairsJ$ %ater storage tissue$ lo% gro%th form and annual plants %ith short life cycles. 1 .1.) 'utline t%o structural adaptations of hydrophytes. 2hese could include air spaces$ flotation$ pliable parts %ith little strengthening tissue$ IbreathingJ roots$ reduced roots and finely divided submerged leaves. 13.2 Tra%sport i% A%3iosper#ophytes 1 .2.1 "#plain ho% the root system provides a large surface area for mineral ion and %ater uptake by means of branching$ root hairs and corte# cell %alls. 1 .2.2 Describe the process of mineral ion uptake into roots by active transport. 1 .2. "#plain the process of %ater uptake by root epidermis cells and its movement by the symplastic and apoplastic path%ays across the root to the #ylem.

Qater potential terminology is not e#pected. Qater movement should be e#plained in terms of differences in solute concentration and pressure. 1 .2.! State that terrestrial plants support themselves by means of thickened cellulose$ cell turgor and #ylem. 1 .2.& Define transpiration. 2ranspirationEthe loss of %ater vapour from the leaves and stems of plants. 1 .2.) "#plain ho% %ater is carried by the transpiration stream$ including the structure of #ylem vessels$ transpiration pull$ cohesion and evaporation. ;imit the structure of #ylem vessels to one type of primary #ylem. 1 .2.* State that guard cells can open and close stomata to regulate transpiration. 1 .2.4 "#plain ho% the abiotic factors$ light$ temperature$ %ind and humidity$ affect the rate of transpiration in a typical terrestrial mesophytic plant. 1 .2.6 'utline the role of phloem in active translocation of biochemicals. 1 .2.10 Describe an e#ample of food storage in a plant. 13.3 .epro) cito% i% 8lo;eri%3 Pla%ts 1 . .1 Dra% the structure of a dicotyledonous animal-pollinated flo%er$ as seen %ith the naked eye and hand lens. ;imit the diagram to sepal$ petal$ anther$ filament$ stigma$ style and ovary. 1 . .2 Define pollination. 1 . . Distinguish bet%een pollination$ fertili,ation$ and seed dispersal. 1 . .! Dra% the e#ternal and internal structure of a named dicotyledonous seed. 2he named seed should be non-endospermic. 2he structure in the diagram should be limited to testa$ micropyle$ embryo root$ embryo shoot and cotyledons. 1 . .& Describe the metabolic events of germination in a typical starchy seed. Absorption of %ater precedes the formation of gibberellin in the cotyledon. 2his stimulates the production of amylase %hich catalyses the breakdo%n of starch to maltose. 2his subse-uently diffuses to the embryo for energy production and gro%th. No further details are e#pected. 1 . .) "#plain the conditions needed for the germination of a typical seed. Seeds vary in their light re-uirements and therefore this factor need not be included.

4ptio% 2: Ecolo3y a%) Co%ser'atio%

2.1 Ecolo3y o( Species 9.1.1 'utline the factors that affect the distribution of plant species including temperature$ %ater$ light$ soil pA$ salinity and mineral nutrients. 9.1.2 "#plain the factors that affect the distribution of animal species including temperature$ %ater$ breeding sites$ food supply and territory. 9.1. Deduce the significance of the difference bet%een t%o sets of data using calculated values for t and the appropriate tables. 2he t-test can be used to compare t%o sets of data and measure the amount of overlap. Students %ill not be e#pected to calculate values of t. 9.1.! "#plain %hat is meant by the niche concept$ including an organismFs spatial habitat$ its feeding activities and its interactions %ith other organisms. 9.1.& "#plain the principle of competitive e#clusion. 2.2 Ecolo3y o( Co## %ities 9.2.1 "#plain the follo%ing interactions bet%een species$ giving t%o e#amples of each7 competition$ herbivory$ predation$ parasitism and mutualism. 5utualism is %here t%o members of different species benefit and neither suffers. "#amples include rumen bacteria3proto,oa$ lichens and Chlorella/Chlorohydra. 9.2.2 Define gross production$ net production and biomass. 9.2. +alculate values for gross production$ net production and biomass from given data. 9ross production [ respiration N net production 9.2.! Discuss the difficulties of classifying organisms into trophic levels. 9.2.& "#plain the small biomass and lo% numbers of organisms in higher trophic levels. 9.2.) +onstruct a pyramid of energy given appropriate information. 2he lo%est bar of the pyramid of energy represents gross primary productivity$ the ne#t bar represents the energy ingested as food by primary consumers$ and so on. 2he units are energy per unit area per unit time. 9.2.* Describe ecological succession using one e#ample. 9.2.4 "#plain the effects of living organisms on the abiotic environment %ith reference to the changes occurring during ecological succession to clima# communities. (nclude soil development$ accumulation of minerals and reduced erosion. 2.3 Bio)i'ersity a%) Co%ser'atio% 9. .1 Discuss reasons for the conservation of biodiversity using rainforests as an e#ample. Reasons should include ethical$ ecological$ economic and aesthetic arguments. 9. .2 'utline the factors that caused the e#tinction of one named animal and one named plant species. +hoose e#amples from recent historical time. 9. . 'utline the use of the Simpson diversity inde#.

9. 9. 9. 9. 9.

.! .& .) .* .4

9. .6

D N diversity inde# N N total number of organisms of all species found n N number of individuals of a particular species 2he Simpson diversity inde# is a measure of species richness. A high value of D suggests a stable and ancient site and a lo% D value could suggest pollution$ recent coloni,ation or agricultural management. 2he inde# is normally used in studies of vegetation but can also be applied to comparisons of animal .or even all species/ diversity. "#plain the use of biotic indices and indicator species in monitoring environmental change. 'utline the damage caused to marine ecosystems by the overe#ploitation of fish. Discuss international measures that %ould promote the conservation of fish. Discuss the advantages of in situ conservation of endangered species .terrestrial and a-uatic nature reserves/. 'utline the management of nature reserves. (nclude control of alien species$ restoration of degraded areas$ promotion of the recovery of threatened species and control of human e#ploitation. Discuss the role of international agencies and conservation measures including +(2"S and QQB. +(2"SE+onvention on (nternational 2rade in "ndangered Species QQBEQorld Qildlife Bund

2.! The -itro3e% Cycle 9.!.1 State that all chemical elements occuring in organisms are part of biogeochemical cycles and that these cycles involve %ater$ land and the atmosphere. 9.!.2 "#plain that all biogeochemical cycles summari,e the movement of elements through the biological components of ecosystems .food chains/ to form comple# organic molecules$ and subse-uently simpler inorganic forms %hich can be used again. 9.!. "#plain that chemoautotrophs can o#idi,e inorganic substances as a direct energy source to synthesi,e A2<. 9.!.! State that chemoautotrophy is found only among bacteria. 9.!.& Dra% a diagram of a nitrogen cycle. (nclude the process of nitrogen fi#ation .free-living$ symbiotic and industrial/$ denitrification$ nitrification$ feeding$ e#cretion$ root absorption$ and putrefaction .ammonification/. 9.!.) 'utline the roles of hizobium$ !zotobacter$ "itrosomonas$ "itrobacter and #seudomonas denitrificans in the nitrogen cycle. 9.!.* Describe the conditions that favour denitrification and nitrification. 9.!.4 Discuss the actions taken by farmers3gardeners to increase the nitrogen fertility of the soil including fertili,ers$ plo%ing3digging and crop rotation .use of legumes/. 2.& I#pact o( 5 #a%s o% Ecosyste#s 9.&.1 Describe the role of atmospheric o,one in absorbing ultra violet .8:/ radiation. 9.&.2 'utline the effects of 8: radiation on living tissues and biological productivity. 9.&. 'utline the chemical effect of chlorine on the o,one layer. 9.&.! Discuss methods of reducing the manufacture and release of o,one-depleting substances including recycling refrigerants$ reducing production of gas-blo%n plastics and using +B+-free propellants. 9.&.& 'utline the conse-uences of releasing ra% se%age and nitrate fertili,er into rivers. (nclude pathogens in bathing or drinking %ater$ eutrophication$ algal blooms$ deo#ygenation$ increase in biochemical o#ygen demand .@'D/ and subse-uent recovery. Names of specific organisms are not e#pected. 9.&.) 'utline the origin$ formation and biological conse-uences of acid precipitation on plants and animals. 9.&.* State that biomass can be used as a source of fuels such as methane and ethanol. 9.&.4 "#plain the principles involved in the generation of methane from biomass$ including the conditions needed$ organisms involved and the basic chemical reactions that occur.

4ptio% 5: 8 rther 5 #a% Physiolo3y

5.1 5or#o%al Co%trol A.1.1 State that hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands into the blood and transported by the blood to specific target cells. A.1.2 State that hormones can be steroids$ peptides and tyrosine derivatives$ and provide one e#ample of each. A.1. Distinguish bet%een the mode of action of steroid hormones and peptide hormones. Steroids enter cells and affect genes directly. <eptides bind to receptors in the membrane %hich causes the release of a secondary messenger inside the cell. A.1.! Dra% a diagram of the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. (nclude the portal vein connecting the hypothalamus and the anterior pituitary gland and the neurosecretory cells connecting the hypothalamus and posterior pituitary gland. "#clude the pars intermedia. A.1.& "#plain the control of thyro#in secretion by negative feedback. (nclude the secretion of 2RA .thyrotropin-releasing hormone/$ transport to the anterior pituitary in the portal vein$ secretion of 2SA .thyroid stimulating hormone/ and secretion of thyro#in. Negative feedback to the hypothalamus involves thyro#in level$ 2SA level and body temperature. A.1.) "#plain the control of ADA secretion by negative feedback. (nclude neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus$ transport of ADA .antidiuretic hormone/ to the posterior pituitary for storage and release under stimulus by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus. 5.2 Di3estio% A.2.1 State that digestive Cuices are secreted into the alimentary canal by glands including salivary$ stomach %all$ pancreas and %all of small intestine. +ross reference %ith &.1.!. A.2.2 Dra% the structural features of e#ocrine glands including secretory cells grouped into acini and ducts. A.2. "#plain the structural features of e#ocrine gland cells as seen in electron micrographs. A.2.! State the contents of saliva$ gastric Cuice and pancreatic Cuice. A.2.& 'utline the control of digestive Cuice secretion by nerves and hormones. 8se the e#ample of gastric Cuice. ;imit this to initial release of gastric Cuice under nerve stimulation after sight or smell of food$ and sustained release under the influence of gastrin secreted %hen food is in the stomach. A.2.) 'utline the role of membrane-bound en,ymes in the surface cells of the small intestine in completing digestion. Some digestive en,ymes .eg maltase/ are immobili,ed in the surface membrane of cells on the surface of intestinal villi. 2hese en,ymes continue %orking even if the cell is rubbed off the villus and mi#ed into the intestinal contents. A.2.* "#plain %hy cellulose remains undigested in the human alimentary canal. A.2.4 "#plain %hy pepsin and trypsin are initially synthesi,ed as inactive precursors$ and ho% they are subse-uently activated. A.2.6 'utline the action of endopeptidases and e#opeptidases. A.2.10 "#plain the problem of lipid digestion in a hydrophilic medium and the role of bile in overcoming this problem. ;ipid molecules tend to coalesce and are only accessible to lipase at the lipid?%ater interface. 5ention could be made of the need for lipase to be %ater soluble and to have an active site to %hich a hydrophobic substrate binds. @ile molecules have a hydrophilic end and a lipophilic .hydrophobic/ end and thus prevent lipid droplets coalescing %ith each other. 2he ma#imum surface is e#posed to lipases. 5.3 A$sorptio% o( Di3este) 8oo)s A. .1 Dra% a portion of the ileum .in transverse section/ as seen under a light microscope. +ross reference %ith &.1.*. (nclude mucosa and layers of longitudinal and circular muscle. A. .2 "#plain the structural features of an epithelium cell of a villus as seen in electron micrographs including microvilli$ mitochondria$ pinocytotic vesicles and tight Cunctions. A. . "#plain the mechanisms used by the ileum to absorb and transport food$ including facilitated diffusion$ active transport and endocytosis. A. .! ;ist the materials that are not absorbed and are egested. (nclude cellulose$ lignin$ bile pigments$ bacteria and intestinal cells. 5.! 8 %ctio%s o( the Li'er A.!.1 'utline the circulation of blood through liver tissue including the hepatic artery$ hepatic portal vein$ sinusoids and hepatic vein.

A.!.2 A.!. A.!.! A.!.&

A.!.) 5.& A.&.1 A.&.2 A.&. A.&.!

A.&.& A.&.) A.&.* 5./ A.).1 A.).2 A.). A.).! A.).&

A.).) A.).*

Reference to lobules or acini is not re-uired. Students should understand the route taken by blood from both the hepatic portal vein and hepatic artery to the hepatic vein. 2he difference in structure bet%een sinusoids and capillaries should be mentioned. "#plain the need for the liver to regulate levels of nutrients in the blood. 'utline the role of the liver in the storage of nutrients including carbohydrate$ iron$ retinol and calciferol. Describe the process of bile secretion. 5ention should be made of the contents of bile .A+' - ions$ bile salts and bile pigments/ and of canaliculi$ the gall bladder and the bile duct. Describe the process of erythrocyte and hemoglobin breakdo%n in the liver including phagocytosis$ digestion of globin and bile pigment formation. Red blood cells are destroyed$ after about four months$ by Dupffer cells .phagocytic/ in the liver. Aemoglobin is converted to a yello% pigment .bilirubin/$ the iron is stored and the protein is broken do%n to amino acids. @ilirubin is transferred to the bile$ released into the intestine and converted by bacteria to a yello% pigment %hich gives the characteristic colour to feces. State that the liver synthesi,es plasma proteins and cholesterol. The Tra%sport Syste# "#plain the events of the cardiac cycle including atrial and ventricular systole and diastole$ and heart sounds. +ross reference %ith &.2.1E&.2. . Analyse data sho%ing pressure and volume changes in the left atrium$ left ventricle and the aorta$ during the cardiac cycle. Recall of -uantitative data is not e#pected. 'utline the mechanisms that control the heartbeat including the SA .sinoatrial/ node$ A: .atrioventricular/ node and conducting fibres in the ventricular %alls. 'utline atherosclerosis and the causes of coronary thrombosis. Atherosclerosis involves deposition of lipids on the inner surfaces of arteries. 2his impedes blood flo%$ induces clot formation and could lead to heart attacks by blocking coronary arteries and the flo% of blood to cardiac muscle .myocardial infarction/. Discuss factors %hich affect the occurance of coronary heart disease. Risk factors include7 having parents %ho have e#perienced heart attacks .genetic/$ old age$ being male .more risk than being female/$ smoking$ obesity$ eating too much saturated fat and cholesterol and lack of e#ercise. 'utline ho% tissue fluid and lymph are formed in body tissue. +alculations of pressure differences are not re-uired. 'utline the transport functions of the lymphatic system. 2as E6cha%3e Define partial pressure. "#plain the o#ygen dissociation curves of adult and fetal hemoglobin and myoglobin. Describe ho% carbon dio#ide is carried by the blood$ including the action of carbonic anhydrase$ the chloride shift and buffering by plasma proteins. "#plain the role of the @ohr shift in the supply of o#ygen to respiring tissues. "#plain ho% and %hy ventilation rate varies %ith e#ercise. ;imit this to the effects of changes in carbon dio#ide concentration leading to a lo%ering of blood pA. 2his is detected by chemosensors in the aorta and carotid arteries that send impulses to the breathing centre of the brain. Nerve impulses are then sent to the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles to increase contraction or rela#ation rates. 'utline the possible causes of lung cancer and asthma and their effects on the gas e#change system. "#plain the problem of gas e#change at high altitudes and the %ay the body acclimati,es. 5ountain sickness may occur %hen a person travels -uickly from a lo% to a high altitude. 'ver a period of time the person becomes acclimati,ed7 red blood cell production and ventilation rate increase. <eople living permanently at high altitude have greater lung surface area and larger vital capacity than those living at sea level.

"AT5E"ATICAL .E<UI.E"E-TS
All Diploma <rogramme biology students should be able to7 \ perform the basic arithmetic functions7 addition$ subtraction$ multiplication and division \ recogni,e basic geometric shapes \ carry out simple calculations %ithin a biological conte#t involving means$ decimals$ fractions$ percentages$ ratios$ appro#imations$ reciprocals and scaling \ use standard notation .eg .) L 10)/ \ use direct and inverse proportion \ represent and interpret fre-uency data in the form of bar charts$ column graphs and histograms$ and interpret pie charts and nomograms \ determine the mode and median of a set of data \ plot and interpret graphs .%ith suitable scales and a#es/ involving t%o variables %hich sho% linear or non-linear relationships \ plot and interpret scattergrams to identify a correlation bet%een t%o variables$ and appreciate that the e#istence of a correlation does not establish a causal relationship \ demonstrate sufficient kno%ledge of probability to understand ho% 5endelian ratios arise and to calculate such ratios using a <unnett grid \ make appro#imations of numerical e#pressions \ recogni,e and use the relationship bet%een length$ surface area and volume.